Defining Public Administration

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor in Chief
Jay M. Shafritz, University of Pittsburgh

Consulting Editors
David H. Rosenbloom, The American University
E. W. Russell, Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne

Associate Editors
Abdullah Al-Khalaf, Institute of Public Administration, Saudi Arabia
Geert Bouckaert, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
Beverly A. Cigler, Pennsylvania State, Harrisburg
Peter Foot, United Kingdom Joint Services Command and Staff College
Arie Halachmi, Tennessee State University
Marc Holzer, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Richard D. Heimovics, University of Missouri-Kansas City
Jerry McCaffery, Naval Postgraduate School
J. Steven Ott, University of Utah
David 0. Renz, University of Missouri-Kansas City
Norma M. Riccucci, University at Albany, State University of New York
Larry D. Terry, Cleveland State University
Kenneth F. Warren, St. Louis University
Defining Public
Administration
Selections from the
International Encyclopedia of
Public Policy and Administration

Jay M. Shafritz
Editor in Chief

~l Routledge
~~ Taylor & Francis Group
New York London
First published 2000 by Westview Press

Published 2018 by Routledge

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Defining public administration : selections from the International encyclopedia of public
policy and administration I editor in chief, Jay M. Shafritz.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8133-9766-9 (pbk.)
1. Public administration. 2. Policy sciences. I. Shafritz, Jay M.

JF132l.D44 2000
351-dc21 99-087104
CIP
ISBN 13: 978-0-8133-9766-5 (pbk)
 CONTENTS

Preface Vll

Part 1 Overviews of Public Administration

1 Public Administration, Frank Marini 3
2 American Administrative Tradition, Nicholas Henry 17
3 Feminist Theory of Public Administration, Camilla Stivers 30

Part 2 Policy Making

4 Policy, William H. Park 39
5 Policy Leadership, JeffreyS. Luke 43
6 Policy Network, Charles J. Fox and Hugh T. Miller 65
7 Rule, Cornelius M. Kerwin 73

Part 3 Intergovernmental Relations

8 Intergovernmental Relations, Dale Krane and Deil S. Wright 83
9 Mandates, Jeffrey D. Straussman 102
10 Government Corporation, Jerry Mitchell 110

Part 4 Bureaucracy
11 Bureaucracy, Ralph P. Hummel 121
12 Bureaucrat Bashing, Charles T. Goodsell 128
13 Bureaupathology, Ruth Hoogland DeHoog 132

Part 5 Organization Behavior

14 Organizational Culture, Dvora Yanow and Guy B. Adams 137
15 Groupthink, Robert T. Golembiewski 147
16 Miles's Law, Jeffery K. Guiler 151
17 Parkinson's Law, Peter Foot 154
18 Peter Principle, Susan C. Paddock 156

Part 6 Public Management

19 Public Management, Mary E. Guy 161
20 Scientific Management, Judith A. Merkle 169
Vl Contents

21 Management Science, Dorothy Olshfski and Michele Collins 180

22 Entrepreneurial Public Administration, Carl J. Bellone 184

Part 7 Strategic Management

23 Leadership, Frederick W. Gibson and Fred E. Fiedler 191
24 Strategic Planning, John M. Bryson 208
25 Mission Statement, Kevin P. Kearns 230

Part 8 Performance Management

26 Productivity, Marc Holzer 237
27 Reengineering, Albert C. Hyde 249
28 Quality Circles, Ann-Marie Rizzo 271
29 Public Enterprise, Roger Wettenhall 279

Part 9 Human Resources Management

30 Public Personnel Administration, Ronald D. Sylvia 295
31 Mentoring, Steven W. Hays 307
32 Pay-for-Performance, Dennis M. Daley 315
33 Workforce Diversity, Donald E. Klingner 322
34 Glass Ceiling, Katherine C. Naff 339

Part 10 Financial Management

35 Financial Administration, John L. Mikesell 345
36 Congressional Budget Process, Philip G. Joyce 355
37 Target-Based Budgeting, Irene S. Rubin 367

Part 11 Auditing and Accountability

38 Audit, Ira Sharkansky 375
39 Accountability, Barbara S. Romzek and Melvin J. Dubnick 382
40 Stewardship, Douglas F. Morgan 396

Part 12 Ethics
41 Administrative Morality, Willa Marie Bruce 407
42 Standards of Conduct, April Hejka-Ekins 416
43 Regime Values, John A. Rohr 420
44 Lying with Statistics, Claire Felbinger 422
45 Whistleblower, Deborah D. Goldman and David H. Rosenbloom 428

Appendix 437
Index 449
 PREFACE

Public administration is the totality of the working day activities of all of

the world's bureaucrats, all of the people who work for governments-
whether their activities are legal or illegal, competent or incompetent, de-
cent or despicable. It is very much like the cosmos once described by the
British scientist J. B. S. Haldane: "The universe is not only queerer than
we suppose, but queerer than we can suppose." Things are much the
same with public administration. It is not only far vaster in scope than
most citizens suppose, it is so extensive and pervasive in modem life that
not even the most imaginative of us can imagine it all. Yet, we must try
because the administration of the public's business is too important to ig-
nore, too much a part of our everyday lives, and too potentially danger-
ous to what Thomas Jefferson famously called our "life, liberty, and pur-
suit of happiness."
This book, appropriately entitled Defining Public Administration, is thus
designed to stir the imaginations of readers. The articles collected herein
are all reprinted from the International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Ad-
ministration (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998). This collection of articles from
the Encyclopedia was created to offer a sampling of the riches to be found
within the larger work. The articles have been organized so that they can
be easily used as a supplement to a core text in an introductory public ad-
ministration course at either the undergraduate or graduate level. The ar-
ticles selected are among the most readable and most interesting to be
found in the larger work. Indeed, one goal in creating this collection was
to encourage students to delve into the rest of the Encyclopedia.
The four-volume Encyclopedia has 900 articles written by 462 contribu-
tors from 23 countries and 42 of the 50 U.S. states. It was designed so that
its contents-a combination of historical and descriptive articles, proce-
dural presentations, and interpretive essays-would be of interest to the
general reader as well as the specialist. Contained therein are definitions
of the vocabulary of public policy and administration as it is used

Vll
Vlll Preface

throughout the world from the smallest towns to the largest national bu-
reaucracies. And when we say definitions we mean just that; all articles
start by defining their topic. So if all the reader is seeking is a quick ex-
planation of the meaning of a concept or practice, they need read no fur-
ther than the first paragraph. The rest of the article will still be there if
and when the reader needs more detailed information. It is this defini-
tional format that inspired the title of the book you are holding.
It is very important that public administration be defined in the most
expansive manner possible. How else to examine its richness and sub-
tlety? How else to become aware of its historical significance, universal
application, and current developments? Public administration is both di-
rect and indirect. It is direct when government employees provide ser-
vices to the public as varied as local bus service, mortgage insurance,
mail delivery, water, and electricity. It is indirect when government pays
private contractors to provide goods or services for citizens. For example,
while NASA operates the space shuttle, the shuttle itself was built by the
employees of private corporations. The security guards and cleaning
staffs of many government buildings are employees of private compa-
nies. Does this put any of them outside the realm of public administra-
tion? Not at all. Remember that a government agency must hire, evalu-
ate, and hold them accountable for the quality of their performance-
whether these companies see to the cleaning of toilets or the building of
spaceships.
Throughout the world, government employees do things that affect
the daily lives of their fellow citizens. These things range from the heroic
(such as a firefighter rescuing a child from a burning building) to the
mundane (such as cleaning the streets). Usually these efforts are benefi-
cial. Sometimes they are not. Most of the time in most countries public
administrators tend to the public's business; for example, they build
schools and highways, collect trash, put out fires, plow snow where it is
cold, kill mosquitoes where it is hot, and provide essential social services
for the middle class as well as the poor. Unfortunately in some lands
public employees may be engaged to torture the innocent and murder
children. Amnesty International is the Nobel Prize-winning organization
that seeks to gain the release of political and religious prisoners by publi-
cizing their plight. Each year it publishes a report on the states that bru-
talize and violate the civil rights of their citizens. Now who do you think
does all this brutalizing and violating? None other than their local public
administrators! As a profession, public administration has developed
Preface ix

values and ethical standards. But as an activity, it has no values. It merely

reflects the cultural norms, beliefs, and power realities of its society. It is
simply government doing whatever government does-in whatever po-
litical and cultural context it happens to exist.
The Encyclopedia is a major effort toward the international integration
of the literature on public policy and administration-which are two
sides of the same coin (policy being the decisionmaking side while ad-
ministration is the implementation side). We called the Encyclopedia "in-
ternational" because it contains extensive coverage of public policy and
administration concepts and practices from throughout the world. In-
deed, public administration is increasingly an international discipline.
While the administrative systems of nation-states were once largely self-
contained, today cross-fertilization is the norm. The national marketplace
of ideas wherein policies and techniques once competed has been re-
placed by an international marketplace. Thus the Encyclopedia contains
articles on reinventing government in the United States, Thatcherism in
the United Kingdom, and the New Zealand model. The reforms dis-
cussed in these articles (further elaborated upon by conceptual articles on
devolution, managerialism, and market testing, among others) have been
widely influential. Different political cultures, let alone differing admin-
istrative machinery, require different administrative solutions. Neverthe-
less the compelling reason for students of public administration to be
fully aware of the wealth of new management ideas and administrative
experiments happening in other states is not so much to be able to imitate
as to adapt.
In order to provide a sense of the cultural differentiation of the world's
administrative regimes, many articles focus on the administrative tradi-
tions of a society-for example, the American administrative tradition,
the German administrative tradition, and the Islamic administrative tra-
dition. Other articles focus on unique administrative institutions within a
state-for example, the Ecole Nationale d' Administration in France, the
Federal Reserve System in the United States, and the Prime Minister's
Office in Canada. Extensive coverage is also given to the practices and in-
stitutions of the European Community; for example directive, pillariza-
tion, and subsidiarity.
Finally because so much of the public's administration is conducted
outside of traditional government bureaucracies, extensive coverage has
been given to nongovernmental and nonprofit organization manage-
ment. Thus, there are major articles on foundations, voluntary action,
X Preface

and the independent sector, among others. A complete list of all of the ar-
ticles in the Encyclopedia is included in an appendix to this book. It is an
enticing menu. Use it to decide which articles you may want to read in
addition to those reprinted here.
While Jay M. Shafritz of the University of Pittsburgh, the editor in
chief, initiated the Encyclopedia, it was from the beginning very much a
team effort. First he consulted extensively with David H. Rosenbloom of
the American University in Washington D.C. and E. W. Russell of Victo-
ria University in Australia. Thus, they became the "consulting" editors.
These three developed the overall design and dimensions of the Encyclo-
pedia. Then they invited thirteen other public policy and administration
scholars at major universities to join the team as associate editors. All the
editors then sought out the 462 contributors. Each editor was eventually
responsible for a few dozen to more than a hundred articles. Most editors
also wrote articles themselves.
Many of you would not be reading this book if you were not engaged
in or contemplating public service activities. What follows is not so much
a comprehensive survey-the field is too vast to be encompassed in one
or even a dozen readers-but a reconnaissance. Herein is the lay of the
land that you will encounter in the environment of public administra-
tion. Learn how to tinker with the machinery of government, see how
employees adapt to life in public organizations, discover the ancient se-
crets of modern strategic management, review the arcane rules of public
personnel administration, buy into the politics of the budgetary process,
and finally, examine how ethical it all is. Public administration is not only
a play that has a cast of millions, it is also a show that's been going on for
more than 5,000 years. The modest goal of this collection is to make your
journey into the sometimes untamed frontier of the public sector more
successful by providing the necessary definitional, historical, and con-
ceptual perspectives on this strange world. And how strange is it? As
Haldane said: stranger than we can imagine. Nevertheless, if you read
on, you will stretch your imagination and develop a fuller appreciation
for the importance and diversity of public administration.

Jay M. Shafritz
Part One
Overviews of Public Administration
 1
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Frank Marini,
University of Akron (emeritus)

1. The occupational sector, enterprises, and activities having to do with

the formulation and implementation of policy of governmental and other
public programs and the management of organizations and activities in-
volved. 2. The academic field concerned with the study of, improvement
of, and training for the activities mentioned in 1.
Public administration refers to two distinguishable but closely related
activities: (1) a professional practice (vocation, occupation, field of activ-
ity), and (2) an academic field which seeks to understand, develop, criti-
cize, and improve that professional practice as well as to train individu-
als for that practice. The simple meaning of the term is quite direct: it
refers on the one hand to the administration or management of matters
which have principally to do with the society, polity, and its subparts
which are not essentially private, familial, commercial, or individualistic,
and on the other hand to the disciplined study of such matters. In this
simplest meaning, public administration has to do with managing the
realm of governmental and other public activities. This simple definition
conveys the essence of public administration and probably covers the
vast majority of activities and concerns of contemporary public adminis-
tration.
Such a simple view, though, needs modification to account for at least
two important considerations: First, it must be recognized that profes-
sional management of the public's affairs involves not only management
in the narrowest sense (keeping the books, handling personnel decisions,
implementing decisions which have been made elsewhere in the politico-
socio-economic systems, etc.), but also significantly involves the plan-
ning, formulating, modifying, and urging of goals and purposes of much

3
4 Public Administration

of public affairs. Second, it must be recognized that some matters of pub-

lic administration are handled in ways which are not purely private but
are also not precisely governmental.
The first consideration-that public administration is involved in the
substance of policy as well as in the implementation of policy decisions-
is frequently alluded to with terms such as the demise of the politics-ad-
ministration dichotomy, the impossibility of value-free public adminis-
tration, and the need for proactivity by public administrators. These
terms reflect the widespread, though not universal, belief or allegation
that it is no longer, if ever it was, defensible to interpret public adminis-
tration as solely involved in technically objective solutions or in the neu-
tral implementation of decisions made by nonadministrative parts of the
political system (e.g., partisan leadership; electoral processes; party
processes; partisan bargaining; and parliamentary, legislative, and judi-
cial institutions). This belief and related understandings have led to sig-
nificant public administration attention to policy and policy process.
Some have felt a need for a rubric which emphasizes such a policy focus
and which might also encompass or indicate receptivity to areas of stud-
ies which are closely related (e.g., planning, urban affairs, economic
analysis, public policy analysis), and terms such as public affairs are
sometimes used for this purpose. In general, though, public administra-
tion still functions as the umbrella term throughout the world, though it
must be realized that the term implies a broader range of concerns and
activities than the narrow meaning of management or administration
may convey.
The second consideration-that not all public administration occurs in
and through governmental organizations-also has led to a broadening
of the meaning of public administration. At various times in the past of
public administration it has seemed that its essence and activities could
be identified by referring to nonmarket approaches to social purposes,
but this perspective has been mitigated by the recognition that public
programs and benefits could be developed through and provided with
some market characteristics. Thus there have been developments such as
governmental or quasi-governmental activities which compete with pri-
vate sector activities or provide benefits through use of a price mecha-
nism; sometimes water, utilities, sewers, health care, education, and
other benefits are provided in this way. There are also devices such as
public corporations, quasi-public corporations, public-private coopera-
tive enterprises, and government contractual arrangements with non-
Frank Marini 5

governmental organizations to provide certain benefits or perform cer-

tain functions. Indeed, even for large parts of the world where the pri-
vate-public distinction has not been as prevalent or obvious as other
places (for example, where the economy is essentially directed or non-
market), the movement toward market or marketlike mechanisms for the
provision of public goods is increasingly a matter or rhetoric, planning,
or action.
When these considerations are taken into account, public administra-
tion is probably best defined as the practice and study of the professional
formulation and influence of public policy and the implementation of
such policy on a regular and organized basis on behalf of the public inter-
est of a society, its civic subparts, and its citizenry.

Development of the Field

As first defined above, public administration has existed virtually since
human beings first cooperated on behalf of their society for common pur-
poses. Clear and explicit discussion both of the task of formulating deci-
sions and of carrying out the details of those decisions may be found
among the most ancient documents of various civilizations. Attention to
the proper education and training of individuals for the various tasks in-
volved is also clear and explicit in many such documents. The systematic
study and codification of the technical aspects of such endeavors in a
style reflecting the contemporary field of public administration may be
variously dated.
It is usual, for example, to date the contemporary social scientific
awareness of bureaucracy (a term which can include both private, or
"business," administration and public administration) with the work of
the German social scientist Max Weber (1864-1920). Such dating, though,
is more a matter of convenience or recognition of important scholarly in-
fluence than of historical accuracy. For example, the German and French
writer Baron de Grimm (1723-1807), the German philosopher Georg W.
F. Hegel (1770-1831), and other philosophers and social commentators
explicitly discussed bureaucracy; and the English economist and social
philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)-especially in his 1861 Consid-
erations on Representative Government-offered profound insights into
public bureaucracy and its possible relationship to representative gov-
ernment. Similarly, in many European countries-especially those which
see public administration as essentially a subfocus of public law-under-
6 Public Administration

standings of systematic modern public administration may be traced to

ancient Roman law and its heritage, to the eighteenth-century German
and Austrian Cameralists and Prussian government, to the nineteenth-
century Napoleonic Code and its influences, and to the general heritage
of positive law.
In the United States, it is usual to credit the reformism of the Populist
and Progressive era of politics (about 1880-1920) and especially
Woodrow Wilson's academic article "The Study of Administration" (in
the Political Science Quarterly in 1887) for the systematic and self-con-
scious development of the field of public administration. It is usual also
to identify the early years of U.S. public administration with scientific
management, a school of thought largely attributed to Frederick
Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) which emphasized a task analysis and effi-
ciency approach to management; and with the subsequent human rela-
tions movement, which emphasized the human and social aspects of
work environments and motivations somewhat in contradistinction to
the scientific management movement. Both of these latter movements
had their orgins in industrial and business management, but were very
influential on public administration in the United States and around the
world. The period of U.S. history between the Great Depression and
World War II (about 1929-1945) is commonly held to represent U.S. pub-
lic administration in a self-confident-though some also say naive-
phase; this period is frequently referred to in the United States and else-
where as the period of classical public administration or orthodox public
administration. The period between the end of World War II and the
1960s is usually interpreted as a period of the growth of a behavioral, em-
pirical approach to the social sciences and to public administration and
its concerns. Not only in the United States, but in the industrialized and
industrializing world generally, this period has been characterized as
bringing scientific and technological advances to public administration.
The dynamics of the Cold War competition between the United States
and Western allies and the USSR and its allies, and the manifestation of
this competition in various forms of technical assistance, aid in economic
development, and administrative assistance had an impact upon public
administration. In the 1960s and 1970s, much of the world of science and
technology came under attack. In the United States, these decades and
their challenges have come to be interpreted against the backdrop of the
civil rights movement (and related movements such as feminism), Viet-
nam War activism, the "new left," anti-institutionalism, and particular
Frank Marini 7

manifestations of youth rebellion. Other parts of the world also experi-

enced similar movements, frequently exacerbated by issues of neocolo-
nialism, nationalism, anti-institutionalism, environmentalism, anti-tech-
nologism, and general critiques of scientific and technological
perspectives and, indeed, the entirety of "modernity." All of these mat-
ters had effects upon politics, the social sciences, and public administra-
tion. In the United States and elsewhere, many of these developments
were accompanied by significant critiques of public administration. One
manifestation of this was a dialogue about the need for fundamental re-
thinking in public administration (and, for some, the need for a "new
public administration"). In the last couple of decades, this had been aug-
mented by tremendous technological developments (e.g., in computer
applications and in communications developments) on the one hand,
and ever more sophisticated philosophical and methodological interpre-
tations asserting that we are transcending "modernity" in ways which
call much of our contemporary understanding and technological ap-
proaches into question on the other hand. At the present time, public ad-
ministration worldwide is in creative tension and undergoing rapid
change and attempts at reconceptualization. What the effects of all this
will be over time, or what the next developmental stage will be, is un-
clear but generally appears to have an energizing effect upon the field.

Configuration of the Field

Public administration is sometimes treated as though it is one of the so-
cial sciences, a discipline in some sense. As the number of programs of-
fering doctoral degrees in the field has increased, this interpretation has
gained strength. In some countries, public administration is a formal, de-
gree-granting field at both the baccalaureate and postbaccalaureate lev-
els. In some countries, public administration is not a degree-granting
field, and education for the public administration academic and practi-
tioner is pursued through undergraduate and graduate degree programs
in economics, political science, law, and other such fields. In some other
countries, public administration is a degree program at the post-bac-
calaureate but nondoctorallevel (i.e., degrees or certificates exist at the
master's level, but undergraduate study and doctoral study are pursued
under the disciplinary auspices of other disciplines such as law, econom-
ics, history, sociology, political science, etc.). In some countries, those
who aspire to public administration careers at the highest levels of the
8 Public Administration

professional civil service compete for admission to special academies and

schools which serve this specific purpose. And, of course, some of these
types of educational programs exist in mixed forms in many places.
In the United States, it is relatively unusual for public administration
to be a free-standing degree program at the baccalaureate level (though
there are some well-established and prestigious programs of this sort-
especially in schools of public affairs, schools of management, or schools
of public administration-and this approach may be on the increase).
The more traditional and still usual pattern is for baccalaureate education
in public administration to be a major or minor specialization within a
political science degree program. Master-level degrees are increasingly
emphasized as desirable or expected credentials for full commitment to
professional careers in many fields (e.g., not only in business administra-
tion and public administration, but also in fields such as education, social
work, nursing, and education where the appropriate degree for profes-
sional entry was once the baccalaureate), and the master's degree-usu-
ally, but not always, the master of public administration (MPA)-is be-
coming the recognized degree for those who aspire to careers in public
administration. It should be remembered, though, that public organiza-
tions and activities cover virtually the whole spectrum of contemporary
specialties and that the educational background and specialties of public
administrators therefore reflect this diversity. Many individuals who
spend their working lives in public administration (as well as business
administration) organizations and enterprises will have come from edu-
cational backgrounds such as police, justice, firefighting, engineering,
health services, liberal arts and sciences education, and technical training
of a broad range. Increasingly, though, the expectation is for postbac-
calaureate (degree or nondegree, and frequently "in-service" or "on the
job") education for those who spend a career in the public service regard-
less of what the preservice education or training may have been.
Education for the academic part of the field of public administration-
especially at the doctoral level-continues to rely heavily upon the social
science disciplines. Even when doctoral degree education is in public ad-
ministration (or public affairs, public policy, urban affairs, or other la-
bels), the program of studies is interdisciplinary with heavy reliance
upon the social science disciplines. Doctoral education for public admin-
istration-as for business administration and the social science disci-
plines-also involves significant attention to statistics, information sys-
tems, computer-assisted modeling, and other technical areas.
Frank Marini 9

As modern and contemporary public administration evolved, it

tended to develop a more or less regular set of subfields, approaches, and
topical interests. These generally have to do either with the functional
and technical specializations of public administration, with specific
methods and approaches, or with the phenomena of specific locales and
issue areas of public administration.
Thus, public administration has some subfields which deal with con-
cerns which, in one form or another, have been part of the field since its
earliest days. Budget and finance (how to provide, handle, and account
for material resources), personnel (the policies and management of hu-
man resources), planning, operations management, organizational de-
sign and management, communications and communications systems,
record-keeping, accounting of various kinds, reporting of various kinds
and for a variety of purposes and clientele, internal and external public
relations, and a host of similar concerns constitute some of the technical
and functional foci of the field. In addition to these, there are various con-
cerns dealing with the environment and context of administration: the
constitutional and legal context; the context of the political, economic,
and societal structure, requirements, and processes; the values, history,
traditions, and habits of the society and its components; the values, his-
tory, requirements, and processes of the organizations, programs, and
components of specific relevance at any given time; and many other such
factors (as well as their interrelationships).
Specific approaches, methods, or procedural preferences sometimes
also have aspects of subfield about them. Specializations such as pro-
gram and organizational evaluation, organizational development, opera-
tions research, quantitative aids to management, and the like are partly
defined by methodological affinity or choice, but tend also to become
subfields of research, education, and training. Similarly, participative
management, participative policy processes, focus group approaches,
some approaches to leadership, some aspects of strategic planning, and
the like are partly defined by conclusions about organizational and ad-
ministrative dynamics; partly by epistemological and methodological
preferences; and partly by political or civic values and theories-and
they, too, tend to become something like subfields in research, education,
and training. The general dialogue in the social sciences and humani-
ties-and even in some aspects of the physical and life sciences-con-
cerning methodologies and epistemologies which are sometimes referred
to with terms such as positivism and postpositivism, while not manifest-
10 Public Administration

ing itself as subfield concentrations or subfields, manifests itself as some-

thing of a watershed in public administration as it has in other fields.
There are also specializations and foci having to do with the specific
form and level at which administration occurs: international administra-
tion; national administration; federal/ confederal administration,
state/province administration, district/ department/ sector administra-
tion; city, county, and local administration; intergovernmental and in-
terorganizational administration; "not for profit" administration; and so
forth. Issue areas present other topics and specializations: police, fire,
schools, military, medical, environmental, technology and technology
transfer, science and scientific applications, government-business-indus-
try cooperation, and a host of other specific issue concerns spawn spe-
cializations of knowledge, application, training, and experience.
When one realizes that all these (and many more) can be viewed as
components of a huge matrix where any one (or more) can be related to
any other one (or more), the complexity and variety of the field of public
administration is suggested. A good sense of the present configuration of
the field can be gained by consulting the considerable set of general pub-
lic administration textbooks in use around the world. Perusal of these
will give a good sense of the functional, topical, methodological, and cur-
ricular definition of the field. Comparison of current textbooks with ear-
lier ones can provide a good sense of the changes and development of the
field, and comparison of textbooks from one country to another can pro-
vide a sense of how approaches may vary internationally. There are also
many professional and academic journals of the field worldwide; these
journals can provide a good sense of the current state and interests of the
field, as well as some sense of the different emphases from one setting to
another.

Public Administration as a
Cultural and Social Phenomenon
The phenomena of public administration are also objects of study for
purposes other than the development of public administration. That is,
public administration can be the focus of study of other disciplines or
concerns, much as religion can be a topic of investigation for a sociologist
who is not religious and has no interest in improving religious experi-
ence for the godly. Thus, complex organizations, bureaucracy, and a vari-
ety of organizational, administrative, and policy phenomena constitute
Frank Marini 11

topics of interest to scholars from a variety of disciplines, fields, and per-

spectives. Economists, sociologists, political scientists, philosophers, his-
torians, students of literature and of communications and rhetoric, and a
host of other academic specialists find public administration and its phe-
nomena worthwhile objects of investigation. The field of public adminis-
tration, for its part, contributes to, profits from, and incorporates such
studies.

Concern for Identity

and Legitimacy
A characteristic of public administration in recent decades has been a
concern for the identity or legitimacy of the field. This may, in fact, be
several separable concerns, which are frequently subsumed under the
idea of "identity crisis." There are at least six aspects of this concern: (1)
questioning and clarification which is typical of the formation of disci-
plines and fields; (2) concern over whether public administration is,
properly speaking, a profession; (3) unease about theoretical unification;
(4) puzzling effects of the applied nature of the field or the fact that the
field has a professional or occupational concern as well as a scholarly or
academic concern; (5) ambivalence about bureaucracy, hierarchy, and in-
strumental relationships; and (6) concern about the political legitimacy of
public administration.
A concern for disciplinary identity is a typical concern in the general
configuration and reconfiguration of disciplined understanding of the
world. As public administration worries about its own identity, and espe-
cially as it does so against the backdrop of the social sciences and related
fields of practice, it sometimes does so without clear memory or full ap-
preciation of the recency of the present configuration and identities of
disciplinary identities. Political science and sociology-to take two exam-
ples close to public administration dialogue-have only within the last
century and a half invented themselves in their present identity. The his-
tory of such fields has been one of dialogue, tension, and uncertainty
about epistemology, methodology, identity, and even chief phenomena of
study. Indeed, this state of affairs is characteristic not only of the history
but also of the present state of such fields. Thus, it is not surprising that
identity questioning and insecurity has been characteristic of public ad-
ministration from the inception of its self-conscious awareness as a field.
The Wilson essay frequently cited as an example of the birth of a self-
12 Public Administration

aware field of public administration in the United States was concerned

precisely and explicitly with the question of the identity of a field of
study and practice. The development of the field as a focus for study and
training, concerning as it did an emphasis upon a new field or an inter-
disciplinary field, obviously had to focus on the continual definition of it-
self and on the distinguishing of itself from other foci and fields; this
would seem true of all such developments, though it is sometimes notre-
membered in discussions of the development of fields which have been
long established.
Though questions about the autonomy of the field may be less seri-
ously raised than they have been in the past, they are still encountered
from time to time and from several directions. For example, while a
generic approach (i.e., the idea that administration or management is es-
sentially the same field regardless of whether it is applied to business,
education, health institutions, social work or social services, and so on)
may not be as strongly asserted as it once was, the basic idea is still en-
countered in various forms. Sometimes institutions of higher education
organize in ways which reflect this notion (e.g., a public administration
department in a college or school of business or management), though
there are many reasons other than the epistemological, intellectual, pro-
fessionat or pedagogical why an institution might choose a particular or-
ganizational arrangement. There are professional and academic confer-
ences, associations, and journals which project public administration as a
subunit in a somewhat generic field of management.
On the other hand, countervailing interpretations are indicated by pro-
fessional and organizational conferences, associations, and journals
which project public administration as a subfield in the discipline of po-
litical science. As indicated earlier, such dynamics seem to be a normal
part of configuration and reconfiguration of intellectual enterprises gen-
erally. It is likely that public administration has as much integrity and
clarity about its enterprise as most other fields have at a comparable
stage of development; it seems unlikely that worry over precise discipli-
nary status should be more of a hindrance to public administration than
it has been or is to other fields.
Sometimes worry over the issue of professional status is part of the
perceived identity crisis. Thus, it is sometimes asked whether public ad-
ministration is or can aspire to be a profession, and frequently this is
framed with specific reference to traditional professions. Though such a
question may have interesting implications, there seems to be a develop-
Frank Marini 13

ing consensus that it is important to articulate appropriate professional

standards, expectations, and ethics without worrying unduly about
whether the field is a profession in all the senses of the traditional profes-
sions (e.g., law, medicine, and religious ministry). Still, questions about
professional status have contributed to the sense some have of identity
crisis.
A related aspect of this identity insecurity is concern over unifying the-
ory: it is frequently said that public administration lacks a unifying the-
ory such as some other fields or disciplines are alleged to have. It is true
that public administration may tend to draw from a more multidiscipli-
nary pool of knowledge than some fields, though even this is more often
than not exaggerated (as reflection upon the developing edges of even
hard sciences would suggest). It may be true that the practitioner connec-
tion gives public administration a somewhat more eclectic appearance
than some fields; but, again, this eclecticism and its related complexities
and nuances may be more usual in the development of fields than is
sometimes recognized (as reflection upon the diversity of investigations
and applications in most of the social or human sciences may suggest).
As to theoretical unity or clear dominant paradigms, it is likely that the
presence of such in many fields, as well as its absence in public adminis-
tration, may be regularly overstated.
The fact that the field of public administration is both an academic en-
deavor and a professional field is sometimes thought to limit the field's
disciplinary possibilities. Thus some suggest that public administration
should be thought of as an applied field of practice and training, while
basic research and education should be recognized as taking place in
other fields which are thought to be more clearly disciplines or sciences.
Sometimes the suggestion is made-most notably identified with
Dwight Waldo-that public administration may be a field, discipline, or
science in the way that medicine is; and that like medicine, it may be both
a scientific and practitioner concern which draws on such other fields of
learning as it finds fruitful to its own purposes and activities. The roles of
basic research and applied purpose are likely to be the focus of dialogue
in public administration (as well as in many other fields) for the foresee-
able future. Public administration is likely to continue to have research,
education, training, and practice concerns for the foreseeable future also.
In this regard, the field may resemble established fields such as medicine
or engineering and new fields such as genetic science, polymer science,
or cognitive science; and it is as unlikely that the field of public adminis-
14 Public Administration

tration will be limited by practical and applied concerns as it is that these

other fields will.
An interesting aspect of public administration as a field of academic
study and as a field of training for professional practice is its seeming
ambivalence about itself. For example, a few years ago, Aaron Wil-
davsky, a friendly critic, wondered in print why, since public administra-
tion seemed so essentially involved with hierarchy and bureaucracy,
public administration scholars seemed so unwilling to embrace or de-
fend these characteristics. Thus it may seem from some perspectives that
scholars of public administration seem to deplore so much of which
seems characteristic of, indeed definitional of, their field. Even within the
field itself there have been arguments and dialogue which seem to inter-
pret large parts of the academic field of public administration as essen-
tially opposed to public administration. From a somewhat different per-
spective, though, the "critics from within" frequently feel they are not
attacking the essence of public administration, but rather arguing that
some characteristics which have seemed essential to others are in fact not
essential but could be changed, eroded, reduced, or removed to the im-
provement of the field. From this perspective, then, characteristics such
as bureaucracy and hierarchy may not be unavoidable and definitional
characteristics of public administration, but rather may be unfortunate
aspects which an improved public administration would mitigate or
avoid.
Perhaps the most important aspect of the concern about legitimacy and
identity of the field has to do explicitly with the question of political le-
gitimacy. Long ago, most debate about whether a specific government
was legitimate or not would have rested upon questions of the line of
succession or mystical or religious indication of the identity of the legiti-
mate ruler. For much of the present-day world-and certainly most of
the world in which public administration would have conscious iden-
tity-the question of governmental legitimacy turns on the public good
(in many cases expressed in terms of the interest of the citizenry or even
the will of the people). Under this understanding of legitimacy, questions
of the legitimacy of public administration (essentially nonelected skill-
based participants in rule) are difficult. A traditional answer to the prob-
lem posed has been that the public administrators bring their skills, train-
ing, and job experience to serve the purposes and directions indicated by
the people's representatives (who frequently, and especially within rep-
resentative governments, have been selected through some devices, such
Frank Marini 15

as elections, in which the citizens have had a voice). This is sometimes re-
ferred to as administrative neutrality: the idea that civil servants will
bring their knowledge and skills to the service of whichever party or set
of individuals is chosen to govern from time to time. This answer is still
the largely unquestioned theory of public administration legitimacy in
many parts of the world. Where public administration has been inter-
preted more frequently as having large aspects of discretion, policy for-
mulation responsibilities, and relatively autonomous leadership roles,
though, the possibility or appropriateness of neutrality has been increas-
ingly called into question. This has left the field of public administration
with the need to understand and explicate precisely how public adminis-
trators are or can be legitimate with reference to the citizenry and duly
established political orders. Working out the important ramifications of
such questions leads to dialogue and debate about the foundations of
public administration legitimacy, and this leads some to articulate a sense
that the field is in search of its role, identity, and purpose.
When these and other aspects-the mix, priority, and relative weight
of specific aspects varies from context to context and polity to polity-of
public administration identity are given serious and continuous delibera-
tion and debate, it is understandable that fundamental questions about
the status of public administration take on critical importance. The issues
and the dialogue are not presently at rest, and they are not likely to be in
the foreseeable future.

Future of the Field

Though the field of public administration is perennially concerned about
the identity and security of the field, the future and identity seem secure
even if the exact intellectual configuration cannot be precisely predicted.
The "practice" of public administration is affected everywhere by po-
litical and resource changes. Visible aspects of such changes at the pres-
ent time are concerns over the resources devoted to governmental and
public activities (taxes, the portion of the economy devoted to govern-
mental or public sector activities, etc.); increased interest in many places
in introducing greater aspects of market factors into heretofore nonmar-
ket public sector activities; continued interest in countering hierarchical
and impersonal ("red tape," etc.) aspects; and continued concern about
responsibility and accountability to the citizenry and its interests. The
practice of public administration also experiences today, as it always has,
16 Public Administration

the challenges of technological developments. Such concerns and inter-

ests bespeak possible changes in public administration, but they proba-
bly do not threaten the existence or identity of the practice, occupations,
or vocations of public administration.
The "academic" part of public administration has continually under-
gone change, and in recent history it has continually interpreted such
change as fundamental or as a matter of identity and essence. Intellectual
history and the sociology of knowledge would suggest that we should
expect the study of public administration to be buffeted by the winds of
intellectual change, growth, and challenge (as all active fields of thought
will be). Thus, public administration will participate in, and be influ-
enced by, developments in virtually all areas of human thought.
Presently, the field is visibly influenced not only by incremental develop-
ments of preexisting themes and directions, but also by the host of intel-
lectual, philosophical, methodological, epistemological, and esthetic de-
velopments which are loosely grouped under labels such as
postmodernism. The field has always been influenced by, and partici-
pated in, the intellectual climate and dialogue of its times. It will continue
to do so. And this will be a sign, not particularly of crises of identity or
future, but rather of vitality and engagement.

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Mandates
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Government Corporation
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Bureaucracy
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Bureaupathology
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Groupthink
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Miles’s Law
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Parkinson’s Law
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Peter Principle
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Public Management
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Scientific Management
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Leadership
Bass, Bernard M. , 1985. Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York: Free
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Strategic Planning
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Civil Service Reform. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
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and Strategies. 3d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
National Commission on the Public Service Task Force , 1989. Rebuilding the Public Service.
Washington, DC: National Commission on the Public Service.
Sylvia, Ronald D. , 1994. Public Personnel Administration. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Taylor, Frederick W. , 1967. The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Norton.
Thompson, Frank , ed., 1979. Classics of Public Personnel Administration. Oak Park, IL: Moore
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Mentoring
Aldag, R. J. , and T. M. Stearns , 1987. Management. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western
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Chao, G. , P. Walz , and P. Gardner , 1992. "Formal and Informal Mentorships: A Comparison
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Dreher, F. , and R. Ash , 1990. "A Comparative Study of Mentoring Among Men and Women in
Managerial, Professional, and Technical Positions." Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 75
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Kram, K. E. , 1985. Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life.
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Phillips-Jones, L. , 1983. "Establishing a Formalized Mentoring Program." Training and
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Ragins, Belle R. , and John L. Cotton , 1993. "Wanted: Mentors for Women." Personnel Journal
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Pay-for-Performance
Graham-Moore, Brian , and Timothy L. Ross , 1990. Gainsharing: Plans for Improwing
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1981. Productivity and Motivation: A Review of State and Local Government Initiatives.
Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
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Workforce Diversity
ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) , 1990. P.L. 101–336, July 26, 1990.
Bernhard, H. , and C. Ingols , 1988. "Six Lessons for the Corporate Classroom." Harvard
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Denison, Daniel , 1990. Corporate Culture and Organizational Effectiveness. New York: Wiley.
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NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Hudson Institute , 1988. Opportunity 2000: Creating Affirmative Action Strategies for a
Changing Workforce. Indianapolis: Hudson Institute.
International City Management Association , 1989. Service Delivery in the 90s: Alternative
Approaches for Local Governments. Washington, DC: ICMA.
Jamieson, David , and Julie O'Mara , 1991. Managing Workforce 2000. San Francisco, CA:
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Johnston, W. , and A. Packer , 1987. Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the Twenty-First
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Strategies. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Loden, Marilyn , and Judy Rosener , 1991. W orkforce America! Managing Employee Diversity
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Morgan, H. , and K. Tucker , 1991. Companies That Care. New York: Fireside.
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Rubaii-Barrett, Nadia , and Ann Beck , 1993. "Minorities in the Majority: Implications for
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Glass Ceiling
Kanter, Rosabeth Moss , 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.
Task Force on Barriers to Women in the Public Service , 1990. Beneath the Veneer: The
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U.S. Department of Labor.
U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board , 1992. A Question of Equity: Women and the Glass
Ceiling in the Federal Government. Washington, DC: U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board.

Financial Administration
Aronson, J. Richard , and Eli Schwartz , 1987, Management Policies in Local Government
Finance. Washington, DC: International City Management Association.
Buchanan, James M. , and Gordon Tullock , 1965. The Calculus of Consent : Ann Arbor, MI:
Ann Arbor Paperbacks.
Coe, Charles K. , 1989. Public Financial Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Hausman, Jerry A. , ed., 1993. Contingent Valuation: A Critical Assessment. New York: North
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Internal Control Standards Committee , International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions
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Steiss, Alan Walter , 1989. Financial Management in Public Organizations. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks Cole.

Congressional Budget Process

Doyle, Richard , and Jerry McCaffery . "The Budget Enforcement Act of 1990: The Path to No-
Fault Budgeting." Public Budgeting and Finance, vol. 11, no. 1:25–40.
Fenno, Richard , 1966. The Power of the Purse. Boston: Little Brown.
Fisher, Louis , 1987. The Politics of Shared Power: Congress and the Executive. 2nd ed.
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Under Rules." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, vol. 6, no. 1.
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and Budget Reform." Harvard Journal on Legislation, vol. 29:429–453.
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Aspen Publishers.
TeToup, Tance , 1980. The Fiscal Congress. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Meyers, Roy , 1994. Strategic Budgeting. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
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Stith, Kate , 1988. "Rewriting the Fiscal Constitution: The Case of Gramm-Rudman-Hollings."
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Wildavsky, Aaron , 1988. The New Politics of the Budgetary Process. Glenview, II: Scott
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Target-Based Budgeting
Buck, A. E. , 1929. Public Budgeting. New York: Harper.
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Budgeting and Finance, vol. 2, no. 2: 88–91.

Audit
Brown, Richard E. , Thomas P. Gallagher , and Meredith C. Williams , eds. 1982. Auditing
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Sinclair, Sonja , 1979. Cordial but Not Cosy: A History of the Office of the Auditor General.
Toronto: Maclelland and Stewart.

Accountability
Benedict, Ruth , 1946. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture.
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Burke, John P. , 1986. Bureaucratic Responsibility. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University
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Thompson, Dennis F. , 1987. Political Ethics and Public Office, Cambridge: Harvard University
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Stewardship
Bowman, James S. , 1991. Ethical Frontiers in Public Management. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Burke, John P. , 1986. Bureaucratic Responsibility. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University
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Davis, Kenneth Culp ., 1971. Discretionary Justice: A Preliminary Inquiry. Urbana: University of
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Deming, W. Edwards , 1986. Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Goodsell, Charles T. , ed., 1981, The Public Encounter: Where State and Citizen Meet.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Kass, Henry D. , and Catron, Bayard , 1990. Images and Identities in Public Administration,
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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Lowi, Theodore , 1979. The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic of the U.S. 2d ed. New
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Richards, Sue , 1992. "Changing Patterns of Legitimation in Public Management." Public Policy
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Lawrence: University of Kansas.
Rohr, John A. 1987. Ethics for Bureaucrats: An Essay on Law and Values. Rev. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
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Post-Progressive Era. New York: Transnational Publishers.
Terry, Larry 1995. The Administrator As Conservator: The Leadership of Public Bureaucracies.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Administrative Morality
Bailey, Stephen , 1964, "Ethics and the Public Service." Public Administration Review, vol. 24:
234–243.
Bowman, James , 1990. "Ethics in Government: A National Survey of Public Administrators."
Public Administration Review, vol. 50, no. 3: 345–353.
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Urie Berlinsky , A. Friedberg , B. Wemer , eds., Corruption in a Changing World: Comparisons,
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Denhardt, K. , 1991. "Unearthing the Moral Foundations of Public Administration: Honor,
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Lebacqz, Karen , 1986. Perspectives from Philosophical and Theological Ethics. Minneapolis:
Augsburg Publishing House.
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HarperCollins.
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Standards of Conduct
American Society for Public Administration , 1994. "Code of Ethics." Washington, DC: American
Society for Public Administration.
" Code of Ethics for Government Service ," 1980. Public Law 96–303, Washington, DC: United
States Congress.
Cooper, Terry L. , 1990. The Responsible Administrator: An Approach to Ethics for the
Administrative Role. 3d ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
International City Management Association , 1987. "Code of Ethics with Guidelines."
Washington, DC: ICMA.
Mertins, Herman, Jr. , Frances Burke , Robert W. Kweit , and Gerald M. Pops , 1994. "Applying
Professional Standards and Ethics in the Nineties: A Workbook and Study Guide with Cases for
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Corruption/Encouraging Ethics: A Sourcebook for Public Service Ethics. Washington, DC:
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Lying with Statistics

Hooke, Robert , 1983. How to Tell the Liars from the Statisticians. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Huff, Darrell , 1954. How to Lie with Statistics. New York: W. W. Norton.

Whistleblower
Dworkin, Terry Morehead , 1992. "Legal Approaches to Whistle-Blowing." In Marcia Miceli and
Janet Near , Blowing the Whistle. New York: Lexington Books, pp. 232–279.
Miceli, Marcia , and Janet Near , 1992. Blowing the Whistle: The Organizational and Legal
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Legal Cases:
Connick p. Meyers, 1983.461 U.S. 138.
Pickering v. Board of Education, 1968. 391 U.S. 563.
Rankin v. McPherson, 1987. 483 U.S. 378.
Waters v. Churchill, 1994. 62 Law Week 4397.