Piston Engine Theory

1
 Aircraft Powerplant

The airplane engine and propeller, often referred to

as a powerplant, work in combination to produce
thrust.

The powerplant propels the airplane and drives the

various systems that support the operation of an
aeroplane.

2
 Light Aircraft Propulsion
Most light aircraft use a four stroke piston engine to provide
propulsion. They are also called the reciprocating engines. The
name is derived from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating,
movement of the pistons.
The aim of an engine is to convert chemical energy to useful
mechanical energy and turn the propeller - a two stage process
where the chemical energy is initially converted to heat energy
and this heat energy can now be converted into mechanical
energy.
The process involves making a fuel/air (combustible) mixture,
burning it and using the hot expanding gases to work a piston
which in turn drives the crankshaft to which the propeller is
attached.
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 Main Components of a piston engine
The main parts of a reciprocating
engine include the cylinders,
crankcase, and accessory housing.

The intake/exhaust valves, spark

plugs, and pistons are located in the
cylinders.

The crankshaft and connecting

rods are located in the crankcase.

The magnetos are normally located

on the engine accessory housing.

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 Spark Plug
Exhaust valve
Inlet valve
Inlet port
Exhaust port
Combustion TDC
Chamber
Cylinder Stroke

Piston BDC

Connecting Rod
TDC

Crankshaft

BDC
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 Light Aircraft Propulsion
Reciprocating engines are classified by the cylinder
arrangement with respect to the Crankshaft:

• Radial engines
• In-line engines
• V-type engines
• Horizontally
Opposed type
engines

6
Horizontally
opposed
type engine

7
Engine sections – Opposed type engine

8
In – line engine

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Radial engine

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Engine sections – Radial engine

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 Piston Engine types
With radial engines, a row or rows of cylinders are arranged in a
circular pattern around the crankcase. The main advantage of a
radial engine is the favourable power-to-weight ratio.

In-line engines have a comparatively small frontal area, but their

power-to-weight ratios are relatively low. In addition, the rear
most cylinders of an air-cooled, in-line engine receive very little
cooling air, so these engines are normally limited to four or six
cylinders.

V-type engines provide more horsepower than in-line engines

and still retain a small frontal area. Further improvements in
engine design led to the development of the horizontally-opposed
engine.
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 Piston Engine types
Opposed-type engines are the most popular reciprocating
engines used on small airplanes. These engines always have
an even number of cylinders, since a cylinder on one side of the
crankcase “opposes” a cylinder on the other side.

Usually they are mounted in a horizontal position when installed

on fixed-wing airplanes. Opposed-type engines have high power-
to –weight ratios because they have a comparatively small,
lightweight crankcase. In addition, the compact cylinder
arrangement reduces the engine’s frontal area and allows a
streamlined installation that minimizes aerodynamic drag.

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 The Four Stroke (Otto) Cycle

To complete one working cycle the measurement is

of the number of strokes of the piston within the
cylinder.

The four strokes of the Otto cycle are:

Induction

Compression

Power

Exhaust
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 The Four Stroke (Otto) Cycle
The induction stroke begins as the piston starts its downward travel.
When this happens, the intake valve opens and the fuel/air mixture is
drawn into the cylinder.

The compression stroke begins when the intake valve closes and the
piston starts moving back to the top of the cylinder. This phase of the
cycle is used to obtain a much greater power output from
the fuel/air mixture once it is ignited.

The power stroke begins when the fuel/air mixture is ignited. This
causes a tremendous pressure increase in the cylinder, and forces the
piston downward away from the cylinder head, creating the power
that turns the crankshaft.

The exhaust stroke is used to purge the cylinder of burned gases. It

begins when the exhaust valve opens and the piston starts to move
toward the cylinder head once again. 15
The Four Stroke
(Otto) Cycle

16
The Four Stroke
(Otto) Cycle

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18
 Induction Stroke

Inlet valve opens

Fuel/air mixture
drawn in
Piston moves
down

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 Compression Stroke
Inlet valve Exhaust
closed valve closed

Piston moves up

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 Power stroke
Exhaust
Inlet valve
valve closed
closed

Spark plugs
ignite fuel/air
mixture

Expanding hot gases

force the piston down

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 Exhaust Stroke
Exhaust valve
opens
Burnt gases exit
to exhaust pipe

Piston moves up

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 The Four Stroke (Otto) Cycle

Even when the engine is operated at a fairly low speed, the four-
stroke cycle takes place several hundred times each minute.

In a four-cylinder engine, each cylinder operates on a different

stroke. Continuous rotation of a crankshaft is maintained by the
precise timing of the power strokes in each cylinder. Continuous
operation of the engine depends on the simultaneous function of
auxiliary systems, including the induction, ignition, fuel, oil,
cooling, and exhaust systems.

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Otto Thermodynamics Cycle

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 Otto Thermodynamics Cycle
Stage 1 being the beginning of the intake stroke of the engine. The pressure is near atmospheric pressure
and the gas volume is at a minimum. Between Stage 1 and Stage 2 the piston is pulled out of the cylinder
with the intake valve open. The pressure remains constant, and the gas volume increases as fuel/air mixture
is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve.

Stage 2 begins the compression stroke of the engine with the closing of the intake valve. Between Stage 2
and Stage 3, the piston moves back into the cylinder, the gas volume decreases, and the pressure increases
because work is done on the gas by the piston.

Stage 3 is the beginning of the combustion of the fuel/air mixture. The combustion occurs very quickly and
the volume remains constant. Heat is released during combustion which increases both the temperature and
the pressure.

Stage 4 begins the power stroke of the engine. Between Stage 4 and Stage 5, the piston is driven towards the
crankshaft, the volume increased, and the pressure falls as work done by the gas on the piston.

At Stage 5 the exhaust valve is opened and the residual heat in the gas is exchanged with the surroundings.
The volume remains constant and the pressure adjusts back to atmospheric conditions.

Stage 6 begins the exhaust stroke of the engine during which the piston moves back into the cylinder, the
volume decreases and the pressure remains constant.

At the end of the exhaust stroke, conditions have returned to Stage 1 and the process repeats itself.

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 Crankshaft

The main purpose of the crankshaft is to transform the

reciprocating motion of the piston and connecting rod
into rotary motion for rotation of the propeller

Rotational axis

The crankshaft and piston are connected by the

connecting rod
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Connecting
Rod

27
Cylinder

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Piston & Piston Rings

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Valves

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Valve Operating
Mechanism

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Valve Operating
Mechanism

Camshaft rotates at
half of the speed of
crankshaft

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Valve Operating Mechanism

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 Valve Timing

Valve timing is
achieved by
using a
camshaft which
is usually gear
driven by the
crankshaft at
one half
crankshaft
speed.

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Valve Operating
Timing

35
Compression ratio

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 Compression ratio

It is a comparison of the volume of space in a cylinder when

the piston is at the bottom of the stroke to the volume of space
when the piston is at the top of the stroke.

Compression ratio is a controlling factor in the maximum

horsepower developed by an engine.

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 Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency deals with maximizing the

heat developed by a charge of fuel/air mixture.

To optimise volumetric efficiency the following occurs:

Valve lead

Valve lag

Valve overlap

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 Spark plug timing

Spark timing is critical

A cam within part of the ignition system,

called the magneto system rotates with the
crankshaft and ensures the spark plug fires
exactly when required.

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 Engine Power and Efficiency

All aircraft engines are rated according to their ability to do

work and produce power.

The physicist defines work as force distance.

Power is the rate of doing work and the most widely used
reference unit for aircraft engines is Horsepower.

HP = ft-lb per min or ft-lb sec

33,000 550

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 Indicated Horsepower

Indicated Horsepower (IHP) is the power developed in the

combustion chamber without reference to friction losses
within the engine.

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 Brake Horsepower

The power delivered to the propeller for useful work is

known as Brake Horsepower (BHP).

This is derived by subtracting the power required to

overcome the friction losses (FHP) from IHP.

Measurement of an engine’s BHP involves the

measurement of a quantity known as torque, or twisting
moment.

A common device for measurement of torque is a Prony

brake.

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 Thrust Horsepower

Thrust Horsepower (THP) considers the efficiency of

the propeller as well as the BHP of the engine.

Propellers suffer inefficiencies with varying engine

speed, altitude, temperature, aircraft attitude and
airspeed.
Therefore the BHP delivered to the propeller shaft will
never be utilised fully.

THP = BHP x Propeller Efficiency

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Induction System

44
Induction system icing

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 Engine Exhaust Systems
A large part of the total energy in the fuel burned in an
aircraft engine must be disposed of through the aircraft
exhaust system

So much energy is left in the exhaust as it leaves the

engine that several ways have been devised to recover it

It is essential that the exhaust gases are vented from the

engine and clear of the aircraft with no possibility of fumes
entering into the cabin

The sections of the exhaust system are joined with spring

loaded ball joints that allow movement without leakage and
allow for slight misalignment of the parts 46
 Engine Exhaust Systems

Cracks are common with exhaust systems and therefore

these systems must be regularly inspected to prevent the
escape of noxious gases

Repairs can be made to some cracked exhaust systems,

but must be carried out strictly to manufacturers
specifications by qualified personnel

Noise is a problem with aviation engines and studies are

continually being made to find practical ways of
increasing the frequency and reducing the intensity of
the noise
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Exhaust System – Opposed engine

48
Exhaust System – Radial engine

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Exhaust System –
muffler/augmenter

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