Module 5: Advanced Mechanics

Projectile Motion

📖 analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal

and vertical components, making the following assumptions:

– a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity ✅

– zero air resistance ✅
Projectile Motion

A projectile motion is a two dimensional motion in which an object called

projectile is launched and traces a trajectory which is determined by the
projectile's initial velocity and the forces acting on it.

A projectile's typical trajectory follows a parabolic path. The projectile's horizontal

and vertical components of the motion can be broken up, since they are
independent of each other, to better understand a projectiles behaviour.

Vertical Component Of Motion

The only force acting on a projectile during flight is the force caused by gravity
that acts downwards. Therefore, the vertical component of the projectile's
acceleration has a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 downwards.

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 Horizontal Component Of Motion
Since the gravitation force, the only force acting on a projectile, acts only
vertically: there is no horizontal force. Therefore, the horizontal component of the
projectile's acceleration has an acceleration of 0 m/s2 and a constant velocity.

📖 apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the

relationships between the following variables:

✅
– initial velocity

– launch angle ✅

– maximum height ✅
– time of flight ✅
– final velocity ✅

– launch height ✅

– horizontal range of the projectile ✅

Initial Velocity

Initital velocity is the velocity at which a projectile is initially lauched at. We can
separate the initial velocity vector into its horizontal and vertical component
using trigonometry. Launch angle is the angle at which the projectile is launched.

Horizontal component of the initial velocity is:

ux = u cos θ

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 Vertical component of the initial velocity is:

uy = u sin θ

Maximum Height

Launch height is the height at which the projectile is launched. Launch height
can be found when t = 0. Launch height is calculated using:

Maximum height is the maximum distance a projectile is from the ground

beneath. Maximum height can be found when Vy = 0. Maximum height is
calculated using:

u2 sin2 θ
Sy =
2g

where g = 9.8 ms−2

Time Of Flight

The time of flight is the total time the projectile takes to complete its trajectory.
The time of flight can be found when Sy = 0. The time of flight is calculated
using:

2u sin θ
t=
g

where g = 9.8 ms−2

Final Velocity

Final velocity is the velocity at which a projectile finishes is trajectory. Final

velocity can be calculated by combinings its horizontal and vertical component.

The horizontal component of final velocity is:

vx = ux = u cos θ

The vertical component of final velocity is:

vy = u sin θ + gt

Range

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 Range is the total horizontal distance a projectile covers. Range can be found
when Sy = 0. Range is calculated using:

u2 sin 2θ
Sx =
g

Circular Motion

📖 conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing

uniform circular motion, the relationships that exist between:

– centripetal force ✅
– mass ✅
– speed ✅

– radius ✅

Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion involves objects travelling along a circular path at a
constant speed. Even though the speed is constant, velocity is constantly
changing since direction is changing. Therefore, the object is undergoing
acceleration.

Period & Frequency

The period, T, is the time required to make one revolution aroudn the circle
whereas the number of rotations each second is referred to as the frequency, f.

1 1
f= and T =
T f

where:

f = frequency (Hz)

T = period (s)

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 Tangential Velocity

The tangential velocity (v) of an object in circular motion is the velcoity of the
object. The velocity of any object in circular motion is tangential (at a tangent) to
its path.

2πr
v=
T
where:

v = tangential velocity (m/s)

r = radius of circular path (m)

T = period (s)

Angular Velocity

The angular velocity (ω) of an object in circular motion is the rate of rotation of
the object - how quickly an object is rotating around the circle.

Δθ
ω=
t
where:

ω = angular velocity (radians / s)

θ = angle (radians)
t = time interval (s)

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 Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration an object experiences undergoing
circular motion. Since objects continually deviate inwards from their straight line
direction, centripetal acceleration is always directed towards the centre of the
circle.

v2
ac =
r
where:

ac = centripetal acceleration (m/s2 )

v = tangential velocity (m/s)

r = radius of circular path (m)

4π 2 r
ac =
T
where:

ac = centripetal acceleration (m/s2 )

r = radius of circular path (m)

T = period (s)

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 Centripetal Force

Centripetal force is the force experienced by an object in circular motion and

responsible for accelerating an object towards the center. This force acts in the
same direction as the centripetal acceleration, towards center of the circle.

mv2
Fc =
r
where:

Fc = centripetal force (N)

m = mass (kg)

v = tangential velocity (m/s)

r = radius of circular path (m)

4π 2 rm
Fc =
T2
where:

Fc = centripetal force (N)

r = radius of circular path (m)

m = mass (kg)

T = period (s)

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 📖 analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular motion in
a variety of situations, for example:

– cars moving around horizontal circular bends ✅

– a mass on a string ✅
– objects on banked tracks ✅
Moving Around Horizontal Bends

When a vehicle turns around on a horizotal bend, the centripetal force is

provided by the friction between the tyres and the road. Other forces
experiences by the car are the typical normal force and weight force.

mv2
ΣF = Ff riction =
r
Mass On A String (Horizontal Motion)

When a mass attached to a string and swung around horizontally, the centripetal
force is provided by horizontal component of the tension in the string. Other
forces include gravity acting downwards.

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 The string makes an angle θ with the horizontal so that tension has a horizontal
and vertical component. The verticle component of the tension force is equal to
the gravitational force, as there is zero vertical acceleration.

ΣFy = FT y + mg = 0

The horizontal component of the tension force is the only force acting in the
horizontal direction, meaning it is the centripetal force.

mv2
ΣFx = FT x =
r
Mass On A String (Vertical Motion)

When a mass attached to a string and swung around vertically, the centripetal
force is provided by the sum of tension in the string and gravity.

Since the string doesn't make an angle with the vertical, the tension force only
has a vertical component. The vertical tension force and the gravitational force
add the give centripetal force.

mv2
ΣF = mg + FT =
r
At the bottom of the circle, the net force is upwards while at the top of the circle,
the net force is downwards.

Moving On Banked Tracks

When travelling on a banked track, the centripetal force provided is the vector
sum of the gravitational force and normal force when the car is travelling at its
design speed - speed at which there is no sidewards frictional force

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 In the vertical direction, at design speed the car maintains its vertical height so
the net force in the vertical direction must equal to zero.

ΣFy = mg + FN y = 0

The normal force experienced by a vechicle moving on a banked track can be

determined by:

mg
FN =
cos θ
In the horizontal direction, at design speed the only force acting is the horizontal
component of the normal force which is the centripetal force.

mv2
ΣFx = FN x =
r

📖 investigate the relationship between the total energy and work done on an
object executing uniform circular motion ✅
Kinetics Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy associated with motion, and is given by:

1
KE = mv2
2
When an object is undergoing uniform circular motion its speed is constant, so
its kinetic energy is also constant.

Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy stored inside objects relative to other objects. For
gravitational force, potential energy depends on how high an object is located.

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 U = mgh

For an object undergoing uniform circular motion in a horizontal place the

potential energy is also constant.

Work

Work done on an object is equal to the total energy transferred to the object. So
for an object moving in uniform circular motion in a horizontal plane there is no
work being done since total energy is constant and also because the net force is
perpendicular to the velocity.

For an object undergoing uniform circular motion and changing potential energy,
there will be a change in energy. Because the object returns to initial position or
initial potential energy, total work done in one revolution is still zero.

📖 investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical systems

⊥
and the applied torque: 𝜏 = 𝑟 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹sin𝜃 ✅
Torque
Torque is the turning moment of a force that exists when a force acts to produce
a rotational movement. It is a vector quantity measured in Newton meters (N m).
Direction convention used involves a clockwise rotation (negative) and a
anticlockwise rotation (positive).
The axis of rotation is a centre line at which can object rotates about. The pivot
point is the point through which the axis of rotation passes. The line of action of
the force is the line through which the force vector passes.

When more than torque is acting on a single object then the net torque needs to
be found

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 τ = r × F sin θ

where:

𝜏 = torque (N m)

r = force arm (m)

F = force (N)

𝜃 = angle between force and pivot point (°)

Force & The Force Arm

A force applied directly towards or away from a pivot point will not create a
turning movement. Torque is maximum when the force vector is perpendicular to
the force arm and zero when parallel.

Torque on an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the force. A

larger force will result in a larger torque.

The force arm is the perpendicular distance between the pivot point and the line
of action of the force. The length of the force arm is directly proportional to the
torque. A larger force arm will result in a larger torque.

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 Motion in Gravitational Fields

📖 apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal

Gravitation to:

– determine the force of gravity between two objects 𝐹= 𝐺𝑀𝑚 / 𝑟2 ✅

– investigate the factors that affect the gravitational field strength 𝑔=𝐺𝑀 /
𝑟2 ✅
– predict the gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational field,
including at the surface of a planet ✅
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Newton's law of universal gravitation proposes that massive particles attract
other massive particles by a force acting along the line which intersects both
particles.

This force is propertional to the two masses of the two particles and inversely
propertionate to the square of the distance between the.

Mm
F =G
r2

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 where:

F = gravitational force (N)

G = universal gravitation constant (6.674 × 10−11 Nm−2 kg−2 )

M = mass of central particle (kg)

m = mass of orbiting particle (kg)

r = distance between particles (m)

Newton's third law tells us whatever force one object exerts on another object, it
will experience an equal and opposite force due to the interaction. This is also
true for the gravitational force.

If a planetary body 'A' has gravitational force of F on another planetary body 'B',
then 'B' will exert the exact magnitude of force but opposite direction on 'A'.

F A on B = −F B on A

Gravitational Field Strength

The gravitation field strength is the gravitational force per unit mass. It is a vector
field defined everywhere in space.

F GM
g= = 2
m r
where:

g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)

F = gravitation force (N)

m = mass of orbiting particle (kg)

G = universal gravitation constant (6.674 × 10−11 Nm−2 kg−2 )

M = mass of central particle (kg)

r = radius (m)

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 📖 investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites when
applying the relationships between the following quantities:

– orbital radius ✅
– orbital velocity ✅

– orbital period ✅

Orbital Motion
Orbital motion is considered as uniform circular motion where the centripetal
force is provided by the gravitational force.

Fc = Fg

This immplies that:

more gravitational force is required to keep a larger mass in orbit.

value of acceleration due to gravity at some point, is equal to the value of the
centripetal acceleration at that point.

Orbital Radius
The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the orbit to the object.

Orbital Velocity

Orbital velocity is the speed at which the object is moving through its orbit. The
orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the orbiting body.

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 GM
v=
r
where:

v = orbital velocity (m/s)

G = universal gravitation constant (6.674 × 10−11 Nm−2 kg−2 )

M = mass of central particle (kg)

r = orbital radius (m)

Orbital Period

Orbital period is how long it takes for an object to complete one orbit. The orbital
period is independent of the mass of the orbiting body.

r3
T = 2π
GM
where:

T = orbital period (s)

r = orbital radius (m)

G = universal gravitation constant (6.674 × 10−11 Nm−2 kg−2 )

M = mass of central particle (kg)

📖 predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and satellites in a

variety of situations, including near the Earth and geostationary orbits, and
relate these to their uses ✅

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 Orbit Satellite
Two of the most common types of orbits are:

Low earth orbit

Geostationary orbit

Low Earth Orbit

Low earth orbits have very fast speeds due to short orbital periods. Satellites is
not fixed in position relative to the surface of the Earth. These two features allow
it to cover entire surface of Earth in one day. This makes it useful for:

imaging

remote sensing

surveillance & spying

Since satellites orbits at relativelly low altitudes, it can produce high resolution
images with small field of view. and not much energy is required to launch from
Earth. This makes is useful for communication satellites as it reduces the need
for signal amplification.
The main advantage is the rapid orbital decay due to non neglible atmospheric
drag. Friction between particles and satellite causes satellite to lose speed

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 resulting in decrease in altitude needing regular reboost to move satellites back
into orbit.

Geostationary Orbit

Geostationary orbit is designed to remain fixed in the sky relative to observers

on the ground. This is because the satellite matches the rotational period of
Earht, Orbits directly above equator and follows direction of Earth's rotation.
Geostationary orbits are useful for:

weather satellites

communication satellites

boradcast satellites

This is because the receiving dish on Earth can easily maintain contact with
satellite without rotating.

📖 investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion to the

forces acting on, and the total energy of, planets in circular and non-
circular orbits using:

– 𝑣=2𝜋𝑟 / 𝑇 ✅
– 𝑟3𝑇2=𝐺𝑀 / 4𝜋2 ✅
Kepler's First Law: The Law Of Orbits
Kepler's first law also known as the law of orbits states that the orbit of every
planet is an ellipse with the central planetary body (Sun) at one of the two foci.

Kepler's Second Law: The Law Of Area

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 Kepler's second law also known as the law of areas states that a line joining a
plant to the central planetary body (Sun) sweep out equal areas over equal
intervals of time.

This is due to conservation of angular momentum. The law of areas concludes

that planets travel faster near perihelion - closest point to sun, and slower near
aphelion - furthest point from sun.

2πr
v=
T
Kepler's Third Law: The Law Of Periods
Kepler's third law also known as the law of periods state the square of the orbital
speed of the plant is directly propertionate to the cube of the semi major axis of
its orbit.

T 2 α r3

T12 T22
=
r13 r23

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 📖 derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and
gravitational potential energy in radial gravitational fields to a variety of
situations, including but not limited to:

– the concept of escape velocity 𝑣esc=√(2𝐺𝑀 / 𝑟) ✅

– total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit U=−𝐺𝑀𝑚 / 𝑟 ✅
✅
– total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit U+K=−𝐺𝑀𝑚 / 2𝑟

– energy changes that occur when satellites move between orbits ✅

Potential Energy Of A Satellite In Orbit

Gravity is a conservative force and so an isolated system acted upon by gravity
alone conserves mechanical energy

ΔEmech = ΔK + ΔU = 0

Thus, the work done by a conservative force such as gravity on an object is the
negative of the change in the potential energy. Equivalently, the change in
gravitational potential energy between two points is the work done by a force
opposed to gravity.

W = ΔK = −ΔU

We conventially define the reference point of zero potential to be infinite, when

we are outside the influence of the Earth's gravitational field.

GMm
U =−
r
where:

U = gravitational potential energy (J)

G = universal gravitation constant (6.674 × 10−11 Nm−2 kg−2 )

M = mass of central particle (kg)

m = mass of orbiting particle (kg

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 r = distance from core (m)

Notes that U is always negative and that U → 0 as r → ∞.

Total Energy Of A Satellite In Orbit

The kinetic energy of a satellite in circular orbit is given by:

GMm
KE =
2r
Then the total energy of a satellite in orbit is:

GMm
Etotal = U + K = −
2r
As the orbital radius, r, increases:

gravitational potential energy increases

kinetic energy decreases

total energy increases

Energy Changes Between Orbits

Different orbits have different energies. However, the total energy is conserved
within an orbit. This can be seen in Kepler's second law, the law of areas.

Escape Velocity
Escape velocity is the minimum speed required for an object to escape the
gravitational influence of a body. The escape velocity is not a property of the
escaping object, but of the larger body.

The escape velocity can be given by:

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 2GM
vesc =
r
where:

vesc = escape velocity (m/s)

G = universal gravitation constant (6.674 × 10−11 Nm−2 kg−2 )

M = mass of central particle (kg)

r = radius of central particle (m)

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