ical and Mechanical Properties cks, Soils, and Coals icks By, rocks occur as a solid aggregate of minerals, connected by strong anent cohesive forces, and classified according to their origin: igne- limentary, and metamorphic. The major three groups of rocks are led into many groups, and petrology is the scientific study of the whe minerals, grains, and microscopic properties of the rocks give portant information about the rock such as strength, abrasivity, is, drillability, and cuttability. In this section, these properties and odology of applying the tests will be explained. mination of physical and mechanical properties of rocks can be found or indirectly. For example, the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) be measured directly or indirectly from point load (PL) strength r mechanical excavation, the most widely used tests are explained in this section. irst step in sample preparation is coring specimens from blocks of tained from tunnel or mining sites as is seen in Figure 3.1. The core diamond saw and ground by surface grinder to finish the ends of ical specimens as seen in Figures 3.2 through 3.4. The rock labora- ing must be based on standards and also conducted according to the es of the standards. ble standards, suggested methods, and descriptions for rock labora- ing for mechanical miners are given in Table 3.1. These tests must be out for the proper selection and performance prediction of mechani- rs. iniaxial Compressive Strength is one of the most basic parameters of rock strength, and the most strength determination performed for mining and tunneling proj- is generally measured in accordance with the procedures recom- in ASTM D2938 or in ISRM, usually with NX-sized core samples 23, Mining and Civil Indy cavation # Physical and FIGURE 3.3 Typical cor where FIGURE 3.1 Typical core drill (54 mm in diameter). The samples are prepared to satisfy the requir of ASTM D4543 or ISRM suggested methods. All core samples are cut 2.0-3.0. A minimum of three to five UCS ground to a diameter ratio of minations is recommended for statistical significance of the resulting ave testing, Compressive strength calculation is formulated below in Equation 31, miners. iB perpen Max crack f Ase FIGURE 3.2 Typical core diam, Iypi ‘ond sawing 18 machinePhysical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks, a é Soils, and Coals FIGURE 3.3 Typical core surface grinding machine. where go, = Uniaxial compressive strength, MPa Maximum force on the sample before failure, N = Cross-sectional area of the sample before testing, mm? The foliation and failure type are the most important criteria for UCS testing and influence boreability/cuttability parameters of the mechanical miners. Foliation planes parallel to the loading direction (Figure 3.5a) and perpendicular to the loading direction (Figure 3.5b) are very favorable for crack propagation. Before and after UCS testing, attention should be paid FIGURE 3.4 Core sample's parallel end control devices,BIS oe ic elastic constants Tai Direct she denter Cone inde Hardness Moh’s Vickers Siever's J ae 2006 Schmidt hammer 1978 Toughness brittleness Punch penetration test Fracture toughness 1988 Brittleness value (S20) Sievers’ J-value (SJ) Abrasion value (AV) Abrasion value cutter steel (AVS) Abrasiveness Cerchar Schimazek NTNU AVS Taber Rock cutting ce linear rock ‘aaa ark Other Petrographic analysis Xray 1978 savati ranical EA aM D5873 D7625 som in Mining an Ciel Indy io Physical and TABLE 3.1 ( Rock Testing ‘Test Name ‘Sound velo waves) Density Porosity Source: Ba: Ne ‘Tee 2 Co NCB (1964) yy Nilsen and Ozdemir: Nilsen and Ozdemir (1 Nilsen and Ozdemir Nilsen and Ozdemir Nilsen and Ozdemis (A Zare and Bruland (2013 Zare and Bruland (201 Zare and Bruland (2013 Zare and Bruland (201 FIGUR Meee Foliati Schimazek and Knate (19 Zare and Bruland (2013 ee Tarkoy (1979) seen Fowell and McEeat-Smif (1976); Bale (2004) a CSM (1996); Eskikaya et Brag (2000) as V ples Nilsen and Ozdemir (198 Nes Nilsen and Ozdemir (19 wephysical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks, Soils, and Coal: 8, Soils, and Coals TABLE 3.1 (continued) Rock Testing Methods and Standards for Mechanical Miners ISRM (2007) rest Namie pacens ae ASTM Other Recommended a Methods Standards Methods Sound velocity (Pand S rae : eo waves) D 2845 Density a Porosity sate Source: Based on Nilser — ilsen, B. and Ozdemir, L. 1999, American Underground Association (AUA) Bamford, WEE, 1986. Cuttability and drillability of rock, Civil College h, D.F. 1987. Mechanical rock Rapid Excavation and Tunneling ation, Inc,, Vol. 1, News, 14(2): 21- i aad Report Engineers Australia, July 11, 4; Howartl excavate Are lity and boreability. In onference Proceedings, ed. Society f i etallury E Conia ry for Mining, Metallurgy, and Explor FIGURE 3.5 Foliation effects of the loading, direction. (a) Perpendicular to bedding, and (b) parallel to bedding. bedding, or foliation effects are le failed. Joints, fractures, sent the real rock strength as to how the sampl failures and do not repre classified as structural seen in Figure 3.6. 3.1.2 Indirect (Brazilian) Tensile Strength Brazilian tensile strength (BTS, o) provides a measure of rock toughness, as well as strength. This parameter is measured using NX-sized core sam- ples (64 mm in diameter) cut to a 0.5 Jength:diameter ratio, and follow the procedures of ASTM D3967 or ISRM suggested methods. The diameter is required to change less than 0.5 mm over the length of the sample and theining and Cloil Ind on inh seat Exeavatl nice physical Meehar FIGURI Foliatic deter and s Fran’ stan ratio to th of 5 mat and JRE 3.6 o type of Vee ee of the structural failure typ UCS testing, isiontl s must be perpendicula’ © core axis, up to a precisior e perpendicular to the cor 8 Up pre Baa he aS ae rhe Brazilian tensile strength is calculate ing on the standa using Equation 3.2. 2P 3.93 a aaa where ‘ 0, = Brazilian tensile strength, MPa c iameter of the sample before testing, mm P=maximum force on the sample before failure, N L=length of the sample before testing, mm The foliation and failure type are al: BIS testing and should be noted before and after the testing Euston Planes parallel to the loading direction (Figure 3.7a) and per] a (Figure 3.7b) are very favorable for er fi Heo A Normal failure type of BTS testing is st loading direction N example of the 3.1.3 PL Strength Index The PL str, Strength is widely uc ue ly 5 Sification, and Measure of t ecu he ac cepted inde. Strength of core or irre test for strength cle Sular piece of rockphysical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks, Soils, and Coals 29 FIGURE 3.7 Foliation effects of the loading direction. (a) Parallel tobedding and (b) perpendicular to bedding, determination of UCS. The test can be performed with portable equipment and so may be conducted either in the field or in the laboratory (Broch and Franklin 1972; Brown 1981). The piece of rock is loaded to failure between two standard conical platens. The uncorrected PL strength (Is) is calculated as the ratio of failure load and equivalent core diameter (De). Is must be corrected to the standard equivalent diameter (De) of 50 mm and called Is(50) diameter of 50 mm. The procedure for size correction can be obtained graphically or mathematically as outlined by the standard applied procedures. The device and an example of the normal failure type of PL testing are seen in Figures 3.9 and 3.10, respectively. FIGURE 3.8 An example of the normal failure type of BIS testing.sation in ining, and Chol mechanical Exeae FIGURE 3.9 Typical PL device 3.1.4 Cerchar Abrasivity Index The Cerchar Abrasivity Index (CAI) indicates the degree of rock al ‘or classifying and predicting cutter wear rate and costs. The Ce; and associated CA] were developed at a time of more demand for of mechanical excavation machines at the Laboratoire du Cent. a y et Recherches des Charbonnages de France (CERCHAR) and lar mal failure NTE LYDeOFPL test ing,and Mechanical Properties of Rocks, Soils, and Coals 31 rysical 0 IGURE 3.11 iypical Cerchar abrasivity device Laboratory Determination of e tests are performed free of weathering effects. The remnant le strength tests are normally used for @ with the fresh surface facing, hardened steel pin, fastened in and drawn 1 cm across it in ‘h sample test. Minimum d Test Method for She CERCHAR Method. The yy ASTM D7625-10 Standar ‘brasiveness of Rock Using # n freshly broken rock surfaces, ieces from indirect (Brazilian) tensil is purpose. Rock samples are held in a vis pward as seen in Figure 3.11, A conical 90°, head, is set carefully on the fresh surface a total of five pins for eac meters are measured for each pin, and shape of the e pins are then examined under a reticular lar diameters of the resulting wear flat are a dye prior to testing makes lated by Equation 3.3: 7 kg s, This is repeated for ind maximum wear dia ear is recorded. The tips of th two perpendicul in. Coating the pin tips with ble. The CAI is then calcu ae = CAI ot (3.3) (1/10 mm). A general cutter consump- vhere d, is the pin wear diameter in Equation 3.4: ion rate (CAI) for pick cutters is estimated by CAI (cutter/m*) = 0.25 CAI (4) e the rock is for cutters. ACAI The lower the CAI, the softer and less abrasiv The criterion for abrasiveness f 1 is very soft, while 6 is extremely abrasive. uublished by ASTM 17625 is seen in Table 3.2.Physical Average CAT Rockwell Hardagal Value 49. 6.62-10.03 Hardness Index at the Mining Research and Developy fational ‘Coal Board (NCB) of ] to indentation by a tungsten gzlavin 1974). It is designed to determine the hy frock by measuring its res! ance to indentatio cone. A typical example of an NCB cone inde e312, A specimen about 12 x 12 x 6 mmin size is pla lowered by turning the micrometer uy ind the cone is tween the first and the second advancemi er 3.1.5 NCB Cone Indenter ned previous N: enter was desig The cone ind Establishment (MRDE ) of the p > the resistance of rock and coa to determi bide 60° cone (NCB nents of ness of small fr ened tungsten carbide device is seen in Fig on the steel strip 10 N forces. Displacement be @g ig FIGURE3.19 NCE ‘on indenter derysical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks, Soils, and Coals thin spring bond is measured by the ‘ead (M1 and M2). The deflection of the the specimen. The cone indenter ‘and is directly related to the force on as seen in Equation 3.5 auge ardness (CIH) is calculated = G5) CIH = ges (Mi— M2) - 0.635 ndenter number, CIH, and The correlation between the standard cone 1 en in Equation 3.6. ICS has been determined by the NCB and is giv o,=CIH x 24.8 (MPa) (3.6) 1.6 Schmidt Hammer Rebound Hardness le, small, and cost-effective instrument capa- ce hardness as an index value used in the faboratory and in situ. It was originally developed for estimating the in situ trength of concrete. Since then, a lot of research work has been carried out sing Schmidt hammer to estimate the intact and rock mass properties, to haracterize mine roof stability, to estimate the performance of roadheaders, ind so on. The Schmidt hammer rebound value can be used as an index value r converted into unconfined compressive strength value based on the statisti- al relationships. Plasticity index can “so be estimated using rebound values. he mechanism of operation is simple: a plunger released by a spring impacts gainst the rock surface and then the rebound distance of the plunger is read ‘umerical scale changing from 10 to 100. Schmidt hammers which include Types i, ING ies, respectively. Hammer ‘rectly from the nt re available in several different energy ranges, having 0.735, 2.207, and 2943 Nm impact energies, should be calibrated prior to testing, A core sample (block sample in any size larger than 20 x 20x 20 cm or an excavation face) can be used to apply the chmidt hammer test. The rock surface should be flat and clean. The test is sually applied in a horizontal direction and correction should be applied for angled or vertical al. 2002). ASTM D5873 and | rebound readings (Bilgin et SRM describe the procedure for the testing of rock. A typical L-type Schmidt bound Hardness devi ce is seen in Figure 3.13. Schmidt hammer rebound values can be found through one of four proce- lures recommendes he Schmidt hammer is a portabl le of estimating the rock surfa d by different investigators and explained below: Procedure-1 (Poole and Farmer 1980): Taking the peak rebound value from five continuous impacts at a point and averaging the peaks of the three sets of tests conducted at three separate points. ebound value from 10 con- Procedure-2 (Hucka 1965): Taking the peak r tinuous impacts at a point and averaging the peaks of the three sets of test conducted at three separate points. ———————————in Mining and Civil Ing vation nanical Bxea? a mecha anion ind hardness device. Typical Schmidt rebound a (0 rebound ve IRM Standard, Brown 1981) aa = oun Procedure gle impacts separated by at least a Pl from single impac averaging the highest 10 values. dure-4 (ASTM 2013): Recording 10 noun a vis separated by at Ieast the diameter of the p' on fe ay ie aievlat any crepe eee readings dif from the average of 10 readings by more than 7 units anel the average of the remaining readings. 3.1.7 Shore Scleroscope Hardness Shore scleroscope hardness is one of the simplest methods given o mine the surface hardness of the tested material. It is determined | rebound height of a diamond or tungsten-carbide tipped hammer dit onto a horizontal smooth surface. In Shore scleroscope test, a diamot 's dropped from a fixed height into the rock speci rebounds, but not to its original height becau: falling tip is dissipated in Producing an inde: ntation. The instrument S supplied in two models designated Model Consists of a vertically disposed barrel 1 C and Model D. Mod Braded from 0 to 140 as seen in Fi 2. 2 oe a specified height uinds Within the plage nos, HP is drop fetes vithin the g 2 ' ISR tly he nan, co 2OUAiaiectee sue ie’ 1), test specimen having a minimum surice a 10cn se some of the energ Internapysical and Mechanical Propert s of Rocks, Soils, and Coals |GURE 3.14 ypical shore scler0SCo} ardness device. pe hi Measurement points should have one test must be carried ach rock is recom- Jained in detail in necessary. hn other and only t. The minimum number of tests for e tistical reliability (ISRM 2007), exp. d Guney (2006). ickness of 1 cm is ance from eac minimum thi Jeast 5 mm dist mut at the same Spo ended to be 20 for sta (2007) and Altindag an fimac et al. d Water Content ntent are common physical properties for of volume and generally changes pes. Porosity is a measure of the olid volume to the total vol- mnt or moisture content of the rock is a measure er that the rock material contains It is the ratio me of the rock material. ties of rocks is given as a summary 1.8 Density, Porosity, an and water co ure of mass per unit 2 for most rock ty he ratio of the nons lensity, porosity, cks. Density is ameas' tween 2.2 and 2.8 kg/cm oid spaces in a rock. It is # me of material. Water conte! dicating the amount of wat f the volume of water to the bulk volu Some physical and mechanical proper Table 3.3. .2 Soils EE ee ee ninetal: grains that can be separated by such gentle ee “+ stn two categories such& roperties of Rocks, Soils, and Coals nysical and Mec hanical P} GURE 3.14 shore scleroscope hardness device ope Measurement points should have e test must be carried ach rock is recom= lained in detail in essary. other and only on pot. The minimum number of tests for e tistical reliability (ISRM 2007), exp! dag and Guney (2006). ness of 1 cm is ne minimum thicl istance from each least 5mm 4 at the same S 20 for st 007) and Altin: ut ended to be fumac et al. (2 and Water Content and water content are common physical properties for easure of mass pet unit of volume and generally changes kg/cm’ for most rock types- Porosity is a measure of the k. It is the ratio of the nonsolid volume to the total vol- er content Or moisture content of the rock is a measure dicating the amount of water that the rock material contains. It is the ratio ff the volume of water to the bulk volume of the rock material. Some phi sical and mechanical properties of rocks is given as 4 5) Table 3.3. 1.8 Density, Porosity, ensity, porosity, Density is am tween 2.2 and 2.8 me of material. Wat ummary arated by such gentle .2 Soils such eal grains that can be sep 4. eatagorist