Singapore Polytechnic

Singapore Maritime Academy

CoC (Deck) Class 2&1

MA2028

Compass

Student’s Name : ________________________

Admission No : ________________________

Class : ________________________
MA2028-Compass

SINGAPORE POLYTECHNIC
SINGAPORE MARITIME ACADEMY
COMPASS

Course(s): COC 1&2 Deck

Year / Stage:
Module Code: MA 2028
Effective Academic Year: AY 2016

Instructional Hours

Lecture (L): 30
Tutorial (T): 24
Practical (P): Nil
Total: 54
Credit Units: NA

Module Aims

To provide students with theoretical and working knowledge required for deck officers of
management level in the magnetic compass and gyrocompass, so as to enhance the safe
operation of the ship.

Teaching Methods / Learning Tasks

Instruction will take place through classroom lectures that will provide students with foundation
knowledge and key concepts.

Means of Assessment
There will be a Mid Semester Test of 25% weightage and End of course examinations of 75%
weightage at the end of the semester.

Recommended Text
1. Ship Magnetism & Magnetic Compass by F G Merrifield (1963), Pergamon Press, London.
2. The Ship’s Compass by Grant Klinkert (1976), Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
3.

Special Requirements

1. Magnetic Compass with Binnacle.

2. Correctors (Permanent and Soft Iron).
3. Azimuth mirror and pelorus.
4. Free Gyroscope

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Table of Specifications

Abilities (%)
Total
K C A/HA (%)
Topics
A. Principles of the magnetic compass and
A 45 45 10 100
their correction.

B. Principles and Errors of Gyrocompasses

B
C. Systems under the control of the master gyro
C
and the operation and care of the main types of
gyrocompasses.

Total 45 45 10 100
Infusion of SP Core Values:

Notes:
1. The letters K, C, A/HA in the table of specifications denote respectively, the
Knowledge, Comprehension, and Application/Higher than Application levels of
Bloom's Taxonomy in the cognitive domain.
2. In the detailed syllabus which follows:
• all objectives should be understood to be prefixed by the words: "At the end of
instruction, the learner should be able to…"
• L: T: P: DLT denotes lecture hours, tutorial hours, practical hours and equivalent
directed learning time respectively.

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IMO 1.3 DETERMINE AND ALLOW FOR COMPASS

L T IMO
competence
1.0 Principles of the Magnetic Compass and their Correction 6 0 1.3
1.1 Explains the requirements of SOLAS chapter V, regulation
19, in regard to the requirements for the carriage of magnetic
compasses

1.2 Explains that ships must also be fitted with a pelorus, or other
means, to take bearings over an arc of 360° of the horizon
and a means for correcting heading and bearings to true at all
times
1.3
Describes the parts of the magnetic compass and explains
their function
1.4
Briefly explains the operating principle of Transmitting
Magnetic Compass (TMC)
1.5
Outlines the performance standards for magnetic compasses
1.6
Explains the importance of keeping a record of observed
deviations
1.7
Defines the approximate coefficients A, B, C, D and E

1.8 States the equation for the deviation on a given heading in

terms of the coefficients

1.9 Describes the conditions which give rise to each of the

coefficients

1.10 Explains the use of the approximate coefficients A, B,C, D

and E
1.11
Explains the non-magnetic causes of an apparent coefficient
A
1.12
Explains that coefficient B results partly from the ship's
permanent magnetism and partly from induced magnetism
1.13
Describes how the deviation associated with the coefficient
permanent B varies with magnetic latitude
1.14
Describes how the deviation associated with the coefficient

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induced B varies with magnetic latitude

1.15
Describes the causes of heeling error and how it varies with
heel, course and magnetic latitude

2.0 Principles and Errors of Gyro Compass 16.5 0

2.1 Reviews the operating principles of the mechanical/ballistic
gyrocompass

2.2 Explains the operating principle of other types of

gyrocompass such as fibre optic gyrocompass and ring laser
gyrocompass and their advantages over the
mechanical/ballistic gyrocompass
2.3
Explains why a gyrocompass that is damped in tilt will
settle with its spin axis at a small angle to the meridian,
except when at the equator
2.4
States that the resulting error is known as latitude error or
damping error and varies directly as the tangent of the
2.5 latitude

States that latitude error can be removed by a manual

setting that mechanically moves the lubber line and the
2.6 follow-up system to show the correct heading

States that course and speed error is caused by the tilting of

the spin axis, resulting from the ship's motion over the
2.7 surface of the earth

2.8 States that the rate of tilting, in minutes of arc per hour, is
equal to the north-south component of the ship's velocity

Explains how the tilt causes precession in azimuth to the

2.9 west on northerly headings and to the east on southerly
headings in compasses with liquid ballistic control

States that the velocity error is removed by manual settings

2.10 of latitude and speed to offset the lubber line and the
follow-up system in liquid-controlled compasses

2.11 Explains how the correction is made in compasses that

employ other methods of detecting tilt

2.12 States that ballistic deflection results from changes in the

ship's north-south component of velocity

2.13 Explains the behaviour of a liquid ballast during a change

of speed or an alteration of course

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Explains that the precession resulting from ballistic

deflection may be arranged to move the compass to the
2.14 correct settling position, after allowance for the change in
course and speed error, by choosing a suitable period for
the compass

2.15 Explains that the pendulum of a tilt detector will be thrown

out of the vertical during a change of course or speed,
producing an error in its output

2.16 Explains that the method used in the above objective is not
applicable for compasses without liquid ballistic control
since course and speed error is fully corrected for all
headings
2.17
Explains that errors are limited by damping the pendulum
and limiting the applied torque for large deflections of the
pendulum

2.18 States that the sensitive element of a gyrocompass is made

such that its moment of inertia about any axis is the same,
thus preventing any tendency to turn when swinging
2.19 pendulously as a result of rolling or pitching

Describes the effect of rolling on a liquid ballistic for

2.20 various ship's headings

Explains why the movement of the liquid causes an error

2.21 except on the cardinal headings

Explains how intercardinal rolling error is reduced to

negligible proportions
2.22
States that intercardinal rolling error does not occur in
compasses having no gravitational control attachments to
the gyroscope
2.23
States that errors caused by acceleration of the compass
during rolling and pitching can be reduced by sitting the
master compass low down, near the rotational centre of the
ship

Outlines the performance standards for gyrocompasses

3.0 Systems under the Control of the Master Gyro and the 1.5
Operation and care of the main types of Gyrocompass
3.1 Defines the main systems under the control of the master
gyro
3.2

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Defines the main types of gyrocompass in use at sea

3.3
Refers to manufacturers' manuals to determine necessary
maintenance tasks
3
Assessment
27
Total Curriculum Hours

MA2021 Compass revised June 2021 refer to email 14 June 2012

Magnetic portion – module objectives and handouts for the area as mentioned below “only
knowledge of 5 coefficients – Coefficients A, B, C D and E”

Magnetic Compass
Magnetic compass Coefficients

Understand Coefficients of the magnetic compass.

1
Explain how the ship’s permanent magnetic field may be
1.1 resolved into three components, designated P, Q, and R.
Define the approximate coefficients A, B, C, D, and E.
1.2 State the equation for the deviation of a given heading in
terms of the coefficients.
Describe the conditions that give rise to each of the
1.3 coefficients.
Explain the use of the approx. coefficients A, B, C, D, and E.
1.4 State why coefficients A and E may exist in a badly sited
1.5 compass.
Explain the non-magnetic causes of an apparent coefficient A.
1.6 Explain that coefficient B results partly from ship’s permanent
1.7 magnetism and partly from induced magnetism.
Explain that induced magnetism may also contribute to
1.8 coefficient C in a badly sited compass.
Describe how the deviation associated with the coefficient
1.9 permanent B varies with magnetic latitude.
Describe how the deviation associated with the coefficient
1.10 induced B varies with magnetic latitude.

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Table of Contents
Coefficient A .................................................................................................................. 8
Real A ......................................................................................................................... 8
Apparent A cause by: ................................................................................................. 8
Gaussins' Error ........................................................................................................... 8
Hysteresis effect or Retentivity error ......................................................................... 8
Coefficient A (Real) ................................................................................................... 9
Coefficient B ................................................................................................................ 10
Permanent B ............................................................................................................. 10
Correction of Permanent B (PB) .............................................................................. 10
Induced B (IB) .......................................................................................................... 10
Coefficient Permanent B (PB) .................................................................................. 11
Coefficient IB (Induced B) ....................................................................................... 12
Coefficient C ................................................................................................................ 13
Coefficient C = PC + IC ................................................................................................ 13
Permanent C (PC)..................................................................................................... 13
Induced C (IC) .......................................................................................................... 13
IC varies as Z/Hf ........................................................................................................... 13
The deviation cause on Course (θ) is C Cosine Course (θ). ........................................... 13
Coefficient Permanent C (PC).................................................................................. 14
Blue Starboard in Northern \ Southern Hemisphere ............................................. 14
Coefficient IC (Induced C) ....................................................................................... 15
This is caused by force induction in VSI ....................................................................... 15
Northern Hemisphere .................................................................................................... 15
Coefficient D ................................................................................................................ 16
Effect of change of latitude on coefficient D ........................................................... 16
Coefficient D ............................................................................................................ 17
Coefficient E ................................................................................................................ 18
Coefficient E............................................................................................................. 18
Coefficient E............................................................................................................. 19

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Coefficient A
Comprises of two components: Real A and Apparent A

Real A
Cause: HSI; Athwartship; Induced magnetism in HSI placed unsymmetrical relative to
the compass - seldom occurs aboard merchant ships.

Type of deviation: Constant

Value is found by taking the mean of the deviations on any four or more equidistant points of the
whole compass.

+A means easterly deviation on all courses.

-A means westerly deviation on all courses.

Apparent A cause by:

1. lubber line not on or parallel to ship's fore and aft line.
2. N-S axis of compass card not parallel to the needle system.
3. error in magnetic bearing.
4. swinging ship too rapidly in one direction.
5. when adjusting, pelorus badly secured.
6. friction present in the suspension of the card.
7. faulty azimuth mirror.
8. gaussins' error
9. hysteresis effect or retentivity error

Gaussins' Error
This is caused by the temporary magnetism of the vessel and Lenz’s Law states that the magnetic
fields, which develop, will be such as to oppose the motion causing it. The compass needle tends
to hang towards the last course steered. The effect of this is more pronounced after steering a
east/west course. To prevent this error to exist, the compass deviations must be checked every
time after the course is altered. The error could appear when the ship is swung too quickly when
making observations for a table of deviations, to prevent this the ship should be swung slower.

Hysteresis effect or Retentivity error

This occurs when a ship is on a particular heading for a long period. The ship acquires a sub
permanent magnetism on the course and when the ship makes a large alteration of course, a
deviation is caused. The error is always towards the old course i.e. westerly error for an alteration
of course to starboard and easterly error for an alteration of course to port.

Coefficient A = mean deviationn of 8 compass courses (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, and NW)
Note: All headings are compass heading. East devn (+) and West devn (-)

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Coefficient A (Real)

caused by unsymmetrical HSI lying athwartship and fore and aft. For Coefficient A alone, the
rods must be equal value and of the opposite sign.

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Coefficient B
The coefficient B makes up of Permanent B (PB) and Induced B (IB) caused by force P.

Cause: Permanent B (PB) - caused by P which is the fore and aft component of the ship's
permanent magnetism.

Induced B (IB)- caused by induced magnetism vertical Soft Iron in the fore and aft
direction.

Type of deviation: Semicircular

Coefficient B = PB + IB

Permanent B
This is cause by force P. If the force is towards the bow (blue forward) the effect will be a P+
and will give rise to coefficient B+. If the force is P- it gives rise to coefficient B-. Permanent
magnetism does not change but it varies inversely as the Hf. P is constant, the PB varies as the
ship changes its latitude. The effect is minimum at the equator because Hf is strongest and
maximum at the pole. The sign does not change even if it changes hemisphere.

Correction of Permanent B (PB)

Permanent magnets F & A under the compass - Hm at the compass position exactly equal and
opposite of that due to ship's P force.

Induced B (IB)
This is caused due to the induced magnetism its Hm. Its inducing force Z changes its value. As
the ship changes latitude Hf and Z both changes their values and therefore IB also changes its
value due to change of HF as well as change of Z.

IB varies as Z/Hf
IB varies as Tan Dip.

In the Northern Hemisphere (Z +ve) a Vertical Soft Iron at the back of the magnetic compass
will usually cause - IB on board merchant ships and this changes if it is at the Southern
Hemisphere +IB.

Value is found by taking the mean of the deviation on East and West by compass after reversing
the sign of the deviation on west.

+B means E'ly deviation on E'ly courses and W'ly deviation on W'ly courses.
-B means W'ly deviation on E'ly courses and E'ly deviation on W'ly courses.

Coefficient B = (Deviation on East Course - Deviation on West Course) / 2

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Note: All headings are compass heading. East deviation (+) and West deviation (-)
The deviation cause on NθE is B sinθ.

Coefficient Permanent B (PB)

This is caused by force P which is the fore and aft component of the ship's permanent
magnetism

Blue forward in Northern \ Southern Hemisphere

B
R

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Coefficient IB (Induced B)

This is caused by force induction in VSI

Normally in
Northern Hemisphere

-C rod

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Coefficient C
The coefficient C makes up of two parts like Coefficient B. They are Permanent C (PC) and
Induced C (IC).

Cause: Permanent C (PC) - caused by force Q. This is the athwart ship permanent magnet
component.

Induced C (IC)- caused by the induced magnetism due to the vertical Soft Iron rod
in the horizontal plane and along the athwart ship line.

Type of deviation: Semicircular

Coefficient C = PC + IC

Permanent C (PC)

This is caused by force Q, the athwartship component of the ship's permanent magnetism. If
force Q+ i.e. the force to starboard (Blue on starboard) the effect is a coefficient C+. If the force
Qis negative the force is to the port then the effect is a coefficient C-. The permanent magnetism
does not change but the coefficient caused varies inversely as Hf. The value PC is zero at the
equator Hf is maximum and value PC maximum at the pole where Hf is minimum. The sign of
PC does not change with even when change hemisphere.

Induced C (IC)

This is caused by the induced magnetism by Z into the VSI to the starboard or port of the
compass. VSI can be samson posts, ventilators, frames, pillars and bulkheads.

IC varies as Z/Hf
IC varies as Tan Dip.

Coefficient C = ( Deviation on North Course - Deviation on South Course) / 2

Note: All headings are compass heading. East devn (+) and West devn (-)

The deviation cause on Course (θ) is C Cosine Course (θ).

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Coefficient Permanent C (PC)

This is caused by force Q that is the athwartship component of the ship's permanent magnetism

Blue Starboard in Northern \ Southern Hemisphere

Port Starboard

R B

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Coefficient IC (Induced C)

This is caused by force induction in VSI

Northern Hemisphere
VSI starboard side cause
Port Starboard

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Coefficient D
The coefficient D is the maximum quadrantal deviation.

Cause: induced magnetism in HSI placed transversely or longitudinally and symmetrical

with regard to the compass.

Type of Deviation: Quadrantal

Coefficient D

This is mainly caused by the induction magnetism from deck beams especially in the
accommodation below the compass, deck plating, fore and aft members of the ship's hull. Ship's
are usually with continuous athwartship HSI therefore mostly have a coefficient D+. In some
occasion ship has fore and aft horizontal stiffeners under the magnetic compass this give rise to
coefficient D-.

Continuous athwarthship horizontalsSoft iron: Coefficient +D

Continuous fore and aft horizontal soft iron: Coefficient -D

Effect of change of latitude on coefficient D

The ship's HSI is induced by, the earth's field, Hf that is the horizontal component. When a ship
changes latitude the value of Hf also change. The induction to the HSI will also change
accordingly. If the Hf doubles the induction, the Hm at the compass position due to this will also
double. The deviation is the result of the interaction between Hf and the Hm cause by the
disturbing force. If Hf and Hm increase in the same proportion, the angle of deflection, ie the
deviation will be the same.
Therefore the induction in HSI changes with the change of latitude, the value of coefficient
caused due to it, namely coefficient D does not change with the change in latitude.

The Value is found by taking the mean of the deviations on NE, SE, SW and NW after reversing
the sign of the deviations on SE and NW.

+D means E'ly deviation on NE'ly and SW'ly courses and W'ly deviation on SE'ly and
NW'ly courses.
-D means W'ly deviation on NE'ly and SW'ly courses and E'ly deviation on SE'ly and
NW'ly courses.

Coefficient D = ( Devn NE Co - Devn SE Co + Devn SW Co – Devn NW Co) / 4

Note: All headings are compass heading. East devn (+) and West devn (-)

The deviation cause on NθE is D sin 2θ.

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Coefficient D

Coefficient D is caused by the continuous Horizontal Soft Iron rods (HSI).

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Coefficient E
The coefficient E is the maximum quadrantal deviation.

Cause: induced magnetism in HSI placed diagonally to the fore and aft line of the ship or
unsymmetrical with reference to the compass. This consist of Athwartships HSI rods and Fore
and aft HSI rods. For Coefficient E alone to exist the rods must be equal value and have the
same sign.

Type of deviation: Quadrantal

Coefficient E

This is caused due to the induced magnetism lies diagonally e.g. from port bow to starboard
quarter or starboard bow to port quarter and passing through the compass (continuous or
discontinuous). It may also be cause by unsymmetrical HSI lying either athwartships and fore
and aft.

Deviation caused by HSI, the value does not change with change of magnetic latitude.

Value is found by taking the mean of the deviations on N, E, S and W after reversing the sign of
the deviations on E and W.

+E means E'ly deviation on N'ly and S'ly courses and W'ly deviation on E'ly and W'ly
courses.
-E means W'ly deviation on N'ly and S'ly courses and E'ly deviation on E'ly and W'ly
courses.

Coefficient E = ( Devn N Co - Devn E Co + Devn S Co – Devn W Co) / 4

Note: All headings are compass heading. East devn (+) and West devn (-)

The deviation cause on NθE is E cos 2θ.

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Coefficient E

This is caused by unsymmetrical HIS rods lying athwartship and fore and aft rods. The rods
must be equal value and of the same sign.

Northern/Southern Hemisphere

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Contents
1. Properties of Free gyroscope 23
1.1 Introduction -The Gyroscope................................................................................................ 23
1.2 Meaning of the terms ........................................................................................................... 24
1.3 Factors on which the Gyroscopic Inertia of a free gyroscope depends. .............................. 24
1.4 Gyroscopic Precession .......................................................................................................... 25
1.5 Factors on which the direction and rate of precession depends. ........................................ 26
1.6 Predicting the direction in which the gyro axle will precess ................................................ 26
1.7 Definitions of terms relating to the movements of the gyro axle ........................................ 27
1.8 How the rate of tilting varies with the latitude and azimuth of the gyro axle ..................... 27
1.9 Calculating or predicting the angle of tilt and drift .............................................................. 31
2. Converting a free gyroscope into a gyrocompass. 33
2.1 The need to control a free gyroscope .................................................................................. 33
2.2 “Top-heavy” and “Bottom-heavy” gyroscopes .................................................................... 33
2.3 How gyro control is achieved in top heavy and bottom heavy gyroscopes ......................... 34
2.4. Use of liquid ballistic to achieve gyro control ...................................................................... 35
2.5 Oscillations of the North end of the axle of a controlled gyroscope ................................... 36
2.6 Analysing the forces acting on the North end of a controlled gyro. .................................... 36
2.7 The need to damp a controlled gyro .................................................................................... 37
2.8 Two methods of damping a controlled gyro ........................................................................ 37
2.9 Curves representing the oscillations of damped gyro .......................................................... 38
2.10 Definitions of 'settling point' and 'damping ratio' with reference to a damped gyro.......... 39
2.11 Factors on which the period of a damped gyro depends. .................................................... 41
3. Understanding the errors associated with gyrocompass 41
3.1 Cause and Effect of the First Rolling Error............................................................................ 42
3.2 The reason why the second rolling error exists only on intercardinal courses .................... 43
3.3 How the first and the second rolling error reduced to negligible proportions .................... 44
3.4 The settling point of a gyro damped in tilt and the reason for settling at this point ........... 45
3.5 Why a gyro damped in azimuth settles on the meridian with a slight tilt ........................... 45
3.6 Ballistic deflection................................................................................................................. 47
3.7 How the ballistic deflection affects gyro-compass during a change of course/speed ......... 48
3.8 The cause and effect of 'Course, speed and latitude' error ................................................. 48
Fibre optic gyroscope 50
Operation.......................................................................................................................................... 50
Advantages ....................................................................................................................................... 50

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Disadvantages................................................................................................................................... 51
Applications ...................................................................................................................................... 51
Ring laser gyroscope 52
Description ....................................................................................................................................... 52
Principle of operation ....................................................................................................................... 53

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1. Properties of Free gyroscope

1.1 Introduction -The Gyroscope

A gyroscope consists of a mass in the form of a rotor or wheel which is suspended

in such a way that it is free to spin about an axis known as spin axis, passing
through its centre of mass and perpendicular to the plane of the rotor. Ideally the
spin axis bearings should be frictionless so that any rotation imparted to the rotor is
maintained.

If the gyroscope is not constrained in any way so that there are no forces acting
upon the rotor so as to alter the direction in which the spin axis points, then the gyro
is called a free gyroscope. The earth exhibits the properties of a free gyroscope, the
equatorial mass corresponding to the plane of the rotor and the earth's axis of
rotation constituting the spin axis.

In order to construct a free gyroscope on the surface of the earth then the rotor must
be supported against the effect of the earth's gravity. The supports must be designed
to maintain the freedom of the spin axis of the rotor to take up any direction without
constraint. This requires a gimbal mounting which gives the rotor freedom to turn
about two axes mutually at right angles and at right angles to the spin axis. It is
convenient to adopt the vertical axis, and a horizontal axis mutually it right angles
to the spin axis and the vertical axis. The gyro therefore will have freedom to tilt
about the horizontal axis and to turn in azimuth about the vertical axis. Friction in
the bearings of the gimbal mountings should be negligible to avoid applying torques
to the rotor.

A free gyro therefore is said to have three degrees of freedom:

i. freedom to spin about a spin axis.

ii. freedom to turn in azimuth about a vertical axis.
iii. freedom to tilt about a
horizontal axis.

An arrangement of gimbals to give a rotor

freedom to tilt and to turn in azimuth.

AA = Spin axis.
BB = Horizontal axis.
CC = Vertical axis.
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If such a rotor is caused to rotate about its spin axis with a relatively high
angular velocity, the free gyroscope will exhibit the property of Gyroscopic
Inertia, or Rigidity in Space.

1.2 Meaning of the terms

a. Rigidity in space

When a free gyroscope is spinning, assuming that there is no fiction, its spin axis
continues to point in the same direction in which it was first started and no matter
how its supporting base is tilted or moved the axis continues to point in the same
direction (with reference to space). This property is known as “rigidity in space”.

As the spin axis (or axle) remains pointing in a fixed direction in space we can think
of it as pointing towards a distant star in the sky. Let us name this imaginary star
"the gyro star".

b. Gyroscopic Inertia

This rigidity in space is the result of gyroscopic inertia. Every free gyroscope
possesses gyroscopic inertia when its wheel or rotor is spinning. That is, in other
words, the spin axis has a tendency to maintain its direction in space unless it is
acted upon by an external force.

The gyroscopic inertia of a free gyroscope depends on the angular momentum of the
rotor.

Angular momentum
= Moment of inertia x Angular Velocity Moment of inertia
= Mass of rotor x (Radius of Gyration)

1.3 Factors on which the Gyroscopic Inertia of a free gyroscope

depends.

From the above two equations it is obvious that the gyroscopic inertia of a free
gyroscope and therefore its rigidity in space depends on the following factors:

i. Mass of the wheel or rotor. (This is the actual mass of the rotor and the
axle.)
ii. The radius of gyration.

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iii. Angular velocity

Let us consider the three rotors shown below. All the three rotors have the same
mass but the distribution of mass is not the same.

The radii of gyration of these three rotors are denoted by “cg” where “c” is the
centre of the rotor and “g” is the centre of gravity of any sector cut from the rotor.
Therefore the radius of gyration is the distance from the centre of the rotor to the
point through which the mass of rotor is considered to act.

Angular velocity is the speed at which the rotor spins. It is usually expressed in
RPM. (Revolutions Per Minute)

Increasing the value of any one or more of these three will result in an increased
gyroscopic inertia and thus a greater rigidity in space.

1.4 Gyroscopic Precession

Normally when a torque is applied to a body, the resulting motion takes place in the
same plane as the applied torque. However, when a torque is applied to a free
gyroscope, the resulting motion does not take place in the same plane in which the
torque is applied but in a plane at right angles to the applied torque. This property of
free gyroscope is known as “precession”. This is illustrated in the following figure.

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1.5 Factors on which the direction and rate of precession depends.

i. When a torque is applied to the axis of a free gyroscope. the resultant motion takes
place as if the torque is applied 90' away measured along the direction of spin.
ii. The rate of precession is directly proportional to the applied torque and inversely
proportional to the gyroscopic inertia of the spinning rotor.

T
P = --- Where “P” is the rate of precession
IS “T” is the applied torque
“IS” is the gyroscopic inertia.

If the torque and its direction are represented by an arrow pointing to one end of the
gyro axis at which it is applied, then the direction of the resultant precession may be
found by rotating the arrow by 90º, along the direction of spin, by using the arrow
head as the fulcrum. (As shown in the diagram below)

1.6 Predicting the direction in which the gyro axle will precess

To predict the direction in which the gyro axle will precess, the direction in which
the gyro rotor is spinning and the direction of the applied torque must be known.
Assuming that the torque is applied at one end of the gyro axle, the direction of the
resultant precession may be predicted by placing the tip of a pencil at the end of the
axle where the torque is applied and rotating the pencil by 90º along the direction of
the spin using the tip of the pencil as the pivoting point. This illustrated in the
following figures:

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1.7 Definitions of terms relating to the movements of the gyro axle

i. Tilting
This is the apparent motion of the gyro axle in the vertical plane. It may be upwards
or downwards depending on the factors that cause the tilting.

ii. Tilt

This is the angle by which the spin axis of the gyro has apparently moved up or
down from the horizontal plane. This is illustrated in the following figure:

iii. Drift

This is the angle by which the spin axis of the gyro has apparently moved away
from the original direction in the horizontal plane. This is illustrated in the
following figure:

1.8 How the rate of tilting varies with the latitude and azimuth of the
gyro axle

A free gyroscope situated on the surface of the earth and started with its axis
horizontal and pointing towards North will start drifting and tilting slowly. Drifting

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is apparent movement of the gyro axis in the horizontal plane and tilting is the
apparent movement of the gyro axis in the vertical plane.

Such apparent movement as seen by an observer on the surface of the earth is not
due to the actual movement of the gyro axis but due to the rotation of the earth. It is
similar to the motion of any star as observed by an observer on the surface of the
earth. The star is fixed in space but it appears to be moving across the sky.

As stated earlier a gyro star is an imaginary star which is that point in the sky
towards which the gyro axis is pointing. By using the concept of gyro star the
apparent motion of the gyro axis may be predicted and analysed.

The following figure represents the celestial sphere drawn on the plane of the
rational horizon. The observer is situated in an intermediate North latitude.

In this figure,

NWSE is the rational horizon

WQE is the equinoctial
P is the elevated pole
Z is the observer’s zenith
x 1 to x 4 is the gyro star

If the gyro is started with its axis horizontal and pointing to True, North the gyro
star is at “x 1 ” (i.e. where the horizon cuts the meridian.) Just like any other star the
gyro star too goes around the pole along a circular path whose radius is its polar
distance. Therefore, roughly 6 hours later the gyro star would have moved to “x 2 ”.
The North end of the gyro axis following the gyro star would have drifted towards
East and tilted upwards. As the gyro star continues its apparent motion the gyro axis
follows it. Roughly 12 hours after starting the North end of the gyro axis is pointing
to 'x 3 ' and 18 hours later it is pointing to “x 4 ”. Finally after roughly 24 hours the
axis is back to “x 1 ”. Thus in one sidereal day the gyro star has completed one circle.
The drifting and tilting of the gyro axis correspond to the changes in the azimuth
and altitude of the gyro star.

The apparent motion of a free gyroscope depends on.

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a. the latitude
b. the azimuth of the spin axis.

This may be illustrated by the following examples:

Example 1.

Gyro situated at the equator with its axis horizontal and pointing East - West (i.e.
Azimuth 90º or 270º)

The above figure represents the earth drawn on the plane of the equator. As
illustrated in the figure the gyro is started with its axis horizontal and pointing
East-West at position “A”. As seen from the North pole, the earth is spinning in an
anticlockwise direction. After 3 hours the gyro is at “B”. The axis is still pointing in
the same direction with reference to space. But, with reference to the earth's surface,
its East end has tilted up by 45. Six (6) hours after starting, the gyro is at C and the
East end has tilted by 90º and it is pointing vertically up. Thus in 6 hours the gyro
has tilted up by 90º. That is, at a rate of 15º per hour. There is no drifting at all.

Example 2.

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Gyroscope situated at the (North) pole with the axis horizontal and pointing in the
direction of Greenwich or 0º meridian. That is, in other words, the axis is pointing
to a gyro star which is in line with the Greenwich meridian. As the earth spins in an
anticlockwise direction as seen from the N. pole, the Greenwich meridian would
have shifted in an anticlockwise direction after some time. However, the gyro axis
continues to point towards the same gyro star. As a result of this, the gyro axis
appears to have rotated in the horizontal plane in a clockwise direction with
reference to the earth's surface. Thus the axis has drifted but there is no tilting at all.

From examples 1 and 2 it is obvious that the rate of tilting is maximum (i.e. 360º in
24 hours) at the equator (0º lat.) and minimum at the pole (90º lat.)

i.e. the rate of tilting varies as the cosine of latitude.

Example 3

Gyro situated at the equator with its axis horizontal and pointing North - This means
that the gyro axis is pointing to the North Pole. Therefore, the gyro axis must be
parallel to the earth's axis. In this case, the pole star is the gyro star. As the pole star
remains in the same position and does not shift across the sky, the gyro axis too
remains pointing in the same direction. From examples 1 and 3 it is apparent that
the rate of tilting is affected by the azimuth of the gyro axis too. When the azimuth
is 0º, the rate of tilting is minimum and when it is 90º the rate of tilting is maximum.

i.e. the rate of tilting varies as the sine of azimuth. Since the rate of tilting varies as
the cosine of latitude and as the sine of azimuth,

Rate of tilting per hour = 15º x cos lat x sin Azimuth or

Rate of tilting per minute = 15' x cos lat x sin Azimuth

(The rate of tilting given above is correct only when the axis is horizontal or nearly
horizontal.)

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1.9 Calculating or predicting the angle of tilt and drift

The drift and tilt may be predicted roughly by using the concept of gyro star. This is
illustrated by the following example.

Example.

A free gyroscope situated at 30º N latitude was started with its axis horizontal and
pointing North-South. Calculate the direction in which the North end of the axis
will be pointing and its angle of tilt after 12 hours.

In the above figure of the celestial sphere drawn on the plane of the rational
horizon, the gyro star is at 'x' when the gyroscope was started. As stated earlier, the
gyro star too is circumpolar. It goes around the pole along a circular path whose
radius is its polar distance (Px).

And “Px” is also the altitude of the pole which is equal to the latitude of the
observer where the gyro is situated. (Latitude of the observer = altitude of the pole.)

It can be seen from the figure that the gyro star will be at 'x 1 ' after 12 hours. That is, in

other words, it is on the upper meridian of the observer and it is bearing North. Its altitude

will be 60º degrees in this case because Px is 30º.

Therefore, the North end of the gyro axis will be pointing North and tilted by 60º
from the horizontal.

Exercise 1.

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A free gyroscope situated at 60º N latitude is started with its axis horizontal and
pointing North - South. Find the direction in which the North end will be pointing
after 12 hours.

Exercise 2.

A free gyroscope situated at 40º S latitude was started with its axis horizontal and
pointing North - South. What will be the maximum tilt attained by the South end of
the axis ? What will be the direction in which the South end will be pointing when it
attains the maximum tilt ?

Exercise 3.

A free gyroscope situated at 35º S latitude is started with its axis horizontal and
pointing East - West. What will be the maximum tilt attained by the East end of the
axis and in what direction will it point at the time of maximum tilt ?
Exercise 4.

A free gyroscope situated at 25º N lat was started with one end of its axis tilted 60º
above the horizontal and pointing North. What will be the direction in which the
original North end will be pointing after 12 hours and what will be the tilt of the
gyro axle ?

Exercise 5.

A free gyroscope situated at 20º latitude was started with its axis horizontal and one
end of it pointing 15º to the South of East. What is the direction in which this end
will be pointing when it attains the maximum tilt ?

The above figure shows the path traced by the North end of the free gyroscope's
axis. It is obvious from this figure that there is an upward tilting force acting on the

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North end of the axis when it is to the East of North. Similarly, there is a downward
tilting force acting on it when it is to the West of North.

From the above figure it can be also seen that when the North is pointing above the
pole, it drifts to the West and when it below the pole it drifts to the East.

2. Converting a free gyroscope into a gyrocompass.

2.1 The need to control a free gyroscope

For a gyro to provide azimuth indications, its spin axis must seek North. For this to
happen the spin axis must not be allowed to drift away from the direction of North
due to earth's rotation. Controlling a free gyroscope will make it North seeking. The
following properties of a free gyroscope are used to achieve control.

i. the tendency of the gyro axis to tilt when it drifts to the East or West of the
meridian.
ii. the tendency of the gyro axis to precess horizontally when a torque is
applied in the vertical plane.

Principle of gyro control.

The gyro axis initially horizontal and pointing to the meridian is actually pointing to
a gyro star. As the gyro star moves away from the meridian the gyro axis follows it
and thus drifts away from the meridian.

If we create a precession to counter the rift, the spin axis will remain close to the
meridian and thus the gyro will become a North-seeking device. It should be
restored in that direction as soon as it deviates from it.

Some constant or nearly constant earthly force must be used to achieve the required
precession. Earth's acceleration due to gravity is used for this purpose.

2.2 “Top-heavy” and “Bottom-heavy” gyroscopes

One way of converting a free gyroscope into a controlled gyro is to attach a weight at the

top or the bottom of the rotor casing. If the weight is attached at the top of the rotor casing

of gyro spinning in a clockwise direction, as viewed from the North, the gyro will be

known as top heavy. If the weight is attached at the bottom of the rotor casing of a gyro,

spinning in an anti clockwise direction, as viewed from the North. It will be known as

bottom heavy. This is illustrated in the following figures.

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2.3 How gyro control is achieved in top heavy and bottom heavy
gyroscopes

As shown in the following figures, when the weight is displaced from either the “top dead

centre” or “bottom dead centre” position it causes a torque in the vertical plane. This

torque may be taken as acting through the North or South end of the gyro axis. Thus,

whenever the axis tilts due to the Earth's rotation, a torque is applied in the vertical plane

automatically due to the gravitational force. This torque causes a precession in the

horizontal plane. It can be proven that for small angles of tilts the rate of precession is

proportional to the angle of tilt.

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2.4. Use of liquid ballistic to achieve gyro control

It was stated earlier that a free gyro may be controlled by adding a weight at the top
or bottom of the rotor casing to make it top or bottom heavy. Liquid ballistic pots
may be attached to a free gyro as shown in the following figures to control it.

In the above figure two pots are shown attached to the gyro rotor in line with the
gyro axis. The pot at the north end of the axis is named the north pot and the other
at the south end is named the south pot. The pots are filled with mercury and the
two pots are connected by a tubing of fine bore. The gyro rotor is made to spin
clockwise as seen from the North end (or anti clockwise as seen from the South
end.)
If we start this gyro in the northern hemisphere with its axis horizontal and pointing
near the meridian, the gyro will drift to the east and start to tilt upward gradually
due to the earth's rotation. When the north end begins to tilt upwards as it drifts to
the east, some mercury from the north pot will flow into the south pot due to
gravity. As the south pot becomes heavier a force will act vertically downwards
through the south pot or the south end of the axis. This vertical torque acting on the
south end will cause the gyro axis to precess in the horizontal plane. In this
particular case the south end will precess to the east and the north end will precess
to the west since the rotor is spinning clockwise as seen from the north end. This
westerly precession of the north end of the axis acts against the easterly drift. Thus,
gyro control is achieved. The following figure illustrates this

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This type of arrangement is known as “top-heavy” since the effect is same as adding

weight at the top of the rotor casing.

As shown during earlier discussions, the axis of a free gyroscope follows the
imaginary gyro star and describes one circle around the celestial pole in one sidereal
day.

When such a free gyroscope is converted into a controlled gyro by the addition of a
control mechanism, operated by gravity, the period of the gyroscope is reduced to
1.5 hours approximately.

Due to the precession caused by the control mechanism, the gyro axis describes a
relatively smaller ellipse around the point of intersection of the meridian and the
horizon. (See the figures below).

2.5 Oscillations of the North end of the axle of a controlled gyroscope

If the spin axis of a controlled gyro is projected on to a screen placed in front of the
North end of the axis, it will trace an elliptical path as shown below.

2.6 Analysing the forces acting on the North end of a controlled gyro.

The North end of a control end gyro (say top heavy), situated at the equator and
started with its axis horizontal and pointing slightly to the East of the meridian, will
trace an ellipse as shown below.

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It must be remembered that there is no drift at the equator. Only two forces act on
the North end of the axis - the precessional force and the tilting force. When the axis
is in the meridian there is no tilting force. Similarly the precessional force is nil
when the axis is horizontal.

The precessional force acts towards the West when the North end is tilted above the
horizontal and it acts towards the East when the North end is tilted below the
horizontal.

The tilting force acts upwards when the North end is to the East of the meridian and
it acts downwards when the North end is to the West of the meridian.

The tilting force is minimum or nil at the meridian and increases as the drift angle
increases. Similarly, the precessional force is minimum or nil when the axis is
horizontal and increases as the angle of tilt increases.

2.7 The need to damp a controlled gyro

The controlled gyro as shown in the figures above, seeks North but does not settle
in the meridian. It keeps oscillating about the meridian. In theory, we can start the
gyro with its axis in the meridian with a precise angle of tilt to cause a precession
exactly equal and opposite to the drift, so that the gyro axis may remain in the
meridian. However, this is not practical. It would be necessary to adjust the angle of
tilt as the latitude of the ship changes. Moreover, any unwanted precession due to
friction or other causes would give rise to unacceptable errors.

Therefore, we have to damp the oscillations of the controlled gyro and make it settle
in the meridian. This process is known as damping.

2.8 Two methods of damping a controlled gyro

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There are two methods of damping a controlled gyro - damping in tilt and damping
in azimuth.

i. Damping in tilt

When a controlled gyro is damped in tilt the intention is to superimpose a rate of

tilting over the natural rate of tilting due to the earth's rotation ( 15º cos lat x sin
azimuth ) in such a manner that the North end of the gyro axis is directed towards
the horizon. A damping force comes into play automatically when the gyro axis tilts
up or down. The damping force causes the North end of the gyro axis to precess
towards the horizontal. Due to this damping force the oscillations of the axis are
damped and the North end of the axis spirals towards a settling point at or near the
meridian.

Sperry Mk 37 gyrocompass as well as Arma Brown gyrocompass is damped in tilt.

In Sperry Mk 37, the damping in tilt is achieved by attaching a small weight on the
top of the rotor casing on the Western side. Since the damping weight is off centred,
it gives rise to a torque in the horizontal plane when the gyro axis tilts up or down.
This torque in the horizontal plane produces the required damping force or
precession in the vertical plane to push the North end of the axis towards the
horizontal.

In some compasses the same effect is achieved by off-setting the tube that connects
the two mercury Pots.

In Arma Brown, a pendulum unit is attached to the gyro tank parallel to the North -
South axis. When the gyro axis tilts, the gyro tanks also tilts due to the 'follow up'
mechanism. When the gyro tank tilts the pendulum unit senses the tilt and produces
a voltage known as the pendulum voltage. Part of this pendulum voltage is fed to
the azimuth servo motor to produce a torque in the horizontal plane. This torque
produces a damping force or precession in the vertical plane. Thus the North end of
the axis is pushed towards the horizontal.

ii. Damping in azimuth

When a controlled gyro is damped in azimuth, the intention is to produce a damping

force that will precess the North end of the axis towards the meridian whenever it is
out of the meridian. This is illustrated by the following curve.

In some gyrocompasses such damping in azimuth is achieved by installing damping

pots of smaller dimensions parallel to the working ballistic pots or bottles. These
damping pots produce the required damping force to precess the North end of the
axis towards the meridian. This is illustrated in the following figure.

2.9 Curves representing the oscillations of damped gyro

i. The following curve represents oscillations of a gyro that is damped in tilt and shows the forces acting on the North end of the gyro axle
during the oscillations.

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ii. The following curve represents oscillations of a gyro that is damped in azimuth and shows the force acting on the North end of the gyro
axle during the oscillations.

2.10 Definitions of 'settling point' and 'damping ratio' with reference

to a damped gyro

i. Settling point.

This is the point along the curve representing the oscillations of the damped gyro at which

the North end of the gyro axle finally settles.

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The North end of the gyro axle in the case of a gyro that is damped in tilt spirals
towards the intersection of the meridian and the horizontal plane passing through
the centre of the gyro. However, it does not settle at the intersection of these two
lines. In the Northern hemisphere, it settles slightly to the east of the meridian with
a slight upward tilt. Similarly, in the Southern hemisphere, it settles slightly to the
west of the meridian with a slight downward tilt.

In the case of a gyro that is damped in azimuth, the North end of the gyro axle
settles on the meridian with a slight upward tilt if situated in the Northern
hemisphere and with a slight downward tilt if situated in the Southern hemisphere.

This is illustrated in the following figures.

ii. Damping factor

This is the ratio between the amplitudes of one semi oscillation and the previous
semi oscillation. This is illustrated in the following figure representing the
oscillation of the North end of a damped gyro.

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2.11 Factors on which the period of a damped gyro depends.

The time taken for one complete oscillation of a controlled gyro is known as the
period of that gyro. It is approximately 86 minutes. It varies depending on the
following factors:

Ω the angular velocity of earth

H the angular momentum of the gyro rotor
B a constant of the instrument depending on the damping weight (w) and the
distance (h) between the centre of gravity of the weight and the centre of the
gyro rotor

3. Understanding the errors associated with gyrocompass

Types of errors associated with Gyrocompasses.

There are four basic types of errors:

i) Rolling error
ii) Damping or latitude error
iii) Ballistic deflection error
iv) Course, speed and latitude error.

The rolling error may be divided into two catagories:

a) the first rolling error

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b) the second rolling error

3.1 Cause and Effect of the First Rolling Error

This type of error affects compasses in which the rotor casing is mounted in the
vertical ring on East-West horizontal pivots and bearings.

When the ship rolls the vertical ring attempts to turn in azimuth due to its tendency
to align its plane with the plane of the roll. This is based on the theory that any
object which is not perfectly spherical in shape will tend to align its major axis
along the plane of the swing.

This tendency of the gyro produces a torque in the horizontal plane and results in an
unwanted precession in the vertical plane. This causes the gyro axis to take up a
new settling position slightly away from the meridian. This is known as the first
rolling error.

The Effect of the First Rolling Error on various headings.

On a North-South heading the ship will roll in the East-West direction. The vertical
ring is already aligned with the plane of the swing due to the rolling. Therefore no
error on such heading. This is illustrated in the following figure.

When the ship is on an East-West heading the ship will roll in the North-South
direction. As the ship rolls from one side to the other, the tendency of the vertical
ring to turn in one direction when the ship rolls to the port will be cancelled by the
tendency to turn in the opposite direction when the ship rolls to the Starboard side.
Therefore the net result is zero and no error on such heading. This is illustrated in
the following figure.

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When the ship is on an intercardinal course the direction of roll is at an angle to the
plane of the vertical ring. Therefore the vertical ring tends turn in the horizontal
plane in order to align itself in the plane of the roll. Thus a torque is produced in the
horizontal plane which give rise to an error. To eliminate or minimise this error,
compensator weights are attached to the vertical ring by means of brackets in a
plane perpendicular to its own plane. Thus an equal distribution of weight is
achieved in all directions. Therefore the vertical ring does not have the tendency to
turn when the ship rolls. This is illustrated in the following figure.

3.2 The reason why the second rolling error exists only on
intercardinal courses

This error is caused by the surge of the mercury or oil between the North and South
pots when the ship rolls. Due to the transfer of liquid from one pot to the other as
the ship rolls, a torque is produced in the vertical plane and this causes a precession
in the horizontal plane. This results in an error.

In the following examples a top-heavy gyro using mercury pots is considered. The
rotor is spinning in a clockwise direction when viewed from North.

When the ship is heading North-South there is no transfer or surge of mercury from
one pot to the other as the ship rolls. Therefore there is no precession and no error.
This is illustrated in the following figure.

When the ship is heading East-West, as the ship rolls to the port, the North pot
becomes heavier due to the transfer of mercury and a torque is applied vertically

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downwards at the North end. Similarly, when the ship rolls to the Starboard, a
torque will be acting vertically downwards at the South end as the South pot
becomes heavier due to the transfer or surge of liquid. These two torques are equal
and opposite and therefore cancel each other. Therefore there is no precession and
no error. This is illustrated in the following figure.

In the case of a ship on an intercardinal course, the forces acting on the two ends of
the gyro axis due to the transfer of mercury as the ship rolls may be resolved into
North-South and East-West components as shown in the following figure.

The mean value of the North-South components is zero because they are equal but
act in opposite directions through the centre of the gyro. However, the East-West
components do not act through the centre of the gyro and thus give rise to an
anti-clockwise couple when the ship rolls to the port and the starboard. This causes
precession and error.

3.3 How the first and the second rolling error reduced to negligible
proportions

To minimise this error, the bore of the tube connecting the two pots is restricted to
roughly 2.5 mm. This restricts the flow of mercury when the ship rolls. Such
restriction causes a phase lag between the mercury flow and the ship's roll. A phase
lag of one quarter of the roll period is ideal. It is not possible to achieve this ideal
phase lag by restriction the bore alone; small weights are usually added to the
mercury pots.

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3.4 The settling point of a gyro damped in tilt and the reason for
settling at this point

In a controlled gyro which is damped in tilt, the settling of the spin axis is not on the
meridian. It is displaced from the meridian by a small angle. This displacement is
known as the damping or latitude error.

In the Northern hemisphere the North end of the axis settles slightly to the East of
the meridian with a slight tilt above the horizontal. In the Southern hemisphere the
North end of the axis settles slightly to the West of the meridian with a slight tilt
below the horizontal as shown in the following figure.

The reason for such behaviour may be explained as follows:

For the gyro axis to settle, the rate of precession must be equal and opposite to the
rate of drift and the rate of tilting must be equal and opposite to the rate of damping.

If we consider a gyro in the Northern hemisphere, there must be a certain degree of

tilt above the horizontal to create a westerly precession to counter the Easterly drift
due to the rotation of the earth. Therefore the gyro settles with a slight upward tilt.
However, a damping force will act downwards when the North end of the axis
settles above the horizontal. To counter this downward damping force there must be
a tilting force acting upwards. Such an upward tilting force will exist only if the
North end of the gyro axis settles slightly to the East of the meridian. At the settling
point, the four forces acting at the North end of the axis are in perfect equilibrium.

A similar explanation may be given for the North end of the gyro axis settling
slightly below the horizontal and to the West of the meridian.

3.5 Why a gyro damped in azimuth settles on the meridian with a

slight tilt

When the compass is settled the spin axis has a constant tilt. The delaying action of
the damping arrangement will therefore have no effect as there is no flow of liquid.
The damping element is then acting merely as an additional control element, but as

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the damping torque is produced by a top heavy effect whereas the control precession
is produced by a bottom heavy effect, the damping precession will just reduce the
effect of the control precession. The compass will settle with a tilt of its spin axis
such that the combined effect of the control and damping torques, (Pc - Pd), exactly
balances the drifting. There is no precession in the vertical plane so that the tilting
must also be zero to produce an equilibrium. The settling position must be therefore
with the spin axis in the meridian. There is no latitude error.

For a compass in north latitude the drifting will be clockwise, or north end to the
cast. The precession which equals and opposes the drifting must be north end to the
west and this will require an upwards tilt of the north end. In this condition:

In south latitude the drifting will be anticlockwise or north end to the west. A
downwards tilt of the north end is therefore required to give a control precession of
opposite direction. In this condition:

+Pc - Pd - Dg = 0.

A compass damped in azimuth therefore will settle with the spin axis aligned with
the meridian but with a small upwards tilt of the north end in the northern
hemisphere, and a small downwards tilt of that end in the southern hemisphere. Such
a compass is not subject to the latitude error (in contrast to the compass damped in
tilt). Figure above illustrates the settling position for a compass damped in azimuth.

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3.6 Ballistic deflection

Ballistic deflection is a precession which results from accelerations imparted to the

compass by a change in the speed and/or the course of the vessel. If the vessel is
steaming north and increases speed then the vessel will exert a force on the compass
which will accelerate it northwards. There will be reactionary force acting on the
liquid in the control clement towards the south. The liquid will therefore be
accelerated to the south relative to the compass. (The compass is accelerated
towards the north while the liquid, due to its inertia, tends to remain behind, and
there is a flow of liquid into the south pots.) This will also occur if the vessel is
steaming south and decreases her speed, or if the course is altered towards the north,
thus effectively increasing the northerly component of the speed.

If the vessel is steaming south and increases speed, or is steaming north and
decreases speed, or if the course is altered towards the south, all of which constitute
a southerly acceleration, the liquid will be accelerated towards the north relative to
the compass and a north heaviness will result.

Note that the acceleration imparted to the compass is effectively creating a false
vertical and hence a false horizontal. The false vertical is the resultant of the
acceleration due to gravity and that due to the vessels change of motion, as shown in
figure 10.6. The control element will remain in the true horizontal due to the
gyroscopic inertia, but the liquid will associate itself with the false horizontal and
flow to produce the north or south heaviness.

If a north heaviness results from a southerly acceleration, a precession in azimuth

will occur which is in the sense north end to the east. If a south heaviness results
from a northerly acceleration, the north end of the spin axis will precess towards the
west. The rate of precession will be proportional to the acceleration causing it. The
precession however will continue for as long as the acceleration continues, so that
for a given alteration of course and/or speed the total change in azimuth will be
constant, irrespective of the rate at which the manoeuvre is carried out.

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Figure 10.6 Steering North and reduction in speed

3.7 How the ballistic deflection affects gyro-compass during a change

of course/speed

Acceleration takes place when the ship increases the speed. Deceleration takes place
when the ship reduces the speed. Deceleration can also occur when the ship alters
course without reducing the engine RPM.

Acceleration an well as deceleration imparts a reactional force to the gyro compass.

The reactional force acts in a direction opposite to that of the force that is causing
the acceleration or deceleration.

For example, if the speed of the ship is decreased when on a steady course, the
reaction force will act in a forward direction.

The reactional force combines with the gravitational force to create a false vertical. Due to
the false vertical, a false horizontal is created at right angles to the false vertical.
With reference to the false horizontal, the spin axis acquires a tilt. Transfer of
ballistic liquid takes place resulting in horizontal precession which causes error.

The precession will go on as long as there is acceleration or deceleration. This type

of error is proportional to the rate of acceleration or deceleration. The forces acting
an the gyro, the false vertical, the false horizontal and the effect on the ballistic
liquid level are shown in the figures 10.6.

3.8 The cause and effect of 'Course, speed and latitude' error

This error is caused by the course and speed of the ship and it varies with the
latitude in which it is situated. If the ship is stationary or moving on a course of
090ºT or 270ºT, this error will be nil.

If the stationary ship were to be situated to the north or south of the equator, the rate
at which it moves through the space in the easterly direction due to the earth's

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rotation will be equal to (90º x cos lat) miles per hour. That is, in other words, the
earth's rotation speed varies as the cosine of the latitude.

If we consider a ship steaming at a certain speed on a Northerly course, its resultant

motion through the space may be found by drawing two vectors as follows:

(i) to represent the ship's motion on the surface of the earth

(ii) to represent the earth's rotation.

This is illustrated in the following vector diagram.

A virtual meridian is formed at right angles to the ship's motion through the space.
Now the axis of the gyrocompass will settle in the virtual meridian. The difference
between the virtual meridian and the true meridian is the course, speed and latitude
error.

This error is nil on East/West courses and maximum on North/South courses. That
is, it varies as the cosine of the course.

This error varies as the speed of the ship and the cosine of the latitude.

The course, speed and latitude error in degrees may be calculated by using the
following formula:

error in degrees = speed x cos course

-----------------------
5 Π x cos lat

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Fibre optic gyroscope

The interference on a Sagnac interferometer is proportional to the enclosed area. A looped

fibre-optic coil multiplies the effective area by the number of loops.

A fibre optic gyroscope (FOG) senses changes in orientation, thus performing the function
of a mechanical gyroscope. However its principle of operation is instead based on the
interference of light which has passed through a coil of optical fibre which can be as long as
5 km. The development of diode (semiconductor) lasers and low-loss single-mode optical
fibre in the early 1970s for the telecommunications industry enabled Sagnac effect fibre optic
gyros to be developed as practical devices.

Operation

Two beams from a laser are injected into the same fibre but in opposite directions. Due to the
Sagnac effect, the beam travelling against the rotation experiences a slightly shorter path
delay than the other beam. The resulting differential phase shift is measured through
interferometry, thus translating one component of the angular velocity into a shift of the
interference pattern which is measured photometrically.

Beam splitting optics launches light from a laser diode into two waves propagating in the
clockwise and anticlockwise directions through a coil consisting of many turns of optical
fibre. The strength of the Sagnac effect is dependent on the effective area of the closed
optical path: this is not simply the geometric area of the loop but is enhanced by the number
of turns in the coil. The FOG was first proposed by Vali and Shorthill[1] in 1976.
Development of both the passive interferometer type of FOG, or IFOG, and a newer concept,
the passive ring resonator FOG, or RFOG, is proceeding in many companies and
establishments worldwide.

Advantages

A FOG provides extremely precise rotational rate information, in part because of its lack of
cross-axis sensitivity to vibration, acceleration, and shock. Unlike the classic spinning-mass
gyroscope, the FOG has no moving parts and doesn't rely on inertial resistance to movement.
Hence, this is perhaps the most reliable alternative to the mechanical gyroscope. Because of
their intrinsic reliability, FOG are used for high performance space applications.

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The FOG typically shows a higher resolution than a ring laser gyroscope but suffered from
greater drift and worse scale factor performance until the end of the 1990s.

FOGs are used in surveying, stabilization and inertial navigation systems.

FOGs are implemented in both open-loop and closed-loop configurations.

Disadvantages
FOG requires calibration (determining which indication corresponds to zero angular velocity)
while ring laser gyroscope does not (zero beat frequency always means zero angular
velocity).

Applications
1. FOGs are used in the inertial navigation systems of many guided missiles. [7]
2. FOGs can be a navigation aid in remotely operated vehicles and autonomous
underwater vehicles.

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Ring laser gyroscope

Ring laser gyroscope.

A ring laser gyroscope (RLG) consists of a ring laser having two counter-propagating
modes over the same path in order to detect rotation. It operates on the principle of the
Sagnac effect which shifts the nulls of the internal standing wave pattern in response to
angular rotation. Interference between the counter-propagating beams, observed externally,
reflects shifts in that standing wave pattern, and thus rotation.

Description
The first experimental ring laser gyroscope was demonstrated in the US by Macek and Davis
in 1963. Various organizations worldwide subsequently developed ring-laser technology
further. Many tens of thousands of RLGs are operating in inertial navigation systems and
have established high accuracy, with better than 0.01°/hour bias uncertainty, and mean time
between failures in excess of 60,000 hours.

Schematic representation of a ring laser setup. At the beam sampling location, a fraction of
each of the counterpropagating beams exits the laser cavity.

Ring laser gyroscopes can be used as the stable elements (for one degree of freedom each) in
an inertial reference system. The advantage of using an RLG is that there are no moving
parts. Compared to the conventional spinning gyroscope, this means there is no friction,
which in turn means there will be no inherent drift terms. Additionally, the entire unit is

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compact, lightweight and virtually indestructible, making it suitable for use in aircraft. Unlike
a mechanical gyroscope, the device does not resist changes to its orientation.

Primary applications of the laser gyroscope include navigation systems on commercial

airliners, ships and spacecraft, where RLGs are often part of Air Data Inertial Reference
Units. In these applications, it has replaced its mechanical counterpart, the Inertial guidance
system.

Principle of operation
A certain rate of rotation induces a small difference between the time it takes light to traverse
the ring in the two directions according to the Sagnac effect. This introduces a tiny separation
between the frequencies of the counter-propagating beams, a motion of the standing wave
pattern within the ring, and thus a beat pattern when those two beams are interfered outside
the ring. Therefore the net shift of that interference pattern follows the rotation of the unit in
the plane of the ring.

RLGs, while more accurate than mechanical gyroscopes, suffer from an effect known as
"lock-in" at very slow rotation rates. When the ring laser is hardly rotating, the frequencies of
the counter-propagating laser modes become almost identical. In this case crosstalk in
between the counter-propagating beams can allow for injection locking so that the standing
wave "gets stuck" in a preferred phase, thus locking the frequency of each beam to each other
rather than responding to gradual rotation.

Forced dithering can largely overcome this problem. The ring laser cavity is rotated
clockwise and anti-clockwise about its axis using a mechanical spring driven at its resonance
frequency. This ensures that the angular velocity of the system is usually far from the lock-in
threshold. Typical rates are 400 Hz, with a peak dither velocity of 1 arc-second per second.
Dither does not fix the lock-in problem completely, as each time the direction of rotation is
reversed, a short time interval exists in which the rotation rate is near zero and lock-in can
briefly occur. In a technically more complicated solution the gyro assembly is not rotated
back and forth, but in one direction only at a constant angular rate.

A related device is the fibre optic gyroscope which also operates on the basis of the Sagnac
effect, but in which the ring is not a part of the laser. Rather, an external laser injects counter-
propagating beams into an optical fiber ring, and rotation of the system then causes a relative
phase shift between those beams when interfered after their pass through the fiber ring
proportional to the rate of rotation. This is therefore less sensitive than the RLG in which the
externally observed phase shift is proportional to the accumulated rotation itself, not its
derivative. However the sensitivity of the fiber gyro is enhanced by having a long optical
fiber coiled for compactness, but in which the Sagnac effect is multiplied according to the
number of turns.

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