BIOENERGETICS
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BIOENERGETICS
The study of energy transfer within the living things. The study of energy in living
systems (environments) and the organisms (plants and animals) that utilize them
Biological conservation of mass and energy
Why Study Bioenergetics?
• The understanding of metabolism provides the directions to better understand
how skeletal muscles generate energy.
• How and why the body responds to exercise the way it does. Organisms use the
chemical energy in fuels (carbohydrates, lipids) to bring about the synthesis of
complex macromolecules from simple precursors.
• They also convert the chemical energy into concentration gradients and electrical
gradients, into motion and heat, and, in a few organisms into light (fireflies, some
deep-sea fishes).
• The study of metabolism is aided by studying bioenergetics The Laws of
Bioenergetics provide the rules upon which metabolism functions.
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So, bioenergetics is the study of energy in living things. It includes how energy is
transformed (changed from one form into another) through two major processes:
cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
For the sake of really understanding what this word means, let's take a closer (but
still brief) look at how energy is transformed in cellular respiration and
photosynthesis.
Relationship between changes in free
energy, enthalpy, and entropy
Heat released or absorbed during a
reaction
enthalpy change
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
free energy
change ENTROPY CHANGE
Measure of randomness
Energy available to do work
3. BIOENERGETICS
Cells are open systems that
exchange matter (nutrients and
waste products) and energy
(heat from metabolism…) with
their surroundings.
In Bioenergetics there is a
Conversion of foodstuffs (fats,
proteins, carbohydrates) into
energy.
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The Big Picture Producers = Autotrophs
- energy flows through
- organisms which can make their food
- plants, algae, some bacteria
- most use photosynthesis
- matter recycles Consumers = Heterotrophs
- organisms which get their food from other
organisms
- animals, fungi, most protists
- most use cellular respiration
ATP = Adenosine triphosphate
- normal molecule that cells use to store and
release energy
- used to power all cellular work
- stores small amounts of usable energy
- cells must recycle it quickly
Photosynthesis
- process by which plants use the energy of
sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide
into high-energy carbohydrates (sugars +
carbs) and oxygen (a waste product)
6CO2 + 6H2O ---light--> C6H12O6 + 6O2
- chlorophyll is the primary light-gathering
pigment of plants
- chlorophyll reflects green light
Energy
Energy is Kinetic energy: Energy of
Motion, Heat and light energy
required by all are examples.
organisms Potential Energy: Is the
energy of position. Includes
energy stored in chemical
bonds.
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
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TWO TYPES OF ENERGY REACTIONS
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Endergonic Reactions
■ Chemical reaction that requires a net input of energy.
■ Photosynthesis
SUN Light
Energy
photons
CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(glucose)
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• Endergonic reactions may also be called an unfavorable reaction or
nonspontaneous reaction. The reaction requires more energy than you get from
it.
• Endergonic reactions absorb energy from their surroundings.
• The chemical bonds that are formed from the reaction are weaker than the
chemical bonds that were broken.
• The free energy of the system increases. The change in the standard Gibbs
Free Energy (G) of an endergonic reaction is positive (greater than 0).
• The change in entropy (S) decreases.
• Endergonic reactions are not spontaneous.
• Examples of endergonic reactions include endothermic reactions, such as
photosynthesis and the melting of ice into liquid water.
• If the temperature of the surroundings decreases, the reaction is endothermic.
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Exergonic Reactions
■ Chemical reactions that
releases energy
■ Cellular Respiration
‘Combustion of Carbohydrate’
Energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O+
(glucose) ATP
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The Breakdown of Glucose: An Exergonic Reaction
• An exergonic reaction may be called a spontaneous reaction or a favorable
reaction.
• Exergonic reactions release energy to the surroundings.
• The chemical bonds formed from the reaction are stronger than those that
were broken in the reactants.
• The free energy of the system decreases. The change in the standard Gibbs
Free Energy (G) of an exergonic reaction is negative (less than 0).
• The change in entropy (S) increases. Another way to look at it is that the
disorder or randomness of the system increases.
• Exergonic reactions occur spontaneously (no outside energy is required to
start them).
• Examples of exergonic reactions include exothermic reactions, such as
mixing sodium and chlorine to make table salt, combustion, and
chemiluminescence (light is the energy that is released).
• If the temperature of the surroundings increases, the reaction is exothermic.
Metabolic Reactions
of Cells
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What is Metabolism?
■ Sum of the
total chemical
activities of
all cells.
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Two Types of Metabolism
■ Anabolic
Pathways
■ Catabolic
Pathways
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Anabolic Pathway
■ Metabolic reactions, which
consume energy (endergonic), to
build complicated molecules from
simpler compounds. light
■ Photosynthesis SUN energy
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(glucose)
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Catabolic Pathway
■ Metabolic reactions, which release
energy (exergonic) by breaking
down complex molecules in simpler
compounds
■ Cellular Respiration energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
(glucose)
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3. BIOENERGETICS
ATP
• It is an intermediate energy shuttle molecule (connect
catabolism and anabolism)
• It is involved in several processes:
• Biomolecules synthesis
• Active transport through the membranes
• Mechanical work (i.e., muscular contraction)
• It transfers phosphoryl groups from high energy compounds
to less energetic compounds.
• Group transfer potential: ATP hydrolysis
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Cellular Energy - ATP
• Bioenergetics in energy-transducing membranes represents the bridge
between biochemistry and physiology.
• While ATP is the currency of energy exchange in the cytosol, electrochemical
ion gradients across energy-transducing membranes are involved in a large
number of seemingly unrelated processes
• oxidative phosphorylation, active transport of many different metabolites,
signal transduction, maintenance of internal pH, intracellular organelle
function, protein secretion, bacterial motility, and other cellular processes are
some of them
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Cellular Energy: ATP
■ Components:
1. Adenine: nitrogenous base
2. Ribose: five carbon sugar
3. Phosphate group: chain of 3
adenine phosphate group
P P P
ribose
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Adenosine Triphosphate
■ Three phosphate groups-(two
with high energy bonds
■ Last phosphate group (PO4)
contains the MOST energy
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Breaking the Bonds of ATP
■ Process is called
phosphorylation
■ Occurs continually
in cells
■ Enzyme ATP-ase
can weaken and
break last PO4
bond releasing
energy and free
PO4 23
How does ATP work ?
■ Organisms use enzymes to
break down energy-rich
glucose to release its potential
energy
■ This energy is trapped and
stored in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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How Much ATP Do Cells Use?
■ It is estimated that each cell
will generate and consume
approximately 10,000,000
molecules of ATP per second
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Coupled Reaction - ATP
■ The exergonic
hydrolysis of ATP
is coupled with
the endergonic
dehydration H2O
process by
transferring a
phosphate group
to another
molecule. H2O
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Hydrolysis of ATP
ATP + H2O → ADP + P
(exergonic)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
P P P
Hydrolysis
(add water)
P P + P
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
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Dehydration of ATP
ADP + P → ATP + H2O
(endergonic)
Dehydration
(Remove H2O
P P + P
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
P P P
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Can we regulate reactions?
■ Make sure the reactions occur.
■ Make the reactions occur in a timely
manner (speed up the reaction).
■ Prevent the reaction from occurring
or slow it down – Rate Limiting
GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis
degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6,
into pyruvate. The initial reactions of the pathway produce triose
phosphate, which produces ATP in the second sequence of reactions.
The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-
energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced
nicotinamide adenine).
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm outside the mitochondria, and
requires no oxygen.
Types of Glycolysis
Aerobic glycolysis: It occurs when oxygen is plentiful. Final product is
pyruvate along with the production of 8 ATP molecules.
Anaerobic glycolysis: It occurs when oxygen is scarce. Final product is
lactate along with the production of 2 ATP molecules.
Glycolysis
Stage 1 - Investment of ATP. Glucose is phosphorylated.
The negative charge concentrates glucose in the cell and
glucose becomes less stable.
Stage 2 – The 6-carbon sugar is split to two 3-carbon
fragments.
Stage 3 – Energy yielding phase. The oxidation of the 3-
carbon fragments yields ATP
2 ATP in Glycolysis
Glycolysis
Net ATP production =
4 ATP produced
- 2 ATP used
2 ATP available for muscle contraction
from each glucose molecule
The Conversion of Glucose to Pyruvate
Glucose + 2 Pi + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+ →
2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH +2 H+
The Energy released from the anaerobic
conversion of glucose to pyruvate is
-47kcal mol-1.
Under aerobic conditions much more
chemical bond energy can be extracted from
pyruvate.
The question still remains: How is NAD+
supplied under anaerobic conditions? Or how
is redox balance maintained?
Kreb’s Cycle = Citric Acid Cycle
• The Krebs cycle is sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy
during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, using
up oxygen and producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and ADP is
converted to energy-rich ATP.
• The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), also known as the citric acid cycle or
the Krebs cycle, is a major energy-producing pathway in living bodies.
• Cells obtain ATP from breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen as in
glycolysis.
• However, most organisms normally are aerobic and oxidize their organic fuels
completely to CO2 and water.
• Foodstuff's feed into the citric acid cycle as acetyl-CoA and the acetyl-CoA is
oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in order to generate energy.
• Thus, under aerobic conditions, the generation of energy from glucose is the
oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl CoA.
• The cycle also serves in the synthesis of fatty acids, amino acids, and glucose.
• The citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix in the eukaryotes.
• All the enzymes of the TCA cycle are in the mitochondrial matrix except succinate
dehydrogenase, which is in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
• However, in the prokaryotes, the reaction cycle occurs in plasma membrane.
Glycolysis and the Citric acid cycle
The oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate (product of glycolysis) to form acetyl
CoA (initiator of Kreb’s cycle) is the link between Glycolysis and the Citric acid
cycle.
• In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, each pyruvate molecule loses one
carbon atom with the release of carbon dioxide.
• During the breakdown of pyruvate, electrons are transferred to NAD+ to
produce NADH, which will be used by the cell to produce ATP.
• In the final step of the breakdown of pyruvate, an acetyl group is transferred
to Coenzyme A to produce acetyl CoA.
Kreb’s cycle
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Each molecule of acetyl CoA entering the citric acid
cycle yields the following:
• Two CO2
• Three NADH
• One FADH2
• One GTP
Because each NADH will eventually produce 2.5 ATP
and each FADH 2 will produce 1.5 ATP through the
electron transport chain, the overall ATP yield from 1
acetyl CoA is 10 ATP (7.5 from NADH, 1.5 from
FADH2 , and 1 from GTP).
Functions
1.Oxidation of acetyl CoA to CO2.
1.Formation of NADH and FADH2 for entrance into the electron
transport chain and subsequent ATP generation.
1.Synthesis of several important molecules, including succinyl CoA
(precursor molecule of heme), oxaloacetate (early intermediate
molecule in gluconeogenesis and substrate for amino acid synthesis),
α-ketoglutarate (substrate for amino acid synthesis), and citrate
(substrate for fatty acid synthesis).
1.It is responsible for the major share of energy release and supply
during aerobic respiration.
1.Due to the many functions of the citric acid cycle is also considered
to be the “central hub of metabolism”. This is because, as most of the
absorbed nutrients, the fuel molecules are oxidized ultimately within
the Kreb’s Cycle and its intermediates are used for various
biosynthetic pathways.
Under anaerobic conditions pyruvate is
converted to lactate. Exercising muscle is an
example.
The NAD+ that is consumed in the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate reaction is
produced in the lactate DH reaction. The redox balance is maintained. The
activities of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate DH and Lactate DH are linked
metabolically.
What happens to the lactate after a run?
When enough oxygen is not available:
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References
1.Smith, C. M., Marks, A. D., Lieberman, M. A., Marks, D. B., & Marks, D. B.
(2005). Marks’ basic medical biochemistry: A clinical approach. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
2.Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2000). Lehninger principles
of biochemistry. New York: Worth Publishers.
3.John W. Pelley, Edward F. Goljan (2011). Biochemistry. Third edition.
Philadelphia: USA.
4.Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., Bender, K. S., Buckley, D. H., & Stahl, D.
A. (2015). Brock biology of microorganisms (Fourteenth edition.). Boston:
Pearson.
5.Rodwell, V. W., Botham, K. M., Kennelly, P. J., Weil, P. A., & Bender, D. A.
(2015). Harper’s illustrated biochemistry (30th ed.). New York, N.Y.:
McGraw-Hill Education LLC.
