MINERALS

Minerals pertain to the elements in their simple inorganic form. In nutrition, they are commonly referred
to as mineral elements or, in the case of those present or required in small amounts, they are known as
trace elements or trace minerals.

MINERAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY

There are 21 mineral elements now known to be essential in nutrition. Analysis of minerals, however,
shows the presence of more than 25. The minerals of the body are calcium, phosphorous, potassium,
sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iron, zinc, selenium, manganese, copper, iodine, molybdenum,
cobalt, chromium, fluorine, vanadium, nickel, tin, and silicon. There are also traces of barium, bromine,
strontium, gold, silver, aluminum, bismuth, gallium, arsenic, and others. Mineral elements exist in the
body and in food in organic and inorganic combinations.

A. GROUP I: MAJOR MINERALS

1. Calcium

a. Distribution
> Of the total body weight, approximately 1.5% to 2.2% is calcium.
> Of this, 99% is present mostly in the bones and teeth and the remaining 1% is found in soft
tissues and body fluids.

b. Functions
> It combines with phosphorous to form calcium phosphate, the hard material of the bones and
teeth.
> Participates in muscular contraction and relaxation.
> Promotes blood coagulation.
> Affects the transport function of cell membranes, possibly acting as a membrane stabilizer.
> Required in nerve transmission and regulation of heart beat.

c. Utilization
> Absorption is better during periods of increased body needs i.e., in growth, pregnancy, and
lactation.
> When the intake is low, the body compensates by absorbing a high percentage.
> There is a decreased absorption in old age.
> Vitamin D enhances the optimum absorption of calcium by increasing permeability of
intestinal membrane and activating the active transport system.
> Low gastric pH(acidic) favors absorption of calcium.
> High intakes of meat as in the diet of the Westerners increase the excretion of calcium in the
urine even if lysine, arginine, and serine increase the absorption by 50%.
> A high ratio of lactose to calcium is necessary for the formation of a soluble complex which can
easily be transported to and possibly across the intestinal wall.
> The ratio of calcium to phosphorous is important in the absorption of both minerals in infants;
recommended level is Ca:P of 1.5:1. In adults, a ratio of 1:1 is necessary.
> Oxalic and phytic acids interfere with the absorption of calcium. Oxalic acid depresses calcium
absorption by forming insoluble salts.
 > Fats in excess may form insoluble soaps with calcium as evidenced by the presence of fatty
acids, calcium, and also fat-soluble vitamin D in the feces. This is especially observed in
conditions where there is poor fat digestion as in sprue and steatorrhea.
> Anything that may cause an increase in GI motility like laxatives and foods high in bulk may
reduce the rate of passage of food in the intestinal tract causing the decrease in absorption of
calcium.
> Lack of exercise may cause a loss of bone calcium and reduced ability to replace it.
> Mental stress or emotional instability has been found to decrease calcium absorption.
> Caffeine increases urinary calcium excretion. Approximately 1 cup of coffee can increase
calcium excretion by 6 mg.

d. Food sources
kuhol cheese seaweed gamet bagoong
malunggay leaves dried fish saluyot carabao’s milk
dilis galunggog hipon, tagunton sardines
dried dilis talangka milk, evaporated

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

e.1 Effects of deficiency
> retarded growth
> rickets
> osteomalacia (adult rickets) in which a reduction in the mineral content of the bone is
observed.
> tetany caused by a reduction in circulating ionized calcium resulting in increased excitability of
the nerve and uncontrolled reactions of muscle tissue.
e.2 Effects of excess
> hypercalcemia

2. Magnesium

a. Distribution
> About 50% of the magnesium in the body is present in the bones in combination with
phosphate and calcium. The remaining is almost entirely inside the body cells with only about
1% in extracellular fluid.
> The highest concentrations are in the muscles and red blood cells.
> Approximately 0.5 gm/kg fat-free body weight (approx. 25 gm) is magnesium.
> The plasma contains approximately 1.5 to 2 mEq/liter of magnesium. It is next to potassium as
the predominant cation in living cells.

b. Functions
> An essential part of many enzyme systems responsible for the transfer of energy.
> The core of the chlorophyll molecule, thus making it important in photosynthetic reactions in
plants.
> Also essential in cellular metabolism as evidenced by a high level of intracellular magnesium in
metabolically active muscle tissue and liver.
> It regulates blood phosphorous level.
> It is necessary to promote the conduction of nerve impulses and to allow normal muscle
contraction.
 > It may also increase the stability of calcium in the tooth enamel.
c. Food sources
nuts sea foods soybeans whole grains
meat dried beans milk peas
cocoa green plants

d. Effects of deficiency or excess

> Magnesium deficiency (hypomagnesemia tetany) has been observed among infants and
children suffering from kwashiorkor and disease characterized by intestinal malabsorption,
prolonged diarrhea or vomiting, and alcoholism; in persons maintained for long periods of time
on magnesium-free fluids following surgery or diuretics; and in cases of hypercalcemia, diabetes,
and acute renal failure with polyuria.
> Hypermagnesemia or toxicity stage of magnesium results in hypotension, arrhythmia or even
cardiac arrest, ECG changes, decreased tendon reflexes, and coma.

3. Sodium

a. Distribution
> A monovalent cation, 50% of which is found in the extracellular fluid, i.e., the vascular fluids
within the blood vessels, arteries, veins, capillaries, and the intracellular fluids surrounding cells.
> 10% is found within the cells
> The remaining 40% of body sodium is found in the skeleton bound in the surface of bone
crystals.
> The total sodium in the body is about 1.8 mg/kg fat-free body weight. ]

b. Functions
> Responsible for maintaining fluid balance.
> Also responsible for maintaining acid-base balance.
> Allows the passage of materials like glucose through the cell wall and maintains normal muscle
irritability or excitability.

c. Food sources
carrots spinach celery peas
beets vetsin soy sauce fish sauce
catsup processed foods (tocino, tapa, bacon, ham)
NaCl (40% Na) – 1gm Nacl – 400 mg Na
Preservatives and additives canned foods (luncheon meat, sardines)

d. Recommended dietary allowances

> Allowances and requirements for sodium have not been determined, but the amount should
equal that of the body’s needs for growth; for losses in sweat and secretions, urine, and stools;
and for non-sweat losses from the skin.

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

> A deficiency of sodium (hyponatremia) can occur in dehydration as in heat exhaustion,
especially following an intake of large amounts of H2O, without providing the additional salt;
 after surgical procedures with marked loss of blood; after marked diarrhea and vomiting; and
after a long-term vigorous treatment with very restricted sodium diets.
> An excess of sodium accumulates principally in the extracellular fluid and may result in edema.
This usually occurs in certain conditions like hypertension and kidney disorders. In these cases, it
is important to restrict the amount of sodium in the diet depending on the condition.

4. Potassium

a. Distribution
> Potassium is the principal cation present within the cells or the intracellular fluids.
> About 2.6 gm/kg fat-free weight is potassium (0.35% of body weight).
> Also present in relatively small amounts in the extracellular fluid.
b. Functions
> Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance.
> Exerts an influence upon acid-base balance and plays a significant role in the activity of the
skeletal and cardiac muscles.
> Acts as a muscle relaxant in contrast to calcium which stimulates muscular contraction.
> It is also important in carbohydrate and protein metabolism.

c. Food sources
meat legumes milk raw and dried fruits
fruit juice dark green vegetables unrefined cereals

d. Recommended dietary allowance

The diet should contain about 2-6 gm potassium so that a deficiency us usually unlikely in a
healthy person.

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

e.1 Effects of deficiency
> hypokalemia (low serum potassium) which results with when there is prolonged wasting
disease with tissue destruction and malnutrition or prolonged GI loss of potassium as in
vomiting, diarrhea, or gastric suction of diabetic acidosis.
> apathy
> muscular weakness
> mental confusion
> abdominal distension
e.2 Effects of excess
> Hyperkalemia (elevated serum potassium) occurs when the kidney, due to some disorder, fails
to excrete the potassium property resulting in toxic levels. The toxicity causes the weakening of
heart action, mental confusion, poor respiration, and numbness of extremities.

5. Phosphorous

a. Distribution
The normal human body contains about 1% phosphorous (12 gm/kg fat-free body weight).
About 85% is in the inorganic bones and teeth in combination with calcium and the remainder is
chiefly in the cells in combination with carbohydrate, protein, fat, and as complexes with cations
such as Na, Ca, and Mg.
b. Functions
> Phosphorous is a component of bones and teeth.
> It is also a component of every cell.
> It is important in pH regulation as a principal anion in the cell.
> It is involved in a great variety of chemical reactions as in phosphorylation which facilitates the
passage of substances through cell membranes.

c. Food sources
cheese milk poultry dairy products
fish eggs meat dried beans

d. Effects of excess
Natural phosphates cause no harm when taken in excess as these are simply voided in the stools,
but elemental phosphorous is highly poisonous as it causes an erosion of the bone. This is
common among match industry workers.

6. Sulfur

a. Distribution
Sulfur occurs in almost every protein cell and comprises about 0.25% of body weight. It is
concentrated in the cytoplasm but is found in highest concentrations in the hair, skin, and nails.

b. Functions
> Maintains protein structure because of the disulfide linkages between parallel peptide chains.
> It also activates enzymes.
> It participates in detoxification reactions by which toxic materials conjugate with active sulfate
and convert them to non-toxic forms which are excreted in the urine.

c. Food sources
Protein contains about 1% sulfur so that a diet adequate in protein will contain enough sulfur.

d. Effects of deficiency or excess

A hereditary defect in tubular reabsorption of amino acid cystine may lead to excessive excretion
in the urine causing cystinuria. However, repeated production of cystine in the kidney also
causes the formation of cystine kidney stones.

7. Chlorine

a. Distribution
Chlorine is a major anion in the extracellular fluid. The cerebrospinal fluid has the highest
concentration of chloride. The normal range for plasma level is from 95-105 mEq/liter or 340-
370 mg/ 100 ml. A relatively large amount of ionized chlorine is found in the GI secretion as HCl.
It may also be found to some extent within the cells.
b. Functions
> Chlorine maintains fluid and electrolytes balance and acid-base balance.
> It contributes to the acidity necessary in the stomach (HCl).

c. Food source – table salt (NaCl)

d. Effects of deficiency
Alkalosis results when there is an excessive loss of chloride ions from the gastric secretions
during continued vomiting, diarrhea, or tube drainage.

B. GROUP II: TRACE MINERALS

1. Iron

a. Distribution
The body weight contains about 75 mg/kg fat-free body weight of iron. This is about 3-5 gm. The
amount varies with age, sex, nutrition, general health, and size of iron stores. Of this amount,
60% to 75% is present as part of the hemoglobin and 5% as myoglobin, the muscle hemoglobin.
About 26% is found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

b. Functions
> As a constituent of hemoglobin and myoglobin, iron serves as a carrier of oxygen needed for
cellular respiration.
> It is necessary for hemoglobin formation.
> It is an active component of tissue enzyme involved in the conversion of beta-carotene into
vitamin A, synthesis of purines, antibody production, collagen synthesis, and other functions
associated with the respiratory chain.

c. Utilization
Iron in ferrous is better absorbed than in ferric form, although both forms may be absorbed.

Several factors affect the absorption of iron:

Types of Iron
1. Heme Iron is found only in meat (fish and poultry) and is more efficiently absorbed by the body.
2. Non- heme iron comes from other iron-containing foods like cereals, vegetables, and eggs. In the
Filipino diet, most of the iron comes from vegetables or sources of non-animal origin. Eating meat with
non-heme iron and vitamin C helps with the absorption of non-heme iron by the body.

Bulk in the diet

An increased fiber in the diet interferes with the absorption of iron. Hence, iron in green leafy vegetables
is poorly absorbed.

Intake of coffee
Whether coffee is taken an hour after meal or with the meal, iron absorption is reduced. The reduction is
even greater with stronger coffee intake.

Presence of ascorbic acid

Forty to 50 mg of ascorbic acid added to a meal of bread, egg, and tea or coffee increases iron
absorption significantly, from 3.7% to 10.4%.

d. Food sources
Organ meats – liver (pork) petsay
14mg/ 100 gm saluyot
Enriched rice sitaw leaves
Rice bran soybeans
Spaghetti pork kidney
Dried beans pork spleen
Ampalaya leaves pork lungs
Sweet potato or kamote leaves beef liver
Kulitis egg
Gabi leaves alimango
Seaweeds aligue
Malunggay leaves clams
Peanuts hipon tagunton
Green and red monggo tulingan
Mustard leaves sesame seeds

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

> Effect of deficiency

* Anemia characterized by a reduction in size or number of RBC or the quantity of hemoglobin or

both resulting in decreased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen.
Causes:
- inadequate intake of iron caused by poor quality or poor cookery (nutritional anemia)
- excessive excretion of iron caused by blood loss in pregnancy, parasitism, and blood donation
(hemorrhagic anemia)
- inadequate formation of RBC because of vitamin B12 deficiency caused by lack of intrinsic
factor

Symptoms:
- pallor
- easy fatigue
- dizziness
- insomnia
- lack of appetite

Recommended Iron intakes for Specific Population Group

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI mg/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - <6 6 0.38 (a)
6 - < 12 9 10
Children, y
 1-3 13 8
4-6 19 9
7-9 24 11
Males, y
10-12 34 13
13-15 50 20
16-18 58 14
19-64 58 12
65 and over 59 12
Females, y
10-12 35 19 (b)
13-15 49 (21)
16-18 50 (27)
19 and over 51
Menstruating (27)
Post- menopausal 10
65 and over 10
Pregnant Women
Trimester
1st (27) c
2nd (34)
3rd (38)
Lactating Women
Amenorrheic (27) d
Menstruating (30) e

a. It is assumed that iron provided by human milk is adequate to meet the iron needs of infants from
birth through 6 months in addition to the very high iron stores during birth (IOM-FNB, 2001). For
formula-fed infants, iron-fortified milk is prescribed by the Codex Standard for Infant Formulas (Codex
Alimentarius, 1994, 2012).
b. Requirements for both pre-menarche and post-menarche to build up iron stores for future needs.
c. The requirement is only 10mg/day but the requirement of 27 md/day for non-pregnant menstruating
women is adopted to build up iron stores for future increased iron needs.
d. The requirement to replace basal losses and iron lost in breast milk is only 13mg/day due to cessation
of menstruation (amenorrhea). The requirement for non-pregnant menstruating women of 27 mg/day
was adopted to allow adequate iron stores for future needs.
e. Physiologic requirement for non-pregnant menstruating women+ iron loss in breast milk (+15% CV)
(The requirement cannot be met by usual diet alone. Intake of iron-rich foods and iron-fortified foods
and the use of supplements are recommended if necessary.)
Source: FNRI-DOST RENI, 2002

> Effects of excess

* Hemosiderosis or excessive amount of Fe in the body.
Causes:
- Excessive iron intake through the use of supplements.
- Failure of the body to regulate iron absorption which is more genetic in nature
Excessive iron intake is common among:
 - Those who cook food in iron pots
- Infants if iron supplements are given in amounts more than what the body needs
- Multiple blood transfusion
* Hemochromatosis, a genetically transmitted disease in which patients absorb unusually large
amounts of iron and store them in tissues that normally do not store iron.

2. Copper

a. Distribution
All tissues in the body contain traces of copper. Large amounts are found in the liver, brain,
heart, and kidney.

b. Functions
> Copper is essential in the formation of hemoglobin.
> It promotes absorption of iron from the GIT and the transportation of such from the tissues to
the plasma.
> It is a valuable catalyst in oxidation-reduction mechanisms of living cells as well as a
constituent of several of the oxidative enzymes for amino acids.
> It also helps maintain the integrity of the myelin sheath surrounding the nerve fibers.
> It is part of tyrosinase which is involved in the formation of melanin pigment of hair and skin.
> It helps in bone formation.

c. Food Sources
- organ meats - shellfish (oyster) - nuts
- cocoa - cherries - mushrooms
- whole grain - cereals
Moderate:
- leafy vegetables - eggs - beans
- peas - muscle meat - fish
- poultry - fresh fruits - refined cereals

d. Effects of deficiency or excess

> Effects of deficiency
- depigmentation of skin and hair
- CNS abnormalities
- hypotonia
- hypothermia
- chronic microcytic anemia
- skeletal mineralization in infants and children
> Effects of excess
- Wilson’s disease – excessive accumulation of copper

3. Iodine

a. Distribution
The adult body normally contains 20 to 30 mg of iodine. About 70% to 80% or about 8 mg is
concentrated in the thyroid gland and the rest is widely diffused throughout all tissues,
especially in the ovaries, muscles, and blood.
b. Functions
Iodine is needed for the production of thyroid hormone. It is an element required for the
synthesis of thyroxine.

Recommended Iodine intakes for Specific Population Group

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - <6 6 90
6 - < 12 9 90
Children, y
1-3 13 90
4-6 19 90
7-9 24 120
Males, y
10-12 34 120
13-15 50 150
16-18 58 150
19 and over 59 150
Females, y
10-12 35 120
13-15 49 150
16-18 50 150
19 and over 51 150
Pregnant Women 200
Lactating Women 200
Source: FNRI- DOST RENI, 2002

c. Food Sources
seafoods seaweeds iodized salt

d. Effects of deficiency
> Goiter- enlargement of the thyroid gland
> Cretinism – caused by insufficient iodine intake of a mother during pregnancy which deprives
the fetus of the nutrient and the baby born becomes a cretin. The child suffers from
hypothyroidism, is physically dwarfed, is mentally retarded, and has thick pasty skin and
protruding abdomen.
> Myxedema – adults who have had problems with low iodine intake throughout their childhood
and adolescence.

4. Manganese

a. Distribution
 Only about 10 to 20 mg of manganese is present in the adult body. It is concentrated in the liver
and kidneys with small amounts in the other tissues such as the retina, bones, and salivary
glands.

b. Functions
> Manganese is an activator of a number of metabolic reactions.
> It acts as catalyst of a number of enzymes necessary in glucose and fat metabolism.
> It increases storage of thiamine.

c. Food sources
nuts whole-grain cereals dried legumes
tea green leafy vegetables dried fruits
fresh fruits non-leafy vegetables

Recommended Manganese intakes for Specific Population Group

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI mg/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - <6 6 0.003
6 - < 12 9 0.6
Children, y
1-3 13 1.2
4-6 19 1.5
7-9 24 1.7
Males, y
10-12 34 1.9
13-15 50 2.2
16-18 58 2.2
19 and over 59 2.3
Females, y
10-12 35 1.6
13-15 49 1.6
16-18 50 1.6
19 and over 51 1.8
Pregnant Women 2.0
Lactating Women 2.6
Source: FNRI- DOST RENI, 2002

d. Effect of deficiency or excess

No incidence of manganese deficiency or toxicity caused by diet has been observed in humans.

5. Cobalt

a. Distribution
Cobalt is found only in trace amounts in the body.

b. Functions
 > Cobalt is a constituent of vitamin B12.
> It is necessary for RBC formation.
> It is essential for the normal functioning of all cells.

c. Food sources
liver oysters clams
lean beef veal saltwater fish
milk

d. Requirements
The nutritional requirement of cobalt is restricted to the body’s need for vitamin B12 as the body
cannot utilize cobalt to synthesize the vitamin.

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

Deficiency- pernicious anemia
Excess- polycythemia or increase in the number of RBC and hyperplasia of bone marrow.

6. Zinc

a. Distribution
Zinc occurs in varying concentrations in all human cells in the eyes, the male sex glands,
secretions, hair, skin, and its appendages, liver, pancreas, kidney, the bones, and teeth normally
carrying significant higher levels than other tissues and fluids. The body contains about 2 to 5
gms of zinc. The blood concentration of zinc is 700 to 800 mg, 80% of which is present in the
RBC, 4% in WBC and platelets, and the remainder in the serum largely in combination with
protein. The serum zinc is about 90mg/ 100mL. Human milk contains 3 to 4 mg zinc per liter and
its level can be raised significantly by high maternal intakes.

b. Functions
> Zinc is involved in a wide range of cellular functions being an integral part of several
metalloenzymes. It also acts as regulator of activities of certain enzymes in the body.
> It is present in the RNA.

Recommended Zinc intakes for Specific Population Group

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI m

mg/ day
Infants, mo
Birth - <6 6 1.4
6 - < 12 9 4.2
Children, y
1-3 13 4.5
4-6 19 5.4
7-9 24 5.4
Males, y
10-12 34 6.8
13-15 50 9
 16-18 58 8.9
19 and over 59 6.4
Females, y
10-12 35 6
13-15 49 7.9
16-18 50 7
19 and over 51 4.5
Pregnant Women
Trimester
1ST 5.1
2ND 6.6
3RD 9.6
Lactating Women 11.5
Source: FNRI- DOST RENI, 2002

> It is related to the hormone insulin, glucagon, ACTH, growth hormone, gonadotropin, and
testosterone.
> It enhances wound healing and helps maintain a normal sense of taste.

c. Food sources
milk meat nuts legumes
liver oyster eggs whole-grain cereals
wheat bran

d. Effects of deficiency or excess

>Effects of deficiency
- slow growth
- alopecia
- disturbances in the keratinization process in the skin and esophagus
- white cell defects
- night blindness

>Effects of excess
- nausea
- vomiting
- abdominal cramps
- diarrhea
- fever

7. Molybdenum

a. Distribution
Even if only 9 mg of molybdenum is present in the body, it is as important as the B vitamins and
magnesium. Molybdenum is concentrated in the liver, kidneys, adrenal glands, and blood cells.
b. Functions
It is present inbound as an integral part of the various enzyme molecules. Three of these
enzymes are xanthine oxidase; aldehyde oxidase a flavoprotein, for catalyzing the oxidation of
aldehydes to corresponding carboxylic acid; and sulfite oxidase which functions in the
degradation of sulfur derived from amino acids.

c. Food sources
dried peas beans poultry lean meat

d. Requirement
A daily intake of 50 to 500 mg is considered a safe and adequate intake for adults.

e. Effects of deficiency
- headache
- irritability
- night blindness
- lethargy
- coma
- abnormal metabolism of sulfur containing amino acids
- abnormal degradation of nucleic acids

C. GROUP II: OTHER TRACE MINERALS

1. Fluorine

a. Distribution
Fluorine is found primarily in the bones and teeth and trace amounts in the thyroid gland and
skin.

b. Functions
> Fluorine forms a more stable compound in the dentine and enamel of the teeth, thus reducing
dental caries and minimizing bone loss.
> It is effective in the treatment of osteoporosis.

c. Food sources
Water is the major source of fluorine. It may be obtained from natural sources (fluorine in water)
or through fluoridation.
- Small amounts: fruits, vegetables and cereals
- Rich amounts: sea foods and tea leaves
- Chief source: water and topical agents (toothpaste)
- According to WHO: fluoridated salt/ milk

Recommended Fluoride intakes for Specific Population Group

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI mg/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - <6 6 0.01
 6 - < 12 9 0.5
Children, y
1-3 13 0.7
4-6 19 1.0
7-9 24 1.2
Males, y
10-12 34 1.7
13-15 50 2.5
16-18 58 2.9
19 and over 59 3.0
Females, y
10-12 35 1.8
13-15 49 2.5
16-18 50 2.5
19 and over 51 2.5
Pregnant Women 2.5
Lactating Women 2.5
Source: FNRI- DOST RENI, 2002

d. Effects of deficiency or excess

> Effect of deficiency
- dental caries
> Effects of excess
- dental fluorosis – melting of the enamel (2-8ppm)
- osteosclerosis (8-20 ppm)
- growth depression (50 ppm or more)
- fatal poisoning (extremely high levels)

e. Distribution of Fluorides
Teeth and skeleton have the highest concentrations of fluoride due to the affinity of fluoride to
calcium. Fluoride content of teeth increases rapidly during early mineralization periods and
continues to increase with age but at a lower rate.

f. Role of Fluorides in Nutrition and Dental Health

Nutrition and diet affect the development and integrity of the oral cavity as well as progression
of diseases of the oral cavity. Oral health and nutrition have a synergistic relationship. Oral
infectious diseases, as well as acute, chronic, and terminal systemic diseases with oral
manifestations impact on the functional ability to eat that affects diet and nutrition status.
Nutrition plays a major role in craniofacial development and prevention of oral infections and
oral cancers.

g. Prevention of Cavities by Fluoride

Cavities are holes (or structural damage) in the teeth. Fluoride concentrates in the growing
bones and developing teeth of children help harden the enamel on baby and adult teeth before
they emerge. Fluoride helps to harden the enamel on adult teeth that have already emerged.

2. Selenium
a. Distribution
Selenium content in the diet is dependent on the soil content where the food source is grown.

b. Functions
> Selenium reduces or prevents the effects of vitamin E deficiency.
> It is a component of glutathione peroxidase (GP) which is responsible for inactivating the
peroxides that cause the oxidation and rancidity of fats.

c. Food sources
organ meats muscle meats cereals dairy products

d. Effects of deficiency or excess

- muscle pain and tenderness
- pancreatic degeneration
- hemolytic anemia

3. Chromium

a. Distribution
The fatal body content of chromium is about 6 to 10 mg.

b. Functions
> Raises abnormally low fasting blood sugar levels and improves faulty uptake of sugar by body
tissues.
> It stimulates the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol in the liver

c. Food Sources
corn oil clams whole-grain cereals vegetables meats

d. Requirement
Normal adults- 50 to 200 mcg/ day

Recommended Selenium intakes for Specific Population Group

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI mg/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - <6 6 6
6 - < 12 9 10
Children, y
1-3 13 18
4-6 19 22
7-9 24 20
Males, y
10-12 34 21
13-15 50 31
16-18 58 36
 19 and over 59 31
Females, y
10-12 35 21
13-15 49 31
16-18 50 36
19 and over 51 31
Pregnant Women 35
Lactating Women 40
Source: FNRI- DOST RENI, 2002

4. Vanadium

a. Distribution
Vanadium is a constituent of human tissues.

b. Function
It is involved in the appetite crystal formation of tooth enamel, hence may contribute to
resistance to dental decay.

c. Requirement
0.1 to 0.3 mg/ day.

WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

Water
- Constitutes about 60% to 70% of the total body weight so that a deprivation of water by as much as
10% will already result in illness and a 20% loss of body water may cause death.
- It is next to oxygen in importance for the maintenance of life.
- Water found in normal adult human body totals 45 liters.
- Two thirds of this (30 liters) is found inside or within the cell while one third (15 liters) is outside the
cell.
Functions
1. The universal solvent
2. Many chemical reactions require water. It serves as a catalyst in many biological reactions especially
those that involve digestion, absorption, and circulation.
3. It is a vital component of tissues, glycogen, and others and is essential for growth.
4. Water acts as a lubricant of the joints and the viscera in the abdominal cavity.
5. It is also a regulator of body temperature through its ability to conduct heat.

Water Intake
The amount of water needed by the body may be met by a direct intake of water, water ingested
as such, or from water bound with foods, and from metabolic water, which is a result of oxidation of
foodstuffs in the body. Water produced as an end product of metabolism amounts to approximately 14
g/ 100 cal. For example, 100 g of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins when oxidized will yield 107 mL, 60
mL, and 14 mL of water, respectively.
Water Output
Water leaves the body via several channels such as through the skin as an insensible perspiration;
through the lungs as water vapor in the expired air; through the gastrointestinal tract as feces; and
through the kidneys as urine. Water may also be lost together with the electrolytes through tears;
stomach suction; breathing; vomiting; bleeding; perspiration; drainage from burns; and discharge from
ulcer; skin diseases, and injured or burned areas.

Fluid Requirement Based on Caloric Expenditure Using the Holliday- Segar Method

Weight Daily Requirement

3-10 100 mL/kg
10-20 1000 mL + 50 mL/kg for each in excess of 10
> 20 1500 mL + 20 mL/kg for each in excess of 20
Source: Holliday & Segar, 1957
Note: This method is not suitable for neonates < 14 days old or for conditions associated with abnormal losses.

ABNORMALITIES OF WATER BALANCE

Overhydration or Water Intoxication

When large amounts of water are lost in the body usually caused by high environmental
temperature, sodium is also lost.
This phenomenon causes the brain to signal a need for increased water. If the water intake is
increased without the corresponding increase in the intake of sodium, water intoxication results.
Workers exposed to high environmental temperatures and travelers to tropical countries not
accustomed to heat may become victims of this condition and experience muscle cramps, weakness, or
drop in blood pressure. This is relieved by providing sodium in very small amounts with the intake of
solids.
This may also arise if too much fluid is given intravenously. If the intake of water exceeds the
maximum rate of urine flow, the cells and tissues become water-logged and diluted. This may cause
anorexia and vomiting, and if it occurs in the brain, it may result in convulsion, coma, and even death.

Dehydration
This condition becomes serious if the loss is about 10% of the total body water and fatal if the
loss is from 20% to 22%. It is especially critical in babies. Electrolytes are also lost with the water in this
condition, and the skin becomes loose and inelastic.

Average Daily Intake and Output of Water

Intake mL/ day Output mL/ day

Oral fluids 1,100 – 1,400 Sensible
Solid foods 800 – 1,000 urine 1,200 – 1,500
Metabolic Water 300 intestinal 100- 200
(oxidation of food) Insensible
Lungs (water vapor) 400
Skin (sweat) 500 - 600
 TOTAL 2,200 – 2, 700 2,200 – 2, 700
(approx. 2,500 mL/ day) (approx. 2,500 mL/ day)

Normal Electrolyte Concentrations of the Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids (mEq/ liter)

Extracellular Fluids (Plasma Intracellular Fluids (mEq/liter)

& Interstitial) (mEq/ liter)
CATIONS (+): Sodium (Na+) 135 to 147 10
Potassium (K+) 3.5 to 5.5 150
Calcium (Ca++) 4.5 to 5.5 1 to 2
Magnesium (Mg ++) 1.5 to 3.0 40
ANIONS (-): Chloride (Cl) 98 to 106 4
Bicarbonate (HC03-) 26 to 30 10
Phosphate (HP04-) 2 to 5 140
Sulfate (SO4-) 2 to 5 10

Organic Acids
(Lactic, pyruvic) (-) 3 to 6 40
Proteins (proteinate -) 15 to 19

Source: Escott-Stump, S., and Mahan, L.K., 2004