MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(PRODUCTION AND PLANT OPTION)

MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY AND METALLURGY MODULE ONE

COURSE OUTLINE
Materials Technology and Metallurgy is the study of engineering materials and their
applications in Mechanical Engineering field of foundry technology. These engineering
materials include metals, ceramics, organics, composites and semi-conductors. The study
involves the composition of materials, their production processes and their properties

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

By the end of the module course, the trainee should be able to:

a) Understand various materials and their applications in the engineering field

b) Understand composition and properties of various engineering materials
c) Understand production processes of engineering materials
d) Apply heat treatment processes on metal to improve their properties
e) Understand factors to be considered when selecting materials for particular use

COURSE SYLLABUS

UNIT MODULE UNIT/ TOPIC MODULE CONTENT

CODE
1. Properties of 1.1 Types of engineering materials
engineering materials 1.2 Properties of engineering
materials(physical and mechanical)
2. Structure of materials 2.1 Crystalline state
2.2 Crystal structures
2.3 Terminologies used
3. Production of iron, steel 3.1 Types of ores
and cast iron 3.2 Types of charging materials
3.3 Types of furnaces

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 4. Cast irons 4.1 Types of cast iron
4.2 Structures of cast iron
4.3 Properties of cast iron
4.4 Application /uses of cast iron
5. Carbon steels 5.1 Classification of carbon steels
5.2 Properties of plain carbon steel
5.3 Application of plain carbon steels
6. Alloy steels 6.1 Alloying elements and their effects
6.2 Classification of alloy steels
6.3 Corrosion resistant steels and their
applications
6.4 Ferritic, martensitic and austenitic
stainless steels
6.5 Weld decay and sigma phase
6.6 Heat resisting steels
6.7 Tool steels
7. Non ferrous metals and 7.1 Non ferrous metal types
their alloys 7.2 Production of non ferrous metals
7.3 Properties of non ferrous metals
7.4 Forms of supply
7.5 Brass, bronze, cupronickels
7.6 Duralumin
7.7 Cast and wrought alloys
8. Plastic, wood and rubber 8.1 Types of plastics
8.2 Properties of plastics
8.3 Additives
8.4 Adhesives/resins
8.5 Processing of polymerics
8.6 Wood
8.7 Types of wood
8.8 Seasoning
8.9 Structure of wood
8.10 Rubber
8.11 Types of rubber
8.12 Uses of rubber
8.13 Properties of rubber
9. Bearing materials 9.1 Metals and non metals
9.2 Bearing properties
9.3 Applications of bearing
10. Corrosion and its 10.1 Types of corrosion
prevention 10.2 Prevention of corrosion
11. Heat treatment 11.1 Annealing
11.2 Tempering
11.3 Normalizing
11.4 Hardening

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 11.5 Case hardening

COURSE CONTENT AND NOTES

1. PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1.1 Types of engineering materials
Engineering materials can be classified into various categories based on their
composition, properties, and uses. Here are some of the most common types of
engineering materials:

Metals: Metals are materials that are typically characterized by their strength, ductility,
and ability to conduct electricity and heat. Some common metals used in engineering
applications include steel, aluminum, copper, and titanium.

Polymers: Polymers are materials that are composed of long chains of repeating units,
and they are characterized by their flexibility, low density, and ease of processing.
Examples of polymers used in engineering applications include polyethylene,
polypropylene, and PVC.

Ceramics: Ceramics are materials that are typically characterized by their hardness, high
melting points, and ability to resist wear and corrosion. Examples of ceramics used in
engineering applications include porcelain, alumina, and silicon carbide.

Composites: Composites are materials that are composed of two or more constituent
materials with different properties. They are typically designed to exhibit improved
properties, such as increased strength, stiffness, or durability. Examples of composites
used in engineering applications include carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP), glass
fiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP), and ceramic matrix composites (CMC).

Semiconductors: Semiconductors are materials that have properties intermediate

between conductors (such as metals) and insulators (such as ceramics). They are used in
a wide range of electronic devices, including transistors, diodes, and solar cells. Examples
of semiconductors used in engineering applications include silicon, gallium arsenide, and
indium phosphide.

Biomaterials: Biomaterials are materials that are used in medical and biological
applications, such as implants and tissue engineering. They are typically biocompatible
and designed to promote interactions between the material and living tissue. Examples
of biomaterials used in engineering applications include titanium alloys, ceramics, and
biodegradable polymers.

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These are just some of the many types of engineering materials used in various
applications across different industries. The choice of material depends on the specific
requirements of the application, including properties such as strength, stiffness,
durability, and biocompatibility.

1.2 Properties of engineering materials(physical and mechanical)

The physical properties of engineering materials refer to their characteristics that can be
observed or measured without altering the composition of the material. Some important
physical properties of engineering materials are:

Density: Density refers to the mass per unit volume of a material. It is an important
property as it determines the weight of the material.

Melting point: Melting point is the temperature at which a material changes from solid to
liquid state.

Boiling point: Boiling point is the temperature at which a material changes from liquid to
gas state.

Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat.

Materials with high thermal conductivity transfer heat more easily.

Electrical conductivity: Electrical conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct

electricity. Materials with high electrical conductivity conduct electricity more easily.
Magnetic properties: Some materials exhibit magnetic properties, such as the ability to
be magnetized or attracted to a magnet.

Optical properties: Optical properties of materials include transparency, opacity, and

refractive index.

Color: The color of a material is a physical property that can affect its appearance and
suitability for certain applications.

Hardness: Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation, scratching, or

deformation. It is an important property for materials used in applications where wear
and tear is a concern.

Brittleness: Brittleness refers to the tendency of a material to fracture or break under

stress without significant deformation.

These physical properties of engineering materials are important considerations in

selecting materials for specific applications.

Mechanical properties of engineering materials refer to their behavior under load, such
as tension, compression, bending, and torsion. These properties are important in
determining the suitability of materials for specific engineering applications. Some

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important mechanical properties include:

Strength: This refers to a material's ability to withstand an applied load without breaking
or deforming. Strength is typically measured in terms of its tensile, compressive, or shear
strength.

Hardness: This is a measure of a material's resistance to indentation or scratching. It is

often used to indicate a material's resistance to wear and abrasion.

Ductility: This is a material's ability to deform under tensile stress without fracturing.
Ductility is important in materials that are subjected to bending or forming operations.

Brittleness: This is a material's tendency to fracture when subjected to stress. Brittle

materials, such as ceramics and some metals, have low ductility and can fracture easily.

Toughness: This is a material's ability to absorb energy before fracturing. Tough

materials have high ductility and can absorb more energy before fracturing.

Fatigue strength: This is a material's ability to withstand repeated loading without failing
due to fatigue. Fatigue strength is important in applications where a material is subjected
to cyclic loading, such as in rotating machinery.

Creep: This is a material's tendency to slowly deform under a constant load over time.
Creep is important in materials that are subjected to high temperatures and constant
stress, such as in turbine blades.

These properties are influenced by various factors, such as the material's composition,
microstructure, and processing history. Understanding the mechanical properties of
engineering materials is crucial in selecting the right materials for specific applications
and in designing structures and components that can withstand the expected loads and
stresses.

Here are some of the common electrical properties of engineering materials:

Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct electricity is called conductivity.

Materials that allow electricity to flow through them easily are called conductors.
Examples of conductors include copper, aluminum, gold, and silver.

Resistivity: Resistivity is the opposite of conductivity. It is the ability of a material to

resist the flow of electricity. Materials that do not allow electricity to flow easily are
called insulators. Examples of insulators include rubber, glass, and plastic.

Dielectric constant: The dielectric constant is a measure of a material's ability to store

electrical energy in an electric field. It is a dimensionless quantity that represents the
ratio of the capacitance of a material to that of a vacuum. Materials with high dielectric
constants, such as ceramics, are used in capacitors and other electronic components.

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Permittivity: Permittivity is the measure of a material's ability to store electrical energy
in an electric field. It is similar to the dielectric constant, but it takes into account the
effects of the material's polarization on the electric field.

Magnetic permeability: Magnetic permeability is the measure of a material's ability to

conduct a magnetic field. Materials with high magnetic permeability, such as iron and
steel, are used in transformers and other magnetic components.

Superconductivity: Superconductivity is a phenomenon where a material exhibits zero

electrical resistance when it is cooled below a certain temperature. Materials with
superconducting properties are used in various applications, such as MRI machines and
particle accelerators.

Semiconductor properties: Semiconductors are materials that have electrical

conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. They have a bandgap, which is
the energy required to move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
Semiconductors are used in electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, and solar cells.

These are some of the common electrical properties of engineering materials. The
properties of a material determine its suitability for various applications, and engineers
must consider these properties when selecting materials for a particular application.

Engineering materials have various chemical properties, which are determined by their
composition and structure. Here are some of the common chemical properties of
engineering materials:

Corrosion resistance: Corrosion resistance is the ability of a material to resist chemical

reactions that cause it to degrade over time. Materials that are corrosion resistant, such
as stainless steel and titanium, are used in applications where they are exposed to
corrosive environments.

Chemical stability: Chemical stability is the ability of a material to maintain its chemical
composition when exposed to different chemical environments. Materials that are
chemically stable, such as glass and ceramics, are used in applications where they are
exposed to harsh chemical environments.

Chemical reactivity: Chemical reactivity is the ability of a material to react with other
chemicals. Materials that are highly reactive, such as sodium and potassium, are used in
chemical reactions and energy storage applications.

Flammability: Flammability is the ability of a material to catch fire and burn. Materials
that are highly flammable, such as wood and gasoline, are not suitable for applications
where they are exposed to heat or flames.

Toxicity: Toxicity is the degree to which a material can cause harm to living organisms.

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Materials that are toxic, such as lead and mercury, must be handled with care and are not
suitable for applications where they may come into contact with humans or the
environment.

Solubility: Solubility is the ability of a material to dissolve in a solvent. Materials that are
highly soluble, such as salt and sugar, are used in various industrial applications, such as
food processing and pharmaceutical manufacturing.

Polymerization: Polymerization is the process of combining small molecules to form a

larger molecule. Materials that undergo polymerization, such as plastics and synthetic
rubber, are used in various applications, such as packaging and automotive components.

These are some of the common chemical properties of engineering materials. Engineers
must consider these properties when selecting materials for a particular application to
ensure that the material can withstand the chemical environment it will be exposed to
and perform its intended function without degrading over time.

2. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
Engineering materials have different structures, which determine their properties and
behavior under different conditions. Here are some of the common structures of
engineering materials:

Crystalline structure: Crystalline materials have a well-defined and repeating

arrangement of atoms or molecules in a three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice.
Examples of crystalline materials include metals, ceramics, and some polymers.

Amorphous structure: Amorphous materials lack a well-defined crystal lattice and have a
disordered atomic or molecular arrangement. Examples of amorphous materials include
glass and some polymers.

Composite structure: Composite materials are made up of two or more different types of
materials with different structures, which are combined to achieve specific properties.
Examples of composite materials include fiberglass and carbon fiber composites.
Porous structure: Porous materials have a network of interconnected pores or voids,
which may be filled with air, water, or other substances. Examples of porous materials
include aerogels and some ceramics.

Nanocrystalline structure: Nanocrystalline materials have grain sizes in the nanometer

range, typically less than 100 nanometers. These materials have unique properties, such
as high strength and improved electrical conductivity, due to their small grain size.

Single-crystal structure: Single-crystal materials have a crystal lattice structure with no

grain boundaries or defects. These materials have unique properties and are used in
applications that require high precision and stability, such as electronic components and
optical devices.

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Polycrystalline structure: Polycrystalline materials have a crystal lattice structure with
multiple grains, which may have different orientations and sizes. These materials have
different properties depending on the size and orientation of the grains, and are used in a
wide range of applications, such as structural materials and electronic components.

These are some of the common structures of engineering materials. The structure of a
material determines its mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties, and engineers
must consider the structure of materials when selecting them for a particular application.

1.3 Crystalline state

The crystalline state is a solid state of matter in which the atoms, molecules, or ions that
make up the material are arranged in a repeating three-dimensional pattern called a
crystal lattice. Crystalline materials have a well-defined and orderly arrangement of
atoms or molecules, which gives them a distinct set of physical and chemical properties.

Crystalline materials can be further classified based on the shape and symmetry of their
crystal lattice. The most common crystal structures are the cubic, tetragonal,
orthorhombic, hexagonal, and rhombohedral structures. Each crystal structure has a
unique set of physical and chemical properties that depend on the arrangement of atoms
or molecules within the crystal lattice.

Crystalline materials are widely used in engineering applications due to their unique
properties. For example, metals, such as steel and aluminum, have a crystalline structure
that gives them high strength and durability. Similarly, silicon, which is used in the
production of microchips and other electronic devices, has a crystalline structure that
gives it unique electrical properties.

The crystalline state is also important in many biological systems, such as the structure
of DNA, which has a double-helix structure that is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between
the nucleotide base pairs.

In summary, the crystalline state is a solid state of matter in which the atoms, molecules,
or ions are arranged in a repeating three-dimensional pattern. Crystalline materials have
unique physical and chemical properties that depend on the shape and symmetry of their
crystal lattice.

1.4 Crystal structures

Crystal structure is a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a
crystalline material. The crystal structure of a material determines its physical,
mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties. Here are some common crystal
structures in engineering materials:

Cubic: Cubic crystal structures have a cube-like shape with equal dimensions in all three
directions. Examples of materials with cubic crystal structures include aluminum, copper,
and iron.

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Hexagonal: Hexagonal crystal structures have a six-sided shape with three equal
dimensions and three unequal dimensions. Examples of materials with hexagonal crystal
structures include zinc, magnesium, and titanium.

Tetragonal: Tetragonal crystal structures have a rectangular shape with two equal
dimensions and one unequal dimension. Examples of materials with tetragonal crystal
structures include zirconia and tin.

Orthorhombic: Orthorhombic crystal structures have a rectangular shape with three

unequal dimensions. Examples of materials with orthorhombic crystal structures include
sulfur and barium sulfate.

Rhombohedral: Rhombohedral crystal structures have a six-sided shape with three equal
dimensions and angles that are not 90 degrees. Examples of materials with
rhombohedral crystal structures include calcite and quartz.

Monoclinic: Monoclinic crystal structures have a rectangular shape with two unequal
dimensions and angles that are not 90 degrees. Examples of materials with monoclinic
crystal structures include gypsum and malachite.

Triclinic: Triclinic crystal structures have a non-symmetrical shape with three unequal
dimensions and angles that are not 90 degrees. Examples of materials with triclinic
crystal structures include kyanite and labradorite.

These are some common crystal structures in engineering materials. Engineers must
understand the crystal structure of a material to determine its properties and to design
materials with specific properties. For example, the strength and electrical conductivity
of a material depend on its crystal structure and the arrangement of its atoms.

1.5 Terminologies used

There are a variety of terminologies used in the study of the structure of materials. Here
are some of the most common ones:

Crystal structure: The arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material

in a repetitive pattern.

Unit cell: The smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice.

Lattice parameter: The distance between adjacent atoms, ions or molecules in a crystal
lattice.

Grain: A region within a material where the crystal structure is aligned in a particular
direction.

Grain boundary: The interface between two grains in a polycrystalline material.

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Amorphous: A material that lacks a well-defined crystal structure.

Defect: Any deviation from perfect crystal structure, such as missing or extra atoms,
dislocations, or vacancies.

Dislocation: A line or a plane in a crystal lattice where the atoms are out of position.
Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals or non-metals, typically with a metallic bonding.
Interstitial: An atom or a small molecule that occupies a space between the atoms in a
crystal lattice.

Vacancy: An unoccupied lattice site in a crystal lattice.

Polymorph: A material that exists in more than one crystal structure.

Phase: A region within a material with a uniform chemical composition and physical
properties.

Solid solution: A solution of two or more elements in a solid state.

Texture: The preferred orientation of the grains in a material.

3. PRODUCTION OF IRON, STEEL AND CAST IRON

Iron, steel, and cast iron are all alloys of iron that are produced through different
processes. Here are brief explanations of how each is produced:

Production of iron: Iron is typically produced in a blast furnace. In this process, iron ore,
coke (a form of coal), and limestone are fed into the top of the furnace, while hot air is
blown in from the bottom. The coke reacts with the oxygen in the air to produce carbon
monoxide, which reduces the iron ore to iron. The limestone reacts with impurities in the
iron ore to form a slag, which floats on top of the molten iron and can be easily removed.

Production of steel: Steel is made by adding carbon to iron to make an alloy. There are
two main methods for producing steel: the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and the electric
arc furnace (EAF). In the BOF process, molten iron from a blast furnace is mixed with
scrap steel and oxygen is blown into the mixture to burn off impurities and reduce the
carbon content. In the EAF process, scrap steel is melted in an electric arc furnace, and
the desired amount of carbon and other alloying elements are added to produce the
desired steel composition.

Production of cast iron: Cast iron is a type of iron that contains a higher amount of carbon
than steel (typically 2-4%). Cast iron is made by melting iron, adding carbon and other
alloying elements, and pouring the molten metal into a mold to solidify. The most
common method for producing cast iron is the cupola furnace, which is similar to a blast
furnace but with a smaller scale and a different design to produce the specific
characteristics of cast iron.

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Overall, the production of iron, steel, and cast iron requires different processes and
techniques to achieve the desired properties and characteristics of each alloy.

1.6 Types of ores

There are many different types of ores, but they can generally be classified into the
following categories based on their chemical composition and the metals or minerals
they contain:

Oxide ores: These ores contain oxides of metal, such as iron oxide or aluminum oxide.
Some common examples of oxide ores are hematite (iron ore), bauxite (aluminum ore),
and magnetite (iron ore).

Sulfide ores: These ores contain sulfides of metals, such as copper sulfide, lead sulfide, or
zinc sulfide. Some common examples of sulfide ores are chalcopyrite (copper ore), galena
(lead ore), and sphalerite (zinc ore).

Carbonate ores: These ores contain carbonates of metals, such as calcium carbonate or
magnesium carbonate. Some common examples of carbonate ores are limestone (calcium
carbonate) and dolomite (magnesium carbonate).

Native metals: These ores contain metals that occur naturally in their pure metallic form,
such as gold, silver, and platinum.

Silicate ores: These ores contain silicates of metals, such as copper silicate or aluminum
silicate. Some common examples of silicate ores are chrysocolla (copper ore) and beryl
(beryllium ore).

Phosphate ores: These ores contain phosphates of metals, such as apatite (phosphate
ore) which is used as a source of phosphorus for fertilizer.
Halide ores: These ores contain halides of metals, such as fluorite (fluoride ore) and
halite (salt ore).

Different types of ores require different processing methods to extract the desired metal
or mineral. For example, oxide ores can often be leached with acid or alkaline solutions,
while sulfide ores may require roasting or smelting to remove the sulfur and release the
metal.

1.7 Types of charging materials

Charging materials refer to the raw materials that are used to produce metal or alloy in
various metallurgical processes. The types of charging materials used can vary
depending on the specific process and desired end product, but here are some common
examples:

Ore: The primary source of metal in many metallurgical processes is ore, which can be
sourced from mining operations or recycled materials. Examples of ores include iron ore,

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copper ore, and bauxite.

Scrap metal: In addition to ore, scrap metal can also be used as a charging material. Scrap
metal can be sourced from industrial waste, demolition debris, or end-of-life products
such as cars and appliances.

Fluxes: Fluxes are materials that are added to a metallurgical process to help purify the
metal or protect the equipment from corrosion. Common fluxes include limestone, silica,
and borax.

Reducing agents: Reducing agents are materials that are added to a metallurgical process
to help reduce the metal from its oxide form. Common reducing agents include carbon (in
the form of coke or charcoal), hydrogen, and methane.

Alloying elements: Alloying elements are added to a metallurgical process to create

specific alloys with desired properties. Common alloying elements include nickel,
chromium, and manganese.

Fuel: Many metallurgical processes require high temperatures to melt or refine the
metal. Fuels such as coke, coal, or natural gas are used to provide the necessary heat.

Water and air: In some metallurgical processes, water and air are used to cool or quench
the metal to prevent it from overheating or reacting with other materials.

Overall, the specific types of charging materials used in a metallurgical process will
depend on the desired end product and the specific process being used.

1.8 Types of furnaces

There are several types of furnaces used in various industries and applications, and the
type of furnace used depends on the specific requirements of the process. Here are some
common types of furnaces:

Blast furnace: A blast furnace is a large, vertical furnace used for smelting iron and
producing pig iron. It uses coke as fuel and hot air to generate high temperatures to melt
the iron ore and other materials.

Electric arc furnace (EAF): An electric arc furnace is a type of furnace that uses electricity
to heat and melt scrap metal to produce new metal. It uses graphite electrodes that
create an arc of electricity between them to generate the heat.

Induction furnace: An induction furnace uses high-frequency electromagnetic currents to

heat and melt metal. The metal is placed in a crucible within a coil of copper wire, and the
electromagnetic field generated by the coil causes the metal to heat up and melt.

Cupola furnace: A cupola furnace is a tall, cylindrical furnace used to melt iron and
produce cast iron. It uses coke or charcoal as fuel and has an air blower that blows air

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into the furnace to generate high temperatures.

Rotary furnace: A rotary furnace is a type of furnace that is used for the smelting of metal
ores and the recycling of metal scrap. The furnace rotates around a horizontal axis, and
the metal is heated by combustion gases or electric heating elements.

Muffle furnace: A muffle furnace is a furnace with a separate chamber, called a muffle,
that is used to heat materials without exposing them to the flame. It is commonly used for
applications that require a controlled atmosphere or low levels of contamination.

Box furnace: A box furnace is a type of furnace that is used for high-temperature
applications such as heat treating and annealing. It has a rectangular shape and is usually
heated by electricity or gas.

Overall, the type of furnace used depends on the specific application and the material
being processed. Each type of furnace has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms
of efficiency, temperature range, and other factors.

4. CAST IRONS
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. It is a
strong, brittle material that is easily cast into a variety of shapes and is used in many
applications. Cast iron is made by melting iron and adding carbon and other alloying
elements to create a molten metal that is then poured into a mold to form the desired
shape. There are several types of cast iron, each with its own unique properties and
characteristics:

Gray iron: Gray iron is the most commonly used form of cast iron. It has a high carbon
content and a flaky graphite structure that makes it easy to machine and provides good
wear resistance. Gray iron is used in many applications, including engine blocks, pipes,
and fittings.

Ductile iron: Ductile iron, also known as nodular iron or spheroidal graphite iron, has a
carbon content of 3-4% and a nodular graphite structure that makes it more ductile and
malleable than gray iron. It is used in applications that require higher strength and
toughness, such as crankshafts, gears, and suspension components.

White iron: White iron has a high carbon content and a hard, brittle structure that makes
it difficult to machine but provides excellent wear resistance. It is used in applications
that require high abrasion resistance, such as pump impellers and grinding balls.

Malleable iron: Malleable iron is a type of cast iron that is heat-treated to convert its
carbon structure to a ductile form. It has a lower carbon content than other types of cast
iron and is more ductile and machinable. It is used in applications that require a
combination of strength and ductility, such as pipe fittings and automotive parts.
Cast iron has many advantages, including its high strength, durability, and wear

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resistance. However, it also has some disadvantages, including its brittleness and
susceptibility to cracking under stress. The specific type of cast iron used will depend on
the specific application and the desired properties of the final product.

1.9 Types of cast iron

There are several types of cast iron, each with its own unique properties and
characteristics:

Gray Iron: Gray iron is the most commonly used form of cast iron. It has a high carbon
content and a flaky graphite structure that makes it easy to machine and provides good
wear resistance. Gray iron is used in many applications, including engine blocks, pipes,
and fittings.

Ductile Iron: Ductile iron, also known as nodular iron or spheroidal graphite iron, has a
carbon content of 3-4% and a nodular graphite structure that makes it more ductile and
malleable than gray iron. It is used in applications that require higher strength and
toughness, such as crankshafts, gears, and suspension components.

White Iron: White iron has a high carbon content and a hard, brittle structure that makes
it difficult to machine but provides excellent wear resistance. It is used in applications
that require high abrasion resistance, such as pump impellers and grinding balls.

Malleable Iron: Malleable iron is a type of cast iron that is heat-treated to convert its
carbon structure to a ductile form. It has a lower carbon content than other types of cast
iron and is more ductile and machinable. It is used in applications that require a
combination of strength and ductility, such as pipe fittings and automotive parts.

Compacted Graphite Iron: Compacted graphite iron (CGI) has a graphite structure that is
intermediate between gray iron and ductile iron. It has excellent strength and thermal
conductivity and is used in applications such as cylinder blocks for diesel engines.

Austempered Ductile Iron: Austempered ductile iron (ADI) is a type of ductile iron that is
heat-treated to produce a microstructure that combines high strength and toughness
with good wear resistance. It is used in applications such as gears, shafts, and suspension
components.

Vermicular Graphite Iron: Vermicular graphite iron (VGI) has a graphite structure that is
between nodular and gray iron, and it combines the strength of nodular iron with the
machinability of gray iron. It is used in applications such as cylinder blocks and cylinder
heads.

The choice of cast iron type depends on the specific application and the desired
properties of the final product.

1.10 Structures of cast iron

Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with carbon content greater than 2%. The

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structure of cast iron is characterized by the presence of graphite in various forms.

The basic structure of cast iron is made up of iron and carbon, with small amounts of
other elements such as silicon, manganese, sulfur, and phosphorus. The carbon is present
in the form of graphite flakes or nodules, which are distributed throughout the iron
matrix.
There are several types of cast iron, each with its own unique structure:

Grey cast iron: This is the most commonly used type of cast iron. It has a grey-colored
fracture surface due to the presence of graphite flakes. The flakes are interconnected,
giving the material good wear resistance and damping properties.

White cast iron: This type of cast iron has a white-colored fracture surface due to the
absence of graphite. The carbon is present in the form of cementite, which makes the
material hard and brittle.

Ductile cast iron: This type of cast iron has graphite nodules that are spherical in shape,
which give the material ductility and toughness.

Malleable cast iron: This type of cast iron is produced by annealing white cast iron in a
controlled atmosphere. The resulting structure is a mixture of ferrite and graphite
nodules, which gives the material good ductility and toughness.

The structure of cast iron can be modified by controlling the cooling rate during
solidification, as well as through the addition of alloying elements such as nickel,
chromium, and molybdenum.

1.11 Properties of cast iron

Cast iron has several properties that make it a popular material for various applications,
including:

High compressive strength: Cast iron has high compressive strength due to its
composition and structure, making it suitable for applications that require high load-
bearing capacity.

Good wear resistance: The graphite flakes or nodules in cast iron provide good wear
resistance, making it suitable for applications such as engine blocks, brake discs, and
pump housings.

Good casting properties: Cast iron has good casting properties, allowing it to be cast into
complex shapes with high accuracy and dimensional stability.

Good damping properties: The presence of graphite in cast iron gives it good damping
properties, making it suitable for applications that require vibration damping, such as
machine tool bases.

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Low melting point: Cast iron has a relatively low melting point compared to other metals,
making it easy to cast and work with.

Corrosion resistance: Cast iron has good corrosion resistance in certain environments,
such as in water or acidic solutions.

Brittle: Cast iron is brittle, meaning it is prone to cracking or fracturing when subjected
to high stresses, impacts or loads.

Difficult to weld: Due to its high carbon content and tendency to crack, cast iron can be
difficult to weld or repair.

Machinability: Cast iron has good machinability, making it easy to machine into precise
shapes and sizes.

The specific properties of cast iron can vary depending on the type of cast iron, its
composition, and its processing.

1.12 Application /uses of cast iron

Cast iron has been used for centuries due to its various properties and advantages. Here
are some common applications and uses of cast iron:

Automotive industry: Cast iron is widely used in the automotive industry for engine
blocks, cylinder heads, brake discs, and other components due to its high compressive
strength, wear resistance, and good casting properties.

Construction industry: Cast iron is used in the construction industry for applications such
as manhole covers, pipes, and drainage grates due to its strength and durability.

Machine tool industry: Cast iron is used in the machine tool industry for applications
such as lathe beds, milling machine tables, and drill press bases due to its good damping
properties and ability to absorb vibrations.

Cooking and kitchenware: Cast iron is used for cooking and kitchenware such as skillets,
pots, and pans due to its even heat distribution, durability, and non-stick properties.

Ornamental ironwork: Cast iron is used for ornamental ironwork such as fences, gates,
and balustrades due to its ability to be cast into intricate shapes and designs.

Art and sculpture: Cast iron is used for art and sculpture due to its ability to be cast into
complex shapes and its durability.

Pump and valve industry: Cast iron is used in the pump and valve industry for
applications such as pump housings, valve bodies, and impellers due to its good wear
resistance and strength.

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Railway industry: Cast iron is used in the railway industry for applications such as brake
shoes, wheel hubs, and couplings due to its strength and wear resistance.

Agriculture industry: Cast iron is used in the agriculture industry for applications such as
plowshares, cultivator points, and tractor weights due to its strength and durability.

The applications and uses of cast iron are vast and varied, with new uses constantly
being discovered as technology advances.

5. CARBON STEELS
Carbon steel is a type of steel that contains mainly carbon as the alloying element, with a
maximum carbon content of 2.1%. Carbon steels are classified according to their carbon
content and other alloying elements.
5.1 Classification of carbon steels
Carbon steels can be classified into several categories based on their carbon content and
mechanical properties. Here are some common classifications:

Low carbon steel: Also known as mild steel, it typically contains less than 0.3% carbon
and is easy to weld and form. It is commonly used in construction, automotive
manufacturing, and household appliances.

Medium carbon steel: This steel contains between 0.3% and 0.6% carbon and is known
for its strength and hardness. It is commonly used for machine parts, springs, and high-
strength wires.

High carbon steel: With a carbon content ranging from 0.6% to 1.5%, this steel is
extremely hard and brittle. It is commonly used for cutting tools, knives, and springs.

Ultra-high carbon steel: This steel contains more than 1.5% carbon and is the hardest
and most brittle type of carbon steel. It is used for specialty cutting tools and blades.

Carbon steel alloys: These steels contain additional elements such as manganese, silicon,
and chromium to enhance their mechanical properties. Examples include AISI 4140 and
4340, which are commonly used in the manufacturing of gears and shafts.

It is important to note that the properties of carbon steels can be modified through heat
treatment and other processing methods.

1.13 Properties of plain carbon steel

Plain carbon steels are a group of carbon steels that contain only small amounts of other
alloying elements. The properties of plain carbon steels are primarily determined by
their carbon content, which typically ranges from 0.05% to 1.5%. Here are some general
properties of plain carbon steels:

Strength and hardness: The carbon content of plain carbon steels provides them with

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high strength and hardness. The higher the carbon content, the harder and stronger the
steel.

Toughness: Plain carbon steels have relatively low toughness compared to other types of
steels. They are more prone to brittle fracture and failure under impact or sudden loads.

Ductility and formability: Low carbon steels are more ductile and formable than high
carbon steels due to their lower hardness and strength.

Machinability: The machinability of plain carbon steels is generally good due to their low
alloy content.

Weldability: Plain carbon steels can be welded easily, but higher carbon content can
result in more difficulty in welding.

Corrosion resistance: Plain carbon steels are susceptible to rust and corrosion, but the
addition of alloying elements such as chromium can improve their corrosion resistance.

Heat treatment: Plain carbon steels can be heat treated to modify their mechanical
properties. Common heat treatment methods include quenching and tempering,
annealing, and normalizing.

Overall, plain carbon steels are widely used in many industries due to their affordability,
ease of manufacturing, and good mechanical properties.

1.14 Application of plain carbon steels

Plain carbon steels find widespread use in a variety of applications due to their strength,
durability, and affordability. Here are some common applications of plain carbon steels:

Construction: Low and medium carbon steels are used in the construction of buildings,
bridges, and other infrastructure due to their strength and durability.

Automotive: Plain carbon steels are used extensively in the automotive industry for the
manufacture of engine components, chassis, and other parts due to their strength and
machinability.

Machinery: Medium and high carbon steels are used in the manufacture of gears, shafts,
and other machinery components due to their strength and wear resistance.

Tools and cutting equipment: High carbon steels are used in the manufacture of cutting
tools, such as knives, saw blades, and chisels, due to their high hardness and wear
resistance.

Rails: High carbon steel is used in the manufacture of railway tracks due to its high
strength and durability.

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Wire products: Low and medium carbon steels are used in the manufacture of wire
products, such as fences, springs, and cables, due to their strength and ductility.

Pipes and tubes: Low and medium carbon steels are used in the manufacture of pipes and
tubes for various applications, such as water and gas distribution, due to their
weldability and formability.

Overall, plain carbon steels are versatile and find use in a wide range of applications due
to their mechanical properties and affordability.

6. ALLOY STEELS
Alloy steels are steels that contain additional alloying elements in addition to carbon. The
alloying elements can be added in varying amounts to achieve desired mechanical
properties, such as increased strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, and wear
resistance.
1.15 Alloying elements and their effects
Alloy steels contain one or more alloying elements in addition to carbon. The alloying
elements are added to modify the mechanical and physical properties of the steel, such as
strength, hardness, ductility, and corrosion resistance. Here are some common alloying
elements used in alloy steels:

Chromium: Chromium is a common alloying element in stainless steels. It enhances the

steel's corrosion resistance and high-temperature strength.

Molybdenum: Molybdenum is often used in high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels to

increase their strength and toughness. It also improves the steel's resistance to corrosion
and wear.

Nickel: Nickel is often added to steel to increase its toughness and impact resistance. It
also improves the steel's corrosion resistance and high-temperature strength.

Vanadium: Vanadium is added to steel to improve its strength and wear resistance. It is
commonly used in HSLA steels and tool steels.

Tungsten: Tungsten is added to steel to increase its hardness and wear resistance. It is
often used in tool steels.

Cobalt: Cobalt is used in high-speed steels and tool steels to increase their hardness and
wear resistance.

Copper: Copper is used in some steels to improve their corrosion resistance.

Aluminum: Aluminum is used in some steels to improve their strength and corrosion
resistance.

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Titanium: Titanium is used in some steels to improve their strength and corrosion
resistance.

Overall, the choice of alloying elements depends on the intended application and desired
properties of the steel. Different combinations of alloying elements can result in a wide
range of mechanical and physical properties.

1.16 Classification of alloy steels

Alloy steels are classified based on their composition and mechanical properties. Here
are some common classifications of alloy steels:

Low alloy steels: Low alloy steels contain small amounts of alloying elements (less than
5% by weight) in addition to carbon. They are often used in structural applications, such
as bridges, buildings, and pressure vessels.

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels: HSLA steels contain small amounts of alloying
elements (less than 10% by weight) in addition to carbon. They are known for their high
strength, toughness, and formability, making them ideal for use in structural and
automotive applications.

Tool steels: Tool steels contain high levels of carbon (0.5% to 2.5%) and alloying
elements, such as chromium, tungsten, or molybdenum. They are used in the
manufacture of cutting tools, dies, and molds due to their high hardness, wear resistance,
and ability to hold a sharp edge.

Stainless steels: Stainless steels contain a minimum of 10.5% chromium, along with other
alloying elements, such as nickel and molybdenum. They are known for their excellent
corrosion resistance and strength, making them ideal for use in applications that require
high durability and hygiene, such as kitchen appliances, medical devices, and chemical
processing equipment.

Heat-resistant steels: Heat-resistant steels contain alloying elements such as chromium,

nickel, and molybdenum that allow them to retain their strength and hardness at high
temperatures. They are used in applications such as power generation, petrochemical
processing, and aerospace.

Maraging steels: Maraging steels are a type of low-carbon, high-nickel alloy steel that is
known for its high strength, toughness, and resistance to stress corrosion cracking. They
are commonly used in aerospace and other high-performance applications.

Overall, the classification of alloy steels depends on their intended application and the
desired mechanical properties.

1.17 Corrosion resistant steels and their applications

Corrosion-resistant steels, also known as stainless steels, are alloys that contain a
minimum of 10.5% chromium, along with other alloying elements such as nickel,

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molybdenum, and titanium. The addition of these elements enhances the steel's ability to
resist corrosion, making it suitable for use in a wide range of applications where
durability and hygiene are critical. Here are some common applications of corrosion-
resistant steels:

Kitchen appliances: Stainless steel is widely used in the manufacture of kitchen

appliances, such as sinks, countertops, and cookware, due to its excellent resistance to
corrosion, staining, and heat.

Chemical processing equipment: Corrosion-resistant steels are used in chemical

processing equipment, such as reactors, tanks, and piping systems, where they can
withstand the corrosive effects of harsh chemicals and high temperatures.

Medical devices: Stainless steel is used in the manufacture of medical devices and
instruments, such as surgical tools and implants, due to its biocompatibility, corrosion
resistance, and durability.

Automotive applications: Corrosion-resistant steels are used in automotive applications,

such as exhaust systems, fuel tanks, and structural components, where they can resist
corrosion from road salt, moisture, and other environmental factors.

Construction: Stainless steel is used in construction applications, such as bridges,

buildings, and infrastructure, due to its high strength, durability, and resistance to
corrosion and fire.

Aerospace: Corrosion-resistant steels are used in aerospace applications, such as aircraft

components and structural parts, where they can withstand extreme temperatures,
pressure, and environmental conditions.

Overall, the excellent corrosion resistance of stainless steels makes them a popular
choice in a wide range of applications where durability, hygiene, and reliability are
critical.

1.18 Ferritic, martensitic and austenitic stainless steels

Ferritic, martensitic, and austenitic stainless steels are three common types of corrosion-
resistant steels that differ in their microstructure, properties, and applications.

Ferritic stainless steels: Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic and contain 10.5% to 27%
chromium, with little to no nickel. They have a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal
structure and are characterized by their high corrosion resistance, good ductility, and
low thermal expansion. Ferritic stainless steels are commonly used in automotive
exhaust systems, boilers, and decorative applications.

Martensitic stainless steels: Martensitic stainless steels are magnetic and contain 11.5%
to 18% chromium, with little to no nickel. They have a body-centered tetragonal (BCT)
crystal structure and are characterized by their high strength, hardness, and wear

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resistance. Martensitic stainless steels are commonly used in cutlery, surgical
instruments, and turbine blades.

Austenitic stainless steels: Austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic and contain 16%
to 26% chromium, with 8% to 24% nickel. They have a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal
structure and are characterized by their high corrosion resistance, good formability, and
excellent mechanical properties. Austenitic stainless steels are commonly used in food
processing equipment, chemical processing equipment, and medical implants.

In addition to these three primary types, there are also duplex stainless steels that
contain both austenitic and ferritic phases, as well as precipitation-hardening stainless
steels that can be strengthened by heat treatment. Overall, the selection of the
appropriate stainless steel type depends on the specific application requirements, such
as corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, and fabrication methods.

1.19 Weld decay and sigma phase

Weld decay and sigma phase are two related phenomena that can occur in stainless
steels during welding and heat treatment.

Weld decay: Weld decay is the loss of corrosion resistance in the heat-affected zone
(HAZ) of stainless steel welds due to sensitization. Sensitization occurs when the
chromium in the steel reacts with carbon and forms chromium carbide at the grain
boundaries, depleting the chromium content in the surrounding areas. This makes the
HAZ vulnerable to corrosion, particularly in acidic or chloride-containing environments.

Sigma phase: Sigma phase is a type of intermetallic phase that can form in stainless steels
at high temperatures, typically above 1000°C. It occurs when the steel is heated for
prolonged periods, causing the chromium and molybdenum to form a sigma-phase
compound that is brittle and can cause cracking or embrittlement of the steel. Sigma
phase can also form during welding if the steel is exposed to high temperatures for an
extended time, particularly if there is a large temperature gradient across the steel.

Both weld decay and sigma phase can significantly reduce the corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties of stainless steels, making them more vulnerable to failure in
service. To avoid these issues, it is important to carefully select the appropriate stainless
steel grade for the specific application, and to use appropriate welding techniques and
heat treatment procedures to minimize the risk of sensitization and sigma-phase
formation.

1.20 Heat resisting steels

Heat-resistant steels are alloys that are specifically designed to maintain their strength,
hardness, and corrosion resistance at high temperatures. They are used in a wide range
of applications where exposure to elevated temperatures and thermal cycling is
expected, such as furnace components, heat exchangers, and gas turbines.
There are several types of heat-resistant steels, each with its own specific alloying
elements and properties. Here are a few common examples:

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Austenitic stainless steels: Austenitic stainless steels, such as grade 310 and 330, contain
high levels of nickel and chromium, which provide excellent resistance to oxidation and
corrosion at high temperatures. They also exhibit good toughness and ductility, making
them suitable for use in high-temperature applications.

Ferritic stainless steels: Ferritic stainless steels, such as grade 446, contain high levels of
chromium, which provide excellent resistance to oxidation and corrosion at high
temperatures. They also exhibit good strength and ductility, making them suitable for use
in high-temperature applications.

Martensitic stainless steels: Martensitic stainless steels, such as grade 410 and 420, are
hardened and tempered to provide high strength and hardness at elevated temperatures.
They are commonly used in applications such as steam turbine blades, compressor
blades, and pump shafts.

Nickel-based alloys: Nickel-based alloys, such as Inconel and Hastelloy, contain high
levels of nickel, chromium, and molybdenum, which provide excellent resistance to
corrosion and oxidation at high temperatures. They also exhibit good strength and
ductility, making them suitable for use in extreme high-temperature applications, such as
gas turbine components and chemical processing equipment.

Overall, heat-resistant steels are essential for many high-temperature applications, and
the appropriate steel selection depends on specific application requirements, such as
temperature, corrosion resistance, and mechanical properties.

Tool steels
Tool steels are a category of high-carbon, high-alloy steels that are specifically designed
to be used for cutting, shaping, or forming materials, such as metal, wood, and plastics.
They are often used in the production of tools, dies, and molds, where the ability to
maintain a sharp cutting edge and resist wear and deformation is crucial.
There are several types of tool steels, each with its own specific alloying elements and
properties. Here are a few common examples:

High-speed steel: High-speed steel (HSS) is a type of tool steel that contains high levels of
tungsten, molybdenum, and cobalt, which provide excellent resistance to wear and
deformation at high temperatures. HSS is commonly used for cutting tools, such as drills,
taps, and end mills.

Carbon tool steel: Carbon tool steel contains high levels of carbon, which provide
excellent hardness and wear resistance, but can also make the steel brittle. Carbon tool
steel is commonly used for cutting tools, such as chisels, blades, and shears.

Alloy tool steel: Alloy tool steel contains alloying elements, such as chromium, vanadium,
and tungsten, which provide excellent hardness and wear resistance, while also
improving toughness and machinability. Alloy tool steel is commonly used for cutting

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tools, such as punches, dies, and molds.

Powder metallurgy tool steel: Powder metallurgy tool steel is a type of tool steel that is
produced through a powder metallurgy process, which involves blending and
compacting metal powders before sintering them at high temperatures. Powder
metallurgy tool steels offer superior wear resistance and toughness, making them ideal
for high-performance cutting tools.

Overall, tool steels are essential for many industries, such as manufacturing, automotive,
and aerospace, where the ability to cut, shape, and form materials is crucial. The
appropriate steel selection depends on specific application requirements, such as
hardness, wear resistance, and toughness.

7. NON FERROUS METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS

Non-ferrous metals and alloys are metals and alloys that do not contain significant
amounts of iron. They are generally more expensive than ferrous metals, but they offer a
range of unique properties that make them valuable in various applications, such as
electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and low density.
1.21 Non ferrous metal types
Here are some examples of non-ferrous metals and alloys:

Aluminum: Aluminum is a lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is widely used in

various applications, such as aerospace, automotive, and construction. It has excellent
electrical conductivity and is often used in electrical wires and cables.

Copper: Copper is a highly conductive metal that is used in electrical wiring, plumbing,
and various industrial applications. It is also used to make alloys, such as brass and
bronze.

Nickel: Nickel is a corrosion-resistant metal that is used in various applications, such as

electronics, aerospace, and chemical processing. It is also used to make alloys, such as
Monel and Inconel, which offer excellent corrosion resistance and high strength.

Zinc: Zinc is a corrosion-resistant metal that is commonly used as a coating for steel and
other metals to protect them from corrosion. It is also used to make alloys, such as brass
and zinc die-casting alloys.

Titanium: Titanium is a lightweight, strong, and corrosion-resistant metal that is widely

used in various applications, such as aerospace, medical implants, and sports equipment.

Magnesium: Magnesium is a lightweight metal that is used in various applications, such

as automotive, aerospace, and electronic devices. It is also used to make alloys, such as
magnesium-aluminum alloys, which offer excellent strength and corrosion resistance.

Overall, non-ferrous metals and alloys are essential for many industries, and the

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appropriate material selection depends on specific application requirements, such as
strength, corrosion resistance, and electrical conductivity.

1.22 Production of non ferrous metals

The production of non-ferrous metals involves several processes, including mining,
concentration, smelting, refining, and fabrication. Here is a brief overview of these
processes:

Mining: The first step in the production of non-ferrous metals is mining the ore from the
ground. This involves identifying and extracting the mineral deposits from the earth's
surface or underground.

Concentration: After mining, the ore is transported to a processing plant where it is

crushed and ground into a fine powder. This powder is then separated from the waste
rock and concentrated using various methods such as flotation, magnetic separation, or
gravity separation.

Smelting: The concentrated ore is then heated in a furnace to a high temperature to

extract the metal. This process, known as smelting, involves separating the metal from
the impurities by melting it and allowing it to settle to the bottom of the furnace.

Refining: Once the metal has been extracted from the ore, it is refined to remove any
remaining impurities. This process involves using chemical or electrochemical methods
to purify the metal and increase its quality.

Fabrication: Finally, the purified metal is shaped into the desired form using various
fabrication techniques such as casting, rolling, forging, or extrusion.

The specific production process for non-ferrous metals can vary depending on the type of
metal being produced and the source of the ore. Nonetheless, these general steps provide
an overview of the common processes involved in the production of non-ferrous metals.

1.23 Properties of non ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals have several unique properties that make them valuable for many
industrial and commercial applications. Some of the key properties of non-ferrous metals
include:

Lightweight: Many non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium are
lightweight, making them ideal for use in transportation, aerospace, and other industries
where weight reduction is critical.

Corrosion resistance: Non-ferrous metals are often more resistant to corrosion than
ferrous metals due to their ability to form a protective oxide layer on the surface. For
example, copper and aluminum are widely used in electrical wiring and construction due
to their excellent corrosion resistance.

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Good electrical conductivity: Metals such as copper, silver, and aluminum are excellent
conductors of electricity, making them essential for electrical and electronic applications.
High melting points: Some non-ferrous metals such as titanium and tungsten have high
melting points, making them suitable for high-temperature applications such as furnace
linings and aerospace components.

Ductility and malleability: Many non-ferrous metals are ductile and malleable, meaning
they can be easily formed into various shapes without breaking. For example, copper,
aluminum, and brass are commonly used in plumbing and metalworking due to their
ductility and malleability.

Attractive appearance: Some non-ferrous metals such as gold, silver, and platinum are
highly valued for their luster and aesthetic appeal, making them ideal for jewelry and
decorative applications.

Overall, non-ferrous metals offer a range of unique properties that make them essential
for various industrial and commercial applications.

1.24 Forms of supply

Non-ferrous metals are supplied in a variety of forms depending on their intended use
and the requirements of the customer. Here are some of the most common forms of
supply for non-ferrous metals:

Ingots: Non-ferrous metals are often supplied in the form of ingots, which are large, solid
blocks of metal that have been cast into a specific shape and size. Ingots are typically
used as a raw material for further processing, such as rolling, extruding, or forging.

Sheets and plates: Non-ferrous metals can be supplied in the form of sheets and plates,
which are flat, thin pieces of metal that can be easily cut and formed. These forms of
supply are commonly used in construction, transportation, and manufacturing.

Bars and rods: Non-ferrous metals can also be supplied in the form of bars and rods,
which are long, cylindrical pieces of metal that can be easily machined and shaped. These
forms of supply are commonly used in construction, engineering, and manufacturing.

Wires and cables: Non-ferrous metals such as copper and aluminum can be supplied in
the form of wires and cables, which are used for electrical and electronic applications.

Tubes and pipes: Non-ferrous metals can be supplied in the form of tubes and pipes,
which are used in various industries such as plumbing, heating, and air conditioning.

Powders and granules: Non-ferrous metals can be supplied in the form of powders and
granules, which are used in applications such as powder metallurgy, metal injection
molding, and surface coating.

The form of supply for non-ferrous metals can vary depending on the specific metal and

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its intended use. Customers can typically specify the desired form of supply when placing
an order with a supplier or manufacturer.

1.25 Brass, bronze, cupronickels

Brass, bronze, and cupronickel are all alloys of non-ferrous metals that have a wide range
of industrial and commercial applications. Here is some information on each of these
alloys:

Brass: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, with varying amounts of each metal
depending on the specific application. Brass is valued for its attractive gold-like
appearance, corrosion resistance, and excellent formability. It is commonly used in
applications such as plumbing fixtures, musical instruments, decorative objects, and
ammunition casings.

Bronze: Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, with small amounts of other metals added
for various properties such as strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance. Bronze is
known for its toughness, wear resistance, and ability to hold fine details in casting. It is
commonly used in applications such as sculptures, bearings, gears, and electrical
contacts.

Cupronickel: Cupronickel is an alloy of copper and nickel, with small amounts of other
metals added for specific properties such as strength, corrosion resistance, and
antimicrobial properties. Cupronickel is valued for its high resistance to corrosion, even
in seawater, making it ideal for use in marine and offshore applications such as
shipbuilding, offshore oil and gas platforms, and desalination plants. Cupronickel is also
used in coins, electrical wiring, and heat exchangers.

Overall, brass, bronze, and cupronickel are all versatile alloys with a wide range of
applications in various industries.

1.26 Duralumin
Duralumin is an aluminum alloy that was developed in the early 20th century and is
known for its strength, durability, and light weight. It is composed mainly of aluminum,
with copper, manganese, and magnesium added to improve its strength and hardness.

Duralumin was first used in the aviation industry in the 1920s, where its light weight and
strength made it ideal for aircraft construction. It was also used in the construction of
airships, automobiles, and other vehicles where weight was a critical factor.

Duralumin has a number of beneficial properties that make it a popular choice for many
applications. These include:

Light weight: Duralumin is much lighter than steel, making it ideal for use in applications
where weight is a critical factor.

High strength: Duralumin is stronger than many other aluminum alloys, and its strength

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can be further improved through heat treatment.

Corrosion resistance: Duralumin is highly resistant to corrosion, making it ideal for use in
marine and other corrosive environments.

Good machinability: Duralumin can be easily machined, allowing for the creation of
complex shapes and designs.

Good weldability: Duralumin can be easily welded, allowing for the creation of strong and
durable joints.

Overall, duralumin is a highly versatile alloy that has been used in a wide range of
applications over the years. While it has largely been replaced by newer alloys in many
industries, it continues to be used in certain applications where its unique properties
make it an ideal choice.

1.27 Cast and wrought alloys

Cast and wrought alloys are two different types of metal alloys that are produced using
different methods, resulting in different properties and characteristics.

Cast alloys are typically produced by melting the metal and pouring it into a mold, where
it solidifies and takes on the shape of the mold. Cast alloys are known for their ability to
take on complex shapes and their good fluidity, which allows for the creation of intricate
details.

However, cast alloys may have porosity, which can lead to reduced strength and
durability.
Wrought alloys, on the other hand, are produced by shaping the metal through
mechanical processes such as rolling, forging, or extruding. This process creates a more
uniform microstructure and eliminates any porosity, resulting in a material with
improved strength and toughness. Wrought alloys are typically stronger and more
ductile than cast alloys, making them ideal for applications where strength and durability
are critical.
Examples of cast alloys include cast iron, aluminum-silicon alloys, and brass. Examples of
wrought alloys include aluminum alloys, copper alloys, and steel.

In general, the choice between cast and wrought alloys will depend on the specific
application and the properties required. Cast alloys are often used in applications where
complex shapes are required, while wrought alloys are used in applications where
strength and toughness are critical.

8. PLASTIC, WOOD AND RUBBER

1.28 Types of plastics

Plastics are a diverse group of synthetic materials that are used in a wide range of

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applications due to their unique properties. There are many different types of plastics,
each with its own characteristics and properties. Here are some of the most common
types of plastics:

Polyethylene (PE): A thermoplastic polymer that is lightweight, flexible, and durable. It is

commonly used in packaging materials, plastic bags, and plastic bottles.

Polypropylene (PP): A thermoplastic polymer that is strong, rigid, and heat-resistant. It is

commonly used in automotive parts, food packaging, and medical devices.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): A thermoplastic polymer that is flexible and durable. It is

commonly used in pipes, flooring, and electrical cable insulation.

Polystyrene (PS): A thermoplastic polymer that is lightweight and rigid. It is commonly

used in packaging materials, insulation, and disposable cups and plates.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET): A thermoplastic polymer that is strong, transparent,

and lightweight. It is commonly used in beverage bottles, food packaging, and synthetic
fibers.

Polycarbonate (PC): A thermoplastic polymer that is strong, transparent, and heat-

resistant. It is commonly used in eyeglasses, medical devices, and electronic components.

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): A thermoplastic polymer that is strong, rigid, and
heat-resistant. It is commonly used in automotive parts, toys, and electronic housings.

Nylon: A thermoplastic polymer that is strong, durable, and abrasion-resistant. It is

commonly used in textiles, automotive parts, and industrial components.

Polyurethane (PU): A thermosetting polymer that is flexible, strong, and abrasion-

resistant. It is commonly used in foam insulation, coatings, and adhesives.

These are just a few examples of the many types of plastics available, and each has its
own unique properties and characteristics that make it suitable for different applications.

1.29 Properties of plastics

Plastics are a diverse group of materials with a wide range of properties, depending on
their chemical composition and processing methods. Here are some of the general
properties of plastics:

Lightweight: Plastics are generally lightweight materials, making them ideal for
applications where weight is a concern.

Durability: Plastics are often very durable materials, able to withstand impacts, chemical
exposure, and other forms of wear and tear.

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Versatility: Plastics can be molded into a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and textures,
allowing them to be used in a wide range of applications.

Electrical insulation: Many plastics are good electrical insulators, making them useful for
electrical and electronic applications.

Chemical resistance: Plastics can be resistant to a wide range of chemicals, depending on

their composition, making them useful in harsh environments.

Corrosion resistance: Many plastics are resistant to corrosion, making them ideal for use
in marine environments or other applications where corrosion is a concern.

Low friction: Some plastics have a low coefficient of friction, making them ideal for
applications where sliding or rubbing is required, such as bearings.

Heat resistance: Some plastics are able to withstand high temperatures, making them
useful in applications where high heat is a concern.

Transparency: Some plastics are transparent or translucent, making them useful for
applications such as windows or lenses.

It is important to note that not all plastics exhibit all of these properties, and the specific
properties of a plastic will depend on its chemical composition and processing method.

1.30 Additives
Plastic additives are substances that are added to plastics during the manufacturing
process to improve their performance and/or processing characteristics. There are many
different types of plastic additives, each with its own unique function. Here are some
common types of plastic additives:

Plasticizers: These are additives that are added to plastics to make them more flexible
and pliable. They work by reducing the intermolecular forces between the polymer
chains, which increases their mobility and flexibility.

Stabilizers: These are additives that are added to plastics to prevent degradation due to
heat, light, or chemical exposure. They work by scavenging free radicals that can cause
chain scission and cross-linking in the polymer.
Flame retardants: These are additives that are added to plastics to reduce their
flammability. They work by interfering with the combustion process, either by releasing
water or other gases that dilute the fuel source or by forming a protective char layer that
shields the underlying polymer from the flame.

Colorants: These are additives that are added to plastics to give them color. They can be
either pigments or dyes, and are added to the polymer during processing to give it the
desired color.

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Antistatic agents: These are additives that are added to plastics to reduce their static
charge. They work by either increasing the conductivity of the plastic or by absorbing
moisture from the air, which reduces the buildup of static charge.

Lubricants: These are additives that are added to plastics to improve their processing
characteristics. They work by reducing friction between the polymer and processing
equipment, which can reduce wear and tear on the equipment and improve the quality of
the final product.

Fillers: These are additives that are added to plastics to improve their mechanical
properties, such as stiffness or strength. They are typically inorganic materials, such as
glass fibers or mineral powders, and are added to the polymer during processing.

These are just a few examples of the many different types of plastic additives that are
used to improve the performance and processing characteristics of plastics.

1.31 Adhesives/resins
Adhesives and resins are materials used to join two surfaces together or to form a
coating on a surface. They are widely used in many industries, including construction,
automotive, aerospace, and electronics. Here are some common types of adhesives and
resins:

Epoxy: Epoxy resins are thermosetting polymers that are widely used in construction,
automotive, and aerospace industries. They are known for their high strength and
durability, and are often used to bond metals, ceramics, and plastics.

Polyurethane: Polyurethane adhesives are versatile and widely used in many industries.
They can be formulated to have a wide range of properties, from flexible to rigid, and are
often used to bond wood, metal, and plastics.

Cyanoacrylate: Cyanoacrylate adhesives, also known as superglue, are fast-setting and

provide high strength bonds. They are often used in the electronics industry to bond
small parts and components.

Acrylic: Acrylic adhesives are often used in the automotive industry to bond plastics and
metals. They are known for their fast cure time and high strength.

Silicone: Silicone adhesives are widely used in the electronics industry because they
provide good thermal stability and electrical insulation. They are often used to seal and
bond electronic components.

Phenolic: Phenolic resins are thermosetting polymers that are widely used in the
manufacturing of circuit boards, laminates, and adhesives. They are known for their high
resistance to heat and chemicals.

Polyester: Polyester resins are widely used in the construction and marine industries to

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make fiberglass laminates. They are known for their high strength and resistance to
water and chemicals.

These are just a few examples of the many types of adhesives and resins that are
available. The choice of adhesive or resin depends on the application and the materials
being bonded or coated.

1.32 Processing of polymerics

Processing of polymerics involves converting raw polymer materials into finished
products through various manufacturing techniques. Here are some common processing
techniques for polymers:

Injection molding: This is a process used to produce large quantities of small to medium-
sized parts with high accuracy and consistency. The polymer is melted and injected into a
mold, where it solidifies and takes the shape of the mold.

Extrusion: This is a process used to produce long, continuous parts such as pipes, tubes,
and profiles. The polymer is melted and forced through a die, which gives the product its
shape.

Blow molding: This is a process used to produce hollow parts such as bottles and
containers. The polymer is melted and extruded into a mold, where it is blown into the
shape of the mold.

Thermoforming: This is a process used to produce large, shallow parts such as trays and
packaging. The polymer is heated and formed into the desired shape using a mold.

Rotational molding: This is a process used to produce large, hollow parts such as tanks
and playground equipment. The polymer is heated and rotated in a mold, where it is
evenly distributed to create the desired shape.

Compression molding: This is a process used to produce parts with complex shapes and
high strength. The polymer is placed in a mold and heated, where it is compressed to
form the desired shape.

Casting: This is a process used to produce parts with intricate shapes and fine details.
The polymer is poured into a mold and allowed to solidify, where it takes the shape of the
mold.

These are just a few examples of the many processing techniques used for polymers. The
choice of technique depends on the application and the properties required for the
finished product.

1.33 Wood
Wood is a natural, organic material that comes from trees and is used in a variety of

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applications, from construction to furniture to paper production. Here are some key
properties and characteristics of wood:

Structure: Wood is composed of long, thin fibers that run parallel to the tree trunk. These
fibers provide the strength and flexibility that make wood an ideal material for building
and other applications.

Moisture content: Wood is highly absorbent and its moisture content can vary greatly
depending on the environment. Changes in moisture content can affect the strength and
stability of the wood.

Density: The density of wood varies depending on the species and the part of the tree
from which it is harvested. Dense woods, such as oak and maple, are stronger and more
durable than lighter woods, such as pine and spruce.

Grain: The grain of wood refers to the pattern created by the fibers running through the
material. The grain can affect the appearance, strength, and workability of the wood.

Strength: Wood is strong in compression and tension, but is relatively weak in shear. The
strength of wood varies depending on the species, the moisture content, and the
direction in which the load is applied.

Workability: Wood is easy to work with using hand or power tools, and can be cut,
shaped, and joined in a variety of ways.

Durability: The durability of wood depends on the species and the conditions in which it
is used. Some species are naturally resistant to decay and insects, while others require
treatment to improve their durability.

Sustainability: Wood is a renewable resource, as trees can be replanted and grown for
future use. Proper harvesting and management practices can ensure that wood is
harvested in a sustainable manner.

These are just a few of the properties and characteristics of wood. The specific properties
of a given piece of wood will depend on the species, the age and growth conditions of the
tree, and the processing techniques used to prepare the wood for its intended use.

1.34 Types of wood

There are many different types of wood available, each with its own unique properties
and characteristics. Here are some of the most common types of wood:

Softwoods: Softwoods come from coniferous trees, such as pine, spruce, and fir. They are
generally less dense than hardwoods and are used for applications such as framing,
decking, and furniture.

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Hardwoods: Hardwoods come from deciduous trees, such as oak, maple, and cherry.
They are generally denser and stronger than softwoods and are used for applications
such as flooring, cabinetry, and fine furniture.

Tropical hardwoods: Tropical hardwoods come from trees that grow in tropical regions,
such as teak, mahogany, and rosewood. They are prized for their beauty and durability,
but are often expensive and can be difficult to source sustainably.
Plywood: Plywood is a type of engineered wood made by gluing together thin layers of
wood veneer. It is strong and stable, and is used for applications such as flooring,
cabinetry, and furniture.

Particle board: Particle board is another type of engineered wood made by pressing
together small particles of wood and adhesive. It is less expensive than solid wood or
plywood, but is not as strong or durable.

MDF: Medium-density fiberboard (MDF) is a type of engineered wood made by pressing

together wood fibers and adhesive. It is dense and stable, and is often used for
applications such as cabinetry and furniture.

Cedar: Cedar is a softwood known for its natural resistance to decay and insects. It is
often used for outdoor applications such as decking, siding, and fencing.

Redwood: Redwood is a softwood known for its natural resistance to decay and insects,
as well as its distinctive color and grain patterns. It is often used for outdoor applications
such as decking, siding, and fencing.

These are just a few of the many types of wood available. The specific type of wood used
for a given application will depend on factors such as the desired appearance, strength,
durability, and cost.

1.35 Seasoning
Seasoning is the process of removing moisture from wood in order to make it more
stable and less likely to warp or crack over time. This is done by exposing the wood to air
and allowing it to dry out slowly over a period of weeks or months.

There are two main methods of seasoning wood: air-drying and kiln-drying. Air-drying
involves stacking the wood in a dry, well-ventilated area and allowing it to dry out
naturally over a period of several months. Kiln-drying, on the other hand, involves
placing the wood in a special oven (known as a kiln) that controls the temperature,
humidity, and airflow in order to speed up the drying process.

Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Air-drying is slower and more
labor-intensive, but it can result in wood that is more stable and less likely to develop
cracks or splits. Kiln-drying is faster and more efficient, but it can also result in wood that
is more prone to cracking and warping if not done properly.

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It is important to properly season wood before using it for any application, as
unseasoned wood can warp, crack, or shrink over time, causing problems with joints and
other connections. Properly seasoned wood is more stable and less likely to cause these
problems, resulting in a higher-quality finished product.

1.36 Structure of wood

The structure of wood can be divided into two main components: the cells and the
matrix.
Cells: Wood is made up of tiny, elongated cells that are arranged in long, parallel fibers.
The cells are made up of three main parts: the cell wall, the cell membrane, and the cell
contents.

Cell wall: The cell wall is the outermost layer of the cell and is composed primarily of
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. It provides the strength and rigidity to the cell.

Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a thin, flexible layer that surrounds the cell wall
and regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell.

Cell contents: The cell contents include the cytoplasm and various organelles that carry
out the cell's metabolic functions.

Matrix: The matrix is the substance that fills the spaces between the cells and binds them
together. It is made up of a mixture of lignin, hemicellulose, and other organic materials.
The cells and matrix of wood are organized into three main regions: the bark, the
cambium layer, and the wood itself.

Bark: The outermost layer of the tree, composed of dead cells that protect the tree from
insects and other environmental factors.
Cambium layer: A thin layer of actively dividing cells that produces new wood and bark.

Wood: The innermost layer of the tree, composed of dead cells that provide structural
support to the tree. The wood is divided into two main regions: the sapwood, which is
the younger, outermost layer of wood that is still alive and carries water and nutrients up
the tree, and the heartwood, which is the older, innermost layer of wood that is no longer
alive and provides structural support to the tree.

1.37 Rubber
Rubber is a naturally occurring polymer that is derived from the sap of certain trees, such
as the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). It is also produced synthetically using a variety of
chemical processes.

The properties of rubber are determined by its chemical composition and structure.
Rubber is made up of long chains of molecules called polymers, which are composed of
repeating units of isoprene. The isoprene molecules can be arranged in a variety of ways
to produce different types of rubber.

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The most common types of rubber are natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Natural
rubber is produced from the sap of rubber trees and is used in a wide variety of
applications, from tires and conveyor belts to surgical gloves and balloons. Synthetic
rubber, on the other hand, is produced using a variety of chemical processes and can be
tailored to meet specific performance requirements.

Rubber has a number of unique properties that make it useful in a variety of applications.
These include:

Elasticity: Rubber is highly elastic, which means it can stretch and return to its original
shape without being permanently deformed. This makes it ideal for use in applications
where flexibility and resilience are important.

Resistance to abrasion: Rubber is highly resistant to abrasion and wear, which makes it
useful in applications where it will be subjected to friction and wear.

Water resistance: Rubber is highly resistant to water and can be used in applications
where it will be exposed to moisture.

Electrical insulation: Rubber is an excellent electrical insulator, which makes it useful in

applications where electrical conductivity must be avoided.

Chemical resistance: Rubber is highly resistant to a wide variety of chemicals, including

acids, alkalis, and solvents, making it useful in a variety of industrial applications.

Overall, rubber is a versatile material that is used in a wide variety of applications due to
its unique combination of properties.

1.38 Types of rubber

There are two main types of rubber: natural rubber and synthetic rubber.

Natural Rubber: Natural rubber is made from the sap of the Hevea brasiliensis tree, also
known as the rubber tree. It is composed of long chains of polymers of isoprene, and has
a characteristic elastic property. Natural rubber is used in a wide range of applications,
including automobile tires, conveyor belts, gloves, and footwear.

Synthetic Rubber: Synthetic rubber is produced using a variety of chemical processes,

and is designed to have specific properties depending on the intended application. Some
of the most common types of synthetic rubber include:

Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR): SBR is the most commonly used synthetic rubber and is
used in a wide range of applications, including automobile tires, conveyor belts, and
footwear.

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Neoprene rubber: Neoprene rubber is a synthetic rubber that is highly resistant to oil,
chemicals, and extreme temperatures. It is used in a wide range of applications, including
wetsuits, gaskets, and automotive belts.

Butyl rubber: Butyl rubber is a synthetic rubber that is highly impermeable to gases and
liquids, making it ideal for use in applications where air or water tightness is required. It
is commonly used in the production of inner tubes for tires and other automotive
components.

Nitrile rubber: Nitrile rubber is a synthetic rubber that is highly resistant to oil,
chemicals, and abrasion. It is commonly used in the production of seals, gaskets, and
hoses for the automotive industry.

EPDM rubber: EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer) rubber is a synthetic rubber
that is highly resistant to heat, ozone, and weathering. It is commonly used in roofing
membranes, automotive seals, and electrical insulation.

Overall, there are many different types of rubber that are designed to have specific
properties depending on the intended application.

1.39 Uses of rubber

Rubber has many uses across various industries due to its unique properties such as
elasticity, durability, and resistance to heat, water, and chemicals. Some common uses of
rubber include:

Automobile industry: Rubber is used extensively in the production of tires, belts, hoses,
gaskets, and seals in automobiles.

Construction industry: Rubber is used in roofing, flooring, and insulation materials due to
its durability and weather resistance.

Medical industry: Rubber is used in the production of medical equipment such as gloves,
tubing, and catheters due to its biocompatibility and resistance to chemicals.

Consumer goods industry: Rubber is used in the production of a wide range of consumer
goods such as footwear, toys, and sports equipment due to its elasticity and durability.

Electrical industry: Rubber is used in electrical insulation materials and wiring due to its
resistance to heat and electricity.

Industrial applications: Rubber is used in a wide range of industrial applications such as

conveyor belts, gaskets, and hoses due to its resistance to heat, chemicals, and abrasion.

Overall, rubber is a versatile material that is used in a wide range of applications across
various industries.

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 1.40 Properties of rubber

Rubber has a unique set of properties that make it useful for a wide range of applications.
Some of the key properties of rubber include:

Elasticity: Rubber is highly elastic and can stretch significantly without breaking. This
property makes it useful in the production of tires, gaskets, and seals.

Flexibility: Rubber is flexible and can be easily molded into various shapes and forms.
This property makes it useful in the production of consumer goods such as footwear and
toys.

Durability: Rubber is highly durable and can withstand wear and tear, making it useful in
industrial applications such as conveyor belts.

Resistance to heat: Rubber can withstand high temperatures without melting or breaking
down, making it useful in the production of electrical insulation materials and other high-
temperature applications.

Resistance to chemicals: Rubber is resistant to a wide range of chemicals, making it

useful in the production of medical equipment and other applications that involve
exposure to chemicals.

Water resistance: Rubber is highly resistant to water and moisture, making it useful in
the production of roofing materials and other applications that require water resistance.

Overall, rubber is a versatile material with a unique set of properties that make it useful
in a wide range of applications.

9. BEARING MATERIALS
Bearings are used to support moving parts and reduce friction between them. In
metallurgy, various materials are used to make bearings depending on the specific
application. Some common bearing materials used in metallurgy include:

Steel: Steel is a common bearing material due to its high strength and durability. It is
often used in applications where heavy loads are involved.

Bronze: Bronze is a popular bearing material due to its good wear resistance and ability
to withstand high temperatures. It IS used in applications involving slow speeds and high
loads.

Aluminum: Aluminum is a lightweight bearing material that is used in AREAS OF

applications where low friction and high speed are required.

Ceramic: Ceramic bearings offer high strength and wear resistance, making them useful

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in high-temperature and high-speed applications.

Plastic: Plastic bearings are lightweight and offer low friction, making them useful in
applications where noise reduction is important.

Overall, the choice of bearing material depends on the specific application and the
conditions it will be subjected to, such as load, speed, and temperature. Metallurgists
must carefully consider the properties of different materials when selecting the
appropriate bearing material for a specific application.

1.41 Metals and non metals

Metals and non-metals are both used as bearing materials, depending on the specific
application. Here are some examples:

Metals:
Steel: Steel is a common bearing material due to its high strength and durability. It is
often used in applications where heavy loads are involved.

Bronze: Bronze is a popular bearing material due to its good wear resistance and ability
to withstand high temperatures. It is often used in applications involving slow speeds
and high loads.

Aluminum: Aluminum is a lightweight bearing material that is often used in applications

where low friction and high speed are required.

Copper: Copper is a soft, ductile metal that is often used as a bearing material in low-
speed applications.

Non-metals:

Ceramic: Ceramic bearings offer high strength and wear resistance, making them useful
in high-temperature and high-speed applications.

Graphite: Graphite is a non-metal that is used as a bearing material due to its self-
lubricating properties.

Plastics: Plastic bearings are lightweight and offer low friction, making them useful in
applications where noise reduction is important.

The choice of bearing material depends on the specific application and the conditions it
will be subjected to, such as load, speed, and temperature. Engineers and designers must
carefully consider the properties of different materials when selecting the appropriate
bearing material for a specific application.

1.42 Bearing properties

The properties of bearing materials can vary widely depending on the specific material

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used. Some common properties of bearing materials include:

Hardness: The hardness of a bearing material is important because it affects its ability to
resist wear and deformation under load.

Strength: The strength of a bearing material is important because it affects its ability to
withstand heavy loads without deforming or breaking.

Friction: The frictional properties of a bearing material can affect its ability to maintain a
lubricating film and reduce wear.

Wear resistance: The wear resistance of a bearing material is important because it affects
how long the bearing will last under load.

Corrosion resistance: The corrosion resistance of a bearing material is important in

applications where the bearing will be exposed to harsh environments or corrosive
fluids.

Temperature resistance: The temperature resistance of a bearing material is important

in applications where the bearing will be exposed to high temperatures, as it can affect its
strength, hardness, and wear resistance.

Lubrication: Some bearing materials require lubrication in order to function properly

and reduce wear.

Overall, the properties of bearing materials are important factors to consider when
selecting a material for a specific application. Engineers and designers must carefully
consider the requirements of the application in order to select a material that will
provide optimal performance and longevity.

1.43 Applications of bearing

Bearing materials are used in a wide range of applications, including:

Automotive industry: Bearing materials are used in engines, transmissions, and

suspension systems of automobiles.

Aerospace industry: Bearings are used in a variety of aerospace applications, such as

landing gear, control surfaces, and engines.

Industrial machinery: Bearings are used in a wide range of industrial machinery, such as
pumps, compressors, and machine tools.

Construction equipment: Bearings are used in construction equipment such as cranes,

excavators, and bulldozers.

Medical devices: Bearings are used in medical devices such as surgical tools, imaging

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equipment, and prosthetic limbs.

Power generation: Bearings are used in wind turbines, hydroelectric generators, and gas
turbines.

Marine industry: Bearings are used in ships and boats, including propellers, rudder
systems, and winches.

The specific bearing material used in each application will depend on a variety of factors,
including load, speed, temperature, and environmental conditions. Bearing materials
must be carefully selected to ensure optimal performance and longevity in each
application.

10. CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION

Corrosion is a natural process in which metals and other materials are gradually
deteriorated and destroyed due to chemical reactions with their environment. It occurs
when metals are exposed to moisture, oxygen, acids, or other corrosive agents.
The effects of corrosion can vary depending on the type of metal and the corrosive agent
involved. Some common effects of corrosion include:
Discoloration: Corrosion can cause metals to become discolored, often turning them a
reddish-brown color.
Loss of strength: Corrosion can cause metals to lose their strength and become brittle
over time.
Surface roughness: Corrosion can cause pits and other surface imperfections, resulting in
a rough surface.
Leaks: Corrosion can cause pipes and other structures to develop leaks, leading to loss of
materials or even structural failure.
Electrical problems: Corrosion can interfere with electrical contacts and circuits, causing
electrical failures.
Health hazards: Corrosion of certain metals, such as lead and mercury, can pose health
hazards to humans and animals.
Corrosion can be prevented or minimized through a variety of methods, including
protective coatings, cathodic protection, and selection of corrosion-resistant materials.
Understanding the causes and effects of corrosion is important in preventing damage to
structures, equipment, and other materials.

1.44 Types of corrosion

There are several types of corrosion that can occur in metals, each with its own specific
characteristics and causes. Some of the most common types of corrosion include:
Uniform corrosion: This is the most common type of corrosion, and occurs when the
entire surface of a metal is corroded evenly. It is typically caused by exposure to a
corrosive environment, such as saltwater or acid rain.

Galvanic corrosion: This occurs when two different metals are in contact with each other,

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and a chemical reaction takes place between them. The more reactive metal corrodes
more quickly than the less reactive metal.

Pitting corrosion: This occurs when small pits or holes form on the surface of a metal,
and can be caused by a variety of factors, including exposure to a corrosive environment,
lack of oxygen, or exposure to high temperatures.

Crevice corrosion: This occurs in small, confined spaces where oxygen is limited, such as
under gaskets or in between bolts. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including
exposure to saltwater, acid rain, or other corrosive substances.

Stress corrosion cracking: This occurs when a metal is exposed to both a corrosive
environment and stress, such as tension or compression. It can result in cracks or
fractures in the metal, and is a common problem in high-stress environments, such as
pipelines or bridges.

Intergranular corrosion: This occurs when a metal is exposed to a corrosive

environment, and the corrosion occurs along the grain boundaries of the metal. It is often
caused by a lack of protective oxide layer, or by exposure to high temperatures.

Fretting corrosion: This occurs when two surfaces are in contact with each other and
experience small, repetitive motions, such as in machinery or engines. It can cause
surface damage and corrosion in the areas of contact.
Understanding the different types of corrosion is important in preventing and mitigating
the damage caused by corrosion in metals.

1.45 Prevention of corrosion

Corrosion prevention is the process of protecting metals and other materials from the
damaging effects of corrosion. There are several methods of corrosion prevention,
including:
Protective coatings: Applying a protective coating to the surface of a metal can help
prevent corrosion by providing a barrier between the metal and the environment.
Examples of protective coatings include paint, epoxy, and galvanizing.

Cathodic protection: Cathodic protection involves applying a small electrical current to a

metal, which helps to prevent corrosion by forcing the metal to become the cathode in an
electrochemical reaction.

Corrosion inhibitors: Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that are added to a metal or a
corrosive environment to prevent or reduce corrosion. Examples of corrosion inhibitors
include rust inhibitors, scale inhibitors, and oxygen scavengers.
Material selection: Choosing the right material for a specific application can help prevent
corrosion. For example, using stainless steel instead of carbon steel in a corrosive
environment can help reduce corrosion.

Environmental control: Controlling the environment in which a metal is used or stored

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can also help prevent corrosion. For example, storing metal parts in a dry environment
can help prevent moisture from causing corrosion.

Regular maintenance: Regular maintenance and inspection of metal components can help
identify and address corrosion issues before they become serious.
By implementing one or more of these corrosion prevention methods, it is possible to
reduce or even eliminate the damaging effects of corrosion on metal components and
structures.

11. HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment is a process used to alter the physical and mechanical properties of a
material, typically a metal or alloy, by heating and cooling it in a controlled manner. The
main purpose of heat treatment is to improve the material's strength, hardness,
toughness, ductility, and other properties.
1.46 Annealing
Annealing is a heat treatment process used to alter the physical and mechanical
properties of a material, typically a metal or alloy, by heating it to a specific temperature
and then cooling it slowly. The purpose of annealing is to reduce the material's hardness,
increase its ductility, and remove internal stresses.
The annealing process involves the following steps:
Heating: The material is heated to a specific temperature, typically above its
recrystallization temperature, to make it easier to deform and reduce its hardness.
Soaking: The material is held at the elevated temperature for a certain period of time to
allow the temperature to be uniformly distributed throughout the material.
Cooling: The material is cooled slowly, typically in a furnace, to room temperature or
slightly below to avoid cracking or distortion.
The exact temperature and cooling rate used during annealing depend on the specific
material and the desired properties. The process may be repeated several times to
achieve the desired results.
Annealing can be used to improve the properties of a variety of materials, including steel,
copper, brass, and aluminum. It is commonly used in the manufacturing of components
such as wires, tubes, and sheets, as well as in the production of glass and ceramics.

1.47 Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment process that is often used in conjunction with quench
hardening to increase the toughness and ductility of a material, typically a metal or alloy.
The process involves heating the material to a specific temperature below its critical
point, holding it at that temperature for a certain period of time, and then allowing it to
cool naturally. The result is a material that is harder and stronger than it was before, but
also more ductile and less brittle.
During quench hardening, the material is heated to a high temperature and then rapidly
cooled to increase its hardness. However, this process also makes the material very
brittle and prone to cracking or fracturing under stress. Tempering is used to reduce this
brittleness by heating the material to a lower temperature and holding it there for a
specific amount of time. This allows some of the excess hardness to be reduced, while

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retaining most of the strength and durability that was gained during the quench
hardening process.
The exact temperature and duration of the tempering process depend on the specific
material and the desired properties. Typically, the material is heated to a temperature
between 200 and 500 degrees Celsius for several hours, then allowed to cool naturally.
This process can be repeated multiple times to achieve the desired result.
Tempering is commonly used in the manufacturing of steel components such as tools,
springs, and machine parts, as well as in the production of other materials such as glass
and ceramics.

1.48 Normalizing
Normalizing is a heat treatment process that is used to improve the mechanical
properties of metals and alloys. The process involves heating the material to a specific
temperature above its critical point, which is the temperature at which its microstructure
changes, and then cooling it in air. The goal of normalizing is to create a more uniform
grain structure throughout the material, which can improve its strength, ductility, and
toughness.
During normalizing, the material is heated to a temperature that is slightly above its
upper critical temperature, which is the temperature at which it becomes fully austenitic.
This temperature is typically between 800 and 950 degrees Celsius, depending on the
specific material and its composition. The material is held at this temperature for a
specific period of time, typically ranging from a few minutes to several hours, depending
on the size and thickness of the material.
After the material has been held at the designated temperature for the appropriate
amount of time, it is removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in air. This process of
air cooling is known as "air quenching." Air quenching produces a fine-grained
microstructure in the material, which can improve its mechanical properties. In some
cases, the material may be further heat-treated or quenched to achieve specific
properties.
Normalizing is commonly used in the production of steel components such as bars,
forgings, and castings, as well as in the manufacturing of other materials such as copper
alloys, aluminum alloys, and titanium alloys.

1.49 Hardening
Hardening is a heat treatment process that is used to increase the hardness and strength
of metals and alloys. The process involves heating the material to a specific temperature
above its critical point, which is the temperature at which its microstructure changes,
and then rapidly cooling it by quenching it in a liquid medium such as water, oil, or
polymer.
The rapid cooling during quenching traps the atoms of the material in their high-energy
state, creating a highly strained and unstable structure known as martensite. This
structure is extremely hard and strong but is also very brittle, making it unsuitable for
many applications. Therefore, after the material has been quenched, it is often subjected
to a tempering process to relieve some of the internal stress and improve its toughness.
The temperature to which the material is heated and the cooling rate during quenching
depend on the specific material and the desired properties. For example, the temperature

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for hardening high carbon steels is typically between 780-820°C, while low alloy steels
require a higher temperature of 850-920°C. The cooling rate also depends on the
material, with faster cooling rates producing a harder material.
Hardening is commonly used in the production of tools, dies, gears, and other
components that require high hardness and wear resistance. It is also used in the
production of some types of bearings, springs, and shafts.

1.50 Case hardening

Case hardening is a heat treatment process used to increase the surface hardness of low
carbon steels while retaining a ductile core. The process involves adding carbon,
nitrogen, or other hardening elements to the surface of the steel by diffusion. This is
typically achieved by heating the steel in contact with a carbon-rich gas, such as methane
or propane, at a high temperature (800-950°C) for an extended period of time (several
hours).
The carbon or nitrogen atoms diffuse into the surface of the steel, creating a thin layer of
high-carbon or high-nitrogen martensite. This layer is typically only a few millimeters
thick, but it can significantly increase the surface hardness and wear resistance of the
steel.
There are several methods used for case hardening, including carburizing, nitriding, and
carbonitriding. Carburizing is the most common method and involves heating the steel in
a carbon-rich gas, while nitriding involves heating the steel in a nitrogen-rich
atmosphere. Carbonitriding involves heating the steel in a gas that contains both carbon
and nitrogen.
Case hardening is commonly used in the production of gears, camshafts, bearings, and
other components that require a hard, wear-resistant surface but also need to maintain a
ductile core.

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