Waterworks Operators Manual Division of Water Supply Bureau of Environmental Health Mississippi State Department of Health 1997 Equal Opportunity in Employment! ServicesTable of contents Page Chapter 1 Safe drinking water ‘Types of water supplies 11 Requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act 14 Drinking water standards 13 Contaminant groups 14 Chapter 2 Operator certification Water system classification a The law 21 Chapter 3 Mathematics Numbers 3H Units 34 Fractions 32 Decimals 32 Exponentiation 33 Ratio and proportion 33 Percentage 33 Averages: 34 Area 34 ‘Volume 34 Chapter 4 Hydraulics Static Hydraulics 44 Dynamic Hydraulics 43 Flow measurement 46 Pumps 47 Chapter 5 Ground water and wells Ground water use 5-1 The Hydrologic Cycle 53 Ground water occurrence and availability 53 ‘Well terminology 5-9 ‘Types of wells 59 Well development SlChapter 6 Microbiology Water sources and risks 61 Water microbiology 61 Waterborne diseases 61 Microorganisms 62 Bacteria 63 ‘Types of microorganisms 65 Sources of contamination 67 Microbiological monitoring 68 Microbiological sampling procedure 610 Bacteriological examination 611 Interpreting results 6-12 Chapter 7 Chemistry of ground water Ground water TA Solutions 18 Hydrogen ion concentration- pH 1-6 Alkalinity 1 Hardness 1-7 Coagulation 78 Chapter 8 Water Treatment Class D 8D-1 Disinfection 8D-1 Fluoridation 8D-4 Chapter 8B&C Water Treatment Unit processes 8B&C-1 Aeration 8B&C-1 Coagulation/flocculation 8B&C-3 Sedimentation SB&C-5 Filtration SB&C-8 Ton exchange 8B&C-13 Iron and manganese control SB&C-14 Stabilization 8B&C-16 Chapter 8 A Water Treatment Surface water 8A-1Algae BAL Preliminary treatment 8A-1 Pre-sedimentation BAD Chemical treatment 8A-2 Rapid mixing 8A-2 Coagulation/floceulation 8A2 Operational control 8A-4 Sedimentation 8A-6 Softening BA-8 Disinfection 8A-11 Chapter 9 Distribution and storage Design 9-1 Material selection 92 Main location 9.3 Sizing and valves 93 Booster stations 9-5 Construction/installation 95 Maintenance 9-6 Leaks 9.7 Customer complaints 99 ‘Hydropneumatic tanks 9-10 Elevated storage 9-13 Chapter 10 Chlorination Chlorine 10-1 ‘Automatic chlorination 10-1 Chlorinator installation 10-4 Chlorinator maintenance 10-5 Chapter 11 Administration and safety Water utility organization 1 Utility responsibility 11-2 Water service 113 Accounting 11-4 Purchasing 115 Equipment maintenance 11-6 Personnel administration 11-7 Training 11-9 Safety 11-10 Public relations wtChapter 12 Appendix A Appendix B-1 Appendix B-2 Appendix C Appendix D Cross Connection Control Cross Connections and Backflow Backflow Prevention Devices Responsibilities The Total Coliform Rule Minimum Job Performance Guidelines for Certified Waterworks Operators in the State of Mississippi ippi Primary Drinking Water Regulation Ground Water Rule Glossary 12-4 12-2 12-5 Bl B2Chapter 1 Safe drinking water Safe drinking water Introduction Congress passed the original Federal Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in 1974, This law regulates all public water supplies in this country. Congress lamended the act in 1986 and again in 1996. ‘The law establishes a cooperative program between the states and the U. S. lEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) for public water supply regulation. States can assume primary enforcement authority (primacy) for the act, and |subsequent rules and regulations. To date, only Wyoming has not assumed lprimacy. The EPA manages the program in that state. ‘The EPA writes all regulations to implement provisions of the law. These regulations are published in Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Parts 136 to 149. States use the federal regulations as their guidelines. States that lassume primacy must have laws and regulations no less stringent than federal requirements. ‘The Mississippi legislature adopted the SDWA in 1975 with the stipulation that Mississippi's law and regulations would be no more stringent than federal requirements. Therefore, Mississippi's regulations are exactly as strict as the federal requirements. ‘The Mississippi State Department of Health (MSDH) is the primacy agency. Ihe Division of Water Supply (DWS) administers the program for MSDH. The lowner or operator of the water system is responsible for meeting the requirements lof the SDWA. Types of water supplies ‘The law and regulations apply to all publicly or privately owned "public water supplies.” Public water systems are divided into three major types: ‘Community water systems serve a residential population of year-around residents. The system must ‘have at least 15 service connections or at least 25 residents. Examples: municipal, subdivision, mobile ‘home park, and rural water systems. Nontransient noncommunity systems provide drinking water to at least 25 of the same people for at least six months per year. Examples: schools, factories, hospitals, These systems must meet the same requirements as community water systems, ‘Transient noncommunity water systems are those noncommunity systems that do not meet the definition of nontransient noncommunity water system. Examples: highway rest stops, restaurants, motels, golf courses, parks. Requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act ‘The law imposes three major requirements on the water system: ® sampling and reporting m record keeping ® public notification Page 1-1Safe drinking water Sampling and reporting ‘The water system is directly responsible for monitoring inorganic chemicals microbiological contaminants organic chemicals radiological contaminants turbidity = unregulated chemicals ‘The type of analysis, sampling frequency, and location of sampling points vary from system to system and contaminant to contaminant. In Mississippi, the Mississippi Public Health Laboratory performs the analysis for the required contaminants. MSDH provides the containers, ‘transports samples to the laboratory, completes the analysis, and gives results back to the water system. The Division of Water Supply is available for any assistance or follow-up instructions the water system needs, Record keeping The law requires public water systems to keep the following records in the water system or treatment facility = copies of laboratory results, including name of person who collected the samples = dates and locations of sampling points © records of violations and steps taken to correct violations © sanitary survey reports w all other water quality information These records are public information. Customers of the water system have every right to inspect these records. The public water supply must provide copies ‘on demand. Table 1-1 shows how long these records must be kept. Table 1-1 Required record keeping and retention Record Minimum years retained Bacteriological analyses 3 (Chemical analyses 10 Written reports such as sanitary | 10 following surveys and engineering reports | _ completion Variances and exemptions 5 following expiration ‘Actions taken to correct 3 after last action violation, Public notification ‘The water system must notify the public of any regulation violation. Violations are classed by seriousness. Tier 1 violations include failure to comply with a: = maximum contaminant level (MCL) = treatment technique = variance or exemption schedule Tier 2 violations include failure to comply with: = monitoring requirements a testing procedure ma variance or exemption. For example, a violation of an MCL indicates contamination and is more serious than failure to meet ‘a sampling schedule, The MCL violation requires ‘more extensive public notification. Regulations specify that public notification meet certain minimum Janguage and mode of delivery requirements. Table 1- 2 lists the methods required for public notification of violations Table 1-2 Public notification requirements Violation or condition Required notification Miail___[ Newspaper | Broadsast cate Violation ofan MCL X x ‘Nonacute violation ofan MCL x Failure to monitor Failure to follow compliance schedule Failure to use approved testing procedure ‘System granted a variance or exception 4] >} oe] >] > Page 1-2Other regulatory provisions Variances and exemptions ‘The SDWA allows variances and exemptions from some of the requirements for systems having technical or financial problems. These exceptions allow a non-compliant system to supply water to the public for a limited time. The supplier must prove that allowing the variance or exemption poses no threat to the public health. Variances and exemptions are difficult to obtain and are extremely rare. Citizens’ lawsuits ‘The law allows the state to take civil court action against a water system to enforce compliance. Should the state fail to enforce a primary drinking water regulation, the state may ask the EPA to take action or bring civil suit against a water system in federal Aistrict court, Fora willful violation, the court may impose a fine of up to $25,000 per violation. Each day in non- compliance is a separate violation. If these actions fail to force compliance, a citizen ‘may file suit against the water system, the state, and the EPA in U.S. District Court. Class-action suits are not allowed. The court can require a citizen secking a ‘temporary restraining order or injunction to put up a bond. The court can award litigation costs to either party. The Somplainant must give 60 days notice before taking civil action against the water system, the state, or the EPA. Emergency powers If local and state authorities don’t take appropriate corrective action, the EPA may intervene. This applies if the violation poses an "imminent and substantial” danger to public health. The EPA consults with the local and state authorities before taking action. ‘The action may include orders to protect public health or a restraining order or an injunction. Ifa water system violates an EPA emergency order, itis subject to a maximum fine of $25,000 per day per violation. Siting requirements The law includes siting requirements that prevent facilities from locating in areas subject to disasters such as flooding, fires, and earthquakes. Siting requirements also apply to major improvements. Safe drinking water However, the regulations do not apply to minor improvements such as installing one service line. Siting requirements apply in the following situations: m financial agreement to construct a new public water system = construction of a new public water system ‘major expansion or improvement of an existing water system ‘The DWS technical assistance branch or DWS regional engineer can supply information about siting requirements for public water systems, Drinking water standards ‘The law directs the EPA to issue primary and secondary drinking water standards to ensure safe and acceptable water for the consumer. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs) protect the public health. Table 1-3 on the next page shows the health effects associated with regulated contaminants. The secondary standards are based on aesthetic qualities for drinking water. These are non- enforceable guidelines, ‘The law and regulations are extensive. What follows is a summary discussion of the requirements. Primary standards Primary standards are either maximum contaminant level (MCL) or treatment technique requirements. The MCL is the enforceable standard. Water samples from public water systems must meet this standard for compliance. An MCL goal (MCLG) is a value associated with no bad health effects. For chemicals that might cause cancer, the goal is set at zero. The MCLG is a goal, not an enforceable standard. ‘Treatment technique requirements are set for contaminants that are difficult or costly to measure. ‘The EPA can require specific treatment techniques to prevent possible health risks. Treatment technique requirements are enforceable standards. The Lead and Copper Rule and The Surface Water Treatment Rule are examples. Secondary standards Secondary standards are set for those contaminants that affect aesthetic quality (e.g., taste, odor, or color) of water. Water that exceeds the Page 1-3Safe drinking water secondary maximum contaminant levels might not be ‘Most complaints that consumers lodge about drinking pleasant to drink but will not cause health problems, water are related to secondary standards, Table 1-3 Health effects of contaminants regulated by the NPDWRs [Contaminant Health effect Microbiological | Cause various illnesses such as gastroenteritis, typhoid, bacillary dysentery, infectious organisms hepatitis, amocbic dysentery, and giardiasis. Some illnesses are potentially fatal. Turbidity [Protects microorganisms from chlorine and other disinfectants, acts as a food source for microorganisms, interferes with maintenance of a chlorine residual in the distribution system, and interferes with coliform testing: [Arsenic [Causes small sores on hands and feet, possibly developing into cancer. Barium [Causes increased blood pressure and nerve block. [Cadmium [Concentrates in liver, kidneys, pancreas, and thyroid; hypertension is a suspected health effect. [Chromium [Causes skin sensitivity, kidney damage. Lead’ [Causes constipation, loss of appetite, anemia, tenderness, pain, gradual paralysis of the muscles, especially the arms, and reduced mental capacity in children. [Mercury [Causes inflammation of the mouth and gums, swelling of the salivary glands, and loosening of the teeth. [Selenium (Causes staining of fingers, teeth and hair, general weakness, depression, irritation of the nose and throat. [Fluoride [Causes stained spots on teeth (mottling) — the amount of discoloration depends on the [amount of fluoride ingested. [Nitrate [Causes temporary blood disorder in infants — can be fatal. Pesticides [Cause symptoms of poisoning which differ in intensity. The severity is related to the Endrine concentration of these chemicals in the nervous system, primarily the brain. Mild Lindane exposure causes headaches, dizziness, numbness, and weakness of the extremities. Severe ‘Methoxychlor exposure leads to spasms involving entire muscle groups, leading in some cases to ‘Toxaphene convulsions. Suspected of being carcinogenic. Herbicides [Cause liver damage and gastrointestinal irritation. 24D 2,4,5-TP [Trihalomethanes [Suspected as possible carcinogens. Contaminant groups Microbiological contaminants ‘The EPA is continuously revising standards for contaminant groups and creating new standards. ‘This group includes bacteria, viruses, and protozoa — some of which cause diseases. The Refer to 40 CFR, Parts 136 to 149 for the most coliform group of bacteria is the indicator of current regulations. microbiological contamination. Coliform organisms are not harmful but indicate sewage contamination. Tests to detect coliform bacteria are accurate, easy, Page 1-4and inexpensive. See the Total Coliform Rule (Appendix A) for total coliform and E. coli standards. Other types of bacteria regulated under the Surface Water Treatment Rule are Legionella, which causes an upper respiratory disease. Tests for heterotrophic bacteria assess the overall bacteriological quality of the water. Enteric viruses, the protozoa Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidia are significant threats to public health. Suspended material in water causes turbidity or cloudiness. The suspended material is not contamination but shields microorganisms from disinfection. Excess turbidity can allow live pathogens to enter the system. New regulations covering these contaminants are included in the Surface Water Treatment Rule. This rule is a set of treatment technique requirements for systems using surface water or ground water under the direct influence of surface water. Inorganic contaminants Tnorganic contaminants are mostly metals. The list includes antimony, arsenic, asbestos, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cyanide, fluoride, mercury, nickel, nitrate, nitrite, selenium, sulfate, and thallium. The Lead and Copper Rule establishes the EPA regulations for lead and copper. Separate rules are being considered for other inorganic contaminants Organic contaminants Organic contaminants are subdivided into three categories: volatile organic contaminants (VOCs), synthetic organic contaminants (SOCs), and pesticides\herbicides\PCBs. VOCs readily volatilize when exposed to air. Most are industrial chemicals, solvents, or fuel Safe drinking water constituents. SOCs are man-made, carbon-containing chemicals and some pesticides and herbicides. Radiological contaminants The radionuclides are radioactive chemicals, mostly natural. These include radon, radium-226, radium-228, uranium, beta particle and photon emitters, and alpha emitters. Unregulated contaminants ‘Unregulated contaminants are monitored, but there is no enforceable standard, Monitoring helps the EPA decide if regulations are necessary and what the MCL for each contaminant should be. References Manual of Instruction for Water Treatment Plant Operators. NY State Dept. of Health, Albany, NY (1975). National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Office of Water Supply, USEPA, ‘Washington DC EPA-570/9-76-003 (1976). ‘National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations. Office of Drinking Water, USEPA, Washington DC EPA-570/9-76-000 (July 1979). Introduction to Water Quality Analysis. AWWA Denver CO (1982). ‘A Working Explanation of the Public Notification Rule. AWWA, Denver CO (1990). A Working Explanation of the Surface Water Treatment Rule. AWWA, Denver CO (1990). A Working Explanation of the Total Coliform Rule. AWWA, Denver CO (1990). Page 1-5Safe drinking water Sample questions 1. All the following are public water systems except: a. community water supplies b. noncommunity water supplies ¢. nontransient noncommunity water supplies 4. private home wells 2. The public is notified of a non-acute MCL violation by all the following except: a. TV and radio ‘b. newspaper cc. hand or mail delivery d. posting 3. Sanitary survey and chemical analyses reports must be retained for: a. 5 years b.3 years c. 10 years 4.7 years Under the SDWA, water suppliers are responsible for all the following except: a. record keeping ». sampling c. emergency powers 4. public notification Primary drinking water standards are contaminants with enforceable a. MCLs b. NPDES. ¢. MCLGs 4. VOCs Contaminants that are monitored but have no enforceable standards are: a. radionucleides b. organics c. unregulated 4. inorganics Page 1-6Operator Certification Chapter 2 Operator Certification Introduction ‘This chapter explains how water systems are classified and how waterworks} loperators become certified. Every community and nontransient noncommunity public water supply in| IMississippi must have a certified waterworks operator. An operator is “the person who ldirectly supervises and is personally responsible for the daily operation and| maintenance of a community or nontransient noncommunity water system.” ‘The law gives the Mississippi State Department of Health authority to certify |waterworks operators. The Mississippi State Board of Health adopts regulations to lenforce the law, The Certification, Training and Monitoring Branch, Division of [Water Suy Water system classification Every public water system is classified by the type of water treatment used to assure safe drinking water. Table 2-1 on page 3 shows how water systems are classified. The table summarizes only part of the Regulation Governing the Certification of Municipal and Domestic Water Systems Operators. Refer to Appendix B-2 forall of the regulation. The law ‘A waterworks operator’s certificate must at least ‘equal the system classification. Any system that loses a certified waterworks operator must replace that operator within 180 days. The Municipal and Domestic Water and Wastewater System Operator's Certification Act of 1986 is in Appendix B-2. Requirements for certification ‘An applicant who wants to become certified in Mississippi must meet educational and experience qualifications. The operator must also pass the appropriate waterworks operator certification 1 Operator failed to exercise reasonable care or judgment in performing duties. ly, administers the re ations. examination. In some cases, additional experience may substitute for education. All candidates must have at least one year of supervised experience. The supervisor must hold a certificate that is equal to or higher than the one the candidate seeks. The supervisor must endorse the applicant’s application. Two additional MSDH-certified operators must recommend the applicant's certification. ‘The testis offered three times a year, after the four- day waterworks operators short course. An examination fee is required. A certification application is sent by mail to those who pass the examination. The Certification Branch reviews applications within two weeks. Ifthe application is approved, the applicant is mailed an invoice for the certification fee. When the agency receives payment, the certificate is sent, The certificate is valid for three years from the first or fifteenth of the month in which the payment is received. Renewal ‘Waterworks operator certificates are valid for three years unless revoked for due cause. Causes for evoking a certificate can include: '@ Fraud or deception © Operator is incompetent or unable to properly perform required duties. Page 24Re-examination is not required for certificate renewal, provide 1 The application is filed within 30 days after the existing certificate expires. 1 The renewal application lists and shows proof that an ‘operator who has been continuously licensed less than 9 years, has attended 48 approved continuing education units within within the three years of the certificate. or 1 The renewal application lists and shows proof that an operator who has been continuously licensed more than 9 years, has attended 24 approved continuing education units within the three years of the certificate. Operators ‘must keep their own education records. A certified operator must pass the written ‘examination for certification again if: The operator files for renewal more than 30 days after the certificate expires. 1m The operator fails to get 48 hours of continuing, education. ‘The renewal fee is required. The renewal certificate is valid for three years. Operator Certification Sample questions: Ifa public water system loses its certified ‘waterworks operator, how long does the system have to employ another certified water works operator? a. 90 days b, 365 days ©. 180 days 4.48 days From the time an operator is certified, how long does the operator have to get the 48 or 24 education hours required to renew certification? a. Three years plus 60 days b. Three years from the date the certificate is dated c. 48 months from the date the certificate is dated d. Three years from the date the operator takes the exam ‘Who is responsible for keeping up with an operator's continuing education hours? a. The certified operator, b. The Mississippi Water & Pollution Control Operator's Association c. The Mississippi State Department of Health 4. The Mississippi Rural Water Association Page 2-2Operator certification Table 2-1 Classification of public water systems and respective operator qualifications for certification Public water system classification Water operator qualifications for certification Class A ‘Systems with surface water treatment, lime softening, or coagulation and filtration for the removal of constituents other than iron or manganese. 1. The applicant must have a bachelor’s degree in ‘engineering or applied sciences from an accredited college or university, at least one year experience in Class A water plant, and pass the written examination required by the bureau, or 2. He/She must be a graduate of an accredited high school, or equivalent (GED), have at least six years experience in Class A or B water plant, of which one year must be in a Class A plant, and pass the written examination required by the bureau, Class B ‘System with two or more Class C treatment facilities of different types, or with iron or manganese removal facilities breaking pressure or requiring flocculation and/or sedimentation ‘The applicant must have graduated from an accredited high school, or equivalent (GED), have at least three years experience in a Class A, B, or C water plant, of which one year must be in a Class A or B plant, and pass the written ‘examination required by the bureau. Class C System with aeration, pH ‘adjustment, corrosion control or closed pressure type treatment facilities including zeolite softening or iron removal. ‘The applicant must have graduated from an accredited high schoo! or equivalent (GED), have at least two years experience in a Class A, B, C or D water plant, of which ‘one year must be in a Class A, B, or C plant and pass the written examination required by the bureau. Class D System with one or more wells but no treatment other than chlorination, fluoridation, and phosphate addition. ‘The applicant must have graduated from an accredited high school or equivalent (GED) and have at least one year experience in the same class facility as being applied for or a higher level. In addition the applicant must pass the written examination required by the bureau. Class E ‘Systems that purchase water only. This classification shall also apply to waterworks operators whose only {job responsibility is the operation ‘and maintenance of distribution system(s), ‘The applicant must have graduated from an accredited high school or equivalent (GED) and have at least one year experience in the same class facility as being applied for or a higher level. In addition the applicant must pass the written examination as required by the bureau. * At least one year of experience in all classes must be while under the supervision of a certified operator. The supervising operator must have a nonrestricted certificate for the class system being applied for or higher and must endorse the applicant's application.Chapter 3 Mathematics Introduction Mathematics ‘This chapter reviews basic calculations that a water system operator uses. [Discussions and examples explain how to: convert numbers to the same units use fractions in calculations understand ratio and proportion calculate averages = /= use decimals and percentages 2 calculate area and volume Numbers ‘There are two kinds of numbers: pure and concrete. Pure numbers have no units. Here are ‘examples of pure numbers: 1 26 195 * 748 Concrete numbers have specific units, such as: 1 foot 26 psi 195 gallons % cup 7.48 gallons per cubic foot Be sure to convert all concrete numbers to the same units before making calculations. Units All water system processes use units, such as: = pounds per day (ppd) = gallons per minute (gpm) = milligrams per liter (mg/1) = pounds per square inch (psi) ‘The following units are more common in class A, B, or C treatment processes and in larger plants: = gallons per square foot (gal/fi") = pounds per gallon (Ibs/gal) = million gallons per day (mgd) Units used with concrete numbers express filter loading rates, detention times, chemical feed rates, pumping and overflow rates. To understand and communicate what happens in the treatment plant and distribution system, the operator needs to know mathematics and common units of measurement. The operator must convert units of measurement to make calculations with concrete numbers. Table 3-1 on the next page shows some common conversions. Page 3-1Mathematics Table 3-1 Conversion factors used in the water industry Multiply by to convert to Meters (mm) 39.37 | Inches (in) Inches (in) 254 — | Centimeters (cm) Inches (in) 25.4 | Millimeters (mm) Miles (mi) 1.61 _ | Kilometers (kan) Pounds (Ibs) 454 | Grams (gms) Gallons (gals) | 3.785 | Liters (1) Head (ft) 0.433 | Pounds/in? (psi) Poundsfin? (psi) 231 | Head (ft) Gallons (gal) 834 | Pounds (Ibs) Cubic feet (f°) |7.48 | Gallons (gal) Cubic feet (f°) | 62.4 | Pounds (Ibs) fo convert the right hand coluran to the left hand column, divide instead of multiply. Examples: ‘How long in centimeters is 27 inches? Inches x 2.54 = centimeters: 27 in x 2.54 (cm/in) = 68.58 em How many gallons is 980 liters? Liters divided by 3.785 = gallons: 980 (1) + 3.785 (gal) = 258.92 (gal) Fractions A fraction is the ratio between any two smumnbers. Fractions have two parts, a numerator and a denominator. The numerator is the top number and the denominator is the bottom number: numerator denominator If the numerator is larger than the denominator, it’s called an improper fraction. Example: ; A proper fraction is when the numerator is’smaller ‘than the denominator, such as %. A mixed fraction or mixed number is a whole number and fraction together, such as 3%. Here, 3 is the whole number or integer, and % is the fraction. Decimals A decimal is a fraction expressed in tenths (0.1), hundredths (0.01), thousandths (0.001), or to as many decimal places as desired. Examples: 1/10is 1 + 10 = 0.1 or one-tenth; % is 3 + 4=0.75 or seventy-five hundredths. Decimal place states the number of places or numbers to the right of a decimal. The number 000.0036200 is carried to the seventh decimal place. ‘The number of decimal places reflects accuracy. The number .00362 has the same value as (000.0036200, but the larger number expresses ‘greater significance or accuracy. To report 000.0036200 to three decimal places, ‘we would write the number 0.004, rounding the 3 to 4, The rule is to round up (3 to 4) if the dropped. number is 5 or greater, round down if the dropped number is less than 5. Common sense dictates how many places express reasonable results. Example: 0.45271 is 0.45 or 0.453; 0.123721 is 0.1 or 0.12 To simplify calculations with fractions, use a calculator. Convert the fraction to a decimal. Itis much easier to multiply 7.33 x 4.38 than itis to multiply 7% x 4%. Adding and subtracting fractions ‘To add and subtract fractions, frst find a common denominator; that is, the lowest number by which denominators of the fractions can be evenly divided. Examples: the common denominator of ¥ and % is 6; the common denominator of ¥ and % is 24, Find a common denominator by multiplying together all denominators, then check for a lower number by dividing in half. Examples: To find the common denominator of %, %, and %: 8x3 x4 = 96 + 2= 48 (that works) + 2 = 24 (that works) +2= ‘12 (won’t work; 8 won’t go evenly into 12). ‘However, when using a calculator, it’s quicker to use the larger common denominator than to take time to find a smaller number. Page 3-2Adding and subtracting decimals To add and subtract decimals, line up the decimal points of all the numbers. The decimal place for a number with no decimal point is to the right of the number (2 is 2.0). ‘Example: add 11.2, 5, and .45: 11.20 5.00 0.45 16.65 Multiplying fractions To multiply fractions, separately multiply the numerators together and the denominators together. A mixed number must first be expressed as a fraction (1%=2). To multiply a fraction by a whole umber, express the integer as a fraction (5 x %= *Z) T Example: %ox% = BE = S ork Multiplying decimals To multiply two numbers with decimals, multiply as if there were no decimals in the numbers. Then count decimal places in both numbers and point off that many places from the right end in the product. Always check to see if the product is reasonab] Example: 2.15 x 3.2: 215 x32 = 6880, point off three decimal places from the right end = 6.88. Seem reasonable? Dividing fractions To divide fractions, invert the divisor (% ~ */3) and multiply the fractions together. Example: Ho ts32 mm Dividing decimals To divide by a number with a decimal, move the decimal point of the divisor to the right of the last numeral. Move the decimal point of the number being divided by the same number of spaces. Example: 325 + 5.25 ~ 32500 + 525 = 61. 905 Mathematics Exponentiation ‘Exponentiation means multiplying a number by itself. The simplest example is squaring a number, or multiplying the number by itself one time. The ‘superscript 2 means to square the number. Example: 2=2.x2=4, Cubing a number means raising a number to the third power. Indicated by a superscript 3, it means to multiply the number by itself two times. Example: 2°=2x2x2=8. ‘Advanced hydraulic modeling formulas, such as Hazen-Williams or Darcy-Weisbach, raise variables to decimal powers (D‘™’). These calculations are complicated to solve without advanced mathematical techniques, such as, logarithms. Operators doing these calculations can rely on scientific calculators and computers for their solutions. Example: 5° Ona standard calculator:(5! x 3) Reverse Polish notation: 5 jenter 31y%125 Ratio and proportion ‘A ratio, normally expressed as X:Y or as 2 fraction ~ , implies a comparison of two numbers or the division of one number by another. The fraction % is the ratio of 7 to 8. A proportion, indicated by an equal sign (=) is a statement of ‘equality between ratios. Products of cross multiplication of numerators and denominators are also equal. Example: 4 = oa be cons atid and sl ‘maintain equality Ratio and proportion operations are fundamental to calculating dosage rates. _Exapgple: The value of x inthe following equation: x 6 Cross multiplying: 4x = 6 x325 xo SB y= 4875 Percentage ‘Percentage is a ratio in which the denominator is always 100. To express a decimal as a percentage, move the decimal two places to the right: Page 3-3Mathematics 0.50 = 50%. To express a percent as a decimal, move the decimal two places to the left: 50% = 0.50. ‘Convert mixed numbers and fractions to decimal numbers before they can be expressed as a percentage. Example: 1%= 1.25 = 125%. To calculate the percentage of a number, multiply the number by the percentage expressed as a decimal. Example: 20% of 50 = 0.20 x 50= 10. Averages ‘An average is the calculated middle point in a set of numbers. An average is one way to describe data. For example, average daily demand is an ‘important number for a water system to know. Average daily demand can characterize such operational parameters as average pump run times, storage tumover rates, and expected water consumption. To compute averages, add all the ‘numbers in a data set and divide by the number of data in the set. Example: the average of the numbers 6, 10, 32, 5, and 7 is the sum of the five numbers divided by five. 6+10+32+5+7=60+5 = 12 is the average or mean. Area Area is the product of measurements in two dimensions: length multiplied by width, width multiplied by height, or length multiplied by height. ‘The units of measurement must be the same (see ‘table 3-1 for conversion factors). Example: To find the area of a rectangle 2 ft long by 18 in wide, convert 18 inches to 1.5 feet.2x 1.5=3 sq ft. English units for lengths are inches, feet, yards, and miles. Metric units are centimeters, meters, and kilometers. It follows that areas are most commonly reported in square inches (in*), square feet (f2), ‘square yards (yd*), and square miles (mi); square centimeters (cm*), square meters (m*), and square kilometers (km). The term “square feet” or “f¢” means length in feet times width in feet equals area. ‘The formula for the ares of a circle is Area= 242" \where 7 is a universal constant equal to 3.14, and D is the diameter. Volume Volume is the product of measurements in ‘three dimensions — length times width times height. Volume is the surface area times the third dimension. As in area calculations, be sure to use consistent units when calculating volume. The units are the same as those for area calculations. Express ‘volume in cubic feet (ft), cubic yards (yd), cubic meters (m*), gallons (gal) and million gallons (MG). Example: a box 3 feet tall, 2 feet wide, and 5 feet Jong has a volume of 3 x 2 x 5 = 30 cubic feet. Page 34Mathematics Table 3-2 Formulae for calculating area, perimeter, and volume of various shapes Rectangle L Area=WxL W Perimeter = W+W+L+L=2w+2L ‘Square Area=WxL=WxW=WeL? Perimeter = 2W +2L=4W Right angle (90°) triangle Area=%xLxW P=at+b? Perimeter=c+a+b Circle Area=mxdi4=nxe Perimeter= 7x d ‘Note: 1 or pi= 3.14 (approximate) Combined shapes Area=3.14xP+Lxd Perimeter =3.14xd+2xL Triangle Area =%4x(L+2)xh+%x(L+2)xh=%Lh Perimeter=L+L+ (L+2)+ (L+2)=3L Cube, rectangular tank Volume = Wx LxH ‘Area = number of sides closed x area of each side Cylinder. circular tank or length of pipe Volume = 3.14 7H Area = (3.14 xd x H)+(2x3.14xr) Cone Volume = (3.14 +3)x PH= 1.05 x PH Area =%x 3.14 xdxL Tank ‘Volume = (3.14 +6) d+ (3.14¢°L) +4 Area=(.14 xdxL)+(4x3.14x PF) Page 3-5Mathematics Sample questions 1, How many miles is 5 kilometers? a3Ll b.3.11 e311 311 2. How many pounds does | million gallons (MG) of water weigh? ‘a. 1,000,000 . 748,000 ©. 8,340,000 4. 62,400,000 3. Round the number 0.456 to one significant decimal place. 2. 00.46 b. 0.460 ©.0.5 4.04 4, What is the lowest common denominator of the fractions % and 74? al2 b.24 26 a4 5. Whatis 4+ expressed asa mixed number? 6. What is 1% - % expressed as a mixed number? un ad b.1% cl al% 7. What is the sum of 11 + 15.3 expressed to two decimal places? 164 b.263 ©2630 . 4.26 8. What is 15.3 - 3.14, expressed to one decimal place? 2.122 b. 12.16 BS 4.12 9. What is the product of 3.14 x 15? 45 b.47.10 4m 4710 10. What is 19% divided by 34? 3 a 2 16 11. What is the product of" x 3 as u : be 4 Sas * ay 12, What is 15 divided by 3.1, expressed to two decimal places? 3.4.84 b. 484 ©. 484 ©. 484 13, What is 4.1 raised to the third power (4.1)? 2.68.92 ».1239 713 4.8.26 14, What is (500)! a.925 b.92.5 ©. 9842.5 4.2703 Page 36Mathematics 15. 16. 17, 18, 19. What is unknown quantity X in the following ste Ly How many pounds of chlorine are contained in 100 pounds of HTH if HTH has 70% chlorine by If 80% of the customers of a water system are ‘metered, and the water system has 500 connections, how many customers are not metered? 2.40 b. 400 ¢. 100 4.10 ‘What is the average of the following monthly ‘water bills: $24.00, $35.36, $18.45? $77.81 , $60.00 ©. $25.94 4. $29.54 Daily meter readings from a well for five days ‘were 180,000 gals, 145,000 gals, 200,000 gals, 225,000 gals and 155,000 gals. What is the average daily production of the well for the five- day period? a. 180,000 gals . 200,000 gals 179,000 gals 4. 181,000 gals 20. 21. The surface dimensions of a filter are given by Tength = 20 feet and width = 10 feet. What is the surface area of the filter in square feet? 220 b.20.0 ©. 200.0 4.50.0 What is the surface area of a circular filter that has a diameter of 20 feet? 2314 3140 6.15.7 d. 1256.0 What is the volume in cubic feet of a circular standpipe that has a diameter of 10 feet and a height of 50 feet? 2.39.25 b.3925 ©. 3925.0 4.39250.0 ‘What is the volume in gallons of a 50-foot x 100- foot x 10-foot rectangular settling basin? a. 5000.0 . 5000.0 .3120000.0 4. 374000.0 Page 3-7Chapter 4 Hydraulics Introduction Hydraulics ‘Hydraulics is a branch of science that deals with practical applications (such as the transmission of energy or the effects of flow) of liquid at rest and in motion. It includes the flow of water through pipes, channels, filters, basins and lpumps and includes the pressure exerted by the water under static and dynamic [conditions. Discussions of static and dynamic hydraulic principles, pumps and flow measurement are included in this chapter. A basic understanding by the | water system operator of the hydraulics involved in a water system is essential to lthe proper operation and control of the system. Static Hydraulics Water under pressure, whether at rest or in motion, has energy. The higher the pressure, the more ‘energy that is associated with it. Static hydraulics is ‘the study of liquids (in our case water) at rest. Static head, or elevation head, refers to the level of water above a reference elevation, measured in feet. Static head represents the amount of potential energy of the water. ‘Water levels will equalize in a water distribution system at rest. With no water moving, water levels rise in the system to the water level of the highest elevated tank or standpipe. That water level at a point is the static head of the point. ‘When talking about head, it is necessary to specify the reference or datum elevation to be used in calculations. The most commonly used reference elevation is mean sea level (ms!) -- the average water level between low and high tides. Throughout the ‘United States, permanent surveying reference markers have been established by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. These benchmarks are points of known location and elevation and are used by engineers and surveyors as the beginning and ending points for ‘extremely accurate land surveys. For practical purposes, itis not always convenient or necessary to reference these benchmarks. Points of assumed location and elevation can be used. The main floor of the water treatment plant, for example, may arbitrarily be assigned an assumed elevation and all elevations in water system referenced to it. It is always necessary, however, to understand and record what datum is being used. To determine the actual static head at a point in a distribution system, subtract the point’s elevation from the system’s highest water elevation. Example The water surface elevation of a full standpipe is found to be +150 feet in reference to an assumed elevation point. The ground elevation at the house nearest the standpipe is +50 feet higher than the assumed reference point. What is the static head at the house? Solution ‘Static head (ft) = 150 ft- 50 ft = 100 ft Answer a. 200 ft b. 1508 ©. 100 ft 4.50 ft Page 4-7Hydraulics Example ‘An elevated tank is 120 feet from the ground to the overflow of the tank. The water treatment plant is, 20 feet below the ground elevation of the tank. What is the static head at the treatment plant? Solution Static head (ft) = 120 ft + 20ft = 140 ft Answer 2.140 b. 120 ©. 100 4.80 ‘Another term commonly used to express static head is static pressure. Water pressure is directly dependent on the specific weight of water -- 62.4 Ibs/ft at 4 degrees centigrade. Where static head implies the units of feet, pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square inch or psi. To determine the pressure in psi exerted by a cubic foot of water one foot square by one foot high: 2 Afi x 624 Ibsift” | 4.433 Ibsiin? (psi) 144 in?ift? ‘Therefore, the column of water one foot square by one foot high exerts a pressure of 0.433 psi at its base Consider a one foot square column of water 50 feet high: Area (fi?) 1 f? Area (in?) - 1 fi? x 144 Volume (ft?) . 1 fi? x 50 ft- 50 ft? Weight (Ibs) - 624 > x 50,f? - 3120.0 lbs ‘The pressure exerted on the bottom of the 50-foot column is: 3120.0 Ibs 144 in? - 21.67 BS in? or 21.7 psi If the column was a cylinder instead of rectangular, the pressure exerted at the bottom of the cylinder is found in a similar manner (assume the diameter of the cylinder is 1 foot): 2 ae 3145 OP orgs pi? Area (ft) . 7 2 Area (in?) « 0.785 fi? x 144 a 113.04 in? Volume (ft?) - 0.785 ft? x 50 ft. 39.25 ft? es 2449.2 Ibs Weight (Ibs) - 62.4 3 39.25 >. ‘The pressure exerted on the bottom of the cylinder of water is determined to be: 2449.2 Ibs 113.04 in Pressure (psi) « 21.67 o 21.7 psi mm Note that the 50-foot high square column of water exerts the same pressure at the bottom of the column as the 50-foot high cylinder - 21.67 psi. Calculations involving containers of different shape yield the same result. We can conclude that pressure is dependent ‘only on the height of water above our point of ‘measurement, not on the shape of the container. Example ‘What is the static pressure at the base of an elevated tank 120 feet (from the ground to the tank's overflow) tall? Solution on the next page Page 42Hydraulics ‘Static Pressure (psi) » 120 ft x 0.433 & + 52 psi Answer a.120psi b.120feet —¢. 52 psi d. 52 feet Example _ ‘An elevation reading is taken at the end of a distribution system and found to be 225 ft (msl). It's known that the overflow elevation of the system’s elevated tank is 400 ft (msl). What is the static pressure at the end of the distribution system? Solution psi Stati Pressre (pat) «(400 ft « 225 ft) x 0433 FP. 75.78 psi Answer a. 175 b. 175 psi c. 7.58 psi d. 75.78 psi ‘Another way of thinking about pressure is how Answer many feet of water exert a pressure of I psi? 2.21.65 f Knowing that: b. 115.5 ft se . 1155 psi » 0433 psi or —tA_ aust fn PS OF 933 psi Example The ground elevation of the above elevated tank ‘We take the reciprocal: is 200 ft mean sea level (msl). What is the overflow elevation (asl) ofthe tank? 1. i pst fepsi it. tee | pl | 231 1s vaspa | 714 0.433 a Overflow Elevation (fi) - 200 ft. 115.5 ft 3155 fe Knowing the pressure at a point, we can calculate the head. Solution Answer Example 4.3155 ft A pressure gage is attached to the bottom of an b.250.0f overflowing elevated tank and a pressure reading of 2115 ft 50 psi is recorded. What is the height of the water 4.21.7 ft (head) above the gage? Dynamic Hydraulics Flow occurs when there is energy to make the ‘water move. This energy includes the pressure head on the water. The total head or energy causing flow ina hydraulic system is the sum of the elevation (static) head, the velocity head, and the pressure Static Head (ft) - 50 psi x 231 4. 1155 ff head. According to the Bemoulli equation, the total psi head at Point A in a system is equal to the total head Solution Page 4-3Hydraulics at Point B in the system plus head losses from Point Ato Point B. Energy @ A (fi) = Energy @ B (ft) + Energy losses (ft from A to B Elevation head is head resulting from the height of the water surface above some reference point. The higher the water’s surface, the greater the elevation head. A reference datum is normally chosen below the lowest point in the system to avoid having to use negative values for vertical distances. Mean sea level (msl) is an ideal reference datum. ‘Velocity head results from water moving through the distribution system. The higher the velocity of the water, the higher the velocity head. ‘Velocity can be found by knowing the pipe diameter and the flowrate: Q (Flowrate) Velocity. SO ; 2 3 cme, Fons 60 sec 7.48 gal seo filsec fP/sec fe if Example ‘What is the velocity of water in a 6-inch pipe flowing at a rate of 200 gpm? 6 sec! 2 8 2x2 oa A Velocity Head (ft) - Solution 2 2 Area. SDT, 314% 051" 9.09 2 4 4 ep 0.45 — Velocity (2). 2, 8%, 2.25 A see” A” 920? ‘sec Answer A. .20 fi/sec B. 2.25 fsec C.22.5 fl/sec D. 25.2 ft/sec ‘Velocity head can be found by the equation: Velocity Head (ft) - where V = velocity (ft/sec) = 322 filsec? 2 = acceleration due to gravity ‘Velocity heads are normally low since velocities in a distribution system are routinely designed to be less than five ft/sec to minimize friction loss. Example ‘What is the velocity head in feet of water moving at a rate of five flsec? Solution: Answer: A. 08 ft 0.39 ft set sec’ B. .039 ft/sec C..39 ft D.3.9 fi/sec Page 44‘The pressure head in a water system is a measure of the height to which water theoretically will rise in ‘a tube open to the atmosphere which is inserted perpendicular to the direction of flow (Figure 4-1). ‘Velocity ead Fgure 41 Justration of velocity head As noted above, the velocity in most distribution systems is low and therefore the velocity head is low. ‘Neglecting the velocity head and assuming elevations at Point A and Point B are equal, it can be seen that the total head is very nearly equal to the pressure head. Itshould be noted that as water velocity increases, pressure head decreases. Again, this is not significant in distribution systems since velocities high enough to reduce the pressure head do not normally occur. However, a venturi orific designed to translate pressure head to velocity head. If the venturi’s constriction is small enough, itis possible to cause a very high velocity which results in an extremely high velocity head. This velocity head may be so great that the pressure head may become negative, that is, a partial vacuum is formed. An example of negative pressure head is the chlorinator ejector illustrated in Figure 4-2. Under negative pressure, chlorine is drawn into the water stream. ‘Very High Velocity With Corespoodingy Low Presare Figue 42 Chlotinatorejector In dynamic hydraulics, two important additional forms of head must be considered: pump head (the energy or head imparted to the system by a pump) and friction head (the energy or head lost due to the friction within the liquid and against the pipe walls). Hydraulics As water flows through a distribution system, some energy losses or ‘head losses’ occur. These losses are mainly due to: (1) losses from friction caused by the ‘water molecules slipping against other water ‘molecules and the pipe wall; (2) losses due to bends, enlargements, valves, reducers, restrictions and obstructions. Figure 4-3 Illustrates the effects of friction on the pressure head. Friction losses in a pipe depend upon the rate of flow (or velocity), the diameter and length of the pipe, and the roughness of the pipe’s interior surface. sume waren teva. , ay FRcTION MEAD, WareR LEVEL, He WALVE OPENED. Ea ] —_— Figure 4-3 Effects of fiction on pressure head (1) It should be obvious from this discussion that pressure head in a dynamic system will always be less ‘than static head. This reduction of head is called the “friction head loss” and represents the energy lost by friction of the water flowing through the pipe. Tables to determine head losses through various pipes and pipe diameters and fittings are given on page 4-11 ‘These losses are mainly derived from use of the Hazen-Williams equation, an empirical formula describing head loss: 10.4842 abe 5 Be x Head Loss where Head loss = (ft) D = Pipe diameter (inches) Q = Flowrate (gpm) © c Pipe roughness coefficient () L Pipe length (ft) The pipe roughness coefficient ‘C’ describes the type and condition of the pipe: the rougher the interior of a pipe, the higher the turbulence and Page 4-5Hydraulics friction, the lower the coefficient. Thus, new PVC pipe may have a ‘C’ value of 150. New ductile iron pipe may have a ‘C’ value of 130. Old tubereulated cast iron pipe may have a ‘C’ value of 50 or lower. Example ‘What is the head loss in 3000 feet of newly installed PVC pipe having a diameter of 6 inches and ‘maintaining a flowrate of 500 gpm? Assume that the roughness coefficient of the pipe is 150. 10.4842 (500.25 Headloss (ft) - or? Solution Answer A474 ft B. 47.4 ft C.474 ft D617 f Example ‘What is the dynamic pressure at an open hydrant in the distribution system with a ground elevation of 100 feet? The hydrant is served from an elevated storage tank by 5000 feet of 12-inch ductile iron pipe (C=110). The overflow elevation of the tank is 250 feet. A fireflow of 1000 gpm must be provided. ‘Solution 10.4842 rca 1000145, Headloss (ft) - oo x Pressure (psi) » (250 ft - 100 ft - 17.3 ft) x 0.433, a + 575 psi Answer A.1T3 psi B. 100.8 psi €.79.1 psi D.575 psi = 3000 fi. 47.4 ft x 5000 ft - 173 ft Flow measurement Flow measurement is important to water systems, since the quantities of water pumped or treated must be monitored. The amount of water metered as being purchased by consumers determines the income to the utility to pay for maintenance and repairs, new ‘equipment, expansion, and employee salaries. The amount of water measured as being pumped by the ‘system, when compared with the amount being sold, determines the lost or unaccounted-for water. This is an important figure since it suggests the existence of leaks and water usage which is unmetered. In some instances, unaccounted-for water may include flushing of hydrants and that furnished to churches, schools, hospitals or city-owned ‘and operated facilities which are not metered. It is recommended that all service connections and water usage be metered. ‘There are a variety of devices available for measuring the flow of water. The most common is the residential water meter. This meter contains a rotor or ‘vane which moves or is displaced when water passes through it. These types of meters are satisfactory for ‘measuring flow volumes on a monthly basis for ‘houses, but are not practical for use generally within a ‘water plant or in distribution and transmission mains because of the high flow rates and resulting pressure losses through the meter. ‘The operator is more often interested in rate of flow for some period of time. Common units for ‘expressing rate of flow are cubic feet per second (cfs), million gallons per day (mgd), and cubic meters per second (cms). Most flow measurement devices directly indicate the flow rate, and some can_ ‘be equipped to record the different flow rates continuously or over periods of special interest. ‘One type of meter, the venturi meter, operates on the Venturi principle. The chlorinator ejector in Figure 4-2 is an example of this type of meter. An orifice, another type of meter, is simply a ‘metal plate with a ye chamfered circular hole of known diameter in the center. hese Figure 44 Cicularonfice weirplate 2 Page 46Cicularotiice weirpate applcaton formeasuing pumping rate 2) It can be installed between the flanges of a pipe as shown in Figure 4-4. It is referred to as a circular orifice weir and is most commonly used to measure the flow from turbine and centrifugal pumps. The use of a weir plate for conducting a pumping test on a well is illustrated in Figure 4-5. ‘The venturi meter is normally installed in a straight length of pipe as a single unit. It consists of a converging section which tapers from the pipe diameter to the throat and back out to the pipe diameter (Figure 4-6). Taps into the pipe and pressure rmesome cwett mite oF Low Fgure 46 Venturi used to measure rate of flow (1) gages are installed as shown. Assuming that the meter is horizontal, flow is computed from the difference in pressure head between the two gages. A calibrated rate-of-flow indicator or an orifice table may be used to determine flowrate. A newer type of measuring device being used consists of a non-magnetic tube of the same internal Hydraulics diameter as the pipe diameter across which a magnetic field is established. Water flowing through the magnetic field produces an electric field proportional to the velocity of the water through the meter. Voltage from this electric field is used to indicate flowrate. For some hydraulic operations such as filtration, it is necessary to control the rate of flow. This can be accomplished with speci valves called rate-of-flow controllers (Figure 4- n. Valve operation is based on the Venturi 5 Figure 4-7 Eiken Rate of fow contoler(1) principle to control the size of the valve’s opening and to regulate the flow of water. Pumps Pumps used in water systems are usually classified into two categories, positive displacement and centrifugal. Positive displacement pumps are either piston or rotary. The primary application of positive displacement pumps in small water systems jis for feeding chemical solutions of soda ash, potassium permanganate, and/or sodium fluoride. ‘They are simple to operate, reliable, and easy to maintain. Two models are in Figures 4-8 and 4-9. Motor Stop Pulley ‘Belt Guard Page 47Hydraulics Manual Stroke vate con / ~ A TS) Eh Positive displacement pumps deliver a constant ‘volume of solution at specific speeds with a pulsating Figure 4-8 Figure 4-9 flow regardless of conditions downstream of the pump’s discharge. The volume produced is small which makes it ideal in small plants. One disedvantage is that the pump will continue to try to operate at the same rate, even if the solution line is restricted or blocked. This can result in extremely high pressures causing the discharge line or the pump’s diaphragm to rupture. Centrifugal pumps develop pressure by centrifugal force. Water enters the center of the impeller and is forced or thrown out by centrifugal force when the impeller rotates (Figure 4-10). ‘As water moves to the outside of the impeller, low pressure is created at the center of the pump which provides the condition to lift or move the water. A specially shaped casing around the impeller allows the pump to continuously draw water toward the point of lower pressure and at the same time discharge water into the discharge line. Centrifugal pumps give water a high velocity and hence, a high velocity head. The pump design allows most of the velocity head to be converted to pressure head in the pump’s casing or volute and the water leaves under pressure through the discharge line. Foue +10 FadaHowinpelerfore centitial pump (§) Impeller velocity determines the water’s velocity, volume pumped and pressure head. As the impeller’s velocity increases, the volume of water pumped increases and pressure head decreases. ‘Most centrifugal pumps are categorized as to service application or type of impeller used and number of impellers. Three basic types of impellers are radial flow, mixed flow, and Francis. Pump classifications based on the number and type of impellers include turbine, mixed flow, axially split ‘case, and close coupled. Service application classifications include low lift, high lift, well, booster, and standby. Some advantages and disadvantages of centrifugal pumps are presented in Table 4-1. Table 4-1 ‘Advantages and disadvantages of centrifugal pumps [Advantages ‘= They are simple; no internal valves or reciprocating parts. ‘= Internal lubrication is not required because there are no close tolerances or rubbing surfaces except for wear rings that can be replaced when they indicate excessive wear. ‘= There are no vacuum or air chambers on the suction or discharge. ]= The initial cost is generally low. J= They do not require a large amount of space for operation. = They produce nonpulsating flow. [Disadvantages = The pump must be primed because if the casing is filled with air or vapor, the impeller will not pump out such gases and produce the lower pressure required to move water into the pump. = There is an optimum efficiency operating point at a particular value of head and discharge, and normally as the head on the pump decreases, the ump output and efficiency decrease. Because centrifugal pumps operate without close tolerances, water slippage occurs within the pump. If a valve is closed on the discharge side of the pump, the impeller will continue to rotate without pumping any water. As the valve closes, the discharge will Page 43Hydraulics BS 8 Foe 431 Radialftwimpelertora certugal pump 2) decrease to zero and the pumping head will normally increase to a maximum. The head at which this occurs (zero discharge) is known as shut-off head. The varying heads for a corresponding head can be plotted ona graph as shown in Figure 4-11. This curve is known as the head-discharge curve for the pump. Curves for pump efficiency and brake horsepower (the power applied to the pump by the motor or drive mechanism) are also included for most pumps. The combination of these three curves is known as the characteristic curves for the pump. Advantages and disadvantages of centrifugal pumps are essential for selecting a pump for a particular application. There is a maximum or high point on the efficiency curve which indicates a head and flow rate which is most efficient for the pump. This is the area of the curve where the pump should be operated most of the time. As the discharge varies from the optimum discharge-head relationship, the efficiency decreases, increasing the cost of operating the pump. Some of the factors influencing pump selection have been discussed in this section. Table 4-2 includes these and other factors which must be considered prior to selecting a pump. Table 4-2 General information and conditions that affect pump selection ‘= Estimation or measurement of peak water ‘= Determination of pH, dissolved chemicals, ‘= Consideration of maximum, minimum, ‘= Determination of the number and size of usage. temperature, solids, gases, and other characteristics of liquid being pumped. and average discharge heads under operating conditions. pumps required to meet minimum, average, and maximum flow and discharge head requirements, Consideration of pipe sizes and system layout. = Determination of average pressure or suction lift and suction line diameter. = Determination of type of service — continuous or intermittent. = Determination of type of electrical power available ™ Determination of space required to house equipment. Investigation of availability of parts and service. = Requests for pump and motor service ‘guarantees. Page 49Hydraulics References American Water Works Association, Water Distribution Operator Training Handbook (Denver: American Water Works Association, 1976). John K. Vennard, Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 4* ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1961). NY State Dept. Health, Office of Environmental ‘Manpower, Manual of Instruction for Water ‘Treatment Plant Operators (Albany: Health Education Service). Penwalt Corp., Wallace and Tierman Div. 44 Series Solution Meeting Pumps, Cat. File 440.004 ‘Belleville, NJ) 1976. ‘Texas Water Utilities Association, Manual of Water Utility Operations, 7 ed. (Austin: Texas Water utilities Assocation, 1979). ‘Texas Water Utilities Association, Manual of Water Utility Operations. Universal Oil Products, Inc., Johnson Division. Ground Water and Wells (St. Paul, Johnson Division, reprinted, 1975). ‘The New York Air Brake Co., Builders Iron Foundry Division, B-I-F Proportioners 1210 Chem-O-Fedder, Ref. No. 1210-201-1 (Providence, RI) 1964. Page 4-10Ground water and wells Chapter 5 Ground water and wells Introduction ‘About 88 percent of water used by public water systems in Mississippi is lground water. All of this state’s public water systems use some ground water as primary or backup sources. The first part of this chapter covers use, occurrence, availability, and quality of ground-water sources in Mississippi. The rest of the chapter describes well types, construction, development, and production testing. Ground-water use Mississippi withdrew about 3,600 mgd (million withdrawals. Figures 5-1 and 5-2 show total water gallons per day) from ground- and surface-water withdrawals in Mississippi in 1990. sources during 1990. Ninety-one percent came from. fresh-water sources. Ground-water sources provided Figue 5-1 Figure 52 Total water withdrawals, 1990 Ground and surface water use, 1990 — insosialnining VAZZL | | aa Zz { Aquaculture $——— Public supply 2Z—) eZ “aa tL iwigaion LLL j ‘ + t +t 1 D trigation 0 10 «20 3 640 «689 «660 (70 FE) Aquacuture percent _Trermoslectie power BE Pustcwater supply TZ, surtece [7] Grows TI) nasal and miiog 82 percent or 2,700 mgd of total fresh-water Page 5-1Ground water and wells Livestock, domestic and commercial uses were too surface-water withdrawals in Mississippi increased small to show (one percent or less). Public water 204 percent. Ground-water withdrawals went up 327 supply accounted for only about nine percent of total _percent. Surface-water withdrawals rose 70 percent. water withdrawals. Figure 5-3 graphically illustrates these increases. From 1960 to 1990, total ground- and The biggest increase in water withdrawal was for irrigation (269 percent). Public water supply was second during this period, but slowed i toa three percent increase Withdrawals by source from 1985 to 1990. Figure 5-4 shows total withdrawals for major categories of use, Surface-water accounted for only about 12 percent of public water supply in 1990. Ground water for public water supply has increased at a much higher rate than surface water since 1960. Figures 5-3 and 5-4 demonstrate rising demands placed on the state’s ground water resources. In areas where competing users place heavy local demand on resources, a potential for shortfalls exists. Figure 5-3 4960 1965 19701975 1980 1985 1990 ZA surtaco water [[]_ Ground water Figure 5-4 Total withdrawals by categories aml a | iil Fa 1 millon gallons per day 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 (10 tndustriavmining = {_| _Invigation (2) Aquacutture (El Thermosectic Public supply Page 5-2Figure 5-6 shows that in some areas the state has substantially lower ground-water levels than in the past. Most of the state still has one or more aquifers available for public water supply, including areas where water levels have been declining. ‘Ground water is the main source for public water supplies. Seventy-five percent of the state has one or ‘more excellent aquifers. The cost to develop and treat ground water is less than treating surface water for ‘most uses. Table 5-1 shows advantages and disadvantages of ground-water supplies. Table 5-1 Advantages and disadvantages of ground- water suppl ‘Advantages © Less restricted choice of location Generally good quality water free from contamination Lower initial cost Lower operating cost Relatively simple operation Relatively stable temperature and quality Disadvantages ‘© Some locations have high mineral and/or color content }© High carbon dioxide content and low pH cause corrosive water © Adequate supplies not locally available © Occasionally high temperatures make water undesirable for cooling ‘© High hydrogen sulfide gas content gives water a disagreeable odor The Hydrologic Cycle Figure 5-5 illustrates the hydrologic cycle. Surface and ground waters start mainly from rain. ‘Snow and sleet add a little water in the northern half of the state, When a rain shower starts, rain water collects in low places. When the low places fill, water overflows and forms creeks, streams, ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. Ground water and wells ‘Some of the rainfall percolates — seeps into the ground. The water collects in a saturated soil layer to form the ground-water table. Ground water might appear as a spring where the ground-water table meets the ground surface, or it might seep out of a river bank. Ground-water occurrence and availability ‘Water passing an upper layer of soil or root zone ‘moves down until it reaches a level where all the spaces between soil particles are filled with water. This is the zone of saturation or free ground-water reservoir. This zone is also called a water table aquifer or unconfined aquifer. The upper surface is a free water table unless an overlying impervious ‘material restricts it. The material might be clay or rock that will not transmit water. The free ground-water reservoir is similar toa surface reservoir or lake. A well completed in the zone of saturation is called a water table well. Water table wells have some disadvantages: © ‘They can become polluted by industrial discharges, improper use of agricultural chemicals, or effluent from septic tanks. © Local geology and weather conditions could create variations in the water table level. Changing water tables makes it difficult to maintain water levels above pump intakes. ‘A water-bearing formation with an impervious formation above and below is called a confined aquifer. The water in a confined aquifer has a head or pressure like water in a distribution main, ‘When ground water tapped by a well rises above the top of the aquifer, it is an artesian aquifer. When water rises to the top of the well casing and overflows, itis a flowing artesian well. The height to which water will rise in an artesian well depends on: © ‘the clevation at which water enters the aquifer © the elevation of the well © the head loss caused by friction as the water moves through the aquifer to the well Figure 5-5 illustrates a water table well, an artesian well, and a flowing artesian well. Page 5-3Ground water and wells Figure 5-5 orsnuint ualvanrivs =< SI morswvauis "2 4g0NH ANawannoani LJ Nowwuodvaa {40:1n0/02N1) 30va335, \ Nowwatatoaua ‘013 "mIvy OL, NOUVSN3aNO pldp 199 ro , Page 5-4ir Figure 5-6 Areas in Mississippi with Water-supply Problems in One or More Major Aquifers ‘TENNESSEE ell Page 5-5Ground Water and Wells Figure 5-7 Generalized Geological Map Showing the Probable Downdip Limit of Freshwater in Each Aquifer GEOLOGICAL MAP ‘SHOWING FRESH - WATER UNITS Usceno wocens EB wucox a coer CED evraw conten) wore ruscnoonn = wmont Source: Mississippi State Geological Survey, Fresh Water Strata of Mississippi as Revealed by Electrical Log Studies, by Richard Randall Priddy, Bulletin 83, (University, Mississippi, 1955) Page 5-6‘The depth and arrangement of formation materials directly affect the rate at which water can be pumped from a well. Aquifers usually are sand, gravel, sandstone, lime-stone, or rock with fissures. Formations with large pore spaces offer little resistance to moving water and can produce a lot of water. Permeability is the relative ease with which a liquid can flow through a porous medium. The term permeability is commonly used for coefficient of permeability, which is expressed in gallons per day per square foot (gpd/ft). It is the flow through a one- square-foot cross section of water-bearing material, under a hydraulic gradient of unity — one foot vertical per one foot horizontal. Porosity measures the amount of water that the formation material will hold. Porosity is expressed as ‘a percentage of the formation volume. Porosity does not indicate how much water the ‘material will yield. A clay or silt formation could have as much pore space as sand or gravel but yields little water because the openings are so small. Formations such as dense limestone, chalk, rock, clay, and silt are relatively unproductive and are classified as impermeable. Mississippi has 15 principal freshwater aquifers. Some publications cite more or less, depending on how they define the term. Figure 5-7 is a general geological map showing, seven of the principal freshwater aquifers in “Mississippi. A unique color identifies each outcrop area where a confined aquifer is exposed to the land surface. Water levels at the outcrop areas of aquifers range from land surface to 100 fect below land surface. The dashed lines indicate the probable downdip limit of each aquifer. Wells drilled down slope of this limit produce water with mineral content too high for public water supplies. For more detailed maps and information on 14 significant freshwater aquifers in Mississippi, see reference 7. ‘The following paragraphs explain terms that describe the potential of aquifers and wells to supply water. Transmissivity ‘Transmissivity describes the rate at which water flows through a vertical section of an aquifer. The term is related to permeability. Where permeability refers to the aquifer material, transmissivity applies to the aquifer itself. Transmissivity is measured at the Ground water and wells thickness of the aquifer and width of one foot, when the hydraulic gradient is unity (one foot vertical per one foot horizontal). Transmissivity values vary throughout the length and width of an aquifer, from location to location, Transmissivity is usually expressed as ft'/day. ‘That is, f* of water per day pet foot of aquifer width = fbi/day. ‘Transmissivity values are used to estimate aquifer and well yields, but the calculations involved are beyond the scope of this manual. However, transmissivity values provide a convenient means to compare the relative potential of aquifers to transmit water at varying locations. Everything else being equal, the higher the transmissivity, the greater the potential yield of an aquifer. Transmissivities of aquifers in Mississippi range from five to more than 84,000 ft/day. Specific capacity and drawdown ‘The amount of water that a well can produce depends on its specific capacity and the available drawdown space. The available drawdown space ina well is the distance from the static water level down to the pumping water level after stabilization. Specific capacity is the number of gallons of water that the well produces per minute for each foot of drawdown, To find the specific capacity of a wel, divide the pumping rate, in gallons per minute, by the available drawdown space. The specific capacity reflects both the well’s efficiency and characteristics of the aquifer. Well yield ‘Well yield is the rate at which a well transmits water steadily, expressed in gpm or mgd. The product of drawdown and specific capacity is the maximum yield or production expected. Figure 5-8 illustrates the relationship of various well performance terms. Ground-water quality Ground-water suitable for most uses underlies much of Mississippi. However, quality can change from location to location in a confined aquifer. Water slowly percolating through aquifer materials isin contact with soluble minerals for a long time. Page 5-7Ground water and wells Figure 6-8 Measurements related to well performance ‘and pumping tests of wells and aquifers. ‘The mineral content of the water increases as it moves down from the aquifer outcrop or recharge area, Water quality usually is similar to rainwater in the outcrop area, but at depths from 200 to over 3,000 feet the water might become saline. ‘The dissolved-solids concentration in water is a good judge of aquifer water quality: Mississippi ground water generally has less than 100 mg/l of dissolved solids near outcrops. A concentration of more than 1,000 mg/l is usually considered the freshwater downdip limit, Several large pumping centers in the state are causing large cones of depression in some aquifers. Larger ground-water withdrawals and resulting deeper ‘cones might draw highly mineralized water updip toward pump intakes and become significant problems. Chapter 7, Chemistry of ground water, contains information on other chemical parameters Internal temperature of the earth and air temperature affect the temperature of ground water. The temperature of shallow ground water normally is about the same as the average annual air temperature. ‘Temperature of ground water in Mississippi increases about 1°F with each 100 ft of depth. The following agencies can provide more detailed information on the geology and ground water of a particular area: US. Geological Survey Water Resource Division 308 S. Airport Road Pearl, MS 39208-6649 Telephone (601) 960-4600 Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality Office of Land and Water Resources 2380 Hwy. 80, West (P. O. Box 10631) Jackson, MS 39289 ‘Telephone (601) 961-5200 Mississippi State Department of Health Bureau of Public Water Supply P.O, Box 1700 Jackson, MS 39215-1700 Telephone (601) 576-7518 Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality Office of Geology 2380 Hwy. 80, West P.O. Box 20307 Jackson, MS 39289-1307 ‘Telephone (601) 961-5500 Page 5-8Well terminology Aggregate: The mineral materials used to make conerete, such as sand or stone. Annular space: The space between a bore hole and casing pipe. Boring: A hole or excavation that is not used to extract water. The term includes exploratory borings and environmental bore holes. Consolidated material: Geological material cemented together in some way; ¢.g., sandstone, limestone, and various types of granite. Cuttings: Material removed from the well during construction, Dug well: A well with side walls supported by ‘material other than the standard weight steel casing. Water enters a dug well through the side walls and bottom. Environmental bore hole: A hole or excavation in the ground that penetrates a confining layer or is, ‘greater than 25 feet deep and enters or goes through a bearing layer and is used to monitor or measure physical, chemical, radiological, or biological parameters without extracting water. Monitoring well: An excavation that is drilled, cored, bored, washed, driven, dug, jetted, or otherwise constructed to make water level measurements and extract ground water for physical, chemical, or biological testing; also includes ground-water quality sampling wells. Unconsolidated material: Loose geological material not cemented together; e.g., sand and gravel. ‘Water supply well: A well used for potable water (public or private), irrigation, agricultural, ‘commercial, or industrial water supply ‘Well: An excavation that is drilled, cored, bored, washed, driven, dug, jetted, or otherwise constructed for the location, diversion, artificial recharge, or acquisition of ground water. Well pump: A device, machine, or material used to withdraw or otherwise obtain water from a well; includes all necessary seals, fittings, and pump controls. Ground water and wells Types of wells Wells are complicated structures. The water well contractor must have a state license and a permit for withdrawal before drilling. The well type refers to the method of construction — dug, bored, driven, or drilled. Dug, driven, and bored wells are usually in soft, easily excavated soils in shallow aquifers. These wells are limited as a water source, Most community water supplies obtain their water from drilled wells. Drilled wells Drilling rigs are used to construct drilled wells, The bore hole is lined with a casing to prevent the sides from caving. When the hole has been drilled into the aquifer, a screen is set in place, The screen collects water and holds back the fine material. ‘Screens might not be necessary in some consolidated formations. Sand samples of the various strata encountered and well logs made during the drilling process should be saved for future reference Drilled wells are the most important to the public ‘water supply. Wells can be drilled into a variety of soils and depths and are limited by the depth of the aquifer. Well diameters range from two to 48 inches. Drilled wells can produce thousands of gallons of, water per minute if the capacity of the aquifer is sufficient to supply the pumps. The cable tool percussion method is used for drilling through very hard rock formations. The driller raises and drops a heavy drill bit and stem, using a walking beam. The drill bit breaks or crushes hard rock into small fragments and loosens softer soils. ‘The reciprocating action of the bit mixes the crushed or loosened particles with water to forma slurry. The slurry is removed with a sand pump ot bailer. To prevent caving in loose soil, a casing slightly longer than the bit is driven into the ground. Rising or falling water level in the hole signals when the hole reaches a water-bearing formation because the slurry is not able to seal off an aquifer. In unconsolidated formations, the drilling method is hydraulic rotary. A rotating drill stem and bit makes ahole. To remove loose soil, thick, viscous drilling ‘ud is pumped down through the drilling stem and back up. At the surface, the fluid is channeled into a pit, and the soil settles out. The fluid then flows into a second pit where it is picked up by the mud pump and returned to the hole. Page 5-9Ground water and wells The functions of drilling fluid: = cool, clean, and lubricate the bit = help prevent fluid loss into the formation = remove cuttings from the hole = keep the hole from caving ‘The reverse circulation method is similar to the conventional rotary method, except the drilling fluid flow is reversed. The mud pump pulls drilling fluid up through the drill stem and discharges it to a pit. Cuttings settle out, and the fluid retums to the hole by sgxavity. It moves down the hole and is thus continuously re-cireulated. The drilling fluid in this method is not as thick as. that used for the conventional method. It is closer to ‘muddy water than drilling mud. Bentonite, revert, and other additives are not used to make the fluid more viscous. The hole does not cave as long as the water level in the hole remains at ground level. Caving could be a problem when penetrating highly permeable formations of gravel Reverse circulation is used to drill holes from 18 to 60 inches in diameter. It is also quite useful for drilling wells that use a gravel packing around the soreen, Well development is easier with this method. In the conventional rotary method, thick mud seals, around the hole. Screen placement and grouting methods are the same as for the rotary method. When the hole is complete, the drill stem is removed and the casing set. ‘The drilling mud stays in place until the screen is set. ‘The space between the casing and the hole is filled with a high, early-strength neat cement. Neat cement is Portland cement without sand or gravel. The cement is pumped into the annular space from the bottom of the casing until it reaches the ground surface. Sometimes bentonite clay is added to reduce shrinkage, during boring, Test hole Test holes are drilled to locate the aquifers, to determine their relative thickness, and to collect sand samples. With this pre-design information, the driller can anticipate problems before they happen. The importance of drilling a test hole is to get information about the geology and aquifer. The characteristics of the proposed well cannot be over-emphasized. Well casing ‘The purposes of well casings: = provent caving © prevent contamination of the aquifer from the surface or other aquifers = protect the pump and drop pipe = provide a reservoir of water for the pump ‘The casing must be manufactured to certain specifications and installed properly for the well to have a long, trouble-free life. Centering guides must bbe used at regular intervals to prevent the casing and/or screen from rupturing or bending, Well casing can be made of steel, PVC, or various alloys. The type of casing selected should be based on the strength and corrosion resistance necessary for each well installation. Proper sizing of the casing is, essential for correct production from the well. Well grouting ‘The purpose of grouting a welt = protect the well from contamination = prevent the walls from caving = keep out undesirable water from other formations 1 protect the casing from corrosion Grouting a well fills the annular space between the outside of the casing and the inside of the bore- hole wall with a cement or bentonite grout mixture. ‘The Halliburton method or equivalent is recommended. ‘A well with both an inner and outer casing, might need grouting in the annular space between the two ‘casings, as well as in the space outside the outer casing. After grouting is complete, the plug at the bottom of the casing is drilled out, and the screen and lap pipe are set in place. The length of lap pipe should extend at least 20 feet into the well casing. In wells with corrosive water an EPA or NSF approved coating prevents corrosion on the interior of a mild steel outer casing, the lap pipe, the pump column, and tail pipe. Using corrosion resistant ‘material such as stainless steel is an altemative. Give special attention to sealing the column pipe, coupling, threads and joints. Well screens Screens collect water from a water-bearing formation while keeping out formation material. Screens allow small particles to enter the well during development. Removing the fine particles improves Page 5-10well yield. Holding back large sand particles forms a natural graded sand barrier around the well screen. Screen selection is an important part of well completion. The amount of water a well can produce depends directly on the amount of water extracted from the formation. The screen size is based on a sieve analysis of a representative sand sample collected from the formation. A consultant can perform the sieve analysis and recommend a suitable sereen size. ‘Another consideration is corrosion. Screens installed in corrosive waters must be made of materials that resist corrosive action, More wells faill because of screen corrosion than because of casing corrosion. Corrosion can enlarge screen openings, allowing sand into the well. The sand can seriously damage the pump and cause problems in a pressure tank or istribution system. Special alloy screens cost more than steel screens but have a longer service life and thus reduce costs over the lifetime of a well. Mineral deposits can clog the screen openings. The growth of iron bacteria plugs the pores of the formation, reducing well capacity. Pouring muriatic acid into the well dissolves mineral deposits from incrusting ground water. This treatment can be ‘dangerous and should be done by personnel with proper training and experience. “Treatment of the well water with a chlorine solution removes iron bacteria. After the chlorine solution, adding hydrochloric acid dissolves the materials so they can be pumped to waste. Treatments for incrustation and iron bacteria are quite corrosive. They should be used on well screens made to withstand these solutions. Wells can be constructed as either straight wall or gravel packed, Straight-wall wells use the hole drilled to house the screen. After the screen is placed in the straight-wall well hole, it must be firmly sealed to the casing. To get a tight seal, install a neoprene packer at the top of the blank pipe or lap pipe. Fit the bottom of the screen with a backwash valve to permit washing, the screen and to prevent inflow of sand, Gravel-packed wells cost more than straight-wall wells, but higher yields are possible, An under-reamer enlarges the hole, and the enlarged space around the screen is filled with chlorinated gravel to the top of the blank pipe attached to the screen. This provides a reserve gravel supply to allow for settling around the screen. Selection of the gravel is based on a sieve analysis of the sand. Ground water and wells Well development ‘Wells must be developed to produce at maximum capacity. Development involves agitating the sand surrounding the well screen to remove the fine sand, silt, and drilling mud. This action produces a natural filter of coarser and more uniform size particles with increased permeability around the well screen. If excessive quantities of sand are removed from the well, caving in the aquifer could damage the screen ‘beyond repair. Development continues with over-pumping, surging, or jetting. Over-pumping is pumping the well at a higher rate than expected for normal service. However, this might leave some sand grains bridged in the formation and not completely stabilized. Never use the permanent pump for developing due to sand abrasion. Pumps used for surging include an air-lift pump, a turbine pump, a plunger, and sometimes a centrifugal pump, Pumps raise water to ground level. The water is allowed to flow back into the well as quickly as possible. This raises and lowers the water level in the well creating flow in both directions, and dislodging fine materials around the screen. Forcing water or jetting water at a high speed through the screen is the most effective method of well development. This method rearranges the silt, fine sand, and mud surrounding the screen and allows these materials to flow into the well for removal. After the well has been completed, a pumping test determines the proper size pump and motor, An air line, tape measure, or other device is used to measure drawdown. ‘An air line is an open-ended copper line inserted into the well to a measured depth below the pumping level. A pressure gauge is attached to the air line. The line is pressurized until the pressure gauge shows no increase when air is added. The water level in the well is the gauge pressure in feet subtracted from the length of the air line, “Measure the output of the well with an orifice, weir, or meter. Measure the recovery time and well efficiency also. From this information, the specific yield can be calculated and the proper pump selected. Al water used in drilling and construction should come from sources of proven quality and meet the primary standards of the Safe Drinking Water Act Regulations. During the production test, pump the well until the water is clear and has no fine sand. ‘Upon completion, disinfect the well and adjacent aquifer, using a solution of 50 mg/l free chlorine Page 5-11Ground water and wells applied for 24 hours. After disinfection, pump the ‘well until two consecutive chlorine-free samples collected from the well show no coliform bacteria. Collect the second sample following at least two hours of continuous pumping after the first sample. Do not apply a disinfectant between samples. The person collecting the official microbiological samples must be a representative of the Mississippi State Department of Health, the registered engineer on the project, or the certified operator for the public water supply. Measurements, tests, and observations The operator should monitor and calculate well efficiency and productivity on a regular schedule. ‘Measurements include the following: Static water level ® Yield of the pumping well = Comparison of chemical data Routine inspection saves time, money, and effort. Aitention ensures that the well provides a reliable source of water and allows prompt problem correction with limited damage. Page 5-12Ground water and wells Problem solving ‘Problem: Heavy reddish-brown iron oxide, stains in discharge, or red water. Possible Conditions: = Tron deposits © Corrosive water attacking metal parts in the well 1 Aeration of water in well: yield/specific capacity of well has dropped; possible hole in casing; or iron oxide scaling Problem: Bubbles in the discharge water, Possible Conditions. ‘= An environment with free carbon dioxide m Naturally dissolved gases in the water = Overpumping of the aquifer Problem: Rotten egg smell ( hydrogen sulfide odor) Possible Conditions m= Hydrogen sulfide concentrations above 0.5 mg/l m= Iron bacteria or sulfur fixing bacteria in well ‘Test chemical and bacterial content of water for hydrogen sulfide concentrations. Levels of 0.5 mg/l or greater, damage to copper alloy parts of the well system. Problem: Well efficiency decreased Possible Conditions ‘Chemical and/or mechanical incrustation Decrease in regional water table Structural collapse caused by corrosion or other factors Change in water quality Improper well design Pumping in excess of well design Problem: Pump is cavitating, providing variable discharge, and/or breaking suction Possible Conditions: m= Well being pumped in excess of design capacity Drawdown level excessive in well = Well screen and casing deterioration caused by corrosion = Well screen encrusted Page 5-13Ground water and wells Sample questions 1. A water bearing formation that has an impervious formation above and below it is called a/an ) unconfined aquifer ») free ground water aquifer ©) artesian aquifer 4) confined aquifer 2. If water rises above the top of an aquifer when it is tapped by a well, the aquifer is called a/an a) water table aquifer ») free ground water reservoir ¢) artesian aquifer 4) unconfined aquifer 3. The dissolved solids concentration measured in. water from a confined aquifer usually a) is highest in water from the aquifer outcrop or recharge area ») increases as one moves down the dip of the aquifer away from the outcrop area. ©) is constant throughout the aquifer. 4d) decreases as one moves down the dip of the aquifer away from the outcrop area. 4, Temperature of ground water can be expected to a) decrease with the depth of the aquifer. ») increase with the depth of the aquifer. ©) not be affected by the depth of the aquifer. 5, Ifthe pumping rate of a well in a water table aquifer is 160 gpm and the drawdown is found to be 20 feet after the water level stabilizes, what is the specific capacity of the well at the time the ‘measurements are taken? ) 3200 gpmv/ft b) 8 gpmvft ©) 0.125 f/gpm 4) 160 gpnvft 6. Confined aquifers are more easily polluted by industrial discharges, improper use of aquicultural chemical and septic tank effluent than are unconfined aquifers. True False 7. Water from wells tapped into an artesian aquifer will always rise to the top and overflow the well ‘casing negating the need for pumping. True False 8. Match the following terms with the units in which they are usually reported __ Transmissivity a. gpd/ft? ___ Specific capacity _b. percent __ Well yield c. Mgal/d Permeability 4. gpm/t Porosity e.ft/d Page 5-14Ground water and wells References Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, Frank Ligueri, Manual ~ Small Water Systems Serving the Public (Washington DC, Environmental Protection, Agency) 1978, ‘The Mississippi Water Resources Management Planning Council, Compendium to A Water ‘Management Plan for the State of Mississippi, 1995 Universal Oil Products, Inc., Johnson Division, Groundwater and Wells. (St. Paul, Johnson Division) reprinted 1975 US. Geological Survey and the Mississippi Research and Development Center, Sources for Water Supplies in Mississippi, (Jackson, Mississippi) revised 1986. USS. Geological Survey and the Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, Open File Report 93-375, Total Water Withdrawals in Mississippi, 1990 (Jackson, Mississippi) 1994. US. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Open File Report 81-1550, Characterization of Aquifers Designated as Potential Drinking Water Sources in Mississippi, (Jackson, Mississippi) 1982. USS. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 90-4155, Summary of Aquifer Tests in Mississippi, June 1942 through May 1988, (Jackson, Mississippi) 1991. Page 5-15Chapter 6 Microbiology Introduction ‘This chapter deals with microorganisms and how water systems treat source lwater to provide quality water to their customers. The primary objective in treating} Jdrinking water is to provide water of good quality that is free from chemical or lmicrobial contamination. Water sources and risks Most drinking water comes from natural sources — rivers, reservoirs, and aquifers. Natural water sources could become polluted from home and industrial waste products. ‘Water treatment systems protect the public health. Methods have been effective, but increasing populations produce more sewage. Most sewage returns to natural bodies of water that could become drinking water sources. Sewage might ‘contain pathogenic disease-causing microorganisms. ‘The purpose of federal and state ‘Safe Drinking Water Acts is to protect drinking water quality. Potable water is free of pathogenic or disease-producing microorganisms and harmful chemical substances. Microbiological monitoring maintains water quality and controls disease-causing microorganisms in water. Bacteria and microorganisms not only contribute to waterborne sases but also cause operational challenges, from problems in source water to finished water. These problems range from encrustation and corrosion within the water system to ‘water quality problems at the customer's tap. Water microbiology Water might be clear in appearance, free from peculiarities of odor and taste, and yet ‘be contaminated. Microorganisms are too small to be seen without a microscope. The bacteriological laboratory tests are extremely sensitive and specific in detecting contamination. Testing assures that drinking water is potable. Coliforms and Escherichia coli (E. coli) are normal inhabitants of the large intestine of man and other animals, These organisms are in sewage. Their presence in drinking water indicates potential contamination. Water systems monitor water quality and possible contamination through routine monthly testing for Coliform organisms Waterborne diseases ‘Waterborne disease outbreaks increased steadily in the United States from the 1960s. When drinking water contains excessive bacteria or turbidity, the systems are not adequately treating their water. All water, even distilled water, contains sufficient nutrients to support bacterial growth. Some ways to sterilize water are: 1m Treat with chemicals, such as chlorine. & Destroy bacteria by heating. 1 Irradiate with ultra-violet light. ‘All natural water from surface or ground sources or precipitation contains microorganisms. Among microorganisms in drinking water are algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, viruses, and worms. At least five bacterial diseases transmit to man through sewage-contaminated water. Water polluted with human and animal wastes could contain infectious agents. Table 6-1 lists waterborne: diseases and the organisms that cause these diseases.Table 6-1 iseases transmitted in water vn Salmonella ‘Various pathogens Vibrio comma| Giardia lamblia| .Cryptosporidium| ‘Analyzing for each type of pathogenic bacteria is impossible. They are difficult to isolate, and it would take too long. A more practical scheme is to examine the water for organisms specifically identified with sewage. Those of greatest interest to water treatment plant operators are the Coliform bacteria. Coliform presence indicates possible sewage contamination. The Coliform group is an ideal index of sewage pollution. They are: always present when sewage is present always absent when contamination is absent 1 survive longer in water than any pathogenic species are easily isolated and identified. Table Microbiology The Coliform group includes all of the aerobic and facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria which ferment factose with gas formation within 48 hours at 35°C. ‘The terms "aerobic and "facultative anaerobic” describe bacteria’s need for oxygen. "Gram-negative" refers to an identification technique using stain. Bacteria that don’t retain the stain when washed with alcohol are "Gram-negative." Coliform bacteria decompose lactose sugar within the time and ‘temperature limits. Microorganisms Characteristics Microorganisms are either plant or animal. Many microbes have characteristics typical of both plants and animals. Their classification is based upon dominant features. Table 6-2 lists basic microorganisms found in water. The most significant in drinking water is bacteria. Many bacteria are harmless, but some are capable of causing diseases. Table 6-2 Microorganisms in water Plants _| Animals Protozoa Rotifera Crustacea ‘Nematoda Bacteria Algae Viruses Fungi Table 6-3 shows how microorganisms are classed as plant or animal. 3 Classification of Microorganisms Plant Characteristics Animal Characteristics Store energy Have no sensory organs or nervous system Release oxygen Cell walls composed of cellulose ~a carbohydrate Metabolism by absorption of water and gases through root hairs and stomata ~no digestion of food. Release energy [Can have sensory organs and a nervous system Release carbon dioxide Cell walls principally protein [Metabolism dependent upon digestion of food ‘within an alimentary canal Page 6-2Bacteria are microscopic, single-cell plants that reproduce by binary fission. The waterworks operator must recognize different bacteria and lear how to deal with harmful bacteria and other nuisance organisms. Bacteria Structure Bacteria are tiny living plants, each a single cell. They are too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Bacteria come in three different shapes: coceus.. sphere shaped bacillus tod shaped spirillum. - spiral shaped More than 80 percent of bacteria are bacillus. ‘Salmonella typhi is a typical cell, rod-shaped and about two rons long. About 13,000 of such bacterial cells lying end to end would measure only one inch. Even though the bacterial cell is tiny, its structure is complex. Table 6-1, below, shows the structure of a bacterial cell Table 6-1 Structure of a bacterial cell weston, ( ‘ A rigid membrane surrounds the cell. This wall encloses a non-rigid protoplast containing the cell nucleus and smaller bodies vital to cell functions. The density ofthe protoplast is greater at the outer layer next to the cell wall. This ectoplasm section, like the rigid cell wall, is semi-permeable. That means that all material entering or Microbiology leaving the cell must be in solution to pass these two barriers, ‘Some bacterial cells have certain features not common to all. For example, flagella are hair-like appendages present on some species but not on others. Moreover, depending on the species, the number of flagella vary from one to many. Their locations vary from one end to both ends of the cell or even to the entire periphery of the cell wall. Flagella function clearly to provide locomotion. Food Requirements ‘A bacteria cell gets its food from the environment outside the cell wall. Since only true solutions can get through the wall, food solids must become soluble for cell use. The cell manufactures enzymes that liquefy nutrients. The soluble food passes through the cell wall, and the cell metabolizes it. Bacteria are either autotrophic or heterotrophic. Autotrophic bacteria consume simple inorganic ‘chemicals such as ammonia or nitrates. Heterotrophic bacteria consume complex organic food such as dead plant and animal tissue. Saprophytes are heterotrophs that feed on organic matter in the water. Some saprophytes are autotrophic bacteria that feed on simple inorganic salts and dissolved gases. Figure 6-2, the nitrogen cycle, on the next page shows the properties of various types of bacteria and the part they play in nature. Respiration Bacteria are classified by their need for oxygen: 1 Aerobes require oxygen in the environment. i Anaerobes live with no oxygen. 1 Facultative anaerobes prefer no oxygen but can survive with some oxygen. Reproduction and growth Bacteria reproduce by simple cell division or binary fission as it matures (Fig, 6-3). The bacterial cell constricts near the center. Constriction progresses until eventually the cell divides into two separate cells. Ina favorable environment, a bacterial cell divides ‘every 20 of 30 minutes, Within a few hours, this reproduction could produce millions of descendants from a single cell. Page 6-3Figure 6-2 Nitrogen Cycle Figure 6-3 Reproduction of bacteri Parent call Collelongation Invagination ot ellwall ‘and ditribution of ‘weloar materia Formation oftrorsvere call walland organization

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