Chemical Agents
- The usage of toxic chemicals as weapons were first
introduced in the First World War (1914-1918) due to the
growth of the chemical industry
- More than 110,000 tonnes were used on the battlefields.
- Biochemical weapon was intended to harass enemy
combatants, instead unknowingly discovered can be used as
lethal weapon against enemies.
- In all, chemical agents caused 1.3 million casualties, including
90,000 deaths.
- Chemical agents can be grouped into two sections:
I) Lethal chemicals
- intended either to kill or to injure the enemy
severely
II) Disabling chemicals
- used to disable the enemy by causing a disability
from which recovery may be possible without medical aid
Lethal chemicals
- The lethal chemicals that have been developed into
biochemical weapon can be divided into two groups:
I) Tissue irritants
- contains choking gases (lung irritants or
asphyxiants) and the blister gases (vesicants)
II) Systemic poisons
- contains blood and nerve gases
Choking gases: chemicals that cause severe irritation or
swelling of the respiratory tract
Asphyxiants: a vapor or gas which can cause unconsciousness or
death by suffocation (lack of oxygen)
Blister gases: causes severe chemical burns, resulting in painful
water blisters on the bodies of those affected
Lung irritants
1. Phosgene / carbonyl dichloride (COCl₂)
- Colourless gas
- First appeared in 1812, as it was originally used as an
intermediate in the manufacture of dyestuffs, pesticides,
pharmaceuticals, polymers, resins and hardeners.
- Variously described as smelling decaying fruit, fresh cut
grass or moudly hay.
- Exposure to concentrations exceeding 3 ppm causes burning
and watering of the eyes, a sore or scratchy throat, dry cough
and chest tightness.
- Exposure to 2 ppm for 80 minutes will not cause any irritation
but result in pulmonary oedema 12-16 hours later.
- When exposed to high concentrations, olfactory fatigue sets
in, and subjects lose their sense of smell and their ability to
assess the danger. Erythema of the oral and pharyngeal mucous
membranes is seen at higher concentrations.
- At very high concentrations (> 200 ppm), phosgene passes the
blood air barrier, causing haemolysis in the pulmonary
capillaries, congestion by red cell fragments and stoppage of
capillary circulation. Death occurs within a few minutes from
acute cor pulmonale.
- Military-type respirator can act as a protection against
phosgene.
2. Chloropicrin / trichloronitromethane / nitrochloroform
(CCl3NO2)
- Oily liquid, colourless or yellowish green
- Highly irritating vapour
- As biochemical weapon, chloropicrin has been used as a
casualty agent, a harassing agent and a training agent.
- First appeared in 1848, could be obtained from picric aacid
and bleach.
- It’s peaceful applications can be used as an insecticide,
rodenticide and fumigant.
- Inhalation and direct contact is the primary exposure to
chloropicrin.
- Concentrations of 0.3 - 1.35 ppm will result in painful eye
irritation in 3-30 seconds, 30 minutes exposure to a
concentration of 119 ppm and a 10 minute exposure to 297.6
ppm both resulted in the death of the individual exposed.
- Common symptoms exposed to chloropicrin are irritation of
the eyes, nose and throat occur, thus resulting in lacrimation
and coughing.
- A concentration of 4 ppm for a few seconds results in an
individual unfit for activity and 15 ppm for the same period
causes respiratory tract injury. Concentrations of 15 ppm
cannot be tolerated for longer than 1 minute.
- Ingestion of chloropicrin results in nausea, vomiting, colic and
diarrhoea.
- Inhalation is reported to cause anemia in some individuals,
and the haematopoietic system is also affected in animals
exposed to chloropicrin.
- Asthmatics exposed to chloropicrin will experience asthma
attacks due to its irritant properties.
- Air-purifying, air-supplying, or chemical cartridge full-face
mask will provide adequate protection from chloropicrin.
3. Perfluoroisobuytene / PFIB (C4F8)
- Rapid-acting lung irritant that damages the air blood barrier
of the lungs.
- Colourless, odourless gas at most ambient temperatures, is
easily liquefied.
- Does not occur naturally, it is a by-product of the
manufacture of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) and is also
formed when this type of polymer are heated to temperatures
that cause thermal decomposition. The fumes generated in
decompostion contain PFIB.
- Inhalation is the principal route of exposure.
- High concentrations produce irritation of the eyes, nose and
throat. The lung is the main target organ and the only one
reported in human studies.
- At lower concentrations, a sense of discomfort in the chest,
especially on taking a deep breath, may be the first symptom.
- After a few hours of exposure, there is a continous increase
in temperature, pulse rate and (possibly) respiration rate.
Shivering and sweating usually follow.
- Military-type respirator can be used but some types may not
be effective, since the benefit of PFIB as a biochemical
weapon is that it is poorly adsorbed by charcoal
Blood gases
1. Hydrogen cyanide / hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
- Rapid-acting lethal agent that interferes with the body’s use
of oxygen, preventing cells from utilizing oxygen.
- Colourless to yellowish brown liquid or gas.
- With an aroma of bitter almonds of marzipan odour.
- Widely available in the chemical industry as an intermediate,
as it is used as a pesticide, rodenticide, fumigent and, in
certain countries’ death sentence, as an instrument of state
killing.
- Inhalation is the most likely route of entry, causing
hyperventilation initially. HCN vapour does not cross skin.
- Exposure to concentrations at 200 mg/m3, death occurs after
10 minutes. Above 2,500 mg/m3, and unquestionably above
5,000 mg/m3, death is likely within 1 minute.
- At extremely high concentrations, hyperventilation emerges
as the primary initial symptom, followed by unconsciousness,
convulsions and loss of corneal reflex, ultimately leading to
death due to cardiac and/or respiratory arrest.
- At elevated concentrations, individuals experience throat
constriction, giddiness, confusion, and impaired vision. The
head feels as if in a vice, with possible pain in the neck and
chest. Subsequent unconsciousness leads to a rapid descent,
and without prompt removal from the HCN atmosphere, death
occurs in 2-3 minutes, marked by brief convulsions and
respiratory failure.
- Military-style gas mask with filters treated can be used as
protection to adsorb cyanide.
Vesicants
- General tissue irritants with an additional systemic action.
1. Mustard gas [known as bis (2-chloroethyl) sulfide, yperite or
Lost] (C₄H₈Cl₂S)
- Colourless gas
- Sulfur mustard had been synthesized by 1860 and had been
developed as biochemical weapon since, it has practically no
other application.
- It is an extremely poisonous gas, contact with the liquid or
exposure to high vapor concentrations can cause severe eye
burns and permanent eye damage, skin burns and blisters also
occur.
- Military-type active-carbon-containing protective clothing
and a full-face gas mask with an appropriate filter should be
used.
2. Lewisite / 2-chlorovinyldichloroarsine (C2H2AsCl3)
- Odourless, colourless oily liquid
- Was studied as a potential biochemical weapon before 1918,
but there wasn’t any record of its’ usage on a battlefield, it
essentially has no applications for peaceful purposes.
- When exposed to lewisite, there is immediate eye irritation
and blepharospasm, followed by coughing, sneezing, lacrimation
and vomiting. On skin contact, burning sensation is felt which
continuously gets worse after time if not treated immediately.
- Military-type active-carbon-containing protective clothing
and a full-face gas mask with an appropriate filter should be
used.
The nerve gases
- Mainly work by disrupting the transmission of nerve impulses
1. Sarin and VX
- Respiratory and circulatory failure are caused due to nerve
agent poisoning, which sometimes results in death.
Disabling chemicals
- Disabling chemicals have been widely used by police or other
forces for law-enforcement purposes
- Veterinarians to capture dangerous animals; medical doctors
to sedate or calm patients; thieves and other criminals to
disable victims and so on.
-
1. Lysergide
- Symptoms caused by inhalation include mydriasis, dizziness,
weakness, drowsiness, nausea; paraesthesia; increased heart
rate, blood pressure and reflexes; twitches; incoordination;
and skin flushing and sweating.
2. Agent BZ / 3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate (C21H23NO3)
- Symptoms of exposure include increased heart rate and blood
pressure; dry skin and mouth; mydriasis; blurred vision; ataxia;
disorientation and confusion leading to stupor.
3. Adamsite / 10-chloro-5,10-dihydrophenarsazine (C12H9AsClN)
- Exposure from inhalation causes an initial irritant tickling
sensation in the nose, followed by sneezing, a flow of viscous
mucus similar to that accompanying a bad cold; coughing and
choking; increased intensity of headaches until almost
unbearable.
4. Agent CN / 2-chloroacetophenone (C8H7ClO)
- When inhaled, stinging and burning of the eyes are usually the
first symptoms, followed by similar effects on the nose and
throat.
-Copious tears are produced, excess salivation and rhinorrhoea
occur, as well as chest tightness, shortness of breath and
gasping.
- Irritation is caused by contact with skin, as well as itching,
erythma, oedema, induration and necrosis.
5. Agent CS / 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile (C10H5ClN2)
- Exposure to it can develop stinging and burning of the eyes,
lacrimation, rhinorrhoea, salivation, belpharospasm,
conjunctival injection, sneezing and coughing rapidly.
Biological Agents
- Military research has demonstrated the possibility of
producing and using infectious agents as weapons.
- Specialized facilities with proper equipment can enable large-
scale production, emphasizing atmospheric dispersal of
pathogens. Selecting, growing, and processing agents pose
technical challenges requiring specialized technologies
- Inhalable aerosols are a primary focus in military programs,
demanding solutions to create stable aerosols and meet
specific delivery conditions.
- The overwhelming case load, sudden outbreaks, and the
severe nature of illness from a biological attack can strain even
a well-prepared emergency system. Prevention measures are
crucial.
Bacteria
1. Bacillus anthracis/Anthrax (A22)
- The vegetative form of B. anthracis is a non-moving, rod-
shaped bacterium that multiplies in infected animals and lab
conditions.
- The disease is generally non-contagious, with rare person-to-
person spread.
- Animal experiments suggest a few spores can induce infection
through skin or gut, but inhalation requires a larger number,
though the possibility of even a single spore causing infection
can't be ruled out, especially with inhalation or ingestion
anthrax.
- Cutaneous anthrax begins as a painless, itchy papule,
progressing to a black eschar with swelling and local swelling,
potentially fatal if untreated.
- Inhalational anthrax starts with flu-like symptoms,
progressing rapidly to cyanosis, shock, and death.
2. Brucella abortus, Brucella suis and Brucella melitensis /
Brucellosis (A23)
- Brucella species, possibly variations of B. melitensis, are non-
moving, small rods or cocci
- Most human infections come from consuming raw animal
products, especially unpasteurized dairy.
- Infection can also happen through contact with diseased
animals, inhalation of contaminated dust, or aerosols.
- Onset varies, showing symptoms like undulating fever, chills,
fatigue, and pain.
- Without treatment, recovery takes 2–3 months, but relapses
with complications can occur over years.
3. Burkholderia mallei / Glanders (A24.0)
- Once known as Pseudomonas mallei, these are Gram-negative
rods with rounded ends. They lack flagella, making them non-
motile.
- Humans get the disease from contact with infected animals
or tissues, entering through skin lesions or mucous membranes.
- It's not highly contagious between people but can spread
through aerosol exposure.
Fungi
1. Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii /
Coccidioidomycosis (B38)
- These agents are fungi that change shape, growing as molds
in soil and as spherules with endospores in animals.
- Infection usually happens by inhaling arthroconidia.
- Inside the host, arthroconidia change into round structures
called spherules, 30–60 µm in size. These contain hundreds of
2–3 µm endospores, which can develop into more spherules,
spreading the disease throughout the body.
- In areas where the disease is common, most infections show
no symptoms but can be detected through skin tests, with
positive reactions ranging from 5% to over 50%.
- Those with symptoms experience upper respiratory infection-
like signs, resolving within weeks.
- Without treatment, disseminated cases have a mortality rate
exceeding 50%, approaching 100% with meningitis.
Viruses
1. Venezuelan equine encephalitis (A92.2)
- The agent belongs to the Alphavirus genus in the Togaviridae
family.
- It's a virion around 70 nm in diameter, with a positive single-
stranded RNA enclosed in an icosahedral capsid, surrounded by
a lipid bilayer membrane containing surface glycoproteins.
- Humans get infected from mosquito bites, no direct person-
to-person or horse-to-human transmission has been found.
- While natural airborne transmission isn't confirmed, lab
aerosol exposure is known to cause infection with just a few
organisms.
- Naturally occurring cases show flu-like symptoms: sudden
severe headache, high fever, chills, muscle pain, and
retroorbital pain.
- Other signs may include photophobia, sore throat, nausea,
diarrhea, and vomiting.
2. Variola virus/ Smallpox (B03)
- Variola virus belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus in the
Poxviridae family.
- The only known host of the virus was humans.
- The global eradication of smallpox was certified by the
World Health Assembly in 1980.
- The virus usually spreads person-to-person through droplets
of saliva or nasal secretion, primarily during direct face-to-
face contact.
- The disease starts suddenly with a 2–4-day period of flu-like
symptoms, followed by fever, prostration, severe back and,
occasionally, abdominal pain and vomiting.
- The rash begins on the oral mucosa, face, hands, and
forearms, then progresses to the trunk in a distinctive pattern.
Principles of Protection
- Various technologies and strategies can shield individuals
from chemical and biological contamination.
-While individual protection is often the initial consideration
against such threats.
Risk Reduction Measures
- Risk level is determined by the likelihood of exposure and
potential harm. Risk-control measures aim to lessen the
probability and/or severity of harm in the risk-management
process.
- Strategies for dealing with chemical or biological agents
include
I) Administrative controls
II) Engineering controls
III) Physical protection.
1. Administrative Controls
- In dealing with biological and chemical agents, administrative
controls involve risk communication, warnings, and evacuating or
cordoning off areas to avoid exposure.
- Administrative controls are relatively easy and less costly but
may face challenges like people not following instructions.
2. Engineering Controls
- Engineering controls involve technologies like airstream
control, filters, and containment to contain or limit hazards.
- Engineering controls, like biosafety cabinets or air-filtration
systems, prevent contact with harmful substances without
relying on individual protective gear, making them a preferred
method of risk control.
3. Physical Protection
- When using physical protection, the goal is to limit exposure,
choosing the appropriate level for the hazard.
- Protection can be individual (like respirators and suits) or
collective (a special form of engineering control).
- Collective protection is preferred to avoid issues linked with
individual protection.
