Production of cold formed steel sections

Basically there are three methods

(a) folding
(b) press braking
(c ) cold rolling
Cold rolling from sheet steel
Variety of cold formed steel sections
LGS material
G550 Sheet
Steels

•Cold reduced to thickness.

•G550 less than 1.0 mm thick
•Stress relief annealed.
•Higher fy & fu and lower ductility - Anisotropic.
 fy fu High strength steel G550

700

fu Conventional steel G300

Stress

fy

400

Strain-hardening range

0.2% Strain

Stress-Strain Curves
Steel Framed House
Purlin and Cleat
Stud Walls
Typical frame
detail
Construction
of Cassette
walls
 Self tapping and self
drilling screws

Typical connection
components in CFSS

Blind rivets

Plug welds

Fired pins
Punched connections
LGS Design philosophies
Understanding Stability
 Learning
Point 1

Unable to carry loads – Since Unable to carry loads – Since it

material strength is reached has lost its stability
Strength Problem Stability Problem

Stability is an elastic phenomenon & Energy is

its language
RECTANGULAR PLATES ON FOUR SIDES

B x

a
C D

z
y

Nx A b

Buckling of Plate under Uni-axial Compression

 CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS

Equilibrium Equation
∂4w 2∂ 4 w ∂4w 12(1 − ν 2 )  ∂2w 
+ 2 2 + = − Nx 
∂x 4
∂x ∂y ∂y 4
Et 3  2 
∂x 

w can be assumed as (satisfies end conditions)
m πx nπy
w= ∑ ∑ w mn sin sin
m =1, 2,3,... n =1, 2,3,.... a b

 m 4π 4 m 2 n 2π 4 n 4π 4  12(1 − ν 2 ) m 2π 2
 =
 a 4 + 2 a 2b2 +
b4  Et 3
( N x ) cr
a2
 

( N x ) cr =
(
π 2 Et 3 m 2 / a 2 + n 2 / b 2 )
2
=
π 2 Et 3  m n 2 a 
+
2

12(1 − ν 2 ) m2 / a2 12(1 − ν 2 )  a mb 2 

Lowest value for n=1

2
π 2 Et 3  b 1 a kπ 2 E
N cr = m +  σ cr =
12(1 − ν 2 )b 2  a m b 12(1 − ν 2 )(b / t ) 2 (Ncr = σcrt)
 PLATES WITH OTHER SUPPORT CONDITIONS
web
Rotation of
free edge

(a) (b) (c ) (d) (e)

Plate Elements with Different Edge Conditions

Table 1 Values of k for Different Load and Support Conditions
Load Condition Support Condition Buckling
Coefficient, k
Uniaxial Compressive Stress Hinged-hinged 4.00
(σx) Fixed-fixed 6.97
Hinged-free 0.43
Fixed free 1.27
Shear Stress (τxy) Hinged-hinged 5.35
Fixed-fixed 8.99
 DESIGN OF PLATE ELEMENTS
Limiting width-thickness ratio to ensure yielding before plate
buckling

1
2
 blim   kπ 2 E 

 ≤
 t   12(1 − ν ) f y 
2

 LOCAL BUCKLING K=4.0

K=0.425

(a)

Local buckling of Compression Members

Beams – compression flange buckles locally

Fabricated and cold-formed sections prone to local buckling
Local buckling need not lead to collapse
Postbuckling strength of thin elements and their design
 Vent

Local buckling

Vent

Full Section Capacity Full section capacity

eroded by local Buckling
High strength to weight ratio

Reduced
construction costs
and lowered
weight per square
meter

Reduced
foundation costs

Material saving.
 Which is Stronger ?

An Elephant or an Ant

This signifies the capacity of thin

elements to take larger stresses
beyond their critical stress
σf /fy σf /fy
1.00 1.0

0.75 0.75 Test data

(σE /fy)
0.50 0.50 (σcr/fy)
Test data

0.25 0.25

0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0

√fy /σE √fy/σcr
(a) (b)

Column and Plate Strength Curves

Local Buckling of lipped channels
 F F F
∆

S D S

S D S δ
D

F
Prebuckling Postbuckling
σcr
F F
S
D
S+D ∆ δ
Inplane Out-of-plane
 Postbuckling strength- thick or thin plate ?

Thick plate Thin plate

σy σ
Postbuckled reserve
σcr,thick
Postbuckled reserve strength(Thin Plate)
strength(Thick Plate)
σcr,thin
δ
Effective Width Method
 POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR & EFFECTIVE WIDTH

(b) Assumed

beff

b beff/2 beff/2
(a) Actual (b) Assumed b
Actual and Assumed Stress Distribution (a) Actual
in the Post-buckling Range(SCE)
UCE
beff = ρ b
 beff = ρ b

1
ρ=
λ

Concept of effective width George Winter’s equation

in cold formed steel
1 0.22
structures ρ= (1 − )
λ λ
 Effective section under axial
compression and bending

N A

Gross section Effective section- Effective section-

Axial compression Bending

How codes view cold formed sections?

Un-stiffened
element
Stiffened
element

Channel Section comprising of a

stiffened element and two
un-stiffened elements
How can we get maximum stiffened elements

1. Channel section
2. Channel with a simple lip
3. Channel with compound lip
4. Intermediately stiffened
Channel with compound lips
Design Methodlogies

(1) Effective Width

(2) GBT
(3) DSM
Local and
Overall
Buckling
Concept of effective width and section property calculation
Concept of effective width and section property calculation
Local buckling and
distortional buckling
 TYPES OF COLUMN OVERALL BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR

CG SC CG SC
CG SC
CG
x0
y0

SC x0
Singly symmetric Doubly symmetric
Unsymmetric
PTF=PEX
PTF=PEX+PEY+PT PTF=PEX+PT or
or PTF=PEY
PTF=PEY or
PTF=PT 41
Shift of centroid in colulmns
Effective width equation
Effective width for stiffened elements

Actual Element

b/2 b/2
Effective widths of unstiffened compression elements

Actual Element

stress f

b
How can we get maximum effective width

w Element 1

h
Element 2

Edge rotational Compactness of Interaction of

the section elements
restraint
Effective width for elements under stress gradient
 Basis of GBT
The key concepts behind GBT consist of

(i) the characterization of the behaviour of the prismatic

members (evaluation of displacements and stresses) through a
linear combination of predefined modes of deformation
(ii) algebraic diagonalization using an orthogonalization procedure
of the modes of deformation to obtain the cross-sectional
properties.
Direct Strength Method
SupaZed
Section
 900

800 Supazed Section

700
Buckling Stress (MPa)

600

500

400 Increase for

Local Buckling
300

200 Standard Z-Section

Increase for Increase for
100 Distortional Buckling Flexural-Torsional
Buckling
0
10 100 1000 10000
Buckle Half-Wavelength (mm)
Basis of DSM
Basis of DSM
Basis of DSM
Basis of DSM
 Direct Strength Method (DSM)

Alternative to the Effective Width Method (EWM) used for

over 60 years

Uses gross section properties and buckling stresss of whole

section rather than elements

Allow more complex shapes with edge and intermediate

stiffeners to be designed easily

Research of Hancock, Kwon and Bernard (1994) and Schafer

and Pekoz (1998)
 Direct Strength Method
Slenderness
• Column slenderness for L+E interaction

• Column slenderness for D+E interaction

• Pne is the flexural/flexural-torsional strength

 Direct Strength Method Equations
for Columns

Local and Flexural/Flexural-Torsional Equation

Distortional and Flexural/Flexural-Torsional Equation

 Direct Strength Method Slenderness
• Beam slenderness for L+Yield interaction

• Beam slenderness for D+Yield interaction

My is the section yield moment

 Direct Strength Method Equations for Beams

Local and Yield Moment Equation

Distortional and Yield Moment Equation

Mnd = (1 - 0.25(Mcrd/My)0.5 )(Mcrd / My )0.5 My

 Direct Strength Method (DSM)

Beam Strength

M b = the least of (M ne , M nl , M nd )

where Mne is the beam lateral buckling strength of the

gross section
 Design of Cold-formed steel
Using Direct strength method
(DSM)
 Design using DSM
Three salient points required

– Local buckling stress (Load)

– Distortional buckling stress (Load)

– Global buckling stress (Load)

This stresses can be get using CUFSM
software
CUFSM- Constrained Unconstrained Finite Strip Method
Signature curve
DSM Equation
Column Beam
(Pcr) (Mcr)
Global Buckling

AISI S100 -2016

Pn =Minimum (Pnl,Pnd,Pne)
Calculate the bending and axial capacity of
given Lipped channel cross section.

60 mm
20 mm Fy=250 N/mm2
1.6
120
mm Length = 1800
mm mm
Cross sectional property
Signature curve for axial compression

Pcrl=71.73
Pcrd=143.3 Pcre=71.7
6 3 Pcrd=143.36
Pcrl=71.7
3 Pcre=71.73
 Design of Column
Global buckling

Pcre=71.73

=58.07 kN
Local buckling

Pcrl=71.73
 Distortional buckling

Pcrd=143.3
6

Pn =Minimum (Pnl,Pnd,Pne)
Pn =58.07
kN
 Design of Beam
Signature curve for Major axis bending

Inputs from CUFSM

(kNm)

My= 4.28 kNm

Mcrd=9.80
Mcrl=11.23 kNm

Mcrd=9.80 kNm
Mcrl=11.2 Mcre=7.29
3
Mcre=7.29 kNm
 Design of beam
Global buckling
for Mcre < 0.56My My= 4.28 kNm
Mne = Mcre
for 2.78My > Mcre > 0.56My
Mcrl=11.23 kNm
10  10M y 
Mne = My 1 −  Mcrd=9.80 kNm
9  36M cre 
 
for Mcre > 2.78My Mcre=7.29 kNm
Mne = My

0.56 My<Mcre<2.78 My Mne=3.97 KNm

Mn =Minimum (Pnl,Pnd,Pne)
SECTION PROPERTY CALCULATIONS FOR COLD
FORMED STEEL MEMBERS
Structural shapes in cold formed steel structures
Individual sections and their combinations
Three procedures for section property
calculation

Why do we need plane element

simplifications ?
Properties of a corner
R=r + t/2
Length of the arc, l = 1.57 R
c =0.637 R I1 = I2 = 0.149 R3
 Element No Length of the Element
1 1.01-(0.1875+0.135) 0.6875 in
2 1.57*(0.1875+0.135/2) 0.40 in
3 3.5-2*(0.1875+0.135) 2.855 in
4 1.57*(0.1875+0.135/2) 0.40 in
5 12-2*(0.1875+0.135) 11.355 in
6 1.57*(0.1875+0.135/2) 0.40 in
7 3.5-2*(0.1875+0.135) 2.855 in
8 1.57*(0.1875+0.135/2) 0.40 in
9 1.01-(0.1875+0.135) 0.6875 in
Total 20.04 in

(a) Full section with corners

 Element
Length of the Element
No
1 1.01-0.135/2 0.9425 in
2 3.5-0.135 3.365 in
3 12-0.135 11.865 in
4 3.5-0.135 3.365 in
5 1.01-0.135/2 0.9425 in
Total 20.48 in

(b) Centre line method

 Element
Length of the Element
No
1 1.01-(0.135/2+0.293*(0.1875+0.135/2)) 0.867
2 3.5-2*(0.135/2+0.293*(0.1875+0.135/2)) 3.216
3 12-2*(0.135/2+0.293*(0.1875+0.135/2)) 11.71
4 3.5-2*(0.135/2+0.293*(0.1875+0.135/2)) 3.216
5 1.01-(0.135/2+0.293*(0.1875+0.135/2)) 0.867
Total 19.88

(c) Notional width method

Thank you !