European Expansion ❖ The Portuguese engaged in an interesting kind of

in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans cultural exchange.

❖ Geographic discovery is more scientific concern. ➢ Hindu architecture with Christian elements in
➢ For the sake of knowledge. Going beyond the Portugal.
limits of the known. ➢ And Portuguese architecture in India.
❖ Expansion implies something more aggressive. Christopher Columbus:
➢ Implies colonization ❖ 4 voyages, 1492-1502.
➢ And finally, exploitation. ❖ The idea of finding the east by going the west.
❖ Landed the Central America without being conscious.
Causes and Context of European Expansion: ❖ In 1519, the first ship carrying treasuries from the new
world reaches Spain.
❖ Ottoman expansion challenges old balances, systems ➢ Exploitation begins.
and routes of exchange. ❖ Three major civilization, that preexisted in Americas
❖ A new access to South and East Asia is sought. ➢ Aztec
➢ Bypassing the Ottoman Empire. ➢ Mayas
➢ Silk road was problematic, because Asian states ➢ Incas
were no longer united under the Mongols. Magellan
❖ The Venetians even plan in the XV century the digging ❖ The idea of circumnavigating the new continent to
of the Suez Canal. reach the east.
➢ Doesn’t work. Too ambitious. ❖ Circumnavigation of the Earth
❖ The Portuguese, present in the North Africa (Ceuta) ➢ He died before he could achieve this.
since 1415, attempt to circumnavigate Africa ➢ Completed by Juan Sebastian Elcano.
➢ Vasco da Gama (1486) accomplished this. The Tordesillas Treaty: (1494)
➢ Allowed for the first time to reach India without ❖ This treaty sanctioned by the pope
passing through Ottoman Empire. ❖ It gives the right to Spain and Portugal of exploiting
❖ Going west to find the east. and controlling and ruling the newly discovered lands
➢ Columbus conceives his plan of reaching the East in America.
by navigating westward. ➢ West for Spain
❖ Europe more self-confident and aggressive. ▪ That’s why Argentina is Spanish speaking
➢ Recovering from the Black Death, “saturated” country.
continent: the most densely populated and the ➢ East for Portugal
most urbanized area in the world, 130.000 towns. ▪ That’s why Brazil is Portuguese speaking
➢ The Renaissance is one aspect of this self- country.
confidence. ❖ Without considering what was there and who was
❖ Spain has united the Kingdoms of Castilla and Aragon there.
and began expelling non-Christian subjects. Consequences of European Expansion:
➢ Charles V becomes in 1519 ruler of Catholic ❖ From exploration to exploitation (exp. Mining and
empire that comprises Spain, German lands, slave trade)
America and Asian colonies. ❖ Emergence of Atlantic economy with Portuguese-
❖ China has abandoned initial enterprises in long Spanish-British-(French-Dutch) rivalry.
distance trade ❖ Development of cartography and naval engineering.
➢ Absence of competition. ❖ Relative marginalization of old Mediterranean and
Eurasian trading routes.
Vasco de Gama: ❖ European values, laws, mentality, languages, religion,
❖ Portuguese seaman and navigator. culture etc. are exported and imposed on a large part of
❖ Circumnavigates Africa and goes to India. the world (more extensively in the Americas, coastal
➢ India becomes a Portuguese colony. regions and islands in South and East Asia.)
❖ Indian Ocean was rich geographical region. ❖ Biological revolution: the Columbian exchange
➢ Full of exchanges and trade ➢ Diseases.
➢ Between especially its Muslim side, west, and its ➢ Plants and animals.
Hindu side, east. ❖ Demographic movement and change.
➢ Lots of exchanges between Muslims and Jewish ❖ Portugal vs. Spain:
merchants. ➢ Portugal had fewer human and material resources
❖ Continued by the violent intrusion of the Portuguese, to devote to its new world empire than Spain did.
who arrived with war ships. ➢ In Portuguese colonies, they were small and
➢ Indian Ocean was not ready to face such a nomadic groups.
challenge.
 ▪ However, in Spain’s there were centralized ❖ Political and economic competition in the new lands.
empires, cities and organized political (Spanish, English, Portuguese)
structures. ❖ Treaty of Tordesillas
➢ Their labour practices were different in terms of ❖ Propaganda to legitimize their existence.
the fact that Portuguese imported Africans as ➢ Representation of indigenous people as people
slaves who surrender to England voluntarily.
▪ rather than using native population as Spain ❖ Naming the New World. (New York, New
did in most areas. Amsterdam)
➢ Brazil required less direct control than Spain’s
colonies. Chronology:
▪ As a result, Brazil settlers may have felt less 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divides the seaborne empires of
resentment towards Portugal government than Spain and Portugal.
the settlers of Spanish Empire. 1500: The Portuguese arrive in Brazil.
➢ In Brazil, the basic unit of production was 1519-1521: Hernan Cortés conquers the Aztec Empire.
plantation, 1531-1533: Francisco Pizarro conquers the Inca Empire.
▪ they were fewer larger cities than in Spanish 1607: Jamestown, Virginia, first permanent English
America. settlements in North America.
➢ In Spanish colonies, precious materials sent to 1619: First African slaves brought to British North
Spain required a vast colonial administration. America.
▪ The plantation of sugar in Brazil did not 1700s: Over 6 million slaves imported from Africa to the
required such direct administration. Americas.
▪ So, the Portuguese was willing to allow more 1794: Slavery abolished throughout the French Empire.
local autonomy then Spain was. 1807: The importation of slaves abolished in British
➢ In Spanish America, use of native labor required domains.
government supervision. 1808: The importation of slaves abolished in the United
▪ Portuguese areas had the fewest protection for States.
slaves, in the Spanish ones church provided 1817-1820: Spain abolished the slave trade.
some small protections for slaves but devoted 1833: Slavery abolished throughout the British Empire.
much more effort towards the native 1850: Importation of slaves abolished in Brazil.
Americans. 1865: Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution abolished
slavery in the United States.
The Transatlantic Trade: Triangle of trade 1874-1928: Indigenous African slavery abolished.
❖ With slaves in the center. 1888: Slavery abolished in Brazil.
❖ Sugar, tobacco and cotton to Europe from America The Columbian Exchange:
❖ Textiles, rum and manufactured goods to Africa from ❖ Animals and Plants from Europe:
Europe ➢ Pigs, cattle, horses, goats, sheep, chickens
❖ Slaves to the Americas from Africa ➢ Apples, peaches, pears, apricots, plums, oranges,
mangos, lemons, olives, melons, almonds, grapes,
Voyages of Sir Francis Drake: bananas, rice, wheat, barley, cabbages and other
❖ Second circumnavigation of the Earth. green vegetables.
❖ Important because we have written diaries. ❖ Diseases from Europe:
❖ Explored all the west coast regions of the two ➢ Diphtheria, influenza, measles, smallpox and
Americas. whooping cough.
➢ Especially California. ❖ Animals and Plants from the Americas:
❖ He became a knight under the name of Elizabeth, ➢ Turkeys
➢ which indicates that geographical discoveries are ➢ Maize, tomatoes, sweet peppers, chilis, potatoes,
promoted by royals. sweet potatoes, squash, pumpkins, beans, cocoa,
❖ Journal of expeditions. peanuts, avocados, blueberries and tobacco.
➢ The writing is written with the perspective of the ❖ Diseases from the Americas:
colonizer. ➢ Syphilis.
➢ self-representation and curiosity are the aspects of Slavery:
Renaissance. ❖ Slavery; as the number of native Americans in South
❖ Curiosity for the New World and self-representation. America declined due to the disease and exploitation.
❖ The distinction between Privateer and Pirate. ❖ The colonies turned to labor of imported African
➢ Privateer is the private owner of a ship, they were Slaves.
given rights to attack foreign ships whereas piracy ➢ The cultivation of sugar in Brazil and West Indies
is illegitimate was one of the forces that caused spread of
slavery.
 ➢ As the production of sugar expanded so did the ➢ Many countries invited him (germiyanoğulları,
demands for slaves. seljuks)
❖ The slave trade was not the result of racists principles ❖ He surprised by the behavior towards women in
but of the economic needs of the colonial powers and society in a positive way while criticizing behaviors
their willingness to exploit weaker people to satisfy towards slave girls in Anatolia. He travelled Adam’s
these needs. peak in Sri Lanka.
➢ However, this willingness was based on the tacit
racial assumption that non-European non-white Ming China and Zheng He Expedition
tribal peoples are subhuman and could be enslaved ❖ Classical Chinese thinking was not in favor of trade
but was always supportive for agricultural economy,
Early Expeditions and because of Confucian State.
Inter-regional Asian Trade ❖ As an exception, second emperor Yung-Lo has a
❖ The term silk road was given by German scholars. project of oceanic exploration. In order to
❖ It was called silk road because silk was the main good create/participate trade networks and to show the new
that being traded. rising Chinese power.
➢ Not only products but also people, ideas, ❖ He made Zheng He, a Chinese Muslim eunuch, the
technology are transported to the west. Admiral of the Navy.
❖ There are many Silk Roads. It is not just one route. ❖ Zheng He started expeditions to Asia also, to Africa.
➢ A route through Central Asia ❖ 62 ships and 28.000 men participated in his travel.
➢ Through Siberia ➢ This lead to shipbuilding industry, discovery and
➢ And from the south oversea. Maritime Silk Road. usage of compass.
❖ Not just east-west, but also north-south. ➢ They did not take attention to Europe’s
❖ The rise of Arabs. Islam integrated Asia and Africa and geographical discoveries.
Europe through intense trade. ❖ Europeans followed the same sea road while coming to
❖ Not only good spread via silk road, but also knowledge the East after decades.
did. For example, paper making technology was
learned by Byzantine from Muslim. ❖ Purposes of the Chinese Expeditions
❖ 9th-12th C. Muslim merchants contributed the ➢ To create trade networks and participate in already
Islamization of the East such as Bangladesh. existing ones
❖ End of the road is Trebizond ➢ To show the force of the new Chinese Empire.
(Obeying and giving money to China)
Marco Polo: ❖ Expeditions of China took place in 15th C.
❖ Venetian, coming from a merchant family. ❖ Next emperor while already knowing about compass,
➢ So, he focused attention on market in areas he good ship building etc. did not care about overseas
traveled. expeditions.
❖ He has travelled for 25 years. He arrived at the court of ❖ With the expeditions both European and Chinese
the Mongol khan of China (Kubilay). people aimed to control trade, raise money, spread
➢ He worked for Kubilay Khan as a bureaucrat. their religion and create dominance of power.
❖ 13th-14th C. is Mongol period
➢ Period of relative peace, security, wide commerce,
easy communication.
➢ Followingly, camel caravans, increased
interaction.
➢ Huge lands contributed the communication
between East and West.
❖ In his return, he accompanied Kubilay Khan’s daughter
who was travelling to Tabriz in order to marry Ilkhanid
Emperor.
❖ Christopher Columbus used his book to indicate the
route.

Ibn Battuta:
❖ Moroccan. Muslim scholar.
❖ He used his scholarly religious connections to travel
➢ Marco Polo used his merchant connections.
❖ He started his journey as a pilgrimage.
❖ He wrote about the Turkey.
 The Renaissance in Italy and Northern Europe
❖ The term Renaissance is a French word, it is a debated Rise of the City-states in XII and XIII Centuries:
concept because it was assumed to be the begging of ❖ Decline of the feudal ideas.
western modernity. ➢ Feudal hierarchy and obligations.
➢ However, there is a much more continuity ❖ New system of city-states,
between the middle ages and Renaissance. ➢ Reproduce wealth
❖ Revival, re-birth of classical antiquity (literary and ➢ And exchange wealth.
artistic), is one expression of the secularized ❖ Independence from the German Emperor and the Pope.
worldview of the Renaissance. ❖ Emphasis on a Roman origin, often Republican.
➢ Implies something had died and now it revived. ➢ Rulers want to be seen as Roman councils.
❖ End of middle ages. ▪ The development of Latin and Greek literary
➢ They imagined as a sharp break from the religious, studies, with the contribution of Greek
backward dark age. scholars who left Byzantine empire under the
❖ Period of brilliance. Knowledge of ancient Greek and Ottoman threat allowed a critical evaluation
Rome. of history and politics.
➢ This new culture based on antiquity, more civic, Chronology:
secular, the definitive rise of Europe in the world ❖ 1453:
hegemony. ➢ Byzantine scholars came to Europe
❖ The dignity of free standing figures. ❖ 1492:
➢ When we look the landmark of the Renaissance, ➢ Geographical discoveries.
the statue of David, we see it is more like the ❖ XIII-XV c.
statues from the ancient times. Not like medieval ❖ Several aspects of Renaissance culture and mentality
statues. were extolled in the 19th century as “typically”
❖ Interest is again in human agency. European, Western and modern…
➢ There had been an economic development. ❖ Respect for and reliance on the legacy of ancient
➢ Before the Renaissance, Europe was agricultural, Greece and Roman formed the basis of education in
church-mediated, feudal. Europe and beyond until recently
➢ After, it became centralized, nation conscious,
economically and politically urban. Geography:
❖ Humanism is the key word of the Renaissance. ❖ Italy is usually considered the “cradle” of Renaissance.
❖ Italian city-states (XII-XV centuries) ➢ Important changes in economic and social
➢ Decline of chivalric and feudal ideals structure, political culture, mentality and artistic
➢ Secularization of values. practice occurred actually here since the XIII-XIV
❖ Why Italy? c.
➢ Concentration of immerse wealth in the Italia city- ❖ But rather than “Italy” as a homogeneous region we
states→ commerce set of political alignments. should think of a network of sites in the peninsula,
❖ New ways of self-representation A period very radical connected to other, distant sites in the Levant and in
social hierarchies. the Northern Europe, which were actually influential in
➢ Emergence of the newly powerful urban producing the culture and the geo-political order of the
merchants and elites – they gained economic and Renaissance.
political power
➢ They became dominant over the traditional Keywords and Concepts:
aristocracy governance of new leaders of the city ❖ Secularism, individualism, realism.
states ❖ Human agency and responsibility
➢ The state is man-made, artificial, the state is “a
Carolingian Renaissance (IX c. CE) work of art”
❖ Charlemagne had tried to revive the power of the ❖ Revival of antiquity is the (re)appropriation of a
Roman authority and unity in Christian framework. cultural legacy that also extolled human agency.
❖ To do this he had also revived the artistic culture of the ❖ Critical awareness
ancient world. ➢ Critique of past dogmas and traditions
❖ The Carolingian Renaissance was a courtly rather than ❖ New sense of time and space.
urban phenomenon. ➢ History, historiography, philology, archeology.
➢ Did not rely on an elaborate theory and had a ➢ Geography, cartography, invention of linear
limited impact on society at large. perspective.
❖ Art as an intellectual production rather than craft.
➢ Artists as individual creator.
❖ Notwithstanding the new system of values, ideas, Reformation in Church
behaviors, and practices, much of the Renaissance Change in Society and Culture
worldview is still linked to the Medieval heritage. ❖ Late-medieval critiques of papacy and clergy; earlier
❖ Alberti’s definition of beauty: demands for church reform.
➢ Beauty is that reasoned harmony of all the parts ➢ The Northern Renaissance.
within the body, so that nothing may be added,
taken away, or altered, but for the worse. Medieval Christianity
▪ The new sense of space emerged with use of ❖ It was a long-standing period, religion dictated every
perspective; the space that can be measured. aspect of life and it was unchangeable.
▪ Emphasis on proportions and relations rather ❖ In 16. C., reformation not only ended the monopoly of
than fixed and stable values, lie beauty of gold religion but also decreased the significance of it.
or reliance on traditional patterns. ❖ Beginning with the Renaissance series of
❖ In the Middle ages, consciousness lay dreaming or half developments was made.
awake beneath a common veil. ➢ Society became more secular
➢ Man was conscious of himself only as a member ❖ Middle Ages as a time of universal Christian faith in
of a race, people, party, family or corporation, the Latin West;
only through some general category. ➢ Renaissance and Reformation usher in
❖ In Italy this veil first melted into air, an objective secularization
treatment and consideration of the state and of all ❖ Medieval Christianity included magic, had too cultures
things of this world become possible (low and high cultures), was unfamiliar with Latin, did
❖ The subjective side at the same time asserted itself not understand the doctrines of Christianity.
with corresponding emphasis ❖ Middle Ages as a magic and superstition; Reformation
➢ Man became a spiritual individual. and Counter-Reformation initiate Christianization of
❖ Realism: Perspective the masses
➢ A scientific, geometrical system used to represent ❖ Medieval Christianity was more magical, ritualistic
three-dimensional objects and space on a flat (going to church on Sundays, listen to sermons) and
surface. communalistic; early modern Christianity was more
➢ Relates human figures to an inhabitable, realistic, ethical, intellectual and individualistic.
mundane space, replacing the immaterial golden
backgrounds of medieval religious panting. Protestant Reformations
The Prelude to the Protestant Reformation
❖ Late Medieval critiques of papacy and clergy
➢ Because they did not behave in accordance with
Christianity
➢ Earlier demands for church reforms.
❖ There was widespread resentment to papacy and clergy
and also there were critique and anti-clericalism
movements against them for onto biding what they
preach.
➢ But church was indifferent to these criticisms.
❖ Some decent clergymen tried to bring back church
purity because of criticisms but until the 16th century
they couldn't manage to convince them or make them
follow
❖ Church was landowner and tax collector.
❖ Factors of definite break from old Christianity
➢ There are many factors that affected this break
such as social, political, intellectual
➢ The impact of the northern humanists (came with
Renaissance): return to the original sources,
ethical kind of piety, the Scriptures and the
writings of the Church Fathers (what original
teaching is)
➢ Humanists like Erasmus prepared new editions
which provided teachings to later Protestants.
(rejection of scholasticism)
➢ Thomas More, Utopia, 1516.
 ➢ Martin Luther translated Bible into German→ ❖ Many political divisions between German princes (they
New testament. İt is more humanistic and provides were Protestant and protected Luther from the
the basis for Protestant edition of bible and for the execution) and Habsburg Emperor
rethinking. ❖ The Peasant Rebellions (1524-5)
➢ The impact of new technology esp. the printing ➢ German peasants attracted to more radical version
press→ much more production, translations of of Protestantism and this caused rebellion of
books was sold. Transmission of religious and peasants.
secular ideas. Invention of printing press by ➢ A revolt against elites, privileged taxes and for
Gutenberg (German Artisan) spiritual equality of all.
➢ Incongruity between the religious anxieties and ➢ Peasants did not want to pay tax anymore and they
sensibilities of early modern urbanites and the late expected Martin Luther would support them
Medieval Christian economy of penance. A strong because of equality of all men in Protestant
sense of sinfulness and inadequacy followed the understanding of Christianity but Luther did not
social and economic changes in 14-15th C. support peasants. He supported German authority.
➢ In Medieval Christianity, if someone committed a Rebellion ended with hundreds of dead rebels.
sin, s/he went to priests and confessed→ ❖ Habsburg, German speaking lands was not the only
satisfaction, he tells what you should do. Heaven- place Protestantism was spread.
Purgatory-Hell ➢ Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
➢ In Medieval Christianity, church was selling ▪ Ulrich Zwingli is the leader Swiss reformation
letters of indulgence not only for you but also your and his guideline was simple and effective.
death relatives→ communalistic. it became an ▪ Whatever lacked literal support in the
important source of income for the church. This is scripture was to be neither believed nor
the first clash between Catholic and Protestant practiced by Christians.
churches. ➢ John Calvin in Genova (1509-1564)
➢ German Monk and scholar Martin Luther ▪ John Calvin is the intellectual who tries to
reformed the religion with 95 theses, contributed construct Protestant faith that is useful to
the process of Protestantism, broke the administration of politics and society.
Catholicism. ▪ Believing in both divine predestination and
individuals responsibility to create godly
Martin Luther (1483-1546) society.
❖ Ninety- Five Theses against Indulgence, 1517 ➢ Later Calvinism spread to Netherlands and
❖ Growing disaffection against Roman Church Scotland.
➢ Selling indulgence ❖ In England, because of the divorce request of Henry
➢ Widespread despotism VII from his wife Katherine, England separated from
➢ Wealth of the church Vatican and established Anglican church. With this
❖ How he challenges three walls? new system king became head of the church and
➢ Universal Priesthood supremacy of church in England was over.
▪ One body, one baptism, one gospel, one faith. Radical Reformers:
➢ Scripture as a source of power ❖ Anabaptists (re-baptizers, against infant baptism)
➢ Every Christian has the right to call the council. ❖ Persecuted by protestant and catholic authorities alike
❖ Justification by faith alone→ is a Protestant Christian ❖ 1529 Anabaptism punishable by death
theological doctrine that distinguishes most Protestant
denominations from Catholicism, Orthodox The Counter Reformation/Catholic Reforms
Christianity, and some in the Restoration Movement. ❖ The Catholic Church engaged in reformation attempts
"By faith alone" asserts God's pardon for guilty sinners not only reduce Protestant movement but also renew
is granted to and received through faith, conceived as itself.
excluding all "works," alone. ❖ More constructive dimension, repressive measures:
❖ The Address to the Christian Nobility of the German The Inquisition (emphasis on importance of clergy,
Nation (1520): calls on German princes to impose papacy)
reform on the Catholic church ❖ Erasmus is one supporter of this modernized
❖ Excommunication by the Catholic church (1521) Catholicism.
❖ Marriage to Katharina von Bora as an example ➢ He thinks some part of Catholicism should be
showing that he did not differentiate himself from preserved, like free will.
ordinary people. 1523 ➢ In Protestantism, men cannot determine his own
❖ German translation of the New Testament (1522) and destiny.
the Old Testament (1534) ➢ Erasmus summarized his own beliefs with phrase
❖ Different groups attracted to Protestants to get rid of “philosophia Christi” a simple ethical piety in
church authority like many German prince. imitation of Christ.
❖ Council of Trent (1545-1563) Martin Luther, Address to the Christian Nobility of the
➢ Meeting of all cardinals also with Protestants, German Nation:
▪ There was a hope for reconciliation, but this ❖ Luther managed to reach large audience that started the
did not happen. new moment that changed everything.
➢ They discussed protestant challenge and searched ❖ The Holy Empire was dived into small politics.
ways to how can they reform the church, end of ❖ The Germany nobility was not only politically
the council they rejected Protestantism and fragmented but also, they lacked the authority to
decided to reform the administrative structure of control religious affairs of their own country.
Catholic church. ❖ The growing disaffection against the roman Church
❖ The selling of church offices and other religious goods was originated from selling indulgences, widespread
was forbidden. nepotism and the wealth of the church.
❖ They decided to make administrative reforms, ❖ Luther thought that intermediary between God and
established schools to teach better to priests…, people is Bible, that is why he translated it into
➢ Missioning outside of Europe (China, America...), German instead of Latin.
architecture (more churches) ➢ Luther argues that secular powers are equal to
❖ Society of Jesus (members are called Jesuits); strict spiritual one. Everybody is Christian, they all are
obedience to church authority, self-discipline, self- part of community; democratization of the
education. religion.
❖ Because of Jesuits some of Protestants were gained ➢ Authority of Pope to be master of the Scripture is
back and Christianity spread in the world like China criticized. Every Christian is able to interpret the
and America. Many people converted to Catholicism. Scripture
Wars of Religion ➢ Every Christian has the right to call a council.
❖ 1524-26: German peasant wars ❖ It has limits, it is not tolerated against Jews, and social
➢ German peasants attracted to more radical version justice. He supported the nobility, he was against social
of Protestantism and this caused rebellion of justice and equality.
peasants.
➢ A revolt against elites, privileged taxes and for
spiritual equality of all.
➢ Peasants did not want to pay tax anymore and they
expected Martin Luther would support them
because of equality of all men in Protestant
understanding of Christianity but Luther did not
support peasants. He supported German authority.
Rebellion ended with hundreds of dead rebels.
❖ 1529-55: Switzerland and Germany: Zwinglians,
Lutherans, Catholics
❖ 1560-1609: Catholics and columnists in France and
Netherlands.
❖ 1618-48: 30 years war, nearly all Europe.
1555, Diet at Augsburg:
❖ Each prince to determine religion of his territory,
Lutheran or catholic, subjects of other confession to
leave.

❖ Beyond religious reforms and wars:

➢ Broader political, social and cultural implications
of reformist movements and thought
▪ Confessionalisation
▪ Social Discipline
▪ Women and social change
• Spiritually→ women and men are equal
(protestant thinking)
• Spread of roman law as opposed to
religious law (to inform legal status of
women)
• Appearance of women in arts and
literature. →Women’s visibility
 Social and Cultural Transformation
of the Middle East Processes of Consolidation of Islam:
❖ Early modern period ❖ Forging and building connections
❖ Transformation of state, army, economy, trade and ➢ Islam as institutionalized religion.
taxation ▪ By Ulemas.
❖ Euro-centric approach to state-making ➢ Sufi orders.
➢ Transformation from medieval into early modern ▪ Important in development of more vernacular
era. Islam.
❖ Precursors: ▪ Mosques represent official Islam, while
➢ Timurids: (1370-1507) shrines, more often related to Sufis, represent
▪ Founded by Timur, Tamerlane (Turco- more fluid version of Islam.
Mongol warrior conqueror) • It doesn’t mean there are two distinct
▪ Claims to revive the empire of Chinggis version of Islam.
Khan. ▪ Sufis are very important and distinguished
▪ Covering Iran, Iraq and parts of Central Asia. from Ulema, because they can integrate local
▪ Mongolian state tradition. traditions and customs.
▪ Iranian monarchial culture. ▪ They were known through folksongs,
▪ Patronizing literature, architecture, art and poems…
history writing. ▪ Their knowledge of local languages is a way
▪ Supported by Sufi orders. to spread Islam.
• As spiritual advisors. • They were cultural intermediators.
▪ After Timur’s death, his successors ❖ Conversion
abandoned the Mongol traditions. ➢ Not something new.
• A shift from Mongol pagan traditions to ➢ As a process and negotiation.
more religious Islamic path. ➢ Sufis’ role is also very important.
➢ Mamluks: (1250-1517) ➢ Individual conversions
▪ Adopting the title of Caliph. ▪ Avoiding slavery
▪ Resisting Mongol invasion. • Islam forbid the enslavement of Muslims.
▪ Mamluk system. ▪ Non-Muslims pay more taxes.
• Slave system. ▪ Social mobility
 Slaves were trained as soldiers or ➢ Devshirmeh
administrators and they entered state ❖ State engagements
service as slaves. ➢ Territorialization of Empires
• Social mobility. ➢ Confessionalization of identities
 A slave could even be sultan. ▪ Homogenic society
▪ Religion under state control. ➢ Integration of Ulema
▪ Opening religious schools
Early Modern Eurasian Empires ▪ Codifications
❖ Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires
➢ Territorial and political consolidation.
➢ New urban capitals, urbanization.
➢ A new understanding of religion and use of
religion.
▪ Institutions
▪ Ulema
➢ Agrarian empires.
▪ Taxes
❖ Turning points of political consolidation:
➢ Mehmed II, Constantinople as Ottoman capital,
after 1453.
➢ Ismail, leader of Safavid Sufi order, proclaims
himself Shah of Iran, 1500.
➢ Babur, established in northern India, 1524.
 Islamic Empires: ➢ Institutionalization and bureaucratization of the
Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals state.

The Ottomans: ❖ Devshirmeh System

Ca. 1300: Emergence of Ottoman Principality. ➢ Children of non-muslim subject population have
1356: Crossing to Europe taken into the kul corps.
1451-81: Mehmed II ➢ They forcefully converted to Islam and trained as
1453: Conquest of Constantinople soldiers or bureaucrats.
1512-20: Selim I ➢ Rather than creating a slave army (conquered and
1514: Battle of Çaldıran used the enemy), Ottomans preferred to take
1517: Conquest of Syria and Egypt, Defeating Mamluk children of non-Muslims to train and shape as elite
Empire arms.
1520-66: Suleyman I ▪ One of the reasons of this was to create new
1526-29: Siege of Vienna local Muslim elites to reassign in Balkan
towns or new conquered land.
❖ Gazi ideology ❖ Incorporation of ulema into central state.
❖ Centripetal and centrifugal dynamics ➢ Staffed by religious scholars (ulema) (also
❖ Slave armies and elites religious law/shari'a, religion, science)
❖ Multi-ethnic and even multi-religious elites ▪ Murderesses: education, scholarships
❖ Synthesis of Turco-Mongol, Persianate, Roman ▪ Muftis: jurist consuls to issue religious
notions of rulership opinions, answer the questions from elites or
❖ Consolidation of Sunni identity public, fetva's
❖ Institutionalization of succession rather than fraternal ▪ Kadis: in charge of administering justice
warfare according to law/sharia, local custom.
❖ Legal codification ➢ Conceptualization of these institutions within
royal institutions was a new phenomenon.
➢ Hierarchization and bureaucratization of the ulema
❖ Gazza ideology is the one of the major motivations of (appointments, specific rules to appointment)
the ottomans empire territorial expansions. ➢ These ulema were high position (elite)
❖ The Ottomans took elements of all different practices ➢ Special salaries and position were established.
and institutions of seljuks and byzantine and modified ➢ Specific rules assigned for appointment and
them. promotion.
➢ It allowed to Ottomans to establish institutions and ➢ Strong association between religion and the state
there were Turko-Persian, turko-mongol, Turko- ➢ In the 16th century, the ulema family was emerged
Byzantium elements in these institutions. and sons of ulemas were came higher position.
➢ Tımar System: The lands lent to officers as ➢ It is also a codification of legal system.
compensation for military service. ▪ Suleyman I codified the law which touches all
▪ Comparable to the Seljuk iqta and the aspects of life and all social ranks, his
Byzantine pronoia but controlled more closely reconciliation of customary law and sharia
by the central state during the late 15th and and his regularization of both law and
16th centuries. bureaucracy.
• Not just a copy of Byzantium, nor a ❖ In 16th century, consolidation of Sunni identity.
purely Turkish empire. ➢ With Selim I’s conquest of Egypt.
• Creating a synthesis. ➢ Ottoman Sultan claims the title of Caliph.
▪ Ways of control > land surveys(tahrir), law ➢ Rivalry with Shia Safavid Iran is equally
books(kanunname), system of appointment important.
and rotation and supervision by kadis. ▪ In the middle, between Ottoman Empire and
▪ Main income of central state is tax payments Iran stood the Qizilbash communities.
from agriculture. ▪ Which were considered suspect population
▪ Agricultural lands were owned by the state and targeted in massacres.
(miri). Peasants have a right to inherit the ❖ The Ottomans had extraordinary diverse population in
lands where they work on. terms of culture, religion, occupation…
❖ From the middle of the 14th century until the end of ➢ Main division
16th century the Ottomans were gradually centralizing ▪ Askeri
their state. • Military and bureaucratic class.
➢ Created standing army • Did not pay taxes
▪ Janissaries ▪ Reaya
• Peasants, artisans, merchants…
 ➢ Other division, based on religion ➢ Like Iqta and Tımar but descent from father to
▪ Muslims son.
▪ Non-Muslims ❖ Reign of Akbar
• Never accepted as equals ➢ Military expansion
• Had to pay a special tax ➢ Centralize and systematize the government
• In court they have a disadvantageous ➢ Akbar and the Din-i Ilahi.
position. ➢ Religious toleration (sulh-u kul)

Safavids: Comparison

1501: Ismail declares himself Shah ❖ Their administration, bureaucracy, military and
intellectual structures are based on the heritage of
1501-1510: Safavid takeover of Iran others
1514: Battle of Çaldıran ➢ From ancient Persia to more recent Islamic
Timurid Mongol elements.
1588-1629: Shah Abbas ➢ This relation, however, did not maintain, it
evolved and changed.
1598: Isfahan capital of Safavid state.
❖ They all gunpowder empires.
Key Processes: ➢ They grew and expanded by using the newly
developed firearms successfully, especially
❖ Transition from Sufi order to polity cannon and small arms
➢ Into an Shia imperial state ❖ Issues of confessionalization
❖ Kızılbaş confederacy to sedentary empire ❖ Consolidating the religion
❖ Messianic Shiism to Shiism as official religion ➢ Integrating religious scholars into state
❖ Chieftains vs. central authority mechanism.
❖ Shah Abbas: ❖ Centralization is a key term.
➢ Making of the Ghulam corps ❖ Important trade routes.
▪ Military ❖ Urban establishments
➢ Bringing Shi’i ulema from Lebanon ➢ Istanbul was rebuilt as the new Ottoman capital
▪ Bureaucratized and institutionalized ➢ Isfahan was rebuilt, newly designed as commerce
➢ Armenian merchant communities from Julfa squares.
➢ Creation of Isfahan as political center and ➢ Fatehpur Sikri was rebuilt by Akbar
commercial hub. ➢ Delhi by Shahjahan
❖ Multiplicity of language.
Mughals:
Akbar name
1504: Babur captures Kabul
❖ Abul Fazl Allami was Persian bureaucrat, he was well
1524: Babur in Delhi educated.
➢ It was illustrated book.
1556-1605: Rule of Akbar
➢ It consists of three part,
1605-1627: Rule of Jahangir ▪ rise of Islam in Indian subcontinent,
▪ second was about Akbar
1628-1658: Rule of Shahjahan ▪ third was details of administrative fiscal
structure of Mughal empire.
1632: Shahjahan orders recently built Hindu temples
❖ It gives info about customs, traditions and culture.
destroyed
❖ Akbar followed policies of universal imperialisms.
1639: Building of Shahjahanabad, Shahjahan’s capital at ❖ Indeed, impact of Mongolian tradition is visible.
Delhi ❖ He also paid attention to appointment of Hindu elites
into imperial administration.
❖ Established by Babur ❖ In order to provide equality, he demolished Jizya.
➢ A descendant of Timur ❖ He built Din-i Ilahi, this cult was for high ranking
❖ Turco-Mongol, Persianate, and Hindu notions of class.
rulership and courtly conduct ❖ He is mentioning about house of worship, people were
➢ Strong identification with Timurid and Chinggisid not here for ibadet.
heritage. ➢ Different sects are expected to share their ideas,
❖ Muslim minority (Sunni) ruling over Hindu and discuss their religions.
Buddhist majority. ➢ He claims that Akbar decided what is bad or good.
❖ The mansabdar system and political hierarchies ➢ Sunni, Shias Jews christians, brahmins,
integrating Persian aristocracies and Rajputs. zoroastrians came together in this house.
❖ Sunni muslims was claiming Akbar is following non- Ottoman Imperial Governance
islamic policies, in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
➢ Sunni ulema accused him in being Shia.
➢ Akbar, indeed, did not promote Sunnism as the ❖ Mustafa Ali, the author, complains about the loss of
right version of Islam, he tried to stay neutral. glory in Ottoman after time of Süleyman.
➢ Takvim-i Ilahi was a Persian Zoroastrian tradition. ❖ Russia coined the term “sick man” for the empire.
❖ Policy of religious universalism ❖ In search of a descriptor (or a value judgement)
❖ Image of a universal emperor ➢ Decline, decentralization, transformation, second
➢ H.M, Khaqan, caliph, Shahansah etc. were used to empire, imperial partnership
highlight his claim of being universal emperor. ❖ Changes in the period
❖ Impact of Mongolian tradition. ➢ Sultanic succession and governance
❖ Incorporating Hindu elites into imperial administration. ➢ Military
❖ Abolishment of poll tax ➢ Economic, taxation
➢ Jizya, non-Muslim tax ➢ Provincial organization and administration
❖ Religious-imperial cult ➢ New patterns of social mobility
➢ Din-i Ilahi ❖ Important processes/case studies
➢ The seventeenth century crisis
Mustafa Ali’s Nasihatname
➢ The age of the ayan
❖ It was written in 1600.
❖ He studies in best madrassas.
Describing the Ottoman Transition to Modernity
❖ It is an etiquette book on high ranking officials’
❖ Decline
conducts.
➢ Orientalist connotations
❖ He criticizes morality, setts some norms and rules for
▪ Orientalism sees the Ottoman Empire as
selecting the sultans’ personal service.
corrupt, irrational and traditional state.
❖ It is a critique against mobility of rayah class.
▪ Decline started when the Ottomans lost its
❖ The new coming people tried to enter palace, he was
origins and became more corrupt.
strictly against this.
❖ He criticizes upward social mobility. • Sultans were no longer strong, powerful
❖ P.26 he explains the best fit person for the service. men. They had problematic characters
P.16 he explains how should not be selected to be and mental issues.
service in palace. • First character, the Ottoman Empire had
❖ He is against nepotism. lost, was Gaza understanding. (Focusing
❖ City boys were lower class young men, uneducated. on conquest and spreading Islam.)
 Once the empire lost the ability to
conquer new lands, it went to
decline.
➢ In decline for more than half of its existence
➢ Symptoms of decline found in classical period
▪ Problems, like corruption, were already there,
not exclusively defined for the period.
➢ Value judgement is a priority
❖ Decentralization
➢ Spreading of fire arms, new warfare, new
technology, massive, huge standing armies.
▪ This creates huge economic pressure
➢ State is the central agent; what about the agency of
society
▪ Decentralization focuses on the absence of
strong state.
➢ Modernization theory
▪ How does a modern state emerge?
▪ Rational organization, science
▪ Good state is centralized state, in sharp
contrast to the traditional.
➢ A euphemism for decline
More Recent Attempts at Describing the Period
❖ Transformation Social Transformations
➢ Something had changed. ❖ Fiscal changes redistributed wealth and powerxx
❖ Centripetal Decentralization ❖ Financial players
➢ Centralization and decentralization coexisting ❖ Petty and great local notables acquired wealth and
❖ Second Empire power
➢ In the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire re- ❖ Communal organization
founded, became totally different. ❖ Importance of and dependence on local knowledge.
❖ Partners of Empire

❖ All focused on how there was integration of new The Seventeenth Century Crisis
provincial social elites with the state ❖ Global phenomenon
❖ Transformation of the Ottoman Empire from a military ❖ Ottomans
machine into no-longer expanding bureaucratic state. ➢ Legitimacy crisis,
➢ Economic social crisis
Changes in Dynastic Rule and Succession ➢ Revolts
❖ Sultans no longer receive training in provinces as ➢ Monetary problems
young princes. ➢ Population pressure
❖ From patrilineality to seniority. ❖ Celali Rebellions
❖ Janissaries and Şeyhülislams acquire important role in ➢ Break down of security
who can be deposed and enthroned. ❖ Debasement and inflation
❖ Great instability in the first half of the seventeenth ➢ Reducing silver in coin.
century. ❖ Climate: The Little Ice Age
❖ New influential players in court politics
➢ Harem, Köprülü family, Ulema. The Age of Ayan
❖ Powerful local notables
Changes in Military Organization ❖ Seen instrumental in break-up of empire into nation-
❖ Tımar system receding states
❖ Growing importance of Janissaries/ changing ❖ Sharp Centre/provinces distinction
composition ❖ Centralization and decentralization went hand in hand
➢ Gradually Devshirmeh system abandoned. ❖ Seeking a partnership
➢ Muslims began to enter Janissary court.
➢ War was not only function of Janissaries anymore The Bigger Picture
▪ Close relations with elites ❖ Ottoman Empire faced major challenges in the
▪ Major political force seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
▪ Able to execute sultans ❖ Transforming into a modern state wasn’t simply a story
❖ Changing nature of early modern armies: of westernization: neither was it just about
➢ Standing, firearms, discipline, science centralization.
❖ Janissary resistance/extremely influential. ❖ It had expanded too much
➢ Selim III tried to establish a new order, new ➢ Too many and big provinces
military troops. ➢ Diverse populations
▪ Failed. Janissary revolt. ❖ Vienna and the logistical limits of warfare
❖ The Ottoman Empire managed to adapt and weather
Changes in Economy and Taxation the crises in one way or another.
❖ From individual to collective taxation. ➢ Nineteenth century was much more difficu
❖ Short-term tax farming (iltizam)
➢ Iltizams were sold off by the government to
wealthy notables, who would then reap up to five
times the amount they had paid by taxing the
peasants and extracting agricultural production.
➢ Acquires cash money
❖ Life tax farming (malikane)
➢ Developed as a replacement for Iltizam, was for
life.
❖ Quick cash, but problems in provincial administration.
❖ Internal borrowing
❖ Gradual shift toward market-oriented monetized
economy.
 The Ming Bureaucratic Empire ➢ The Indian Ocean was already known by Chinese.
❖ Chinese has been the center at the East Asian ❖ While it represented the glorious Ming dynasty, it also
diplomacy and economy. extended a friendly arm.
➢ 14th -15th centuries, trade and diplomacy were ➢ Diplomatic missions
under the control of China. ➢ Commercial networks
❖ In many ways, the Ming dynasty returned back Yong Le Emperor (1360-1424):
➢ The end of Mongol Dynasty (Yuan) in China ❖ Sinocentricism:
❖ Chinese institutions, kind of Chinese Renaissance. ➢ Confucian thinking suggests that moral economy
❖ Mongol dynasty was part of Chinese history too, but is agricultural economy
they had never completely assimilated the China. ➢ It was not favor in commercial profit.
➢ Hence after their disappearance, the Chinese ➢ China is cultural center of the world
tradition revived. ▪ Who wants to trade can come, but they don’t
➢ They erased all the trace of the barbaric Mongol bother.
rule from China and established previous imperial
institutions such as eunuch, civil service Jesuits in 16th and 17th Centuries:
examination, censoring (checking the bureaucracy ❖ Another important development in China was
and controlling of tax payment), the collaboration welcoming visitors from European World.
of provincial authority and the central government. ➢ Not only colonial aims but also Catholic
➢ This was also kind of continuity period. missionary. (Jesuits)
❖ The cultural diplomacy ❖ They received scientific and mathematical knowledge
➢ Tell everybody Mongols disappeared and Chinese ➢ Determining dates was crucial to agriculture and
is back, so everything will be glorious. tax collection. – Knowledge of calendar
❖ They also brought merchants with the ship. ➢ They revived astrology with Jesuits instruments
❖ Taxation system in China was the most monetized one ▪ Many Ming emperors were very dependent on
in the world. fortune telling. (Reliance of ancient art of
❖ China had also trade surplus, which expeditions helped cosmology).
to flourish. ➢ They also received knowledge from them, copies
❖ During the Mongol period, Chinese bureaucratic of maps.
system was not influential, though it survived. ▪ Great Map of the Ten Thousand Countries
❖ Mongols, to the end, preferred to appoint bureaucrats ❖ Jesuits also studied Chinese and Confucian classics
who were not Chinese without examination. and engaged in conservations with scholars.
➢ For example, Marco Polo was not Chinese and ❖ They used their knowledge of astronomy, geography,
was not examined. engraving and firearms to win entry to the court of
❖ The Forbidden City represented the bureaucracy. Beijing and appointment in the bureau of astronomy.
❖ The examination had three steps; ❖ They appealed to the curiosity of the court with
➢ first, a candidate took the country examination if instruments such as telescopes, clocks, and
he passed he became a member of gentry. clavichords.
➢ The second was provincial examination and ❖ They tried to propagate the Christianity
➢ the final was metropolitan examination. ➢ To convert some elites from high ranking, not the
▪ In state examination cubicles, the young men masses.
needed to stay there for 3 days. ❖ They attacked Taoism and Buddhism as superstitions
▪ It is an imperial governmental control system but argued that Confucian thought as a rational
to test the knowledge of young educated philosophy complemented Christianity.
males. ❖ Jesuits allowed the ancestor of worship in order to
▪ Most of the staff in gigantic bureaucratic show their respect to the Chinese traditions; however,
system were chosen out of this system. papal bulls decided against the Jesuits and forbade
▪ The system allowed the social mobility and Chinese Christians to participate in family rites of
encouraged the importance of education. ancestor worship.
➢ Whereupon, the emperor banned Christianity in
China.
Zheng He (1371-1433): ❖ China did not achieve what Portuguese achieved in the
❖ Zheng He knew Arabic, he could make a conversation age of exploration because of the fact that although
outside of Chinese borders. they had the necessary maritime technology and yet
❖ His knowledge of Arabic and familiarity with decided not to use it.
navigation and routes to holy cities. ❖ China lacked the combination of restlessness, greed,
❖ Most of the cities that Zheng He visited were port religious faith and curiosity that motivated Portuguese.
cities. ❖ Jesuit Missionary Matteo Ricci (1552-1610)
➢ These expeditions are not geographic expeditions. ➢ Transmission of knowledge, culture
 ▪ Translated Confucian philosophy Absolute Monarch and Its Challenges:
➢ The Earth is a sphere France and England in the Seventeenth Century
▪ Chinese thought world is flat.
➢ Great map of ten thousand countries. ❖ It was difficult to manage power because of
geographical problems.
Lu Jo Han / Johannes B. Rodrigues ➢ States we think of are not the modern states
❖ Lu Jo Han (Rodrigues) worked for Chinese court. ➢ They composed of separate units with lots of
❖ He was scholar and worked for Ming dynasty. towns and provinces which perhaps became states.
❖ In Drake’s account, description of local people was ❖ Kings were not powerful at all,
inferior and legitimized their actions there. ➢ They needed to compromise with nobles.
➢ But in Lu Jo Han’s, there is a more complex ➢ They exercised their power through bureaucracy,
understanding of state. usually somebody from this area.
➢ He mentions names of several important ❖ The great institution that states have was the courts
philosophers. (Court in London), each state has a king and court.
➢ There is a kind of interests in the Chinese culture. ➢ Authority is hard to preserve, and courts work for
❖ The concept of absolute cannot be seen equal to that.
Christian god. ❖ The first challenge for monarchy was survive against
❖ Confucian traditions are secular doctrine, the author other authorities,
states that Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism are ➢ Elites, other groups could try to exercise their
non-sense. power as in feudal days.
❖ He criticizes folk’s excessive reliance on ancient ➢ The exercise of power was difficult and remain as
traditions. Most probably, he was influenced by a power was also difficult.
empirical way of knowledge. ❖ In 16th and 17th century, we got the geographic
discovery.
➢ They imported silver from Mexica and so on.
➢ Silver is used to fight with the Ottoman Empire,
defending Catholicism against Ottomans cost a lot.
➢ The mission of Catholic Church was defending the
Europe.
❖ The money comes from taxation
➢ The war forced the kings raise the taxes.
➢ The rich used their power to escape from taxes,
nobles that normally pay taxes are dying now.
➢ Therefore, they taxed towns, peasants and
merchants.
❖ There were strong traditions of representative
governments and independence of towns.
❖ Unlike Ottomans’ early periods, early European states
have limited power.
➢ People talked about republica, king business,
common wealth (in France) rather than the state
until 1600s.
❖ The word of state was used in “the prince” (1515) not
in contemporary meaning.
❖ In the 16th century, Protestant reformation caused
wars.
➢ Borrowing money and taxing money was two
different system.
➢ This period was relatively weak authority and
revolutions and revolts.
➢ The civil wars in England and France took place.
▪ In England civil war resulted in execution of
the King and Dutch invasion.
▪ It was a warning for the monarch in France.
▪ In France, the monarchy tried to work with
elites and manage the resistances 1649-1653
the authority collapsed almost completely.
❖ Cost of wars, sense of privileges creates challenges to ➢ He was trying to be practical.
the authority. ❖ In his letter, his impression of English administration
➢ It created a tendency to establish move towards and its comparison to France and Germany.
constitutional monarchy ➢ In England
▪ You leave the idea of absolute monarchy. The ▪ There was a tension in between monarchy and
idea of authority cannot be restricted is a myth parliamentary forces (the house of
but there is the image of it. commonwealth).
❖ Power comes from the God. ▪ The first struggle came in 1649, when English
➢ If god is good, the king must behave accordingly Civil War resulted in execution of Charles I
Christianity. and establishment of short-lived republic.
➢ God never breaks promises (taxation), He does not • It turned into dictatorship and ended up
behave with the sense of tyranny. with monarchy.
➢ This notion was limiting (the divine notion does • Restoration of monarchy increased the
not give the kings any right to act like tyrants). tension.
❖ The kings used the theory of sovereignty in the late ➢ In France
16th century. ▪ There was powerful monarchy until
❖ After the civil war in the France, people wanted the revolution.
strong authority; king took advantage of it. ▪ There was discontent and resentment against
❖ Monarchies were frangible. monarchy.
❖ Common wealth seemed to be suppressed during the ▪ Imposition of royal administration.
17th century, but then came back. ❖ Liberty
➢ Charles I taxed people without calling the ➢ “Outcome of civil wars in England was liberty.”
parliament for 11 years. ➢ This is the liberty which is a product of historical
➢ He has been called tyrant. process.
❖ They would not be centralized, they would prefer ➢ House of Commons and House of Lords played an
established relations with local elites. intermediated role in between monarch and folk.
➢ They invented policies during the wars, they need ➢ Liberty is achieved, it is not a natural
the money right that moment, so the actions were ➢ With the constitution of rule, English folk
done according to situation. established taxation system based on income.
➢ Absolute monarchy does not mean absolute ➢ Commercial activities had role in liberty.
power. ▪ Brings more equality
▪ Parallel authority: police(king), ❖ England
religion(Christianity), justice(locals) were the ➢ Practice of primogeniture led the formation of
main things that showed the power and merchant class in England.
authority of the state. ➢ Commerce as a source of power
❖ England vs France in 17th century ➢ In England, there was naval superiority and stable
➢ The French monarchy was the example of such market economy.
centralized government. ❖ France
➢ The English monarch, on the other hand, failed to ➢ Economy was based on agriculture and controlled
make itself absolute but rather the end of the 17th by monarch.
century, could govern only with and through ➢ The French aristocrats lived courtly lifestyle.
parliament. ▪ They spent their many for leisure activities.
▪ Namely, two distinct models of governments; James I of England on Monarchy
absolutism in France and parliamentary ❖ James the first was the king of the Scotland and
monarchy in England. became the king of England, he attempted to
Voltaire (1694-1778) established unit of government.
❖ He is a French intellectual. ❖ He was also theologist, he ordered the new translation
❖ Exiled to England of the Bible.
❖ There he contacted with Jesuits ❖ He was always in a dispute with parliament powers
❖ Critical about nepotism, hereditary, aristocracy and and landed aristocracy.
papacy. ❖ Because of the financial pressures, James I dissolved
❖ He supported constitutional ideas. the parliament.
❖ He was admiring Ming dynasty, ❖ The kings were considered as kind of gods, people
➢ According to him the dynasty is rational. thought that they had supernatural powers (royal
❖ He was influenced by Newton and Locke. touch).
❖ He was supporter of Louis the fourteen. ❖ He was kind of warning the parliamentary powers. The
➢ According to him, the problems can only be tension between them continued in the coming decades
solved by enlightened despots.
 The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment René Descartes (1596-1650)
❖ French philosopher and scientist
❖ Scientific revolution was about understanding the ❖ Discourse on Method (1637)
material world, but also affected ideas beyond the ❖ His new rational philosophy became the basis of a
physical/natural world. French orthodoxy at the end of the 17th c
❖ Impacted on ideas about humanity – a science of man Scientific Revolution
➢ How people think, how society works. ❖ Concepts of science did not yet exist in modern sense.
❖ Rethinking the human world known as “the ➢ Linked to philosophy and theology
Enlightenment” ➢ “Natural philosophy” used instead.
❖ Science and scientific method became so impressive so ❖ Words “science” and “scientist” began to be used in
influential that they set a new standard for evaluating the modern sense from early 19th century.
knowledge in the Western world. ❖ Science: testable system for organizing knowledge
❖ It was not rapid, the revolution involved appropriation about the material world.
of older knowledge as well as new discoveries.
❖ It also saw the establishment of new social institutions Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
to support the emerging scientific enterprise. ❖ Influenced development of scientific approach
❖ Science as a positive force beneficial for humanity.
Ideas of the World Before the Enlightenment ➢ If mankind could better understand how the world
❖ Christian worked, it could make people’s lives better.
➢ World as fixed and stable ➢ E.g. by improving agricultural methods, curing
➢ The Great Chain of Being linked all in fixed illnesses.
hierarchy. ❖ Scientific methods of experimentation and deduction.
❖ Classical ❖ Including:
➢ Geocentric view based on Ptolemy’s, Almagest ➢ Empirical methods
▪ Earth as fixed center of universe around ➢ Inductive reasoning, against Aristotle’s deductive
which planets moved reasoning.
▪ Takes Aristotle’s idea of spheres and essences
• Terrestrial: Four elements of earth, water, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
air, fire ❖ Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)
• Celestial: One element- aether ❖ More than anyone else he developed the model of
natural philosophy
Key Intellectual Movements of the Enlightenment ➢ 1666 developed the fluxional method
❖ Changing notion of Reason ➢ In the Mathematical Principles of Natural
➢ From Descartes to Locke Philosophy, he developed a law of universal
❖ Decline of belief in innate reason gravitation.
➢ Universalist, abstract ➢ Developed experimental methods, Opticks (1704)
❖ Rise of sensate reason, empirical and particular, ❖ Impact of Newton’s Ideas
materialist (pace Locke) ➢ Newton’s general rules unlocked previous mystery
of how the universe worked.
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) ➢ Rise of popular printed versions of Newton’s work
❖ His book was a revolution making rather than but some ideas lost in translation.
revolutionary text.
➢ De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium 1543 John Locke (1632-1704)
❖ He rejected Aristotle’s cosmology and removed the ❖ Two Treatises of Government (1690)
earth from the center of universe. ❖ Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
❖ All knowledge imprinted on the mind by sensation.
Galileo Galilei (1543-1642) ❖ Humans born with as a “tabula rasa” without innate
❖ Dialogue concerning Two Chief World Systems 1632 ideas.
❖ His most important achievement was to articulate the ➢ A baby is like a blank piece of paper
concept of the universe totally subject to mathematical ➢ It learns by experiences
laws ➢ Soul had no idea of God.
➢ Application of mathematics to scientific ❖ Notions of good and bad come from pleasure and pain
investigation and the goal of reducing phenomena not innate moral sense.
to formulas. ❖ All knowledge based on experience and observation.
❖ He observed the universe via telescope. ➢ Empiricist
➢ Nothing can be assumed.
❖ Possibility of education, improvement
Natural Philosophy ▪ Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
❖ Ideas about the natural universe and how it worked, on government and despotism.
nature an imprecise term. ▪ Diderot & d’Alembert, Encyclopédie (1751-
❖ “Science” not invented until 1830 72), alphabetical “Bible of the
❖ Natural Philosophy closely linked with theology Enlightenment”
❖ Gradual separation ➢ 1770-89 victory won, consolidation and spread of
➢ Study of nature/natural world (God’s creation) ideas.
➢ From study of God ▪ Enlightenment ends with the French
➢ Changing ideas about nature. Nature – not static Revolution.
but changeable.
❖ Development of classification systems e.g. Swedish Denis Diderot & Jean d’Alembert, Encyclopédie
naturalist, Charles Linnaeus and French naturalist, the ❖ Systematic Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Crafts
Comte de Buffon. ❖ Both a collection of current knowledge and practical
❖ Discovery and recognition of fossils. and technological achievements, and an attempt to
❖ Challenged “literal truths” about creation in the Bible bring Enlightenment ideas to a wider public.
and literal truth of “Genesis”. Growing realization that ❖ D’Alembert, Preliminary Discourse to the
the world was much older than stated in the Bible. Encyclopédie in 1750, sets out new methodology.
(6000 years) ❖ Cost about 980 livres, very expensive, aimed at elite of
society.
Defining the Enlightenment ❖ Published with “privilege” ie had permission to
❖ Age of Light or Reason: Aufklarung; Illumimismo; le publish, though this was revoked in 1759 for many
siècle des lumiéres years because of fears that it posed a threat to religion.
❖ An Epistemology (theory of knowledge):
➢ A methodology for how to construct knowledge Voltaire (1694-1778)
based on empirical evaluation of evidence ❖ Voltaire, Tretise on Toleration (1763) said:
❖ A method more than a set of beliefs ➢ “Human law must in every case be based on
➢ Critical, skeptical, questioning method natural law. All over earth the great principle of
➢ Based on testing evidence – empiricist both is: Do not do unto others what you would that
methodology they do not unto you.”
➢ Not simply an entity or “age” of reason,
enlightenment or progress. Enlightenment as Reaction against the Church
➢ A philosophical approach – part of history of ❖ 17th century ideas of toleration very limited and often
ideas. reversed e.g. Revocation of Edict of Nantes (1685)
❖ 18th century battle of toleration.
Who was the Enlightenment? ❖ Atheism rare but some philosophes adopt e.g. Diderot,
❖ Philosophers – in French “philosophes” d’Holbach.
❖ Definition “philosophes” – much more than ❖ Materialism.
philosophers – not just in ivory towers, describing ❖ Deism
world, but trying to change it. ➢ Adapted from Newton’s principles and idea of
➢ Journalists, salon frequenters, part of a wider “watchmaker God” Newton himself believed in
intellectual and social world. God. (secretly a unitarian and alchemist)
❖ Wrote on many subjects – every from treatises on ➢ Idea that universe functions according to rules of
science, to politics, to pornography, to novels. creation without further intervention from God.
❖ Peter Gay, The Enlightenment, saw philosophers as ➢ Principle of rational God as creator means God
similar to a family, often disagreeing, but united by can be understood through reason.
strong intellectual bonds. ➢ Rejection of specific revealed religion. Belief in a
universal core truth in all religions – God as
When was the Enlightenment? benign creator/Providence. Belief in an afterlife, in
❖ C. 1680s, begins in England: which virtue will be rewarded.
➢ Newton’s Principia (1687); Locke Essay
Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Changing Concepts of Reason
❖ 18th Century ❖ Enlightenment project to improve knowledge of the
➢ Main period world through use of reason.
➢ Paris a focal point ❖ Reason – new meaning. Decline of belief in innate
➢ 1714-48 first period focuses on theology and reason (from Descartes’ reason, universalist, abstract to
church Locke – reason as critical faculty, empiricist)
➢ 1748-70 more outspoken, conflict; ❖ Man learns from his environment, though his senses.
❖ Preliminary Discourse of the Encyclopédie set out a The American Revolution
methodology for adding to our knowledge of the
world. Reason changed from an innate quality to a Background to the Revolution:
critical faculty. ❖ Peace of Paris 1763
❖ The Nature of Man ➢ Marked end of the Seven Years War.
➢ Locke’s ideas of learning from ➢ Britain gained territory at the expense of France
sensation/experience big impact and Spain. France lost most of its North American
➢ Prospect of remolding society by education. territory.
➢ France ceded its territories in Canada to Britain.
Natural Law Britain returned some territories it had conquered
❖ Idea of moral order in the universe revealed during the war, esp. in Caribbean. Britain acquired
by/reflecting scientific laws (epitomized by Newton’s eastern part of Louisiana, Florida.
model of universe) ➢ Spain laid claim to western part of Louisiana (vast
❖ Human law should be based on natural law not God’s area) granted to it by France in 1762.
law revealed by Church or state. ❖ Standing Army and Taxation
❖ Natural law also meant natural rights for all ➢ Britain felt need to defend the American colonies
➢ E.g. Rights to life, liberty, freedom of worship, against Indians and against possible renewal of
property and the pursuit of happiness provided no French attempts to win power on the American
infringement on others. continent.
➢ Overrode particular laws of country ➢ It was proposed to keep a standing army in
➢ But problems of defining or limiting. America at an estimated cost of £350.000 a year.
➢ Britain felt that colonists should bear much of the
cost.
▪ Hitherto the colonists had been exempt from
all taxes except their own local levies.
❖ Stamp Duty
➢ 1765 Stamp Duty was imposed on all public
papers in the colonies.
➢ Tax on paper affected all literate people and
especially mercantile, legal and landowning
groups.
▪ Colonist did not see need for tax and thought
that French expulsion from Canada made tax
less necessary, and feared that the stamp duty
set undesirable precedent.
➢ The regional colonial assemblies denounced the
tax with the famous slogan:
▪ “No taxation without representation.”
➢ They rejected notion that under British
constitution all parties, including colonists not
actually present, were represented in the British
parliament.
➢ 1766 Whigs came to power and repealed the tax.
❖ Townshend Act
➢ 1767 renewed attempts to tax colonists, taxes on
several commodities – including paper, glass, tea.
➢ 1770 Boston Massacre
▪ Three colonists killed in a stand-off with
nervous British soldiers. (defended by John
Adams.)
➢ Led to deteriorating relations between British
government and colonists.
Colonies Began to Organize against British
❖ “Join or Die” cartoon by Benjamin Franklin to urge the
colonies to unite against the British.
❖ Committees of Correspondence set up to bring 13
colonies together.
❖ Splits begin between “patriots” and “loyalists”.
Benjamin Franklin Thomas Jefferson
❖ From humble background, a printer ❖ Even when the French Revolution adopted the terror,
❖ Became an Enlightenment figure, interested in Jefferson would not disown it:
scientific discoveries. ➢ “To back away from France would be to
undermine the cause of republicanism in
Boston Tea Party, 1773 America.”
❖ Colonists incensed at forced importing of cheap Dutch ❖ Opposed slavery in principle, yet kept many slaves on
tea. his plantation in Virginia.
➢ Undercut the colonist tea merchants. ❖ Fathered children with his slave, Sally Hemings.
❖ Consignment of tea were thrown into Boston Harbor
by colonists led by Samuel Adams, dresses as
American Indians. ❖ British troops under Lord Cornwallis surrendered to
❖ Becomes a defining moment of American American and French troops at Yorktown, Virginia in
commemoration and identity. 1781.
❖ Britain responded with the Coercive Acts
➢ Took direct control of Massachusetts, closed port Was it not a Revolution, only a war of colonial
of Boston, and said colonists must agree to quarter independence?
British soldiers. ❖ Some historians have asked whether we can speak of
Colonists from a Congress: an “American Revolution” at all? – There may only
❖ 1774 first Continental Congress. have been a War of Independence against Britain.
❖ This brought together delegates from the 13 colonies, ❖ Was there just a change of government without little
including John Adams for Massachusetts. other social or political change?
❖ 1775 Second Continental Congress ❖ George Bancroft takes this view:
❖ More delegates joined, including Franklin for ➢ It was a revolution, he said, but one, “achieved
Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson for Virginia. with such benign tranquility that even
conservatism hesitated to censure.”
1775 Military Conflict Begins ❖ R.R Palmer: “Whether one thinks there was really a
❖ Massachusetts rebelled against British. revolution in America depends on what one thinks a
❖ Battle of Lexington and Concord. revolution is.”
❖ Followed by Battle of Bunker Hill ❖ Historians who denied the “revolutionary” content of
➢ Won by British but they suffered heavy losses. the American Revolution may argue from two very
❖ George III declared the colonies to be in a state of different positions.
rebellion, and the members of Congress to be traitors. ➢ Either that America was already democratic before
❖ March 1776 George Washington assumed control of the outbreak of the war,
colonists’ army. ➢ Or that America was not democratic prior to the
war and that this situation did not change
Thomas Paine, Common Sense, 1776 significantly after it.
❖ January 1776 ▪ Evidence for this is property qualifications for
❖ The first pamphlet to call for independence from voting and for office-holding were maintained
Britain. after Independence.
❖ Widely read.
❖ Gordon Wood calls it: French Revolution and Its Impact:
➢ “The most incendiary and popular pamphlet of the ❖ At the time of the American struggle the “patriots”
entire revolutionary era.” were sure that what they had engaged in was a
revolution.
Declaration of Independence, 4th July 1776 ❖ But when revolution broke out in France many
❖ June 1776 the last of the delegates in Congress agreed Americans, including John Adams, were profoundly
to independence. shocked and thought that the violence in France was to
❖ A committee of five men drew up a “Declaration of be repudiated.
Independence” formally presented to Congress on 4 ❖ But Thomas Jefferson refused to condemn the French
July. Revolution.
❖ Declares formation of a new nation “United States of ❖ Palmer, The Age of Democratic Revolution
America. ➢ He worked out figures of “emigrés” from America
❖ Thomas Jefferson was principal drafter. and France and claims that there were 24 emigrés
per thousand of population in America and only 5
per thousand in France.
 ➢ Palmer argues instead that the French and The French Revolution
American Revolutions “proceeded from the same
principles.” ❖ Enlightenment is a something that wishes to transform
➢ But France had Old Regime (absolute monarchy, in a rational way the society, the political system, even
powerful hereditary nobility – both opposed to any the economic system according to what is set as rules
concessions to revolutionaries). Thus French of reason.
Revolution became much more polarized and ➢ French Revolution is some kind of an effort at
violent. applying principle of Enlightenment to a political
situation that has become shaky in France at the
Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of The end of 1760s.
American Revolution ❖ It is a process, not a sharp moment
❖ Takes positive view of American revolutionary ❖ It has links to absolutism
ideology: ❖ Enormous impact on the rest of the world
➢ “What was essentially involved in the American ❖ The revolution is not intellectually blocked.
Revolution was not the disruption of society, with ➢ It abolishes the power of elites and feudalism.
all the fear, despair, and hatred that entails, but the ❖ The propaganda of French Revolution provided impact
realization, the comprehension and fulfillment, of over other countries and some of them were conquered
the inheritance of liberty and of what was taken to by it.
be America’s destiny in the context of world ❖ The nationalism of French Revolution challenged
history.” multinational empires.
❖ There are three phases in this revolution.
Ideological Influences on American Revolutionaries ➢ First phase of the revolution, 1789 – 1792
❖ Classical antiquity. ▪ King remains in his place, bourgeoisie phase
❖ Enlightenment thinkers, above all Locke, but also ➢ Second phase 1792 – 1794
Rousseau and Montesquieu. ▪ Radical phase: led by the Jacobins under the
❖ Idea of natural rights. leadership of Maximillian Robespierre. King
was executed, calendar was changed,
Christianity was prohibited and replaced by
the cult of the Supreme Being.
➢ Third phase: 1795 – 1799
▪ Call for stability and order.

Background to the Revolution:

❖ Financial crisis emerged because France partook in the
American Independence War.
➢ The war was paid by borrowing.
❖ The financial pressures from the Seven Years Wars
➢ France lost some of its colonies.
❖ You get deadlock because a social conflict between
estates.
➢ The problem was the government’s inability to
collect sufficient taxes to service and repay the
debt.
➢ Louis XVI appointed several ministers to deal
with the financial crisis.
▪ All failed to persuade the aristocracy and the
clergy to pay more taxes.
❖ The main issue in France during this phase is the
separation of society into estates which do not reflect
the social and economic reality of the time.
➢ Estates define who you are, what part of the
society you belong to and what right, privileges
and duties are in that social system.
▪ First estate is the clergy (also called man of
God, man of the Book) whose duty is to
provide guidance to society. They are
privileged and superior in society because of
 performing important duties. Clergy is mostly ❖ Although Louis XVI ordered the National Assembly to
monopolized by members of aristocracy. desist, shortly afterward most of the clergy and the
▪ Second estate is the nobility (aristocracy, man many nobles joined the assembly.
of the sword). Ability to use violence defense ❖ After formally inventing of other estates by Louis XIV
of the rest of the population. to meet with the National Assembly, voting occurred
▪ Third estate is the rest. It is 95% of the by head rather than by order.
population. ➢ Government by the privilege orders thus ended
➢ The problem is that the political system allows for and the National Assembly became the National
a predominance of first two estates in the political, Constituent Assembly.
social and administrative role and complete
submission of the third estate to the will of king, Fall of Bastille
the nobility and the clergy. ❖ Two factors soon intruded.
➢ The source of the power of the nobility and the ➢ First, Louis XVI attempted to regain the initiative
clergy over the third estate is generally of half by mustering troops near Versailles and Paris
fiscal nature, which is through collection of dues, ▪ This was beginning of the royal attempt to
delivering justice and renting the land to peasants. halt the revolution.
▪ Most of the National Constituent Assembly
First Phase of the Revolution, 1789 – 1792 wished to create some form of constitutional
❖ The bourgeoisie: ambitious to be as equal to the other monarchy but from the start Louis’s refusal to
two estates. co-opt thwarted that effort.
➢ When their demand of recognition was refused, ➢ The second was the populace of Paris.
they mobilized the masses by persuading them to ▪ The crowd of Paris stormed the fortress,
fight against the injustices of the system. released its seven prisoners and killed several
➢ Their desire, however, was not a radical change of soldiers and governor.
the system rather than recognition. • 7 prisoners in the Bastille represent the
❖ The first move towards the revolution process was power of absolutism, power of king over
triggered by nobility. people.
➢ Nobility is not happy because it is itself a crisis, it
has a crisis of revenue, political representation of The Great Fear and Surrender of Feudal Privileges
power, and it has a crisis due to the rising of ❖ The fall of Bastille on 14 July 1789 signaled that the
bourgeois into their ranks. political future of the nation would not be decided
➢ They are the ones who force the king into solely by the National Constituent Assembly.
convening this assembly which supposedly ❖ As popular urban disturbances erupted in various cities
represents the population of France. a movement known as the Great Fear swept across
❖ The parliament of Paris declared that only the Estates much of the French countryside.
General could institute new taxes. ➢ Peasants were reclaiming rights and property that
❖ Estates General is not parliament. they have lost through the aristocratic resurgence.
➢ This is a feudal body where each estate votes in ➢ The nobles gave up what they have already lost
block; (judicial authority, special exemptions, tithes) and
➢ Therefore, there are 3 votes; one for the nobility, what they could not regained without a civil war.
one for the clergy and one for the third estate.
▪ However, the third estate had twice as many Declaration of the rights of Man and Citizen
members as either the nobility and clergy. ❖ On August 26, 1789, the Assembly issued the
▪ That’s why they wanted each member to vote declaration.
individually. ❖ This declaration drew together much of the political
➢ The clergy and the nobility came together against language of the Enlightenment and was also influenced
them and votes were 2 against 1. by Declaration of Rights adapted in USA,
➢ After that third estate left the Estates General. ➢ “All men were born and remained free and equal
❖ Third estate took an initial step to establish a national in rights”.
assembly. ➢ Their natural rights were liberty, property,
➢ The third estate invited other estates to join in it security, and resistance to oppression.
organizing new legislative body, a few of the ➢ All political sovereignty resided in the nation and
lower clergy did so. its representatives.
➢ On June, the body declared itself as a National ➢ All citizens were to be equal before the law and
Assembly. National Assembly took the Tennis were to be equally admissible to all public
Court Oath to continue to sit until they had given dignities, offices and employments, according to
France a constitution. their capacity and with no other distinction than
that of their virtues and talents.
 ➢ Innocence until proof of guilt, freedom of religion, ❖ The Legislative Assembly came together for a voting
taxation according to capacity to pay and property in which Convention emerged.
constituted an inviolable and sacred rights. ❖ The first act of the Convention was declaring France
republic,
The constitution of 1791 ➢ that is a nation governed by an elected assembly
❖ the product of National Constituent Assembly’s without a king.
deliberation, established constitutional monarchy. ❖ Jacobins were republicans who sought representative
❖ The National Constituent Assembly abolished the government and worked with sans-culottes (working
ancient French provinces, judicial courts. people of Paris) to carry the revolution forward and
❖ The National Constituent Assembly suppressed the win the war.
guilds and liberated the grain trade. ❖ Louis was convicted of conspiring against the liberty
❖ The National Constituent Assembly established the of the people and the security of the state, condemned
metric system to uniform weights and measures. to death.
❖ The policies of economic freedom and uniformity ❖ The Convention declared a war on the Great Britain,
disappointed the both peasants and urban workers Poland and Spain. Civil wars soon followed.
caught in cycle of inflation. ➢ However, they (Girondists) were incapable either
❖ The National Constituent Assembly issued the Civil of wining it or suppressing the enemies of the
Constitution of the clergy which transformed the revolution at the home.
Roman Catholic Church in France into branch of ❖ The Reign of the Terror is the name given to the
secular state. months of quasi-judicial executions and murders
➢ The pope condemned not only the Civil stretching from autumn of 1793 to the midsummer of
Constitution of the clergy but also the Declaration 1794.
of the Men and the Citizen. ❖ Internal and external wars, on other hand, the
revolutionary expectations of the Convention and the
sans-culottes on the other.
❖ Emperor Leopold II of Austria issued the Declaration ❖ Convention established a Committee of Public Safety
of Pillnitz with which two monarchs which almost enjoyed dictatorial power.
➢ Promised to intervene in France to protect royal ❖ Committee of Public Safety tried to save the revolution
family and to preserve monarchy if the other from its enemies both inside and the outside.
European powers agreed. ❖ Together with Convention they established a republic
➢ However, Great Britain would not give its consent. in which civic virtue rather than aristocratic and
monarchial corruption might flourish.
❖ The most dramatic departure of the republic of virtue
Second Phase of the Revolution 1792 – 1794 was an attempt to dechristianize France.
❖ In the second phase, revolution gradually radicalized ❖ The reign of Terror manifested itself through series of
because first of all, it is in the nature of revolution. revolutionary tribunals established by the Convention
❖ Jacobins and other like-mind clubs organized during the summer of 1793.
themselves in Paris. ➢ The tribunals were to try the enemies of republic,
❖ In the Legislative Assembly a group of Jacobins but the definition of the enemy remained uncertain
known as Girondists assumed leadership. and shifted as months passed.
❖ They led the Legislative Assembly to declare a war on ➢ The first victims were members of the royal
Austria which radicalized the revolution and led to family and other aristocrats.
Second one. ❖ People are tired sacrificing everything to the war
❖ The second one overthrew the constitutional monarchy effort, revolution, and state terror.
and established a republic. ➢ This leads to the last phase which there is
➢ The royal family was imprisoned but the king was stability, comfort and normal life.
suspended from his political functions. ❖ People desire the normal family life like the beginning
of the revolution.
The September Massacres ❖ This situation leads to come up the heroes like
❖ The Paris Commune killed a lot of people in the city Bonaparte to get the society out of terror.
jails. ❖ 18 Brumaire, Napoleon Bonaparte made a coup,
➢ Many were aristocrats and priests, but most were changed the system as an authoritarian system and
common criminals. brought back the religion.
❖ There was a fear, that foreign and royalist armies
would attack Paris and that the inmates of the city's
prisons would be freed and join them.
The Transatlantic Revolutions ❖ He further divides terms; government and sovereign.
❖ Political experiments challenged government and the ➢ The sovereign is the ruler of law either decided by
rule of monarchies and aristocracies. assembly.
❖ The foundations of modern liberal democracy were ➢ He is not legitimate in forming any association.
laid. ➢ There always will be powerful people who going
➢ The largest republic since ancient times had been to try control power.
established in North America. ❖ Only legitimate way is social contract.
Economic and Social Liberalization ❖ Slavery is absurd according to him.
❖ The expanding forms of political liberty found their ❖ Possession is claiming ownership of an object by a
counterparts in an economic life freed from the force, state of nature implies that kind of ownership.
constraints of the old colonial empires. ❖ Private property is bound by law, accepted by other
➢ The American republic constituted a vast free- members.
trade zone, its commerce was open to the world. ➢ That is why he was critical about colonization; the
➢ In France and Europe, economic life had been Europeans claimed ownership on the basis of
rationalized and freed from the domination of acquiring first.
local authorities and local weights and measures. ❖ According to him, right to rule does not come from the
➢ National law formed the framework for economic nature.
activity. ➢ The desire to form a community is not natural
Nationalism rather a desire to control.
❖ The emergence of nationalism as a political force. ➢ Every political association is human made.
➢ The idea of nations defined by their own character ➢ The only natural institution is the family.
and historical past rather than by dynastic rulers. ➢ In family, there is kind of natural agreement
❖ The Americans saw themselves as forming a new kind between the children and the father.
of nation ➢ The children give up their liberty and obey the
❖ The French had demonstrated the power of a nation father in return they obtain protection.
mobilized for military purposes.
❖ Their political doctrines and their social and economic Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
departures provided examples to peoples elsewhere in ❖ Rousseau’s influence is visible.
the world. ❖ It is a direct challenged the old feudal system. It the
➢ The new political classes and independent nations basis of new system and a universal text.
would become actors on the world scene. ❖ Article 1
➢ Men are born and remain free, and equal in rights.
Rousseau, The Social Contract Social distinctions may be founded only upon the
❖ His ideas contributed a lot to the French Revolution. general good.
❖ His political philosophy also influenced all ❖ Article 2
developmental of political thought. ➢ The aim of all political association is the
❖ During the revolution, he was favorite of Jacobin club. preservation of the natural and imprescriptible
❖ The social contract outlines the legitimate. rights of man. These rights are liberty, property,
❖ The social contract, according to him, is that in nature, security, and resistance to oppression.
every individual is free and also every individual are ❖ Themes;
open to dangers. ➢ Separation of power (Montesquieu)
➢ In such an atmosphere they need to sum their ➢ The right of property
power with other individuals. ➢ Importance of army
❖ This contract is between individuals not with rulers. ➢ Freedom of speech
❖ In return, becoming a member of society they require ➢ A fair taxation system
civil liberty through which they protect themselves. ❖ This is a Eurocentric, elitist and sexist text but it paid
❖ This is an agreement which is entirely voluntary and new understanding.
not binned next generations.
❖ The general will is collective will of community.
➢ It is made up of members, therefore it cannot be
harmful to community.
❖ He does not believe in democracy in large states.
➢ This point later criticized by others.
➢ This idea pays way to notion of dictatorship.
➢ J.S Mill was critical in that sense; general will
may lead to dictatorship.
❖ Each member of the community has the right to
participate in “decision process” (public deliberation).
 Society Transformed: Orders into Classes The Industrial Revolution
❖ In equality is maintaining ❖ In this context, the word “revolution” is not same as
❖ The ideal for a bourgeoise is being noble. political revolution.
❖ Increasing productivity is difficult, which is the major ➢ Revolution, here, has to be understood as
quality of an agricultural society metaphor.
➢ You do not money from it. ➢ That has radical implications in terms
❖ Cities are more dynamic; transformation of the whole system.
➢ The city is crowded and open to commercial ➢ The industry requires meaning through the
enterprises. industrial revolution, in the past it meant “work”.
❖ You start to see formation of a new society, that is ❖ It is a very long process, you cannot a date to specify
where rising of bourgeoise emerged. it.
❖ The king is the center of gravity, ➢ And it never really ends.
➢ he defines relation of each group and structure. ❖ Dark, black, blood, iron, alienation, smoke and so are
❖ This is something in the 17th century leading typical images of industrial revolution.
transformation. ➢ This is not started like that. None of the heavy
❖ It is about gradually using economic power and kinds of elements, inputs existed. They gradually
ambitions of bourgeoise to attract them into the system developed.
as the alternative aristocracy. ❖ Louis XIV was the designer of some factories.
❖ Tension in the feudal system is between nobility and ➢ You do have something looking factories before
king. the revolution.
➢ Primus inter pares which means king is also a ➢ The major difference was the old ones were stated
noble he is more equal than others. owned.
➢ That does not imply the king is different. ➢ They have specific things to produce, very
➢ The king is trying to politically castrate nobility, targeted.
the court is all about this. ▪ There is no capitalist process behind it.
➢ To give power to bourgeoise who buy offices and ❖ The industrial revolution in its inception was a British
power is going to be a challenge to aristocracy. phenomenon.
❖ The weakness of aristocracy is an invention. ❖ This brings us to the question of what are the pre-
➢ Being a noble is being born in it. conditions?
➢ Sprezzatura is look down on others and to that is ❖ Political conditions;
best express of I do not care this. ➢ Europe is still discovering capitalism the dominant
➢ You are superior to others by basically looking order goes against the rationality of capitalism.
down on them is not a violent way. ➢ People did not invest economically rather they
➢ Why do you need that kind of body language to invested politically.
mark your territory of power? ➢ The state was a big borrower and spender with
➢ They are born in it, born nobles. implications of instability of financial market.
➢ Showing effort to obtain it is not being noble ▪ It goes bankrupt day by day because it is
rather, it is being the target of nobles. deprived of the ability to pay back.
➢ To be cool is exactly same thing, the moment of ➢ In 18th century while France was spending its
showing effort means that you are not naturally money for non-economically aims, England spent
cool. its money as investments.
❖ In the 17th century, there is the movement towards up. ▪ In England and Dutch interest rate was low in
➢ They are not into capitalism yet. contrast to France.
➢ They use fiscal power for non-economic aims. ➢ There is the agriculture also.
➢ The money is filth thing for a noble. ▪ People in terms of labor needs feeding
❖ The French Revolution is not rising of people of Paris themselves, and the industry need market
rather bourgeoise for the recognition of their power. which was consisted of people.
➢ The third estate is not represented by peasants but ▪ So, agriculture in that sense is crucial.
bourgeoise. ❖ England gone through agricultural revolution,
➢ The problem is that at every case third estate is ➢ They moved from non-productive one to
forced to be inferior. productive one.
➢ All the of third estate asks for higher ➢ Innovation in agriculture is extremely hard
representation for political power. But others because of climate etc.
refused to recognize the need of change, that ➢ Most of the world agriculture was for survival not
triggered the revolution. The rise the power of for surplus.
bourgeoise that is imitating the members of ➢ Agriculture has limits to increase its productivity.
aristocracy.
 ➢ Without technological developments, it is only ➢ The other novelty is that traditional economic
possible by adding extensions which is not market is defined by demand ruling over
productivity. production but in capitalism is very contrary.
❖ Productivity is something you apply the same amount ▪ Demand being ruled by production is
of land which happens only by technology. capitalist way.
❖ Rotation of corrupts, all sorts of technologies lead to ❖ The profit diminish caused people to look for other
Europe did not know which resulted in surplus. profit sources.
❖ You have constantly cycle of population in which ➢ Mining was one of them.
resources insufficient to maintain the population. ➢ Railways are not born out need of people, there
➢ Population starts to reduce itself. were proto railway systems.
➢ Stability of population cannot be guaranteed. ❖ Temples of Industry
❖ England solved it, ➢ The Cristal palace in London is huge glass palace
➢ Population increases regardless natural which was built in order to show the capacity of
circumstances. new economy.
➢ Agriculture employs most of the population that
means that industry need steal labor from
agriculture.
❖ The great land lords gradually wanted to use their
lands in more efficient way, animal husbandry to
produce wool.
➢ The peasantry who are dependent on land are
kicked of the land.
▪ Enclosure.
❖ There is technology.
➢ It is a very basic kind of technology. It is a very
low tech.
➢ Textile production
➢ The revolution was based on cotton not on wool.
▪ But cotton comes from the outside like India
and America, there is the competition between
British merchants and colonial context.
➢ Steam has been developing ever since the 17th
century. Water, animals, human power or winds
produced very simple steam engine.
❖ The most radical change is not technological but
organizational.
➢ The large number of workers come together and
need to survive in a very competitive place.
➢ Force them to work and organizing time was very
contributive to process.
▪ The entry of workers in a wage economy.
▪ The loss of significant ownership of means of
production.
➢ Women were producing, when you came to
Fordism you commenced to see alienation.
➢ Huge market, cheap material and labor.
❖ Pre-capitalist cycle of production is commodity-
money.
➢ You produce commodity and get money and you
use money to get commodity.
➢ But in capitalist one, money commodity money
cycle emerged.
➢ Sell the commodity to get profit and obtain money
to invest.
❖ If you use the money for satisfaction, you are not
capitalist.
➢ A capitalist is not interested in what he produces
but profit.
 The Triumph of the Bourgeoisie ❖ Nationalism was being promoted to level of
❖ The bourgeoisie is basically people, who lived in an conservative ideology.
urban community, and share an urban space and urban ➢ It has become the ideology of the state, to from
trades, urban activities in common. liberalism to conservatism.
➢ Different than the mass of population especially ❖ The child and woman labor were cheap therefore
the working class. families were encouraged to contribute the budget of
➢ Those who have wealth and power compare to the family.
those who live on a daily wage base and work. ❖ Behind all this gloss of bourgeoise was based on
➢ Also, a political distinction. negative image of transformation.
▪ Belonging or not to the urban community as a ➢ Periphery of cities became the slums, the
political nexus. bourgeoise need them.
❖ The Bourgeois of medieval Europe generally is ❖ The obsession of bourgeoise on lavishness, showing
somebody, participating the decision making of the your status by buying stuff was invention of 19 th
urban community, through assemblies and etc. century.
❖ The workers do not have that status of a citizen of a ❖ Putting too much objects characterized the external
city. vision of bourgeoise want.
❖ So, bourgeoisie is a privileged class ❖ The bourgeoise stuck in their own moral values and
➢ However not yet the capitalist class, like in the their desire to transcend it.
case of 19th century. ➢ For example, prostitution was the sector that
❖ The French Revolution transformed the group of served the bourgeoise.
bourgeoise into a class, into a group of individuals, ❖ This bourgeoise comes with the moral values in which
who have a political goal, a political ambition women are forced to obey the men and systematic
➢ They spent much of their efforts in trying to get submission.
recognition by the system, which means they lost ➢ In the children books, all of values are
money and were not yet in a capitalist system. implemented gradually; the girl is inside playing
➢ However, the very negative treatment from the with the doll the boy is outside.
first and second estates encouraged them. ➢ The father is hugging the child and the father is
➢ The revolution does become bourgeoise depicted as rational however the mother is
revolution. depicted as irrational (religion).
➢ Napoleon will also base his power on bourgeoisie. ❖ Religion was becoming the major supporter of the
➢ They are now becoming a political power in the conservatism.
system. ➢ The rhetoric and discourse of the Christianity
❖ The change in western Europe as liberalization and in crystalized the order.
the East part as national struggle. ➢ The morality is also about trying to limit.
➢ In Greece, they fought against Ottoman Empire. ➢ Asylums became the monitoring method, esp.
❖ In 1830, the bourgeoise are the people of the Paris, women.
bourgeoise is still on the side of liberalization. ➢ Hysteria for example is invention of 19th century.
❖ In 1848, the revolutions in Europe defined a new ▪ The women just because of their gender are
conservative role that bourgeoise acquired. considered as potential insane.
❖ The bourgeoise is also about the family ▪ There is a large spectrum from sanity to
➢ There were values that associated with the family. insanity to criminal.
❖ In the end of 1840s, they were economic booms. ▪ There is the control of these deviation.
➢ Some of modern forms of populism and dictator Schooling, housing, all system was about to
rule takes place in this period. convey bourgeoise’s values.
➢ Napoleon starts his political power with
“Extinction du Pauperisme”, he proposes a The People’s Petition
program that aims eradication of poverty. ❖ Chartism was radical English worker movements.
➢ He bases his power, Bonapartism, electoral victory ➢ The movement aimed to unite working class to
to obtain political power. obtain equality in legal manner.
➢ In 4-year time, he became the second empire of ❖ The demanded 6 rights.
France. ➢ The working class was excluded from voting;
❖ Paris transformed itself into modern city, this is now a therefore, their first demanded was for voting
new city. ➢ They demanded Secret Ballot
➢ Regularity, systematic structure was the ▪ Voting method in which a voter's choices in
showcasing of the bourgeoise. an election or a referendum is anonymous
➢ The top of that, there was a political aim, the city ➢ They demanded annual parliaments in order to
becomes more manageable in terms of ability to prevent any kind of corruption among members of
crush any resistance. the parliament.
 ➢ The fourth one was abolishment of all property
qualifications of parliamentary members.
➢ They also demanded payment for members of
parliament because the representatives of them
also come from working class in order to maintain
their life they demanded payments.
➢ In 18th century, we see the unequal distribution of
seats. In rich cities of England had more seats in
the parliament. We have much more organized
working class.

Manifesto of the Communist Party

❖ Communists involved in public politics.
❖ This a political manifesto, written in German and
published in 1848.
➢ Also an analysis of class society.
❖ The target of text was the poor class, that is why
reading it is easy.
❖ The history is a product of class struggle.
❖ The bourgeoisie is defined as owners of the means of
the production.
❖ Proletariat has no means of production, they only have
their labor.
❖ The text defines bourgeoisie as a revolutionary class
because they gave end to monarchial and feudal
structures.
➢ It was once an oppressed class, it defeated it and
helped people get rid of feudalism through the
bourgeoisie revolutions.
❖ The text also defines bourgeoisie as a global class;
capitalism needs expansion, needs new landscapes to
acquire raw materials.
❖ The crises of capitalism are the outcome of
overproduction, to solve it they destroy the working-
class.
❖ The unions, class solidarity are the weapons of the
working class.
➢ They should use means of communication
(newspapers, journals) which are products of
bourgeoisie to establish solidarity.
➢ The political parties, trade unions should be
established.
❖ Nation is the tool of bourgeoisie, the representative of
interests of bourgeoisie.
❖ The former classes tried to secure themselves.
➢ The unique about the working class is their
inability to secure themselves.