Rapid Prototyping

INTRODUCTION
PROTOTYPE FUNDAMENTALS
Definition of a Prototype
An approximation of a product (or system) or its components in some form for a definite purpose in its
implementation.

• Prototypes are not only the physical models.

• It covers all kinds of prototypes used in the product development process, including objects like
mathematical models, pencil sketches, foam models, and of course the functional physical approximation
of the product.
• Rapid prototyping typically falls in the range of a physical prototype.

Why Prototyping?
• Because product designers would like to have a physical model of a new part or product design rather than
just a computer model or line drawing.
• Creating a prototype is an integral step in design.
• A virtual prototype (a computer model of the part design on a CAD system) may not be sufficient for the
designer to visualize the part adequately.
• Using RP to make the prototype, the designer can visually examine and physically feel the part and assess
its merits and shortcomings.

Fundamental fabrication processes

• three fundamental fabrication processes
o Subtractive processes
o Additive processes
o Formative processes
• In the subtractive process, one starts with a single block of solid material larger than the final size of the
desired object and material is removed until the desired shape is reached.
o Examples: milling, turning, drilling, planning, sawing, grinding, EDM, laser cutting, water- jet
cutting, etc.
 • In contrast, an additive process is the exact reverse in that the end product is much larger than the material
when it started. A material is manipulated so that successive portions of it combine to form the desired
object.
o Examples: Most forms of rapid prototyping processes such as Stereolithography and Selective
Laser Sintering
• Lastly, the formative process is one where mechanical forces or restricting forms are applied on a material
so as to form it into the desired shape.
o Bending, forging, electromagnetic forming and plastic injection molding

Historical Development of Prototyping

Prototyping processes have gone through three phases of development

First Phase: Manual Prototyping

• The techniques used in making these prototypes tend to be craft-based and are usually extremely labor
intensive.
• Prototypes typically are not very sophisticated and fabrication of prototypes takes on average about four
weeks, depending on the level of complexity and representativeness.

Second Phase: Soft or Virtual Prototyping

• With the evolution of CAD/CAM/CAE , the early 1980s saw the evolution of soft or virtual prototyping.

• Computer models can now be stressed, tested, analyzed and modified as if they were physical prototypes.

• Prototypes tend to become relatively more complex — about twice the complexity as before

• Correspondingly, the time required to make the physical model tends to increase tremendously to about
that of 16 weeks as building of physical prototypes is still dependent on craft-based methods, though
introduction of better precision machines like CNC machines helps.

Third Phase: Rapid Prototyping

 • A family of unique fabrication processes developed to make physical prototypes by additive (Generative)
manufacturing in minimum lead time based on a CAD model of the item.

• Tremendous time savings, especially for complicated models.

• Though the parts (individual components) are relatively three times as complex as parts made in 1970s,
the time required to make such a part now averages
only three weeks.

• Since 1988, more than twenty different rapid prototyping techniques have emerged.

RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESS CHAIN

• All RP techniques adopt the same basic approach. As such all RP-systems generally have a similar sort of
process chain.
• There are a total of five steps in the chain:

1. 3D Modeling

2. Data conversion and transmission

3. Checking and preparing

4. Building

5. Postprocessing

i. 3D Modeling
• Most time-consuming part of the entire process chain
• 3D geometric models can be used for many different purposes, such as interference studies, stress
analyses, FEM analysis, detail design and drafting, planning for manufacturing, including NC
programming, etc.
ii. DATA CONVERSION AND TRANSMISSION
• Probably the simplest and shortest step of the entire process chain.
• The solid or surface model to be built is converted into a format dubbed the STL file format.
• It takes only several minutes to few hours depending upon the performance of workstation.
• The STL file format approximates the surfaces of the model using tiny triangles.
• Highly curved surfaces must employ many more triangles, which mean that STL files for curved parts
can be very large.
• Almost, if not all, major CAD/CAM vendors supply the CAD-STL interface.
• Where necessary, supports are also converted to a separate STL file.
• Supports can alternatively be created or modified in the next step by third party software.
• Next step is the transmission of the STL files which reside in the workstation to the RP system’s
computer.
• It may be carried out through a diskette, email (electronic mail) or LAN (local area network). No
validation of the quality of the STL files is carried out at this stage.
iii.CHECKING AND PREPARING
• STL files may be faulty.
• It may be due to both the errors of CAD models and the non-robustness of the CAD-STL interface.
• These problems, if not rectified, will result in the frequent failure of applications downstream.
• At present, the CAD model errors are corrected by human operators assisted by specialized software
such as MAGICS.
• This process of manual repair is very tedious and time consuming.
• Once the STL files are verified to be error-free, the RP system’s computer analyzes the STL files that
define the model to be fabricated and slices the model into cross-sections.
• The cross-sections are systematically recreated through the solidification of liquids or binding
of powders, or fusing of solids, to form a 3D model.
• In a SLA, for example, each output file is sliced into cross-sections, between 0.12 mm (minimum) to
0.50 mm (maximum) in thickness.
• The supports can be created using coarser settings.
• Preparing building parameters for positioning and stepwise manufacturing such as:
o determination of the geometrical objects, the building orientation, spatial assortments,
arrangement with other parts, necessary support structures and slice parameters.
o They also include the determination of technological parameters such as cure depth, laser power
and other physical parameters.
• Many vendors are continually working to reduce the time spent on setting parameters.
iv. BUILDING
• For most RP systems, this step is fully automated.
• Thus, it is usual for operators to leave the machine on to build a part overnight.
• The building process may take up to several hours to build depending on the size and number of parts
required.
v. POSTPROCESSING
• At this stage, generally some manual operations are necessary. As a result, the danger of damaging a
part is particularly high.
• 3 postprocessing tasks:
o Cleaning: removal of excess parts which may have remained on the final part.
▪ For SLA parts
• excess resin residing in entrapped portion such as a blind hole of a part,
• the removal of supports
▪ For SLS parts, the excess powder has to be removed
▪ For LOM, pieces of excess woodlike blocks of paper which acted as supports have to be
removed
o Postcuring: SLA parts are built with pockets of liquid embedded within the part. Therefore,
postcuring is required. All other nonliquid RP methods do not undergo this task.
o Finishing:
▪ It refers to secondary processes such as sanding and painting used primarily to improve
the surface finish or aesthetic appearance of the part.
It also includes additional machining processes such as drilling, tapping and milling to add necessary features
to the parts.
Advantages of RP
• Fast and inexpensive method of prototyping design ideas

• Multiple design iterations

• Physical validation of design

• Reduced product development time

Disadvantages of RP
• Resolution not as fine as traditional machining (millimeter to submillimeter resolution)

• Surface flatness is rough (dependent of material and type of RP)

• Additive type RP typically includes extra post fabrication process of cleaning, post curing or finishing

Classification of RP based on state of Raw materials

• Liquid-Based

1. 3D Systems’ Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA): https://youtu.be/5L5vdpklrtU

2. Sony’s Solid Creation System (SCS)

3. CMET’s Solid Object Ultraviolet-Laser Printer (SOUP)

4. Autostrade’s E-Darts

5. Teijin Seiki’s Soliform System

6. Meiko’s Rapid Prototyping System for the Jewelry Industry

7. Denken’s SLP

8. Mitsui’s COLAMM

9. Fockele & Schwarze’s LMS

 10. Microfabrication

11. Aaroflex

12. Cubital’s Solid Ground Curing (SGC)

13. Light Sculpting

14. Rapid Freeze

15. Two Laser Beams

• Solid Based

• The solid raw materials are in the form of a wire, a roll, laminates and pellets

1. Cubic Technologies’ Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM):

https://youtu.be/aAbBvrfS6TY

2. Kira Corporation’s Paper Lamination Technology (PLT)

3. 3D Systems’ Multi-Jet Modeling System (MJM)

4. Stratasys’ Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): https://youtu.be/WHO6G67GJbM

5. Solidscape’s Model Maker and Pattern Master

6. Beijing Yinhua’s Slicing Solid Manufacturing (SSM),

7. Melted Extrusion Modeling (MEM) and

8. Multi-Functional RPM Systems (M-RPM)

9. CAM-LEM’s CL 100

10. Ennex Corporation’s Offset Fabbers

• Powder Based: Laser binding or Glue binding

(1) 3D Systems’s Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): https://youtu.be/ruvRijM7f50

(2) EOS’s EOSINT Systems

(3) Z Corporation’s Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)

(4) Optomec’s Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

(5) Soligen’s Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC)

 (6) Fraunhofer’s Multiphase Jet Solidification (MJS)

(7) Acram’s Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

(8) Aeromet Corporation’s Lasform Technology

(9) Precision Optical Manufacturing’s Direct Metal Deposition (DMDTM)

(10) Generis’ RP Systems (GS)

(11) Therics Inc.’s Theriform Technology

(12) Extrude Hone’s Prometal TM 3D Printing Process

Principles, systems, relative advantages and applications of the common RP

methods
LIQUID-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
3D Systems’ Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)
System
• Stereolithography process creates three-dimensional plastic objects directly from CAD data.
• The process begins with the vat filled with the photo-curable liquid resin and the elevator table set just
below the surface of the liquid resin.
• The operator loads a three-dimensional CAD solid model file into the system.
• Supports are designed to stabilize the part during building.
• The translator converts the CAD data into a STL file.
• The control unit slices the model and support into a series of cross sections from 0.025 to 0.5 mm (0.001
to 0.020 in) thick.
• Thinner layers provide better resolution and more intricate shapes; but processing time is longer.
• The computer-controlled optical scanning system then directs and focuses the laser beam so that it
solidifies a two-dimensional cross-section corresponding to the slice on the surface of the photo-curable
liquid resin to a depth greater than one layer thickness.
• The elevator table then drops enough to cover the solid polymer with another layer of the liquid resin.
 • A leveling wiper or moves across the surfaces to recoat the next layer of resin on the surface.
• The laser then draws the next layer.
• This process continues building the part from bottom up, until the system completes the part.
• The part is then raised out of the vat and cleaned of excess polymer.

Principle
1. Photopolymerization Principle: Parts are built from a photo-curable liquid resin that cures when exposed
to a laser beam (basically, undergoing the photopolymerization process) which scans across the surface
of the resin.
2. Scanning and Layering Principle: The building is done layer by layer, each layer being scanned by the
optical scanning system and controlled by an elevation mechanism which lowers at the completion of each
layer.

Photopolymerization

• There are many types of liquid photopolymers that can be solidified by exposure to electro-magnetic
radiation, including wavelengths in the gamma rays, X-rays, UV and visible range, or electron-beam
(EB).
• The vast majority of photopolymers used in the commercial RP systems are curable in the UV range.
• UV-curable photopolymers are resins which are formulated from photoinitiators and reactive liquid
monomers.
• polymerization is the process of linking small molecules (known as monomers) into chain-like larger
molecules (known as polymers).
• When the chain-like polymers are linked further to one another, a cross-linked polymer is said to be
formed.
• The photopolymer remains unreacted at ambient temperature.
• A catalyst (photoinitiator) is required for polymerization to take place at a reasonable rate.
• During polymerization, it is important that the polymers are sufficiently cross-linked so that the
polymerized molecules do not redissolve back into the liquid monomers.
• The photopolymerized molecules must also possess sufficient strength to remain structurally sound
while the cured resin is subjected to various forces during recoating.
Scanning and Layering

• For photopolymerization to take place, focused radiation of appropriate power and wavelength should be
directed onto the surface of the liquid photopolymer resin.
• Optical scanning system
o Laser Source
o Beam expanding telescope
o Beam scanning mirror
• The solidification of the liquid resin depends on the energy per unit area (or “exposure”) deposited
during the motion of the focused spot on the surface of the photopolymer. There is a threshold exposure
that must be exceeded for the photopolymer to solidify.
• Time of exposure is inversely proportional to the laser scanning speed.

Parameters which influence performance and functionality of the parts are:

 1. physical and chemical properties of the resin,
2. the speed and resolution of the optical scanning system,
3. the power, wavelength and type of the laser used,
4. the spot size of the laser,
5. the recoating system,
6. the post-curing process.

Advantages

1. Round the clock operation: The SLA can be used continuously and unattended round the clock.

2. Good user support: The computerized process serves as a good user support.

3. Build volumes: The different SLA machines have build volumes ranging from small to large to suit the
needs of different users.

4. Good accuracy: The SLA has good accuracy and can thus be used for many application areas.

5. Surface finish: The SLA can obtain one of the best surface finishes amongst RP technologies.

6. Wide range of materials: There is a wide range of materials, from general-purpose materials to
specialty materials for specific applications.

Scanning speeds ~ 500 to 2500 mm/s

Accuracy(mm) - 0.01- 0.2(SLA)

Disadvantages

The main disadvantages of using SLA are:

1. Requires support structures: Structures that have overhangs and undercuts must have supports that are
designed and fabricated together with the main structure.

2. Requires post-processing: Post-processing includes removal of supports and other unwanted materials,
which is tedious, time consuming and can damage the model.

3. Requires post-curing: Post-curing may be needed to cure the object completely and ensure the integrity
of the structure.

Applications

1. Models for conceptualization, packaging and presentation.

2. Prototypes for design, analysis, verification and functional testing.
3. Parts for prototype tooling and low volume production tooling.
 4. Patterns for investment casting, sand casting and molding.
5. Tools for fixture and tooling design, and production tooling

𝑸𝒖𝒊𝒄𝒌𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒕𝑻𝑴 , a software tool which is used in the investment casting industry.

• It enables highly accurate resin patterns that are specifically used as an expendable pattern to form a
ceramic mold to be created.

Companies that develop and sell SLA machines:

1. 3D Systems™ Inc. (www.3Dsystems.com)

2. Aaroflex Inc (www.aaroflex.com)

• Ford Uses Stereolithography to Cast Prototype Tooling

• Black & Decker Saves a Year by Using Stereolithography to Prototype their Improved Shearer/Shrub
Trimmer Power Tool

• Bose Saves Five Weeks Using Stereolithography Over Traditional Hard Tooling
 SOLID-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS

LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM)

Company
Cubic Technologies was established in December 2000 by Michael Feygin, the inventor who developed
Laminated Object Manufacturing.

Principle

The LOM process is based on the following principles:

(1) Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper or other sheet-form materials and the contour
of the part on that layer is cut by a CO2 laser.

(2) Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of one or many parts. The next layer is then
laminated and built directly on top of the laser-cut layer.

(3) The Z-control is activated by an elevation platform, which lowers when each layer is completed, and the next
layer is then laminated and ready for cutting. The Z-height is then measured for the exact height so that the
corresponding cross-sectional data can be calculated for that layer.
(4) No additional support structures are necessary as the “excess” material, which are cross-hatched for later
removal, act as the support.

System

It consists of several subsystems: computer hardware and software, laser and optics, X–Y positioning device,
platform and vertical elevator, laminating system, material supply and take up.

Computer hardware and software:

The computer is an IBM-compatible PC.

The LOM software, LOMSlice, is a true 32-bit application with a user-friendly interface including menus, dialog
boxes and progress indicators.

LOMSlice is completely integrated, providing preprocessing, slicing, and machine control within a single
program.

Z-dimension accuracy is maintained through a closed loop real-time feedback mechanism and is calculated upon
each lamination.

As the laser is cutting the model, software is simultaneously planning the next layer’s outline and crosshatches.

In order to facilitate separation of the part from excess material, LOMSlice automatically assigns (or “burns out”)
reduced crosshatch sizes to intricate regions.

Laminating system

Lamination is accomplished by applying heat and pressure by way of rolling a heated cylinder across the sheet
of material, which has a thin layer of a thermoplastic adhesive on one side.

By increasing pressure of the heated roller, lamination is improved due to fewer air bubbles.

Pressure is controlled by the limit switch which is mounted on the heated roller. If compression is set too high it
can cause distortion in the part.

Material supply and take up

The material supply and take-up system comprises two material roll supports (supply and rewind), several idle
rollers to direct the material, and two rubber-coated nip-rollers (driving and idle), which advance or rewind the
sheet material during the preprocessing and building phases.

To make material flow through the LOM systems more smoothly, mechanical nip rollers are used.
The friction resulting from compressing the moving material between the rubber coated roller on both the feed
and wind mechanism ensures a clean feed and avoids jamming.

Materials
Potentially, any sheet material with adhesive backing can be utilized in LOM.

It has been demonstrated that plastics, metals, and even ceramic tapes can be used.

However, the most popular material has been Kraft paper with a polyethylene-based heat seal adhesive system
because it is widely available, cost-effective, and environmentally less harmful.

Advantages
(1) Wide variety of materials: Any material in sheet form such as paper, plastics, metals, composites and
ceramics can be used.
(2) Fast build time. The laser in the LOM process does not scan the entire surface area of each cross-section,
rather it only outlines its periphery. Therefore, parts with thick sections are produced just as quickly as
those with thin sections, making the LOM process especially advantageous for the production of large and
bulky parts.
(3) High precision: Accuracy of ±0.127 mm regardless of the part size
(4) Support structure. There is no need for additional support structure as the part is supported by its own
material that is outside the periphery of the part built.
(5) Post curing: Not required as sheet materials are not subjected to either physical or chemical phase
changes. The finished LOM parts do not experience warpage, internal residual stress, or other
deformations.

Disadvantages
1. Precise power adjustment. The power of the laser used for cutting the perimeter (and the crosshatches) of
the prototype needs to be precisely controlled so that the laser cuts only the current layer of lamination
and not penetrate into the previously cut layers.
2. Fabrication of thin walls. The LOM process is not well suited for building parts with delicate thin walls.
This is because such walls usually are not sufficiently rigid to withstand the post-processing process when
the cross-hatched outer perimeter portion of the block is being removed.
3. Integrity of prototypes. The part built by the LOMTM process is essentially held together by the heat
sealed adhesives. The integrity of the part is therefore entirely dependent on the adhesive strength of the
glue used, and as such is limited to this strength. Therefore, parts built may not be able to withstand the
vigorous mechanical loading that the functional prototypes may require.
 4. Removal of supports. The most labor-intensive part of the LOM process is its last phase of post-processing
when the part has to be separated from its support material within the rectangular block of laminated
material. This is usually done with wood carving tools and can be tedious and time consuming. The person
working during this phase needs to be careful and aware of the presence of any delicate parts within the
model so as not to damage it.

Applications
(1) Visualization: wood-like composition allows it to be painted or finished as a true replica of the product.
These prototypes are utilized for consumer testing, marketing product introductions, packaging samples,
and samples for vendor quotations.
(2) Form, fit and function. For design verification and performance evaluation in low-stress environments.
(3) Manufacturing: Used as a pattern or mold for most secondary tooling techniques including: investment
casting, casting, sanding casting, injection molding, silicon rubber mold, vacuum forming and spray metal
molding.

FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)

Company
Stratasys Inc. was founded in 1989.
FDM uses the extrusion process to build 3D models.

Principle
The principle of the FDM is based on surface chemistry, thermal energy, and layer manufacturing
technology.

The material in filament (spool) form is melted in a specially designed head, which extrudes on the model.
As it is extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies to form the model. The model is built layer by layer, like
the other RP systems.
A geometric model of a conceptual design is created on a CAD software which uses IGES or STL
formatted files.
 It can then imported into the workstation where it is processed through the QuickSlice and SupportWork
propriety software before loading to FDM 3000 or similar systems.

For FDM Maxum and Titan, a newer software known as Insight is used.

The basic function of Insight is similar to that of QuickSlice and the only difference is that Insight
does not need another software to auto-generate the supports.

Within this software, the CAD file is sliced into horizontal layers after the part is oriented for the optimum
build position, and any necessary support structures are automatically detected and generated.

The slice thickness can be set manually to anywhere between 0.172 to 0.356 mm (0.005 to 0.014 in)
depending on the needs of the models.

Tool paths of the build process are then generated which are downloaded to the FDM machine.

The modeling material is in spools.

The filament on the spools is fed into an extrusion head and heated to a semi-liquid state.

The semi-liquid material is extruded through the head and then deposited in ultra thin layers from the
FDM head, one layer at a time. Since the air surrounding the head is maintained at a temperature below
the materials’ melting point, the exiting material quickly solidifies.

Moving on the X–Y plane, the head follows the tool path generated by QuickSlice or Insight generating
the desired layer. When the layer is completed, the head moves on to create the next
layer.

The horizontal width of the extruded material can vary between 0.250 to 0.965 mm depending on model.
This feature, called “road width”, can vary from slice to slice.

Two modeler materials are dispensed through a dual tip mechanism in the FDM machine.

A primary modeler material is used to produce the model geometry and a secondary material, or release
material, is used to produce the support structures. The release material forms a bond with the primary
modeler material and can be washed away upon completion of the 3D models.

Advantages

(1) Fabrication of functional parts. FDM process is able to fabricate prototypes with materials that are
similar to that of the actual molded product. With ABS, it is able to fabricate fully functional parts that
have 85% of the strength of the actual molded part. This is especially useful in developing products that
require quick prototypes for functional testing.
 (2) Minimal wastage. The FDM process build parts directly by extruding semi-liquid melt onto the model.
Thus only those material needed to build the part and its support are needed, and material wastages are
kept to a minimum. There is also little need for cleaning up the model after it has been built.

(3) Ease of support removal. With the use of Break Away Support System (BASS) and WaterWorks Soluble
Support System, support structures generated during the FDM building process can be easily broken off
or simply washed away. This makes it very convenient for users to get to their prototypes very quickly
and there is very little or no post-processing necessary.
(4) Ease of material change. Build materials, supplied in spool form (or cartridge form), are easy to handle
and can be changed readily when the materials in the system are running low. This keeps the operation of
the machine simple and the maintenance relatively easy.

Disadvantages

(1) Restricted accuracy. Typically, the filament used has a diameter of 1.27 mm and this tends to set a limit
on how accurately the part can be built.
(2) Slow process. The building process is slow, as the whole cross-sectional area needs to be filled with
building materials. Building speed is restricted by the extrusion rate or the flow rate of the build material
from the extrusion head. As the build material used are
plastics and their viscosities are relatively high, the build process cannot be easily speeded up.
(3) Unpredictable shrinkage. As the FDM process extrudes the build material from its extrusion head and
cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by such rapid cooling invariably are introduced into
the model. As such, shrinkages and distortions
caused to the model built are a common occurrence and are usually
difficult to predict.

Applications

FDM models can be used in the following general applications areas:

(1) Models for conceptualization and presentation. Models can be

marked, sanded, painted and drilled and thus can be finished to be almost like the actual product.
(2) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing. The system can produce a fully functional
prototype in ABS. The resulting ABS parts have 85% of the strength of the actual molded part. Thus,
actual testing can be carried out, especially with consumer products.
(3) Patterns and masters for tooling. Models can be used as patterns
for investment casting, sand casting and molding.
 POWDER-BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS

SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS)

Company
3D Systems Corporation was founded by Charles W. Hull and Raymond S. Freed in 1986.

Principle
The SLS® process is based on the following two principles:
(1) Parts are built by sintering when a CO2 laser beam hits a thin layer of powdered material. The interaction
of the laser beam with the powder raises the temperature to the point of melting, resulting in particle
bonding, fusing the particles to themselves and the previous layer to form a solid.
(2) The building of the part is done layer by layer. Each layer of the building process contains the cross-
sections of one or many parts. The next layer is then built directly on top of the sintered layer after an
additional layer of powder is deposited via a roller mechanism on top of the previously formed layer.

The packing density of particles during sintering affects the part density. In studies of particle packing with
uniform sized particles and particles used in commercial sinter bonding, packing densities were found to range
typically from 50% to 62%. Generally, the higher the packing density, the better would be the expected
mechanical properties.

Sinter Bonding

In the process, particles in each successive layer are fused to each other and to the previous layer by raising
their temperature with the laser beam to above the glass-transition temperature.

The glass-transition temperature is the temperature at which the material begins to soften from a solid to a
jelly-like condition. This often occurs just prior to the melting temperature at which the material will be in a
molten or liquid state.

As a result, the particles begin to soften and deform owing to their weight and cause the surfaces in contact
with other particles or solid to deform and fuse together at these contact surfaces.

One major advantage of sintering over melting and fusing is that it joins powder particles into a solid part
without going into the liquid phase, thus avoiding the distortions caused by the flow of molten material during
fusing.

After cooling, the powder particles are connected in a matrix that has approximately the density of the particle
material.

As the sintering process requires the machine to bring the temperature of the particles to the glass-transition
temperature, the amount of energy needed is considerable. The energy required to sinter bond a similar layer
thickness of material is approximately between 300
to 500 times higher than that required for photopolymerization.

This high laser power requirement can be reduced by using auxiliary heaters at the powder bed to raise the
powder temperature to just below the sintering temperature during the sintering process.

However an inert gas environment is needed to prevent oxidation or explosion of the fine powder particles.
 Cooling is also necessary for the chamber gas.

System
The latest generation SLS system is the Vanguard.

CAD data files in the STL file format are first transferred to the Vanguard system where they are sliced.

From this point, the SLS® process starts and operates as follows:

(1) A thin layer of heat-fusible powder is deposited onto the part building chamber.
(2) The bottom-most cross-sectional slice of the CAD part under fabrication is selectively “drawn” (or
scanned) on the layer of powder by a heat-generating CO2 laser. The interaction of the laser beam with
the powder elevates the temperature to the point of melting, fusing the powder particles to form a solid
mass. The intensity of the laser beam is modulated to melt the powder only in areas defined by the part’s
geometry. Surrounding powder remain a loose compact and serve as supports.
(3) When the cross-section is completely drawn, an additional layer of powder is deposited via a roller
mechanism on top of the previously scanned layer. This prepares the next layer for scanning.
(4) Steps 2 and 3 are repeated, with each layer fusing to the layer below it. Successive layers of powder are
deposited and the process is repeated until the part is completed.

As SLS materials are in powdered form, the powder not melted or fused during processing serves as a
customized, built-in support structure.

There is no need to create support structures within the CAD design prior to or during processing and thus no
support structure to remove when the part is completed.
 After the SLS process, the part is removed from the build chamber and the loose powder simply falls away.
SLS parts may then require some post-processing or secondary finishing, such as sanding, lacquering and
painting, depending upon the application of the prototype built.

Materials

The main types of materials used in the Vanguard SLS System are safe and non-toxic, easy to use, and
can be easily stored, recycled, and disposed off. These are as follows:

Polyamide.

Trade name “DuraForm”,

This material is used to create rigid and rugged plastic parts for functional engineering
environments.

This material is durable, can be machined or even welded where required.

A variation of this material is the polyamide based composite system, incorporating glass-filled powders,
to produce even more rugged engineering parts. This composite material improves the resistance to heat
and chemicals.

Thermoplastic elastomer

Flexible, rubber-like parts.

Trade name, “SOMOS 201”.

The material produces parts with high elongation. Yet, it is able to resist abrasion and provides good part
stability. The material is impermeable to water and ideal for sports shoe applications and engineering
seals.

Polycarbonate

An industry-standard engineering thermoplastic.

These are suitable for creating concept and functional models and prototypes, investment casting patterns
for metal prototypes and cast tooling, masters for duplication processes, and sand-casting patterns.

These materials only require a 10–20 W laser to work and are useful for visualizing parts and working
prototypes that do not carry heavy loads.

These parts can be built quickly and are excellent for prototypes and patterns with fine features.

Nylon.
 Another industry-standard engineering thermoplastic.

This material is suitable for creating models and prototypes that can withstand and perform in demanding
environment.

It is one of the most durable rapid prototyping materials currently available in the industry, and it offers
substantial heat and chemical resistance.

A variation of this is the Fine Nylon and is used to create fine-featured parts for working prototypes. It is
durable, resistant to heat and chemicals, and is excellent when fine detail is required.

Metal

This is a material where polymer coated stainless steel powder is infiltrated with bronze.

Trade name “LaserForm ST-100”.

The material is excellent for producing core inserts and preproduction tools for injection molding
prototype polymer parts.

The material exhibits high durability and thermal conductivity and can be used for relatively large-scale
production tools.

An alternative material is the copper polyamide metal–polymer composite system which can be applied
to tooling for injection molding small batch production of plastic parts.

Ceramics

Trade name “SandFormTM Zr” and “SandformTM Si”.

These use zircon and silica coated with phenolic binder to produce complex sand cores and molds for
prototype sand castings of metal parts.

Advantages

1. Good part stability. Parts are created within a precise controlled environment. The process and materials
provide environment for directly produced functional parts to be built.
2. Wide range of processing materials. A wide range of materials including nylon, polycarbonates, metals
and ceramics are available, thus providing flexibility and a wide scope of functional applications.
3. No part supports required. The system does not require CAD developed support structures. This saves
the time required for support structure building and removal.
4. Little post-processing required. The finishing of the part is reasonably fine and requires only minimal
post-processing such as particle blasting and sanding.
 5. No post-curing required. The completed laser sintered part is generally solid enough and does not require
further curing.
6. Advanced software support. The New Version 2.0 software uses a
Windows® NT-style graphical user interface (GUI).

Disadvantages

1. Large physical size of the unit. The system requires a relatively large space to house it. Apart from this,
additional storage space is required to house the inert gas tanks used for each build.
2. High power consumption. The system requires high power consumption due to the high wattage of the
laser required to sinter the powder particles together.
3. Poor surface finish. The as-produced parts tend to have poorer surface finish due to the relatively large
particle sizes of the powders used.

Applications
The Vanguard SLS system can produce a wide range of parts in a broad variety of applications, including the
following:

1. Concept models. Physical representations of designs used to review design ideas, form and style.
2. Functional models and working prototypes. Parts that can withstand limited functional testing, or fit and
operate within an assembly.
3. Polycarbonate patterns. Patterns produced using polycarbonate, then cast in the metal of choice through
the standard investment casting process. These build faster than wax patterns and are ideally suited for
designs with thin walls and fine features. These patterns are also durable and heat resistant.
4. Metal tools. Direct rapid prototype of tools of molds for small or short production runs.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING (3DP)

Company

This core technology was invented and patented at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

It was subsequently licensed and further developed by Z Corporation.

It commercialized its first 3D Printer, the Z402 System, based on three-dimensional technology (3DP) in
1997.

Process

1. The machine spreads a layer of powder from the feed box to cover the surface of the build piston. The
printer then prints binder solution onto the loose powder, forming the first cross-section.
2. For monochrome parts, Z406 color printer uses all four print heads to print a single-colored binder. For
multi-colored parts, each of the four print heads deposits a different color binder, mixing the four-color
binders to produce a spectrum of colors that can be applied to different regions of a part.
3. The powder is glued together at where the binder is printed. The remaining powder remains loose and
supports the layers that will be printed above.
4. When the cross-section is completed, the build piston is lowered, a new layer of powder is spread over its
surface, and the process is repeated. The part grows layer by layer in the build piston until the part is
completed, completely surrounded and covered by loose powder. Finally the build piston is raised and the
loose powder is vacuumed, revealing the complete part.
5. Once a build is completed, the excess powder is vacuumed and the parts are lifted from the bed. Once
removed, parts can be finished in a variety of ways to suit your needs. For a quick design review, parts
 can be left raw or “green.” To quickly produce a more robust model, parts can be dipped in wax. For a
robust model that can be sanded, finished and painted, the part can be infiltrated with a resin or urethane.

Advantages

1. High speed. Fastest 3D printer to date. Each layer is printed in seconds, reducing the prototyping time of
a hand-held part to 1 to 2 hours.
2. Versatile. Parts are currently used for the automotive, packaging, education, footwear, medical, aerospace
and telecommunications industries. Parts are used in every step of the design process for communication,
design review and limited functional testing. Parts can be infiltrated if necessary, offering the opportunity
to produce parts with a variety of material properties to serve a range of modeling requirements.
3. Simple to operate. The office compatible Zcorp system is straightforward to operate and does not require
a designated technician to build a part. The system is based on the standard, off the shelf components
developed for the ink-jet printer industry, resulting in a reliable and dependable 3D printer.
4. No wastage of materials. Powder that is not printed during the cycle can be reused.
5. Color. Enables complex color schemes in RP-ed parts from a full 24-bit palette of colors.=

Disadvantages

1. Limited functional parts. Relative to the SLS, parts built are much weaker, thereby limiting the functional
testing capabilities.
2. Limited materials. The materials available are only starch and plaster-based materials, with the added
option to infiltrate wax.
3. Poor surface finish. Parts built by 3D printing have a relatively poorer surface finish and post-processing
is frequently required.

Sports Shoe Industry

The 3D printer has been used by designers, marketers, manufacturers, and managers in the footwear industry.
Leading athletic shoe companies, such as Adidas, have used this RP system to radically reduce prototype
development time and communicate in new ways.

Javelin Puts Computer Sculpting in the Artist’s Hands

Javelin uses the Z402 System to produce computer-sculpted models to assist artists with complex modeling.
Parts produced find applications with computer gamers, animators, pre Hollywood mock-ups designers, and
sculpturing artists. The low cost associated with 3DP parts allows several iterations to be used to accelerate
the sculpting process.

Research and Development

On-going work to improve the versatility of the system in terms of materials, efficiency and software are
being carried out to allow new applications.