PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

MANUSCRIPT BY: MR. N. T. MABOPHIWA ©

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 INTRODUCTION

Preparing students for an examination is very important since answering examination questions
is a skill which needs to be developed, and it takes time to master. In this introduction I try to
give some tips on how students should answer questions in an acceptable manner without
wasting time. More often than not students fail examinations not on the basis of lack of
knowledge but on lack of understanding what really the question requires of them. The words
used in examination papers, in connection with the learning outcomes, are very important and
are fully explained for the benefit of the student. These are meant to provide some useful
guidance to the student on how to answer questions with similar words in future. Learning
objectives in the syllabus are expressed in terms of what the student knows, understands and
can do – thus examination questions are derived from these.

The following are some of words that usually come up during examinations, and need serious
scrutiny for better understanding of questions:
 State and name – implies a short answer with little or no supporting argument.
 List and identify – requires a number of points generally each of one word, with no
explanation.
 Define/what is meant by …? – requires only a formal statement or equivalent outlining
the meaning of the term.
 What is meant by – normally implies that a definition should be given together with
some relevant comment on the significance or context of term(s) concerned.
 Explain – may imply reasoning and justifying by stating how, or making the meaning of
something plain and clear rather than a simple description.
 Suggest – is used in two main contexts; that is, either to imply that there is no unique
answer or to imply that students are expected to apply their general knowledge to a
novel/imaginary situation (one that may not formally be in the syllabus).
 Discuss – requires the students to give a critical account of the points raised. The
student should present arguments outlining points for or against supported by relevant
knowledge with summarized justified conclusion.
 Describe – write what something is like, or depict something in words. Use quantitative
or qualitative information to demonstrate an understanding of the topic and any
relationships that may exist.
 Determine – Find out something that is not known. Often implies that the quantity
concerned cannot be measured directly but obtained by calculation, substituting,
measuring or known values of other quantities in a standard formula.
 Give – implies writing something as an explanation.
 Calculate – used when a numerical answer is required. In general, working should be
shown when two or more steps are involved.
 Find – a general term that may be interpreted as calculate, measure, determine, etc.

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 Deduce – used in a similar way as predict except that some supporting statement is
required e.g., reference to a law or principle, or the necessary reasoning to be included
in the answer.
 Predict – implies that the student is not expected to produce the required answer by
recall but by making a logical connection between other pieces of information. Such
information may be wholly given in a question or may depend on answers extracted in
an earlier part of the question.
 Outline – this requires a brief summary of the major points.
 Identify and explain – you need to show that you can recognize an idea or viewpoint
and explain it, or apply your understanding to solve a problem. It requires links to be
made between causes and effects, problems and solutions.
 Draw – a fully labeled diagram is required.

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 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION

TOPIC: PHYSICAL EDUCATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module learners should be able to:

 Discuss the history of Physical Education in Botswana.
 Discuss benefits of studying Physical Education.
 Discuss components of Physical Education.
 Explain how Physical Education can be used for combating HIV/AIDS infection.
 Explain different careers related to the study of Physical Education.
 Differentiate between Physical Education, sport, games, play, leisure and recreational
activities.
 Explain the value of Physical Education to an individual and society.
 Discuss the role technology has in the relationship between physical activities and
overall wellbeing.
 Discuss the use of different ICT applications in Physical Education.

THE DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

What is meant by the term Physical Education?

 It is learning through movement.

 It is a curriculum subject aimed at developing the physical, mental and social wellbeing
of the students.
 It is the art and science of human movement.
 It is an integral part of the education system which contributes to the total development
of an individual through physical activity.
 It is an educational process which is concerned with the total development of the body
(i.e. physically, mentally, emotionally and socially) through a planned and supervised
programme of knowledge and attitude of the human body.
 It is an educational process that aims to improve human performance through physical
activities.
 It is an academic discipline that has, as its primary focus, the study of human movement
with the aims of enhancing total human development and performance.

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THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA

Physical Education has been in Botswana education system as early as 1972, with few Batswana
sent abroad to study Physical Education. It was offered as an informal programme in the school
curriculum. The subject was offered as part of extra curricular activities hence it was neither
timetabled nor examinable. In the early 1990s the Physical Education programme was finally
introduced at the University of Botswana to train teachers, and as a pilot scheme in junior
schools. The Physical Education syllabus for junior secondary schools was proposed and
developed by the Physical Education panel as an integral part of the nine year basic education
programme. In early 2000 Physical Education was fully implemented in all the junior schools in
Botswana, and in 2004 it piloting of the subject was started in ten senior secondary schools in
Botswana.

THE BENEFITS OF STUDYING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 You learn about yourself and your abilities. It promotes physical development and
knowledge of the body in action. Students discover their aptitudes, abilities and
preferences, and make choices about how to get involved in lifelong physical activity.
 Physical Education provides opportunities for character and personality development.
Students learn how to think in different ways to suit a wide variety of creative,
competitive and challenging situations. The daily adjustment to teammates and
opponents becomes a laboratory in personal-social adjustment (Sportsmanship).
 Physical Education offers a wide range of activities for motor skill development. It
promotes physical skill. You learn and develop skills and knowledge. The skills mastered
vary with the student’s interest and amount of practice put into the activity.
 Physical Education provides opportunities for development of health and safety habits.
It promotes positive attitudes towards active and healthy lifestyle. You learn about the
value of health and fitness. The teacher of Physical Education instructs students in
habits of health and safety – and the games and contests are played under conditions
conducive to learning safety practices.
 It develops students’ physical competence and confidence. Through physical activity you
develop self–confidence.
 Physical Education may help one to choose a career. It helps in the promotion of young
talents in different sport and game fields. These young talents when properly nurtured,
grow up to be professional athletes and hence they find a way of living through sports.
 Physical Education enables the student to understand certain scientific principles
concerned with movement. The individual develops an understanding of the economic
and safe movements in physical education, enabling him to avoid energy expenditures
through unwanted movements during physical activities and in everyday living.
 It helps you appreciate the efforts or talents of others.
 It develops leadership skills in a person.
 It helps in social, physical and mental development.
 It helps to develop teamwork and a sense of fair play.

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  It gives you the chance to enjoy yourself.
 It provides opportunities for students to be creative and competitive.
 It provides opportunities for students to face up to different challenges as individuals
and in groups and teams.
 Students learn how to plan, perform and evaluate actions, ideas and performances to
improve their quality and effectiveness.

COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Games are contests between two people or groups of people with strict outcomes
governed by rules. Games are categorised into (a) invasion / contact games, e.g.
hockey, netball, football, basketball, etc (b) fielding / striking / innings games, e.g.
softball, baseball, cricket, etc; (c) net / wall / racket games, e.g. tennis, squash, table
tennis, volleyball, badminton, etc; (d) fighting games, e.g. boxing, judo, fencing,
wrestling, martial arts, etc and target games, e.g. golf, darts, bowling, etc.
 Dance is a rhythmic sequence of body movement usually done to music.
 Athletics is a combination of track and field events. Track events are running events
whereas field events are jumps and throws. Examples of track events are 100m, 200m,
400m, 800m, 1500m, etc. Javelin, discus, shot put, etc all fall under throws, and high
jump, triple jump, long jump and pole vault fall under jumps.
 Aquatics is also referred to as water sports, e.g. water polo, swimming, diving, angling,
canoeing, surfing, water skiing, boat race, etc.
 Adventure activities are outdoor pursuits which take place in the natural environment,
and are usually dangerous, challenging and exciting, done for fun or recreation. It may
involve overcoming natural obstacles or terrain like rock climbing, skiing, windsurfing
and sky diving.
 Health and Physical fitness – Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social
wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity whereas physical fitness is
the ability of the body to meet the demands of the environment.
 Leisure and recreation – Leisure is the free time or spare time one has when not
working or sleeping whereas recreation is any activity done during leisure.
 Gymnastics is often a series of movements that develop and show the body’s strength,
posture, agility and ability to bend easily.

HOW PHYSICAL EDUCATION CAN BE USED FOR COMBATING HIV INFECTION

 Physical Education teaches life skills. This promotes physical participation which can be
used to mobilize people, especially the youth, for education on health issues.
 After acquiring skills during physical education one can choose to participate in a
physical activity of his choice. Participation in physical activities reduces boredom and
therefore one does not have to indulge in sex to reduce boredom.
 Students learn about wise use of leisure and recreation. Chances to engage in sex are
reduced because considerable time is spent on participating in physical activities.

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 Participating in physical activities is tiring physically, and therefore afterwards one might
feel tired to do anything else.
 Activities done during physical education lessons improve self-confidence/self-esteem,
thus making youth make informed decisions.

HOW TO ENCOURAGE PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AMONG AIDS PATIENTS

 By providing equipment and other necessities needed for participation.

 Reducing entry fees at sports venues for AIDS patients
 Educating patients about the importance of exercise to the immune system
 Educating the public about the disease so that patients are not discriminated against in
public recreational places
 Using role models who are involved in physical activities

CAREERS RELATED TO THE STUDY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Teaching deals with instruction or provision of knowledge through physical activity as a

curriculum.
 Coaching involves imparting skills of a particular activity to individuals or a group of
people.
 Sport nutrition deals with diet for athletes, the amount and time to be taken to
maximize performance.
 Sport medicine is a field concerned with prevention and treatment of sports related
injuries.
 Sport psychology deals with psychological aspects of sports. It handles issues such as
arousal, aggression, motivation, rewards, etc.
 Sport marketing deals with the advertising and selling of sports goods and services.
 Sport journalism deals with dissemination of sports news through media such as radio,
television, newspapers, etc.
 Sport sociology is the study of the social structure, social patterns, and social
organization of groups engaged in sport.
 Exercise physiology is the study of bodily systems and their reactions to the stress of
exercise.
 Biomechanics is the study of the human body as a mechanical system, utilizing
principles and applications from physics.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORT, GAMES, PLAY, LEISURE

AND RECREATION

 Physical Education
 It is a subject in the National Curriculum that prepares students for life physically,
mentally and socially. It is also an academic discipline which instills knowledge, skills and
values through the medium of physical activity in an educational setting.

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  Play
 It is a spontaneous, voluntary and enjoyable physical activity in which there are: no
formal rules, no pressure, no winner, no loser, no set time, no defined playing area and
involvement is just for the fun of it. Play is creative, uninhibitive, has intrinsic value and
brings satisfaction to the participant.

 Recreation
 It is a non competitive or voluntary physical activity done for pleasure and enjoyment
during one’s free time, but it is more planned than play, has a winner and a loser and is
not highly organized. Examples of recreational activities are reading, gardening, listening
to music, tourism and participating in sporting activities.

 Games
 Games are contest between two people or between two groups of people with rules,
where one person or group is the winner and the result is determined by skill, strength
or chance. Attributes of games are that they are: more organized than recreation and
play, have an agreed area of play, a specified time of play, have a higher level of skill
than in play.

 Sport
 It is a vigorous physical activity which involves competition between individuals or
teams where winning is very important. Satisfaction does not only come from
enjoyment of involvement, but also from winning awards, prizes and even applause
from supporters. Other attributes of sports are that it is more organized than play,
recreation or games, has set rules, has area and time of play, has set position for team
player, has complex physical skills which are applied throughout the set time and it has
an element of serious training and preparation.

 Leisure
 It is the free time or spare time a person has, when not working or sleeping. Factors
which determine what people do during their leisure are their age, interest, social
circumstances, facilities available and where people live.

THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO AN INDIVIDUAL, THE SOCIETY AND THE ECONOMY

 An individual
 Presents career opportunities
 Boosts personal fitness through involvement in physical activity
 Reduces the chances of getting sedentary diseases
 Active and increased participation in sporting activity
 It builds self confidence, self control and self esteem.
 There will be less spending on health care by both individuals and the government.
 It develops co-operative individuals.

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  People will have greater discipline and respect for others’ abilities.
 There is greater utilization of sports and recreational facilities.

 The economy
 Job creation; generates job opportunities in sport related fields or creates employment
 Less income is spent on health care. Since the government would spend less on health
care, there would be more funding available for other social services, and this will lead
to the growth of the economy.
 It creates a healthier workforce. Therefore, less hours would be lost at work due to
illness. This in turn leads to more productivity because a healthy population is more
productive. Healthy people do not take sick offs.

 The society
 Promotes social interaction through participation in sports
 There is generation of job opportunities in areas related to sports
 People will have more knowledge or awareness about health and fitness.
 It leads to a healthy and productive society and thus people spend less on health.
 It promotes a healthier population. This is so because physical activity makes you fit,
thus making you healthy.

THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AND OVERALL WELLBEING

What is technology?

Technology is new innovations that have been made to improve performance in sports.
Sporting technologies are also man-made means developed to reach human interests or goals
in or relating to a particular sport. Technology in sports is a technical means by which athletes
attempt to improve their training and competitive surroundings in order to enhance their
overall athletic performance. It is the knowledge and application of using specialized equipment
and the latest modern technologies to perform tasks more efficiently. Examples of sporting
technologies include golf cubs, tennis rackets, pole vault poles, athletic sports gear (clothing
and footwear), advanced computer stimulations and motion capture.

How technology benefits or affects physical activity and wellbeing

There is improved performance and safety, e.g. spikes in athletics, swimsuits, etc
 Athletic health can be maintained and observed, and injuries treated, through the use of
modern sporting technologies such as heart rate monitors, pedometers and body-fat
monitors. Through this a greater deepened knowledge of the human body and its
potential has been recognized, allowing athletes to train and compete in sports to a
much older age.
 It has the ability to gather, analyze and integrate information and resources in order to
improve performance, e.g. digital or video camera

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  It increases cost of access to physical activities; only those with money can afford
technological gadgets.
 Participant safety at all times has also been made possible through the development of
certain sporting equipment, such as helmets and body protection which are used in
boxing and ice hockey to help prevent injuries.
 Modern sporting technologies have also made competition judging easier and more
accurate, and spectator interest and excitement is enhanced by broadcasting and in-
stadium displays (scoreboards)
 Leads to reduced level of physical activity

How technology is used to enhance athletic performance

A digital or video camera helps in the analysis of performance. It allows the performance to be
accurately recorded. The performance may be reviewed and replayed as many times as
necessary. Enhancements such as freeze frame or frame advancement can be used to look at
specific aspects or phases of the performance. This analysis could then be used to help improve
a performance. This can be done in the following manner:
 Faults in performance can be identified and considered.
 Improvements or alternatives can be considered and tried.
 Future performance can also be filmed, recorded and analysed and compared to the
initial one.
 Actually seeing the performance gives much more accurate knowledge of results.

Sports gear such as clothing and footwear should be user-friendly and include valuable
properties such as strength, flexibility, density, thickness, durability, toughness, resistance to
moisture and more importantly cost. Footwear is generally considered more for comfort and
injury avoidance rather than performance enhancement, whereas clothing such as the full body
suits used in swimming are often claimed to rationalize the competitor’s performance times
where winning or losing the race is measured in hundredths of a second.

Sporting equipment such as the composite tennis racket has been created in order to provide
enhanced ball speed, and reduce the potential vibration that can lead to a condition known as
tennis elbow (damage to the small blood capillaries in the muscles and ligaments that surround
elbow joint).

In other sporting equipment such as the golf club, the overall mass of the club has decreased
which is believed to result in a greater achievable distance and possibly a more precise shot.
The bicycle has also undergone modern day advances with the development of specialist
wheels, pneumatic tyres, brake levers and pedals, which are all aimed at increasing stability and
rigidity of the bicycle.

Prosthetic devices have also been constructed for those athletes with a specific disability.
Examples include the spring-lite prosthesis device created for those athletes deficient of a

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lower limb, which acts with a ‘springboard-like’ effect where with each step as the runner
strikes the track, the device returns energy and permits running gait. The reduced mass of the
of the spring-lite device compared to that of the earlier wooden prosthesis is firm yet supple for
sprinters, and provides some shock absorbing properties for marathon runners.

Wheelchair devices used in sporting activities have also become more sophisticated, for
example, with sharply slanted back wheels in tennis to allow the player to move swiftly across
the court from side to side.

THE USE OF DIFFERENT ICT APPLICATIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

What is meant by ICT?

ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. ICT is the study of technology used
to handle information and aid communication.

ICT devices or gadgets

 CD/DVD, flash memory, video tape, mp3 players, mobile phone, video camera,
microphone, radio, stopwatch, interactive whiteboard.

How ICT applications help improve performance

 Using a CD-ROM with examples of play or technical or theoretical information can

increase knowledge
 Watching a video tape or DVD which is instructional in nature can increase knowledge.
 Accessing the internet to find out information about any aspects can improve
knowledge.
 Interactive whiteboards can be used for presentation, modeling and demonstration and
even to highlighting certain elements including positions in the court.
 Stopwatches can be used to record performance, and for training against time to
improve speed.
 Digital video camera to record performance and analyze it to find mistakes so as to
improve next time.

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 MODULE 2: HEALTH AND FITNESS

TOPIC 1: THE CARDIOVASCULAR, RESPIRATORY, SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module learners should be able to:

 Discuss functions of the cardiovascular system and skeletal muscle.
 Discuss the functions of the cardiovascular system including transportation of blood,
nutrients and water around the body.
 Discuss the types of muscles as smooth, skeletal and cardiac.
 Discuss types of muscle contractions as isometric, isotonic and isokinetic.
 Explain characteristics of a muscle that enable movement.
 Discuss types of muscle fibres as slow twitch and fast twitch.
 Describe the response of cardiovascular system to an increased level of physical activity.
 Discuss the functions of the skeletal muscle.
 Discuss the anatomy of the synovial/freely movable joints.
 Identify different types of joints.
 Explain factors that can affect movement around a joint.
 Explain types of movements around a joint.
 Identify types of injuries to muscular – skeletal systems.
 Explain how muscular – skeletal injuries can be minimized during participation in
physical activities.
 Explain primary treatment of muscular – skeletal system injuries.
 Discuss the concept of oxygen debt.
 Explain the process of gaseous exchange.
 Define aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
 Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
 Explain hypokinetic diseases.

THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

A system is a group of organs working together to perform similar functions. Each organ has a
specific function. For example the heart pumps blood around the body through a network of
arteries, capillaries and veins. Each of these organs makes up a part of a system that is the
cardiovascular system. However, all the systems of the body work together to produce
movement, whether it is movement of a body part or movement of the whole body from one
place to the other.

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THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system, sometimes referred to as the circulatory system, comprises of the
heart, blood and blood vessels. In this system blood carrying nutrients and oxygen is pumped
round the body by the heart, and it flows along blood vessels to the working muscles.

The heart is divided into two parts, the left side and the right side. Each part acts as a pump, so
the heart is a double pump. There are two chambers in each side, so all in all the heart consists
of four chambers being two atria and two ventricles. The right part of the heart pumps blood to
the lungs to pick up oxygen. The left pumps this oxygenated blood around the rest of the body.
The large tubes that carry blood away from the heart are called arteries, and the large tubes
that carry blood back into the heart are called veins. Arteries transport blood away from the
heart while veins transport blood into the heart.

The tricuspid valve, mitral/bicuspid valve, pulmonary/semilunar valve and the aortic/semilunar
valve are the four valves that control the blood flow through the heart or the back flow of
blood.

(STUDENTS SHOULD DRAW A SIMPLE PLAN OF THE CIRCULATORY / CARDIOVASCULAR

SYSTEM)

FUNCTIONS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

 Transport
 The blood carries hormones, glucose, water, oxygen or nutrients throughout the body to
the working muscles, or where they are needed most.
 Blood helps with the transport and removal of waste, carbon dioxide and lactic acid
away from the working muscles.

 Controls or regulates body temperature during exercise

 The blood absorbs body heat then carries it to the skin and lungs where it is released.
Veins dilate to cool you down.

 Helps wade off infections and fight diseases

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Diagram of the human heart and its functions

 Aorta: The aorta is the largest artery. It carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the
rest of the body.
 Vena Cava: It carries oxygen-poor blood from the body to the heart. Superior vena cava
carries oxygen-poor blood from the upper parts of the body whilst inferior vena cava
carries oxygen-poor blood from the lower parts of the body.
 Pulmonary Artery: It carries blood from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen.
 Pulmonary Vein: It carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart.
 Right Atrium: It collects oxygen-poor blood returning from the body and then forces it
through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
 Left Atrium: It collects oxygen-rich blood returning from the lungs and then forces it
through the mitral/bicuspid valve and into the left ventricle.
 Tricuspid Valve: It controls blood flow from the right atrium into the right ventricle.

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  Aortic Valve (also called semilunar valve): It controls blood flow from the left ventricle
into the aorta.
 Pulmonary Valve (also called semilunar valve): It controls blood flow from the right
ventricle into the pulmonary artery.
 Mitral/Bicuspid Valve: It controls blood flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
 Right Ventricle: It collects oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and then forces it
through the pulmonary valve and into the lungs.
 Left Ventricle: The left ventricle is the largest and strongest chamber of the four
chambers of the heart. The left ventricle’s walls are only about half-inch thick, but they
have enough force to push blood through the aortic valve and into the body.
 Septum: A wall of muscle called the septum separates the left and right atria and the
left and right ventricles.

THE RESPONSE OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM TO AN INCREASED LEVEL OF PHYSICAL

ACTIVITY

 Blood flow increases

 This is due to increased capillarization of trained muscles (higher capillary to fibre ratio),
greater opening of existing capillaries in trained muscles, more effective blood
redistribution (blood goes where it is needed), and increased blood volume.

 Decrease in resting heart rate

 Highly trained endurance athletes may have resting heart rates of 30-40 bpm (beats per
minute). Heart rate returns to resting level more quickly after exercise.

 The heart increases in size and strength

 The left ventricle changes the most in response to endurance training. The internal
dimensions of the left ventricle increase due to an increase in ventricular filling.

 Increase in stroke volume

 Endurance training increases stroke volume at rest and during sub maximal and maximal
exercise. (Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle of the
heart in one beat). The increased size of the heart allows the left ventricle to stretch
more and fill with blood; increase in heart wall thickness enhances contractility.

 Increase in endurance
 The blood can transport oxygen more efficiently with adaptations that occur in
endurance training. This makes it possible for energy and oxygen to be delivered to the
working muscles to sustain prolonged work.

 Increase in cardiac output

 Cardiac output increases dramatically maximal exertion due to the increase in maximal
stroke volume. (Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped in one minute from the

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 heart). Cardiac output decreases slightly or does not change at rest or during sub
maximal exercise. Maximal cardiac output ranges from 14 – 20 litres in untrained, 25 –
35 litres in trained and 40+ litres in large endurance athletes.

 Increase in blood volume

 Endurance training, especially intense training, increases blood volume. Blood volume
increases due to primarily an increase in plasma volume. Red blood cell volume
increases, but increase in plasma volume is higher; thus, hematocrit (percentage by
volume of red blood cells in a blood sample) decreases. Blood viscosity decreases, thus
improving circulation and enhancing oxygen delivery.

 Blood pressure decreases

 Endurance training results in reduced blood pressure at the same sub maximal work
rate, but at maximal work rates systolic pressure increases and diastolic pressure
decreases (systolic pressure is the contraction of the heart whereas diastolic pressure is
the relaxation of the heart. A typical normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg or
millimeters of mercury. 120 is systolic and 80 diastolic). Resting blood pressure (both
systolic and diastolic) is lowered with endurance training individuals with borderline or
moderate hypertension.

 Improved oxygen debt tolerance

 Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen owed to the body in order to recover from
exercise, or it is where the demand for oxygen is more than the supply. Since there is
less oxygen supplied, during training, the body builds up lactic acid which impairs
performance. With proper training the body can put up with this or tolerate it and keep
on going thus the impact of lactic acid on the body is felt less.

Why it is important to monitor and record the pulse rate when exercising or training

A pulse is the arterial palpation of the heartbeat, or it is the contraction of the arteries. It can be
felt in any place that allows for an artery to be compressed against a bone. The pulse rate and
heart rate are identical; one pulse equals one heartbeat.
 The heart rate lets you know how quickly the blood is being pumped around the body.
This is effectively providing the energy to allow the body to exercise.
 There are certain zones or areas which the heart rate can be increased to or worked in.
 The speed of your recovery rate is a general indication of your level of fitness. The
quicker you are able to return your pulse to its resting rate the fitter you are.
 Monitoring the pulse rate can be used as a training indicator to make sure you are
working at the correct levels.
 Varying the pulse rate can be used relative to the principle of overload.
 Safety aspects can be considered to ensure you are not working at too high a level.

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Mechanisms that help venous blood to return to the heart
 Valves in the heart
 Contraction of muscles
 Pressure of thoracic and abdominal cavities

Pulse points in the body

 Radial pulse – at the base of the thumb on the inside of the wrist.
 Temporal pulse – just over the temple at the side of the forehead.
 Carotid pulse – on either side of the neck.
 Femoral pulse – in the groin.
 Popliteal pulse – behind knee.
 Brachial pulse – inside of the elbow.
 Posterior tibial pulse – near the ankle joint.

Why there is an increased blood flow to the skin during exercise

 For cooling the body.

 For sweating.
 To help in heat loss.
 For heat transfer.
 For heat dissipation.
 For thermal balance.

Why more blood flows to the skeletal muscles during exercise

 To transport more oxygen to the working muscles.

 To transport more nutrients to the working muscles.
 To remove carbon dioxide and other waste materials from the working muscles.
 Blood is moved to where it is needed most.
 The heart pumps more blood to the working muscles.

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEMS

The body has three energy systems that are used as needed to continuously feed the muscles
during any physical activity. All three energy pathways or energy systems work all of the time.
One system is dominant at any one point. This is determined by intensity and duration of
exercise.

Movement is caused by muscles contracting which needs energy from food. Food is a mixture
of all nutritional elements like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre and
water. Muscles use both carbohydrates and fats for energy. Carbohydrates are broken down
into glucose. Some gets stored in the liver as glycogen. It will be released again when the
glucose level in the blood falls too low. Some gets stored in the muscles as glycogen. This

17
glycogen is changed back to glucose during exercise. The rest get carried in the blood to all the
other cells of the body. For muscles to work they need glucose to supply energy.

The body’s main energy source on the cellular level is a substance called Adenosine tri-
phosphate (ATP). However, the body stores only a small quantity of this 'energy currency'
within the cells and it’s enough to power just a few seconds of all-out exercise. So the body
must replace or re-synthesize ATP on an ongoing basis. Understanding how it does this is the
key to understanding energy systems.

Glycogen can be used to form ATP and in the liver it can be converted into glucose and
transported to the muscles via the blood. A heavy training session can deplete carbohydrate
stores in the muscles and liver, as can a restriction in dietary intake. Carbohydrate can release
energy much more quickly than fat. There are three sources of Adenosine tri-phosphate:

 ATP-PC System (Creatine phosphate or Phosphagen System or Alactic system) – In

this system energy is provided through the breakdown of ATP in the absence of
oxygen to produce energy. ATP (Adenosine tri-phosphate) is a complex chemical
compound formed with the energy released from food and stored in all cells,
particularly muscles. Only from the energy released by the breakdown of this
compound can the cells perform work. The breakdown of ATP produces energy, a
phosphate molecule and ADP, e.g. ATP = ADP + Pi + Energy. Creatine Phosphate (CP)
is another chemical compound made from foods we eat and stored in the muscle cells,
which when broken down aids in the manufacture of ATP. The combination of ADP and
CP produces ATP. This system is used only for very short duration activities of up to 10
seconds. The ATP-CP system neither uses oxygen nor produces lactic acid if oxygen is
unavailable and is thus said to be alactic anaerobic. This is the primary system behind
very short, powerful movements like a golf swing, 100 m sprint, weight lifting or the
start of a race when you need quick “explosive” burst of energy. The creatine
phosphate or ATP-PC system produces instant energy; it works by reforming ATP by
breaking down a chemical compound called creatine phosphate which creates and
provides for some ADP to reform into ATP, e.g. CP + ADP = ATP = ADP + Energy. This is
the first energy pathway that is used by our bodies to resynthesize ATP.

 Lactic Acid System – Here energy is provided through the incomplete breakdown of
glucose in the absence of oxygen to produce energy. This system is used when the ATP-
PC system is depleted and is also called anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic means “without
oxygen”. And glycolysis is the breaking down of glucose. So basically, this energy system
produces ATP by the process of breaking down glucose. The glucose is only partially
broken down and it leaves a by-product behind called lactic acid. Lactic acid is a
fatiguing metabolite of the lactic acid system resulting from the incomplete breakdown
of glucose, or breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen, e.g. GL + ADP = ATP +

18
 PYRUVIC ACID (Pyruvic acid = Lactic acid). Lactic acid forms in the muscle and gives the
feeling of discomfort and muscle fatigue, it also hinders the production of ATP (ATP
helps in muscle contraction). For a person new to exercising, this brief period of
sensation may discourage them to stop exercising. This system predominantly supplies
energy for exercises lasting less than 2 minutes. An example of an activity of the
intensity and duration that this system works under would be a 400 m sprint, wrestling
and gymnastics.

 Aerobic System – This system provides energy through the breakdown of glucose in the
presence of oxygen to produce energy. The body uses oxygen in combination with glucose,
proteins, and fats stored within itself to produce large quantities of ATP. This produces high-
energy ATP that lasts for hours during endurance activities and doesn’t leave behind any
fatiguing by-products such as lactic acid. This is the long duration energy system. By 5
minutes of exercise the O2 system is clearly the dominant system. In a 1 km run, this
system is already providing approximately half the energy; in a marathon run it provides
98% or more. Aerobic means in the presence of, requiring, or utilizing oxygen, e.g. GL +
ADP = ATP + PYRUVIC ACID (Pyruvic acid + Oxygen = Water + Carbon dioxide + Heat).
Aerobic breakdown of pyruvic acid produce energy from ATP. This energy system is used
throughout the body, for producing energy for all metabolic processes, in exercise it is
used for sub-maximal exercise such as long distance running like marathon, cycling and
swimming. This energy system is where the cardiovascular system is strengthened and
stored fats are used up, making aerobic exercise essential because it strengthens the
heart, and lungs while also burning fat, which makes it a total conditioning programme
for anyone looking to get fit. And the energy lasts for hours afterwards also, leaving you
feeling great! This energy system is otherwise known as 'aerobic respiration'.

THE ENERGY CONTINUUM

ATP-PC system, Aerobic,

e. g. weight lifting e. g. marathon

ATP Lactic acid

Splitting, pathway,
e. g. weight lifting 200m swim

The energy continuum shows that all three energy systems are interconnected and that each
takes over from the other, in terms of energy production and utilization. The energy systems do
not simply turn themselves on and off when required. In fact all three systems are always in
operation during exercise and even at rest. What does differ is the relative importance and
contribution that each makes to the activity. In the example of a marathon run, in the first few
minutes of a race the athlete will gain energy from the ATP-PC system and the lactic acid

19
system, until the athlete reaches steady state and the aerobic system can meet the demands of
the exercise. The lactic acid system may also operate when running up hills or increasing pace
towards the end of the run. Each activity can be plotted along an energy continuum to
determine the relative contribution of each energy pathway.

Factors which determine which energy system is used during a physical activity or exercise

The energy systems switch between each other depending on the following factors:
 Intensity of activity
 Duration of activity
 Rate of energy utilization

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEMS

AEROBIC SYSTEM ANAEROBIC SYSTEM

Recovery from exercise is slow Recovery from exercise is fast
Removal of lactic acid exceeds the Accumulation of lactic acid exceeds the removal
accumulation
Provides energy in low intensity activities, Provides energy in high intensity activities, i.e.
i.e. long duration activities that use more short duration intense activities that use short
stored energy bursts of energy
It produces relatively large amounts of It produces relatively small amounts of energy
energy
Produces energy in the presence of oxygen Produces energy in the absence of oxygen

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OXYGEN DEBT, OXYGEN DEFICIT AND EXCESS POST-EXERCISE
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (EPOC)

Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen consumed during recovery to restore phosphagens and
remove lactic acid. A number of factors contribute to the development of oxygen debt. An
oxygen debt will accrue when the body has undertaken some form of anaerobic exercise. This
will occur at quite intense levels of exercise, lasting up to three minutes or when the anaerobic
threshold has been exceeded. When you have a short intense burst of exercise, such as
sprinting, you generate energy for this anaerobically or without oxygen. When you stop
exercising you are still breathing heavily. This is your body taking in extra oxygen to 'repay' the
oxygen debt to compensate for the oxygen deficit.

Oxygen deficit is difference between the oxygen the body requires during exercise and what it
actually manages to take in during the exercise. When you stop sprinting and start to recover
you will actually need more oxygen to recover than your body would have liked to use had
enough been available. This is called Excess Post Exercise Oxygen Consumption (Excess post-
exercise oxygen consumption represents the total volume of oxygen that is consumed following
exercise which enables the body to fully recover, and return it to its pre-exercise state).

20
It does not necessarily follow that oxygen debt always equals oxygen deficit because during
recovery the oxygen debt must also:
 supply oxygen to provide energy for restoration of the oxy-myoglobin link
 supply energy for the increased cardiac and respiratory rates that remain elevated
during the recovery phase.

Consequently the amount of oxygen consumed during oxygen debt is greater than that which
might have been consumed during the oxygen deficit.

Oxygen debt tolerance is the ability of the body to withstand the effects of lactic acid during
intense exercise. Since there is less oxygen supplied, during training, the body builds up lactic
acid which impairs performance. With proper training the body can put up with this or tolerate
it and keep on going thus the impact of lactic acid on the body is felt less. It is possible to
increase the body’s tolerance to lactic acid build up and oxygen debt by improving fitness.
Regular exercise that gradually increases in duration and/or intensity will help to develop and
affect the efficiency of both the circulatory system and the respiratory system. If you can
improve the amount of oxygen that the lungs can deliver to the blood and make your heart
stronger then this will increase your tolerance to lactic acid build up in muscles.

For muscles to work well, they must be oxygenated. Oxygen is also used in the production of
ATP, a neurotransmitter which is critical to muscle function. When the body's supply of oxygen
begins to get depleted, it switches to anaerobic respiration to power the muscles, causing a
buildup of lactic acid as a by-product. Lactic acid can lead to cramps, and the only way to break
it down is to oxidize it. You can reduce the lactic acid build up faster if you perform light
exercise after an intense effort, also known as a cool down.

LACTIC ACID AND HOW IT AFFECTS PERFORMANCE

 It reduces the ability to perform at maximum potential.

 It inhibits skilful muscle contraction.
 Can create aches, cramps, pains and cause injury.

Some examples of anaerobic activities and chances for Lactic acid build up are long Jump, high
jump, javelin, shot put and discus, explosive activity. Also it can be seen in game situations, i.e.
sprinting, jumping, and shooting a ball at goal.

HOW THE EFFECTS OF LACTIC ACID ON THE BODY CAN BE MINIMISED

 Increase intensity and duration of exercise when training.

 Work out at intervals, i.e. Monday, Wednesday, Friday, etc
 Do more intense exercises so that your body can tolerate lactic acid in the blood, this
will increase the amount of oxygen that can get to the muscles.

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 Components of excess post-exercise oxygen consumption

Elevated heart, metabolic and

respiratory rates following
exercise

Restoration of oxy- Excess post-exercise oxygen Increased body

myoglobin link consumption temperature

Oxygen debt

Alactacid debt Lactacid debt

Restoration of muscle phosphagens Removal of lactic acid

(ATP + PC)

THE ALACTACID DEBT (FAST REPLENISHMENT) AND THE LACTACID DEBT (SLOW
REPLENISHMENT

Typically the oxygen debt consists of two stages:

 the alactacid debt or (fast replenishment)
 the lactacid debt or (slow replenishment)

THE ALACTACID DEBT (FAST REPLENISHMENT)

The alactacid debt is the first component of the oxygen debt that is replenished. As the name
suggests, it is the volume of oxygen required to restore phosphagens used in the alactic or ATP-
PC energy system – namely phosphocreatine. It takes a fairly short period of time to
resynthesize phosphocreatine: approximately 2-3 minutes, in which time 2-3 litres of oxygen
can be consumed over and above that which is normally consumed at rest and used to provide

22
the energy for this resynthesis. This assumes that following a bout of intense work, such as a
maximum lift, where the predominant energy system used is the alactic energy system, the
body should be recovered sufficiently after three minutes of rest to repeat the exercise.

THE LACTACID DEBT (SLOW REPLENISHMENT)

The lactacid debt is the volume of oxygen consumed during recovery used to remove lactic acid
from the muscles, which has accumulated during anaerobic work. Most of the lactic acid is
removed into the blood or oxidized in the mitochondria via the aerobic system with oxygen to
give carbon dioxide and water. Lactic acid is also converted into muscle and liver glycogen,
glucose and protein and some excreted from the body as sweat or urine.

The process of lactic acid removal takes approximately one hour, but this can be accelerated by
undertaking a cool down or some form of exercise recovery, which ensures a rapid and
continuous supply of oxygen to the muscles, which helps in the dispersion of lactic acid.

The oxygen consumed during this phase may also be used to supply the respiratory muscles
and the heart with energy to remain slightly elevated during the recovery period.

A GRAPH EXPRESSING OXYGEN DEBT AND DEFICIT DURING LOW INTENSITY EXERCISE (LIGHT
EXERCISE) AND HIGH INTENSITY EXERCISE (HEAVY EXERCISE)

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FUELS USED FOR ATP RESYNTHESIS OR MAIN ENERGY PROVIDING NUTRIENTS

 Carbohydrates – are stored in the body as glycogen.

 Fats – are stored as triglycerides and are broken down to free fatty acids and provide
energy.
 Proteins or amino acids – can be utilized for energy once converted to glucose.

THE KREBS CYCLE

The Krebs cycle also known as the tricarboxylic acid or citric acid is a series of chemical
reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy. The Krebs cycle is one stage of the
aerobic energy system. The initial stages of the aerobic process are similar to those of the lactic
acid system, except that the fate of pyruvic acid changes when oxygen becomes available.
Under anaerobic conditions pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid which has a fatiguing effect
upon the muscles. In the presence of oxygen during light or low intensity exercise, however,
pyruvic acid is converted into a compound called acetyl-coenzyme-A, which is combined with
oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid before it enters the Kreb’s cycle.

Under these aerobic conditions, the glucose molecule is broken down further in special
powerhouses or factories existing in the muscle cell, known as mitochondria. These lie adjacent
to the myofibrils and exist throughout the sarcoplasm. Slow twitch fibres possess a greater
number of mitochondria than fast twitch fibres, which enables them to provide a continuous
supply of energy over a long period of time. The total downgrading of one molecule of glycogen
can provide enough energy to resynthesize 38ATP:
 2 during anaerobic glycolysis
 2 during the Kreb’s cycle
 34 during the electron transport system

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 Glycogen 2A
TP

Glucose-6-phosphate

no oxygen available
Pyruvic acid Lactic acid
with oxygen available

Acetyl CoA

Oxaloacetic acid

Citric acid
2
ATP

Kreb’s
cycle

H+e-
CO2 H+e-

H+e-
H+e- 1O NADH each
giving 3ATP
gives = 30ATP
2 FADH each
giving 2ATP
gives = 4ATP
H 2O 34A
TP

What is the Krebs cycle intended to achieve? It is intended to release stored energy through
oxidation of acetyl-coenzyme-A into carbon dioxide and chemical energy in the form of
adenosine triphosphate.

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PRODUCTS OF KREBS CYCLE

 Carbon dioxide
 ATP
 Reduced forms of NADH and FADH2

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

THE PROCESS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE OR PULMONARY DIFFUSION IN THE LUNGS

Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries and
carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli. The gases move across the
membranes by the process of diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of gases from an area of
high partial pressure to an area of low partial pressure in the lungs. Partial pressure of a gas is
the pressure of an individual gas in a mixture of gases. When you breathe in air is taken in
through the nose into the trachea up to the lungs through the bronchus. In the lungs, the gases
are exchanged between the lungs and the blood capillaries and in the tissues the gases are
exchanged between the cells and the blood surrounding them. More air is inspired during
exercise and so more oxygen can be transferred to the working muscles through blood. The
process of respiratory gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli of the lungs through
membranes.

Diffusion depends on the pressure of the gas concerned, the moisture of gases, the surface area
of the lungs and the distance between two points where diffusion takes place. The partial
pressure of one gas is independent of the partial pressure of another gas that is mixed with it.
Thus the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide are independent of each other.

26
How much air do you breathe?

 The tidal volume is the amount of air you breathe in or out with each breath. When you
breathe deeply during exercise it increases. The main reason for this is to get rid of
carbon dioxide.
 Respiratory rate is how many breaths you take in a minute. Once again this rises as a
short-term effect of exercise.
 The vital capacity is the maximum amount of air you breathe out, after breathing in as
deeply as you can. It is usually around 4.5 or 5 litres. It is very important to sports
people as the more air you can get rid of in the first few seconds the less carbon dioxide
is left in you.
 Tidal volume x respiratory rate = minute volume i.e. the amount you breathe per
minute

Effects of training on breathing

Definition of terms

 External respiration or Respiration is breathing in and out. Its purpose is to supply

oxygen to the body cells and take away the poisonous by-product – carbon dioxide. Cell
respiration is the respiration which takes place in the cells whereby food particles are
broken down in the cell either in the absence or presence of oxygen to give out energy.
 Inspiration is breathing in.
 Expiration is breathing out.
 Gaseous exchange is the process which allows oxygen to be taken in from the air and
for it to be ‘exchanged’ for carbon dioxide.
 Pulmonary diffusion is the movement of gases from areas of higher partial pressure into
areas of lower partial pressure.
 Partial pressure is the pressure of the gas concerned.

Parts of the Breathing System

 Trachea
 Alveoli
 Bronchioles
 Diaphragm
 Mouth
 Nasal cavity or nose
 Larynx
 Pharynx
 Intercostal muscles
 Bronchus, bronchi
 Lung

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Breathing mechanics

a. When you breathe in the following changes take place:

 The inter-costal muscles contract. This pulls the rib cage upwards, so the chest
expands.
 The diaphragm contracts. This pulls it down and flattens it, making the chest even
larger.
 When the chest expands, the lungs expand too, because their moist surface clings to
the chest lining.
 When the lungs expand the pressure inside them falls. So more air is sucked down
the windpipe and into the lungs.

b. When you breathe out the following opposite changes take place:
 The inter-costal muscles relax. This lowers the rib cage and makes the chest smaller.
 The diaphragm relaxes so it bulges upwards again. This makes the chest even
smaller.
 When the chest gets smaller the lungs are compressed, so air is pushed out of the
lungs and up the windpipe.

THE RESPONSE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TO AN INCREASED LEVEL OF TRAINING

 Increased vital capacity - breathing muscles grow stronger which allows deeper breaths
 Increased tidal volume
 Increased strength of the respiratory muscles
 Pulmonary diffusion will become more efficient
 Endurance increases – the effect is that aerobic/stamina work can continue longer
before one tires.
 Increased surface area of the alveoli
 Increased capillarisation - more alveoli become surrounded with capillaries so gas
exchange is more efficient.
 Increase in lung volume
 Reduction in both respiratory rate and the breathing rate.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

All the muscles in the body form the muscular system. Muscles are found around the bones and
also form walls of internal organs.

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Heat generation
 They can be used as heaters when shivering. When it is cold the body shivers, and
muscle activation causes ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) to provide energy for

28
 contraction. The muscle contractions produce no physical work, so chemical energy
released appears as heat.

 Movement generation
 As skeletal muscles contract they pull on to bones to produce movement. Skeletal
muscle moves the skeleton and is responsible for all our voluntary movements, as well
as for the automatic movements required, for example, to stand, to hold up our head,
and to breathe. (Other involuntary functions involve smooth muscle and cardiac
muscle).

 Gives the body shape

 Skeletal muscles give the body its unique appearance and shape.

 Helps in breathing
 Some muscles contract and relax to make breathing possible, e.g. the diaphragm and
inter-costal muscles. When we inhale the diaphragm contracts and the dome of the
diaphragm flattens downward against the viscera, which allows the lungs to expand to
receive fresh air. When we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes upward against the lungs,
helping to expel used air from them.

 Helps in digestion
 Muscles along the inner linings of the digestive tract help digest food when they
contract. Peristalsis, or the wave like contractions that move food along the digestive
tract, is one good example.

 The skeletal muscle functions as store of protein if we should face malnutrition.

 Gives the body support and posture.

TYPES OF MUSCLES IN THE BODY

 Skeletal/Voluntary muscle

 It is a usually voluntary muscle made up of elongated, multinucleated, transversely

striated muscle fibres, having principally bony attachments. This muscle can easily be
seen as a shape under the skin, and there are about 600 examples of it in the body. It is
called skeletal muscle because it is attached to bones, and it is also called voluntary
muscle because it can be controlled. Because it appears to have stripes under a
microscope it is sometimes known as striated (striped) muscle.

 Smooth/Involuntary muscle

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  This type of muscle is found in the bowel, the gut and walls of internal organs. The
reason why it is called involuntary muscle is because there is no direct control of this
muscle as it works automatically. When food is swallowed it travels through the
digestive system by muscular activity which cannot be consciously controlled. It is also
called smooth muscle because it appears smooth under a microscope.

 Cardiac muscle

 Cardiac muscle is also striated in appearance but it differs significantly from other
striated muscle in both its structure and its behaviour. The heart is made up of the
cardiac muscle, and it is a special type of involuntary muscle which contracts regularly
and automatically. Some factors can influence the speed of contraction such as drugs
and stress (exercise included), but the rate cannot be controlled voluntarily. When the
body is excited (or during exercise) adrenaline is produced and this in turn increases the
heart rate.

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

A muscle contraction (also known as a muscle twitch or simply twitch) occurs when a muscle
cell (called a muscle fibre) lengthens or shortens or remains the same under tension.
Movement is possible only through repeated contraction of many muscles at the correct time.
Though the term ‘contraction’ implies shortening, when referring to the muscular system, it
means muscle fibres generating tension with the help of motor neurons.

When the muscles are exercised they develop muscle tone; that is, continuous and partial
contraction of the muscle which keeps it primed up. Muscle toning occurs when you exercise
the muscles in your body in a way that makes you gain muscle mass. This can happen from
lifting weights, placing resistance on your muscles from various objects or using your own body
weight to make your muscles do extra work.

 Isometric contraction

 It is one in which the muscle is activated, but instead of being allowed to lengthen or
shorten, it is held at a constant length or remains the same length. An example of an
isometric contraction would be carrying an object in front of you. The weight of the
object would be pulling downward, but your hands and arms would be opposing the
motion with equal force upwards. Since your arms are neither raising nor lowering, your
biceps will be isometrically contracting. Other examples of isometric contraction are
tug-of-war, wrestling, rugby scrum or pushing against the wall.

 Isokinetic contraction

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  An isokinetic muscle contraction is one in which the muscle contracts and shortens at
constant rate of speed. This type of contraction usually requires special, expensive
training equipment that increases the load as it senses that the muscle contraction is
speeding up. The benefit of this type of contraction is that the muscle gains strength
evenly all through the entire range of movement and it is one of the fastest ways to
increase muscle strength. Isokinetic contraction increases blood supply to the skeletal
and cardiac muscle, and therefore it improves muscle strength, endurance and cardiac
fitness. In addition isokinetic exercises (isokinetic exercises are resistance-based
exercises designed to provide a specific level of resistance while maintaining a
consistent speed of limb movement) can be designed to mimic the actual speeds of
sports-specific activities. The major disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are that they
can only be performed properly on machines which are usually expensive and the type
of movement that can be performed are rather limited.

 Isotonic contraction

 It is the type of muscle contraction that involves the lengthening and shortening of
muscles during movement. Isotonic contraction falls into two parts, eccentric and
concentric contractions. The lengthening of a muscle is called eccentric contraction
whereas the shortening is concentric contraction. This can be seen in the lowering and
the raising of a barbell, respectively, in a barbell curl.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE

 They are attached to bones by tendons.

 They are cylindrical in shape.
 They are striped across.
 They consist of individual fibres.

PROPERTIES OF A MUSCLE THAT ENABLE MOVEMENT

A property is a characteristic trait or peculiarity, especially one serving to define or describe a

muscle. Muscle cells have unique characteristics that enable them to function properly. Here
we are dealing more with functional characteristics as opposed to structural characteristics
which are highlighted above. These are: excitability (they respond to a stimulus), contractility
(they contract when stimulated), extensibility (muscles can also stretch) and elasticity (they are
able to return to their original shape).

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBRES

How skeletal muscles adapt to a repeated stimulus depends, to a large extent, on the inherent
characteristics of the muscles themselves. Specifically, the types of fibres that make up
individual muscles greatly influence the way athletes will adapt to their training programmes.

31
There is a reason why some athletes can sprint faster and get bigger muscles more easily than
others, and why some athletes are able to run for much longer periods of time without fatigue.

There are basically two types of muscle fibres, which are slow twitch muscle fibres and fast
twitch muscle fibres. Their characteristics are as follows:
 Slow twitch fibres (Type 1)
 They contract slowly, and without much force.
 They have high resistance to fatigue; that is, they do not tire easily.
 They are suited to activities that need endurance. For example jogging, long-distance
running, and standing for long periods.
 They have high capillary density.
 Slow twitch fibres rely more on fat as fuel, as opposed to strictly using carbohydrates or
creatine phosphate.

 Fast twitch fibres (Type 2)

 They contract much faster than slow twitch fibres, and with much more force.
 They tire quickly.
 They are suited to activities that need bursts of strength and power. For example
sprinting and weightlifting.
 They have low capillary density.
 The major type of fuel that fast twitch fibres rely on is creatine phosphate and stored
muscle glycogen (glucose). They will not utilize stored body fat at all due to the fact that
they are only able to continually contract for between one and about 20 seconds.

Fast twitch muscle fibres are subdivided into type 2a and type 2b:

 Type 2a, also referred to as fast oxidative glycolytic fibres (F.O.G.) pick up certain type
one characteristics through endurance training.
 They therefore tend to have a greater resistance to fatigue.
 They are suited to activities which are fairly high in intensity and of relatively short
duration, such as 200 metres swim or an 800 metre run.
 They posses medium aerobic and anaerobic capacity.
 The force of contraction is high.
 Myoglobin content is lower.
 They are large in size.
 Their capillary density is high.
 Their speed of contraction is fast.

 Type 2b, pure fast twitch fibres called fast twitch glycolytic fibres (F.T.G.) :
 Are used for activities of very high intensity and have a much stronger force of
contraction. This is because the motor neuron that carries the impulse is much
larger.

32
  There are generally more fibres within a fast twitch motor unit, and the fibres are
themselves larger and thicker.
 A power lifter or a sprinter would possess a large proportion of fast twitch fibres.
 Myoglobin content is low.
 Aerobic capacity is low, and anaerobic capacity is high.
 Capillary density is low.
 The speed of contraction is fast.

Every muscle contains a mixture of slow twitch fibres and fast twitch fibres. But the mixture is
different in different muscles (for example your gastrocnemius contains a lot of fast twitch
fibre) and the mixture is different for different people (some distance runners have 80% slow
twitch fibres while some weight lifters have 80% fast twitch). This is all due to the genes we
inherit from our parents.

EXAMPLES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

 Deltoid – raises the arm sideways at the shoulder.

 Biceps – bend the arm at the elbow (elbow flexion).
 Abdominals – pull in the abdomen, and flex the trunk when bending forward.
 Quadriceps – straighten the leg at the knee and keep it straight when you stand (knee
extension).
 Pectorals – raises the arm at the shoulders, and draws it across the chest.
 Latissimus Dorsi – pulls the arm down at the shoulders, and draws it behind the back.
 Trapezius – holds and rotates the shoulders, and moves the head back and sideways.
 Gluteals (Gluteus maximus and Gluteus medius) – pull the leg back at the hip, and raise
it sideways at the hip (Gluteus maximus is the biggest of these muscles).
 Hamstrings – bend the leg at the knee (knee flexion).
 Triceps – straightens the arm at the elbow (elbow extension).
 Gastrocnemius – straightens the ankle joint.
 Adductors – adduction of hip flexion and lateral rotation of the femur.
 Wrist flexors/extensors – flex and extend the wrist.
 Tibialis anterior – dorsiflexes (lifts up) and inverts the foot towards the tibia.

Antagonistic Muscle Action

Muscles never work alone. In order for a coordinated movement to be produced, the muscles
must work as a group or in pairs, with several muscles working at the same time. Taking the
simple movement of flexion of the arm at the elbow, the muscle responsible for flexion
(bending of the arm) is the biceps, and the muscle which produces the desired joint movement
is called the agonist or prime mover. However, in order for the bicep muscle to shorten when
contracting, the tricep muscle must lengthen. The tricep in this instance is known as the
antagonist, since its action is opposite to that of the agonist. The two muscles must work
together to produce the required movement.

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Fixator muscles or stabilizers also work in this movement. Their role is to stabilize the origin of
the agonist so that it can pull against the bone to achieve maximum and effective contraction.
In this case, during the bicep curl, the trapezius acts as a fixator by stabilizing the scapula to
create a rigid platform for the bicep to pull against it to raise the lower arm. Here the scapula is
the origin of the bicep.

Neutralizer or synergist is a muscle which contracts to enhance the efficiency of the prime
mover by preventing any undesired movement. It helps the agonist to work smoothly, and also
stabilizes the joint. It can thus be seen that for this apparently simple movement of elbow
flexion, integrated and synergistic (harmonious) muscle actions are required to enable the
necessary smooth movement. For example, when performing a bicep curl, the deltoids are
synergists since they work to prevent any undesired movement at the shoulder, and in doing so
enable the bicep to work as effectively as possible.

Furthermore, the roles of each muscle are constantly changed for changing actions. For
example, in the action of elbow extension, the roles of the bicep and tricep are reversed so that
the tricep becomes the prime mover or agonist (since the tricep is an extensor and thus
produces this movement pattern), while the bicep becomes the antagonist, to enable the
smooth and effective contraction of the tricep.

When the agonist contracts in order to perform the desired movement, it usually forces the
antagonist to relax. This phenomenon is known as reciprocal inhibition (sometimes seen as
reciprocal innervations) because the agonist inhibits the antagonist from contracting. Such
inhibition does not always occur, however. Below is a list of commonly used antagonistic
pairings:

 Pectorals/Latissimus dorsi
 Anterior deltoids/Posterior deltoids
 Trapezius/Deltoids
 Rectus abdominis/Erector spinalis
 Quadriceps group/Hamstring group
 Tibialis anterior/Gastrocnemius and soleus
 Biceps /Triceps
 Wrist flexors/Wrist extensors

Connective Tissues

Connective tissue is responsible for holding all the individual muscle fibres together. It
surrounds the individual muscle fibres and encases the whole muscle, forming tendons, which
attach the muscles to bones and transmit the “pull” of the muscle to the bones, to cause
movement and harness the power of muscle contractions. Tendons vary in length and are
composed of parallel fibres of collagen. They attach directly to the periosteum of the bone via a
tough tissue known as Sharpey’s fibres.

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The point of attachment for each muscle is termed the origin and the insertion:

 The origin is the end of the muscle attached to a stable bone against which the muscle
can pull, or it is the end of the muscle attaching to the relatively fixed bone of its joint.
This is usually the nearest flat bone.

 The insertion is the muscle attachment on the bone that the muscle puts into action, or
it is the end of the muscle attaching to the freely moving bone of its joint.

To understand muscles and joint movements you should know four things:
 Movement happens at joints, with one bone of the joint moving freely while the
other remains relatively stationary.
 Muscles are power engines for movement; they attach to bone on either end,
crossing the joint as they do.
 The part of the muscle located between 2 ends is known as the belly of the muscle.
 All of this is significant because the size, direction and shape of the muscle and
muscle attachments are part of what determines the range of motion of the joint,
and therefore flexibility.

For example, the bicep has its origin on the scapula. This gives a firm base against which the
bicep can pull in order to raise the lower arm. (The elbow is a flexor muscle, and its job is to
allow flexion at the elbow). Since the bicep raises the lower arm, it must be attached to the
body part via the insertion. In fact the bicep has its insertion on the radius.

The muscle belly is the thick portion of muscle tissue sited between the origin and insertion.
It is not unusual for a muscle to have two or more origins, while maintaining a common
insertion: the term ‘bicep’ can be broken down to mean two (‘bi’) heads (‘ceps’). The bicep
has two origins or heads which pull upon one insertion in the radius, and puts the lower arm
into action.

HOW MUSCULAR-SKELETAL INJURIES CAN BE MINIMISED DURING PARTICIPATION IN

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

 Warm up correctly
Many injuries such as sprints and pulled muscles can be avoided by warming up
correctly. Warm up prepares the body for the main activity and helps prevent injuries.
 Cool down correctly
 The cool down helps you prevent stiffness and soreness. That means you are better
prepared for the next event.
 Make sure you are fit for the activity
 If you are feeling ill, weak or in pain, you should not take part in an event.
 Make sure you develop the right techniques
 For example, a poor throwing technique in javelin or discuss will result in an arm injury.

35
  Play at the right level and age
 Play with people who match your physique and level of skill. It would be dangerous for a
fifteen year old rugby player to play scrum half with a senior team.
 Know the rules for your sport and obey them
 Rules were developed to protect players as well as test skills. In football for example,
you may not slide into tackles with studs up.
 Make sure you are wearing proper attire
 If the sport requires protective gear such as mouth guards or shin guards, make sure you
wear it. The correct foot-wear is especially important. Many injuries are due to poor
foot-wear. If you have long hair tie it back. Do not wear a watch or jewellery that could
catch in equipment or clothing. For sports such as wrestling and netball you must keep
your finger nails short.
 Lift and carry equipment with care.
 Watch out for hazards in the playing area
 For example, broken glass on pitches, wet patches on floors, or rakes left lying in long
jump pits.
 Make sure the equipment is in good repair
 For example, make sure that rugby boots have no loose studs, buoyancy aids have all
their ties in place, and that gymnastics mats are in good condition.

CONDITIONS AND INJURIES TO THE MUSCLES (MUSCULAR SYSTEM) AND THE SKIN

Injuries to the muscular system and skin include strains and cuts. Most injuries to be considered
are concussions, cramps, contusions, cramps, shock and skin infections (blisters and athletes
foot). Primary treatment for most ligament and muscle injury is what is known as the RICE
method. RICE is an acronym which stands for Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation. These are
the primary actions which should be done to most muscle injuries to help treat them:

 Rest
 First the injured area should be rested, and movement and pressure should be avoided
until it recovers because continued use of the damaged muscle will cause even more
damage and make recovery time longer.

 Ice
 Placing an ice pack on the injury, particularly during the first 24 to 72 hours of the injury
will help reduce the swelling and may relieve the pain. Cold makes blood vessels
constrict and this reduces bleeding which leads to swelling. Do not use ice cubes or
blocks directly on the skin though as it will cause frostbite.

 Compression
 Bandage the injured part firmly but not tightly using a crepe bandage. Compression
should be done to prevent bleeding and additional damage due to movement of the
injured muscle.

36
  Elevation
 Lastly, the injured part should be elevated above the heart level when lying down to
ease pressure on the injury. Elevating the injured makes blood flow against gravity and
thus reduce bleeding which leads to swelling.

SIGNS, SYMPTOMS, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF INJURIES AND CONDITIONS TO THE

MUSCLES AND SKIN

1. STRAIN / MUSCLE PULL

 A strain is a tear to muscle or tendon tissue.

 Cause
 A strain is injury caused by violent overstretching of muscle or tendon, due to overuse,
which weakens the muscle, causing their fibres to be pulled apart and lose the ability to
contract. The severity of injury depends upon the amount of tissue that is damaged. It
may be stretched or even torn.

 Signs and Symptoms

 A sudden sharp pain at the site of the injury.
 Swelling, inflammation, stiffness, and sometimes cramp.
 Difficulty in using the injured part.

 Prevention
 Warm up before practice and competition, and that same philosophy of injury
prevention can be applied to regular daily activities.
 Stretching before work-out.
 Gradually increasing the amount of effort and exertion may help prevent muscle and
joint injury.
 Avoid overuse of the body.
 Make sure you develop the right techniques.
 Treatment
 Rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE) are keys elements in the treatment of both
sprains and strains.
 Depending on the extent of the injury, strains usually take 7 to 14 days to heal by
themselves.
 Certain serious strains must be taken to hospital for surgery.

2. BLISTERS
 A blister is a sore bump on the skin that may be filled with fluid. It is the body’s way of
protecting the skin from further damage. Often these occur on the feet with poor fitting
shoes, but holding a tennis or badminton racket might cause blisters on the hand.

 Cause

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 Common causes of blisters include repeated action with friction and burns.
 Frost bite.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Swelling
 Pain and tenderness to touch
 Sore bump on the skin that may be filled with fluid.

 Prevention
 Wear shoes and socks that fit well.
 Wear gloves for activities, such as raking leaves, put a lot of friction on the hands.
 Handle equipment correctly.

 Treatment
Self-care treats most blisters. Medical care may really be needed for a blister when it gets
infected.
 Do not pop a small blister (less than 1 inch). Protect blister from friction. Cover blister
with a loose bandage or a moleskin pad.
 Drain a large and painful blister. Clean around area with antiseptic. Use a sterilize needle
to gently pierce an edge of the blister. Let it drain, if there is no dirt or pus under the
skin flap, pat it down to protect the skin below that blister.

 Wash the area well with soap and water. Put an antibiotic ointment and cover it with a
bandage or gauze tape. Change this daily and keep it clean, if it gets dirty or wet change
more often.

3. MUSCLE STITCH
 This is a small sharp pain on the side, or upper abdomen. You get it during vigorous
exercise.

 Cause
 It may be caused by exercising too soon after eating. The blood supply to the diaphragm
is reduced causing a sharp pain in the abdomen.

 Signs and Symptoms

 A sharp pain in the abdomen.
 Cramps can occur in the diaphragm (the sheet of muscle below the chest).

 Prevention
 Increasing the strength of the abdomen through abdominal exercises.
 Delaying exercise by a few hours after a meal.

 Treatment
 Stop exercising for a short time and it will go away.

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 Sitting and resting is an effective way of reducing the pain.
 If stitch is more severe, gentle stretching may help.

4. MUSCLE CRAMP
 A muscle cramp is an involuntarily and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax.

 Cause
 Lack of minerals and salts in the muscles due to dehydration.
 Another cause is when muscles work when chilled (cold).

 Signs and Symptoms

 Soreness and swelling.
 Pain on the affected part.
 Inability to use the affected part.

 Prevention
 Stretch before and after exercise or sports, along with an adequate warm-up and cool-
down, to prevent cramps that are caused by vigorous physical activity.
 Good hydration before, during, and after the activity is important, especially if the
duration exceeds one hour, and replacement of lost electrolytes (especially sodium and
potassium, which are major components of perspiration) can also be helpful.
 Excessive fatigue, especially in warm weather, should be avoided.

 Treatment
 Gently massaging the muscle will often help it to relax, as will applying warmth from a
heating pad or hot soak. If the cramp is associated with fluid loss, as is often the case
with vigorous physical activity, fluid and electrolyte (especially sodium and potassium)
replacement is essential.
 Most cramps can be stopped if the muscle can be stretched slowly and gently. For many
cramps of the feet and legs, this stretching can often be accomplished by standing up
and walking around.

5. ABRASSIONS / GRAZES
 This is the scraping off of skin from the body due to friction from rough surfaces.

 Cause
 A sliding fall on a rough surface or gavel.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain
 Bleeding
 Swelling
 Skin scraped off affected area.

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 Prevention
 Avoid playing on slippery surfaces.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 Be mentally and physically prepared for the activity.

 Treatment
 Clean the wound gently with tepid water.
 If the wound is bleeding a little, just let the blood clot.
 Allow the wound to dry naturally if possible. But if there is danger of infection cover it
with a plaster.

6. BRUISES
 A bruise is a discoloration of the skin caused when enough pressure is placed on the skin
to break the blood vessels underneath.

 Cause
 Bruises are caused by blood leaking from damaged blood vessels under the skin due to
impact.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain and tenderness.
 Swelling.
 Skin discoloration.

 Prevention
 Play at the correct level and age.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 After using throwing implements do not throw them to others.

 Treatment
 The treatment is part of the RICE routine.
 Apply an icepack or cold compress the bruised area to reduce bleeding.
 For serious bruises, compression with crepe bandage will help.

7. Laceration / Cut
 A laceration (las-e-RAY-shun) is an injury to the skin and the soft tissue underneath it.
Lacerations may happen if you are cut or hit by something. Lacerations can happen
anywhere on the body. The healing time for a laceration depends on where it is on your
body. It may take a laceration longer to heal if it is over a joint, such as your knee or
elbow.

 Cause

40
  It caused by sharp objects or impact on the skin.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain.
 Bleeding, bruising, or swelling.
 You may have numbness (loss of feeling) around the wound.

 Prevention
 Remove all sharp objects from the playing field.
 Avoid too much contact with opponents.

 Treatment
 First work to control the bleeding if your wound is bleeding a lot. You may need your
wound cleaned out with germ-free liquid. This helps to remove dirt and other small
objects, and decreases the chance of infection.
 Apply the RICE treatment.

8. TENNIS AND GOLFER’S ELBOW

 These are muscle injuries in the lower arm (around the outer bony bump or inner bump
on the elbow).

 Cause
 Overuse the muscles in the lower arm, especially in racket sport, golf or fishing.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Inflammation of the affected area.
 Tenderness.
 Pain.
 Prevention
 Avoid overuse of the body.
 Proper physical and mental preparation; that is, warm-up and stretch properly before
physical activity.

 Treatment
 Apply the RICE treatment. The elbow must be rested until it recovers, which could take
weeks.
 The usual treatment is physiotherapy and injection of a steroid into the muscle (N.B.
steroids help mend muscle tissues).

HEAT RELATED ILLNESSES AND CONDITIONS

1. HYPERTHERMIA (OVERHEATING)
 Hyperthermia means when the body temperature has risen above 39 degrees celsius (or
above normal). Hyperthermia can lead to several conditions as discussed below.
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(a) DEHYDRATION
 Dehydration refers to an inadequate amount of fluid in the body. Among athletes who
participate in endurance sports or long workouts, dehydration can occur quickly. In
general, a person is considered dehydrated when they have lost more than 2 percent of
their body weight during exercise.

 Cause
 Dehydration occurs because there is too much water lost, not enough water taken in, or
most often a combination of the two. Water can be lost due to sweat, vomiting,
diarrhea, burns, diabetes, and inability to drink fluids.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Dry mouth,
 The eyes stop making tears,
 Sweating may stop,
 Muscle cramps,
 Nausea and vomiting,
 Heart palpitations, and
 Lightheadedness (especially when standing

 Prevention
 Don’t exercise or schedule activities in hot weather.
 Wear light clothing in hot weather.

 Treatment
 Adequate fluid intake is essential for athletes before, during, and after exercise.
Whether to use sports drinks or just water depends upon your duration and intensity of
exercise.

(b) HEAT EXHAUSTION

 Heat exhaustion is the body's response to dehydration and an excessive loss of water
and salt through sweat. Heat exhaustion typically occurs after long periods of heat
exposure. Heat exhaustion occurs when the body becomes overwhelmed by heat and
the sweat response stops working properly.

 Cause
 It is caused by several days of exposure to high temperatures and inadequate or
unbalanced replacement of fluids.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Heavy sweating
 Paleness
 Tiredness

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 Weakness
 Dizziness
 Headache
 Nausea or vomiting
 Fainting
 The skin may be cool and moist. The victim's pulse rate will be fast and weak, and
breathing will be fast and shallow.

 Prevention
 Don’t exercise or schedule activities in hot weather.
 Wear light clothing in hot weather.

 Treatment
 Lie the casualty down in a cool place, with legs raised.
 Give him/her frequent sips of weak solution of salt in water.
 Call a doctor for further advice.

(c) HEAT STROKE

 Heat stroke is a form of hyperthermia, an abnormally elevated body temperature with
accompanying physical and neurological symptoms. Unlike heat cramps and heat
exhaustion, two forms of hyperthermia that are less severe, heat stroke is a true
medical emergency that can be fatal if not properly and promptly treated.

 Cause
 It is caused by long, vigorous exercise on a hot and humid day. In extreme heat, high
humidity, or vigorous exertion under the sun, the body may not be able to dissipate the
heat and the body temperature rises, sometimes up to 106°F (41.1°C) or higher.
 Another cause of heat stroke is dehydration. A dehydrated person may not be able to
sweat fast enough to dissipate heat, which causes the body temperature to rise.

 Signs and Symptoms

 high body temperature
 the absence of sweating, with hot red or flushed dry skin
 rapid pulse
 difficulty breathing
 strange behavior
 hallucinations
 confusion
 agitation
 disorientation
 seizure
 coma

 Prevention

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 The most important measures to prevent heat strokes are to avoid becoming
dehydrated and to avoid vigorous physical activities in hot and humid weather.
 If you have to perform physical activities in hot weather, drink plenty of fluids (such as
water and sports drinks), but avoid alcohol, caffeine, and tea which may lead to
dehydration.
 Your body will need replenishment of electrolytes (such as sodium) as well as fluids if
you sweat excessively or perform vigorous activity in the sunlight for prolonged periods.
 Take frequent breaks to hydrate yourself. Wear hats and light-colored, lightweight,
loose clothes.

 Treatment
 Lie the casualty down in a cool breezy place. Remove outer clothing and wrap the
casualty in a cold wet sheet. Keep the sheet saturated with cold water and fan it as
much as possible.
 Continue until the casualty has cooled down.
 Call a doctor for further advice.

2. HYPOTHERMIA
 Hypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below that required for
normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as 35.0 °C (95.0 °F). If exposed
to cold and the internal mechanisms are unable to replenish the heat that is being lost a
drop in core temperature occurs. Hypothermia is the opposite of hyperthermia which is
present in heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
 Cause
 Hypothermia usually occurs from exposure to low temperatures and is frequently
complicated by alcohol. Any condition which decreases heat production, increases heat
loss, or impairs thermoregulation however may contribute.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Shivering and mental confusion.
 Movements are slow and labored, accompanied by a stumbling pace.
 Difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, and amnesia start to appear; inability to use hands
and stumbling is also usually present.

 Prevention
 Appropriate clothing helps to prevent hypothermia. Synthetic and wool fabrics are
superior to cotton as they provide better insulation when wet and dry. Some synthetic
fabrics, such as polypropylene and polyester, are used in clothing designed to wick
perspiration away from the body, such as liner socks and moisture-wicking
undergarments.

 Treatment

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  The first priority is to perform a careful check for breathing and a pulse and initiate
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) as necessary.
 If the person is unconscious, having severe breathing difficulty, or is pulse-less, call an
ambulance.
 The second priority is re-warming.
 Remove all wet clothes and move the person inside.
 The victim should be given warm fluids if he or she is able to drink, but do not give the
person caffeine or alcohol.
 Cover the person’s body with blankets and aluminum-coated foils, and place the victim
in a sleeping bag. Avoid actively heating the victim with outside sources of heat such as
radiators or hot water baths. This may only decrease the amount of shivering and slow
the rate of core temperature increase.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system is made up of all the bones, ligaments and joints in the body.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system consists of all the bones of the body, joints and ligaments, and its functions
are:
 It provides shape and/or a framework of the body. It is the framework on which
muscles and other organs of the body attach.
 It supports other organs of the body.
 It provides protection for delicate organs of the body. For example, the skull protects
the brain and the ribs protect the lungs.
 It manufactures blood cells from bone
marrow stored in the bones.
 It stores minerals especially calcium.
 It gives the body good posture. Examples
of poor posture are bowed back
(lordosis), rounded shoulders (kyphosis),
and sideways curvature (scoliosis).

TYPES OF JOINTS

Joints are the areas where two bones meet.

Most joints are mobile, allowing the bones to
move. Joints are classified by the degree of
movement they allow and the structure of the
joint. There are three types of joints in the body,
which are as follows:

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  FIXED/IMMOVABLE JOINTS

 The bones at an immovable joint can’t move at all. The interlock is held close together
by tough fibre. There is no joint cavity in the joints, and since they are held together by
fibrous tissue they are also called fibrous joints. Examples are joints between the plates
in the cranium (skull) and at the pelvis (hip) or sacrum.

 SLIGHTLY MOVABLE JOINT

 The bones at a slightly movable joint have a slight movement. The joints are held
together by strong cords or straps called ligaments and joined by cartilage. Cartilage
stops the bones from knocking together, and they act as shock absorbers so the bones
won’t jar when you run or jump. Examples are bones between the vertebrae and also
between the ribs and sternum (breast bone). Because of the cartilage holding the joint
together they are also called cartilaginous joints.

 SYNOVIAL/FREELY MOVABLE JOINTS

 These joints can move quite freely, and can produce a wide range of movement.
Examples are the hip, elbow and knee joints.

EXAMPLES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT

Although synovial joints differ in shape and movement range, they all have similar
characteristics.

 Ball and Socket joint

 It is the most movable joint in the body which is designed to allow a wide range of
movement.
 It is found in joints such as in the shoulder and hip joints, and it allows backward,
forward, sideways, and rotating movements.

 Hinge joint
 The range of movement is limited to one plane such as a door hinge.
 It is found in joints such as in the fingers, knees, elbows, and toes and it allows only
bending and straightening movements.

 Pivot joint
 Part of the bone fits into another ring of bone, as in case of atlas and axis, allowing
rotation of the head.
 It is found in the joints such as the neck and between elbow and ulna, and it allows
limited rotating movements.

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  Saddle joint
 This joint allows the thumb to be moved in two directions.
 It is found at the base of the thumb between the metacarpal and carpal.

 Condyloid/Ellipsoidal joint
 The movement is in two planes but not such a full range as in the ball and socket joint.
 It is found in the joints such as the wrist and ankle joints, and it allows all types of
movement except pivotal movements.

 Gliding joint/Inter-tarsal joint

 Flat bone surfaces allow side to side and backwards and forwards movements.
 It is found between carpals, tarsals, between the sternum and the clavicle (sterno-
clavicular) and the scapula and the clavicle.

ANATOMY OF THE SYNOVIAL JOINT

A typical synovial joint consist of the following:

 Joint capsule
 An outer sleeve of the joint which holds bones
together and protect the joint.

 Joint cavity
 A small gap between the bones which is filled with
synovial fluid.

 Cartilage
 A type of tissue that covers the surface of a bone at
a joint. Cartilage helps reduce the friction of
movement within a joint, and stops bones knocking
together.

 Synovial membrane
 A tissue called the synovial membrane lines the joint and seals it into a joint capsule.
The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid (a clear, sticky fluid) around the joint to
lubricate it.

 Ligaments
 Tough, elastic bands of connective tissue that surround the joint to give support and
limit the joint's movement.

 Tendons

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  Another type of tough connective tissue on each side of a joint which attach to muscles
that control movement of the joint.

 Synovial fluid
 A clear, sticky fluid secreted by the synovial membrane.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT AROUND THE JOINT

For us to perform activities in sports our body needs movement. Movement mostly takes place
around the joint. Many movements around the joint occur in antagonistic pairs (opposing
pairs). The following are movements that take place around the joint:

 Flexion
 Decreasing the angle of the joint (bend elbow)
 Extension
 Increase the angle of a joint (straighten arm)
 Hyperextension
 Overextending the joint (pull hand back toward ceiling
 Plantar flexion
 Bending foot downward (tiptoe)
 Dorsiflexion
 Bending foot upward
 Abduction
 Moving body part away from midline the body
 Adduction
 Moving body part toward midline of the body
 Rotation
 Moving a part around an axis or swiveling of the joint (head turns)
 Circumduction
 Moving a part so that is follows a circular path (move your finger in a circle)
 Supination
 Turning the hand to the palm is up (hold soup)
 Pronation
 Turning the hand to the palm is down
 Eversion
 Turning the foot so the sole faces laterally
 Inversion
 Turning the foot so the sole faces medially
 Protraction
 Moving a part forward (stick out chin)
 Retraction
 Moving a part backward (pull in chin)

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 Elevation
 Raising a part (shrug shoulders)
 Depression
 Lower a part (droop shoulders)

FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT MOVEMENT AROUND A JOINT OR RANGE OF MOTION AROUND
A JOINT

A joint's range of motion is the angle through which a joint moves to the extreme limit of the
motion in a particular direction. Having an optimal range of motion allows you to move freely
without pain or stiffness and perform activities and work without injuries.

 Body type and Body mass

 Maintaining a healthy weight is very beneficial. Extra fat or muscle mass may inhibit a
joint's normal range of motion by physically blocking its path of movement. Excess
weight increases the amount of stress placed on the joints, which can lead to impaired
mobility and flexibility over time.
 For example, a protruding abdomen can limit how high you can flex your hip and pull
your knee to your ribs.

 Injury and Disease

 Pain from an injury or disease causes the muscles in the injured site to contract
reflexively to avoid further damage, thus limiting the joint's range of motion. Such
conditions include arthritis, bursitis, bruises, dislocation and sprains. Regular range of
motion can be achieved over time with proper rehabilitation and treatments, such as
corrective exercises, massage, heat therapy and acupuncture.

 Tissue Extensibility (elasticity and flexibility)

 Tissue extensibility refers to the elasticity and flexibility of the muscles and their
surrounding connective tissues. If they are not stretched or moved regularly, they can
become stiff and lack extensibility, which affects how much you can move. In practical
application, before exercise, you should perform warm-up exercises that move your
joints in its full range of motion. For example, before you run, you can do hip swings
front to back, side to side and rotation. This exercise not only elevates your body
temperature to improve tissue extensibility, but also moves the hip joint in all planes to
motion to minimize stiffness and increase neural stimulation.

 Structure of the joint/Joint Articulation

 Joint articulation refers to how the bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles are oriented
in a joint to permit certain range of motions. Some articulations provide only one range
of motion, such as the elbow joint, where it allows only the arm to flex or extend.
Others allow a wide variety of movements, such as the ball-and-socket joint of the
shoulder, where it can flex, abduct, adduct and rotate.

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  Age
 As we age, the body is less able to renew and maintain the supportive cartilage
structures surrounding joints and bones. Old people don’t exercise much causing
connective tissues at the joint to stiffen due to lack of movement. Regular exercise and
physical activity are important for healthy joints, but too much exercise can result in
occasional stiffness and soreness in muscles and joints.

INJURIES TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

There are different causes of injury to the skeleton some of which might be due to:
 Overuse of the affected part
 Torn ligaments and tendons
 Physical impact due to collision with another player or a fall.

1. FRACTURE
 A fracture is a break or crack in a bone. Since bones contain nerves and blood vessels, a
fracture brings pain and bleeding. There are many types of fractures, but the main
categories are displaced, non-displaced, open, and closed. Displaced and non-displaced
fracture refers to the way the bone breaks. In a displaced fracture, the bone snaps into
two or more parts; if the bone is in many pieces, it is considered comminuted. In a non-
displaced fracture, the bone cracks either part or all of the way through, but does move
and maintains its proper alignment.

 A closed/simple fracture is when the bone breaks but there is no puncture or open
wound in the skin.

 An open/compound fracture is one in which the bone breaks through the skin; it may
then recede back into the wound and not be visible through the skin. This is an
important difference from a closed fracture because with an open fracture there is a risk
of a deep bone infection.

Some fracture types are:

 Greenstick fracture: an incomplete fracture in which the bone is bent. This type occurs
most often in children.
 Transverse fracture: a fracture at a right angle to the bone's axis.
 Oblique fracture: a fracture in which the break has a curved or sloped pattern.
 Comminuted fracture: a fracture in which the bone fragments into several pieces.
 An impacted fracture is one whose ends are driven into each other. This is commonly
seen in arm fractures in children and is sometimes known as a buckle fracture. Other
types of fracture are pathologic fracture, caused by a disease that weakens the bones,
and stress fracture, a hairline crack.

50
 Other types of fracture are pathologic fracture, caused by a disease that weakens the
bones, and stress fracture.

The severity of a fracture depends upon its location and the damage done to the bone and
tissue near it. Serious fractures can have dangerous complications if not treated promptly;
possible complications include damage to blood vessels or nerves and infection of the bone
(osteomyelitis) or surrounding tissue. Recuperation time varies depending on the age and
health of the patient and the type of fracture. A minor fracture in a child may heal within a
few weeks; a serious fracture in an older person may take months to heal.

 Cause of fractures
 Direct blows to the bones and awkward falls.

 Signs and symptoms

 Pain and tenderness
 Swelling and sometimes bleeding
 Bruising develop later
 Grating noise when parts of the cracked bone rub against each other.
 Inability to move the injured part.
 Protruding bone in case of an open fracture.

 Prevention
 Avoid too much contact or playing on slippery surfaces.
 Play at the right age and level.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 Use correct technique.
 Wear proper attire for the sport.

 Treatment
 Support the fractured limb above and below the fracture using towels, cushions or
folded clothing.
 If the fracture is an arm bone, a sling made of towel, bandage or T-shirt can be used for
support, but it should be done with care.
 The casualty should be kept warm and comfortable until medical help arrives.

2. DISLOCATION
 This is where the bone is pulled out of its normal position at a joint.

 Cause
 Violent twisting at the joint. It usually happens at the shoulder, elbow, finger, thumb
and ankle joints.

 Signs and Symptoms

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 Severe pain at the joint.
 Joint appears deformed and there is difficulty in moving it.
 Swelling and bruising appear later.

 Prevention
 Know the rules of your sport and abide by them.
 When playing sports, it is important to use all equipment in the manner of which it was
intended.
 Avoid slippery and uneven surfaces.
 Do proper warm up and stretching before the activity.

 Treatment
 Treat as in a fracture.
 Keep the casualty warm and comfortable until medical help arrives.

3. SPRAIN
 A sprain is a stretched or torn ligament.
 Cause
 This injury is usually caused by a sudden overstretching where your ligaments are
generally only stretched out.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain and tenderness around the joint.
 Swelling around the joint.
 Bruising follows the swelling.
 Difficulty in moving the affected limb.

 Prevention
 You can prevent a sprain injury by using proper safety equipment for your wrist, ankle
and knee.
 Other prevention methods are warming up properly and perform regular stretching
before and after your soccer games.
 Avoid overuse of the joints.
 Treatment
 Apply the RICE treatment.
 If in doubt follow treatment for fracture.

4. TORN KNEE CARTILAGE

 This is a tear of the cartilage.

 Cause
 Violent twist of the knee, a fall or overuse of the knee.

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  Signs and Symptoms
 Pain on the side of the knee joint.
 The joint may ‘lock’ and not straighten fully for a time.
 Swelling.

 Prevention
 Warm up and stretch properly before physical activities.
 Avoid overuse of the joint.
 Don’t play on slippery surfaces.

 Treatment
 Immobilize the injured part and apply the RICE treatment.
 Get medical attention.

OTHER CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT THE BODY DURING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND SKIN
INFECTIONS

In sports, certain conditions can occur, which are not classified as injuries but still need to be
attended to:
1. SHOCK
 Shock is a state in which a suddenly weakened heart isn't able to pump enough blood to
meet the body's needs. The condition is a medical emergency and is fatal if not treated
right away.

 Cause
 A lack of oxygen-rich blood reaching the brain, kidneys, skin, and other parts of the body
causes shock.

 Signs and Symptoms

Some of the typical signs and symptoms of shock usually include at least two or more of the
following:
 Confusion or lack of alertness
 Loss of consciousness
 A sudden and sustained rapid heartbeat
 Sweating
 Pale skin
 A weak pulse
 Rapid breathing
 Decreased or no urine output
 Cool hands and feet
Any of these alone is unlikely to be a sign or symptom of shock.

 Prevention and Treatment

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 Since shock occurs after injury when blood is diverted to the injured part, the most
helpful thing you can do for an injured person is to begin treatment for shock. When
shock has not yet developed, the treatment may actually prevent its occurrence; if it has
developed, you may be able to keep it from reaching a critical point. As we have seen,
shock creates a vicious cycle; that is, the worse it is, the worse it becomes. It is
extremely important that you begin treatment at the earliest opportunity.
 It is important to keep the victim as calm as possible because excitement and fright
affects his condition and may even bring on shock.
 Try to prevent the victim from seeing his injuries, and reassure him that he will receive
proper care. Keep unnecessary persons away, as their conversation regarding the
victim's injuries may increase his agitation.
 The best position to use for the prevention or treatment of shock is one that encourages
the flow of blood to the brain. When it is possible to place the injured person on his
back on a bed, cot, or stretcher, you should raise the lower end of the support about 12
inches so his feet are higher than his head.
 Heat is important in the treatment of shock to the extent that the injured person's body
heat must be conserved. Exposure to cold, with resulting loss of body heat, can cause
shock to develop or to become worse.
 A person in shock is often thirsty. No particular harm will be done if you allow the victim
to moisten his mouth and lips with cool water. But, in general, there is no need to give
him anything to drink unless you are in a position whereby medical assistance will not
be available for along period of time.

2. CONCUSSION
 A concussion is a brain injury that is caused by a sudden blow to the head or to the
body. The blow shakes the brain inside the skull, which temporarily prevents the brain
from working normally. With concussion, function may be interrupted but there is no
structural damage to the brain. Concussion can happen in football when players collide
trying to head the ball, or due to impact when hit by a ball in softball.

 Cause
 It is caused by direct blow to the head that causes the head to shake. There are many
ways to get a concussion. Some common ways include fights, falls, playground injuries,
car crashes, and bike accidents. Concussions can also happen while participating in
rough or high-speed sports such as football, boxing, hockey, soccer, skiing, or
snowboarding.

 Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms tend not to be objective and may be hard to describe. As well, they may be
delayed for many hours after injury, and sometimes the initial injury may have been
forgotten or discounted. More common are mild confusion and disorientation. Typical
symptoms of concussion include:
 Headache

54
 Dizziness
 Nausea
 Dazed feeling
 Visual symptoms
 Irritability
 Passing out.
 Not being able to stand or walk; or having coordination and balance problems.
 Not being able to remember what happened after the injury.
 Feeling lightheaded, seeing "stars," having blurry vision, or experiencing ringing in the
ears.

Physical Signs
Since, by definition, concussion does not damage the structure of the brain, the physical
examination should be normal. More subtle findings may include:
 Slow to answer questions or follow directions
 Poor concentration
 Emotional liability (emotional changes or instability)
 Slurred speech
 Personality changes

 Prevention
As with most accidents, injury prevention is the first consideration. The following are all
important steps to prevent concussion and severe head injuries:
 Wear protective clothing where necessary. For example wearing helmets while bicycling
and motorcycle riding, or in softball.
 Recreational athletes should use head protection appropriate for their sport.

 Treatment
 Rest and continued observation alone.
 Discontinue sports activity for the day. Time is the ally in concussion treatment since
most symptoms resolve within a week to 10 days.
 Treatment is directed at symptom control for headaches, nausea, dizziness, and
insomnia. Discussion with employers may be needed to alert them to issues of poor
work performance due to difficulty with concentration and comprehension.

3. ATHLETE’S FOOT
 Athlete's foot (also known as ringworm of the foot) is a fungal infection of the skin that
causes scaling, flaking, and itch of affected areas.

 Cause
 It is caused by fungi and is typically transmitted in moist areas where people walk
barefoot, such as showers or bathhouses. Although the condition typically affects the
feet, it can spread to other areas of the body, including the groin.

55
  Signs and Symptoms
 Athlete's foot causes scaling, flaking, and itching of the affected skin.
 Blisters and cracked skin may also occur, leading to exposed raw tissue, pain, swelling,
and inflammation.
 Secondary bacterial infection can accompany the fungal infection, sometimes requiring
a course of oral antibiotics.

 Prevention
 Good hygiene, therefore, plays an important role in managing an athlete's foot
infection.
 Since fungi thrive in moist environments, keeping feet and footwear as dry as possible,
and avoiding sharing towels, etc., aids prevention of primary infection.

 Treatment
 There are many conventional medications (over-the-counter and prescription) as well as
alternative treatments for fungal skin infections, including athlete's foot. Important with
any treatment plan is the practice of good hygiene.

TOPIC 2: DIET AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter learners should be able to:

 Differentiate between health and fitness.
 Describe components of health related fitness.
 Describe components of skill related fitness.
 Explain the importance of maintenance of good health.
 Describe conditions and diseases associated with poor nutrition, alcohol, drug abuse
(substance abuse) and sedentary living.
 Explain the effects of nutrition, alcohol, drugs (including tobacco), HIV/AIDS and the

56
 level of physical activity on long term good health.
 Discuss factors affecting fitness.
 Discuss the long term effects of a physically active lifestyle on the body systems and
therefore on good general health.
 Define physical exercise.
 Discuss principles of training.
 Demonstrate safety precautions in any physical activity.
 Design a health related fitness programme.
 Explain physical fitness components relevant to performance.
 Describe components of training for specific games, track and field events.
 Plan programmes that could be utilized for fitness training in a specific sport or track
and field event.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEALTH AND FITNESS

Health is a complete state of physical, mental and social wellbeing.

Fitness is the ability of an individual to cope with the demands of everyday life. It is also deals
with the body’s ability to complete activities necessary for everyday life effectively and
efficiently. Fitness for sport, however, is often more specific and at a higher level. You can be
healthy without being fit but it is not possible to be fit without being healthy. Fitness has two
main components; that is health related fitness and skill related fitness.

HEALTH RELATED FITNESS COMPONENTS

Health related fitness or General fitness concerns day to day working of the body. Health
related fitness deals with those components of fitness that are directed towards prevention
of diseases, as well as the development of functional capacity. It has several components:
 Cardiovascular endurance – is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels to sustain
prolonged activities such as running, swimming or rowing. It can also be referred to as
the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels to deliver oxygen to working muscles
and tissues, as well as the ability of those muscles and tissues to utilize that oxygen.

Cardiovascular endurance is also frequently called cardio-respiratory endurance,

cardiovascular fitness, aerobic capacity, aerobic fitness, or is sometimes more
broadly termed “endurance” — although endurance may also refer to the ability of the
muscle to do repeated work without fatigue.

 Muscular endurance – is the ability of the muscles to contract over relatively long
periods of time, or it is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated
contractions against a resistance for an extended period of time. Muscular endurance
and cardiovascular endurance are inter-related as the muscles need oxygen to do work,

57
 which is supplied by the cardiovascular system. Muscular endurance is important for
ordinary activities such as walking to work, repetitive manual tasks in industry, etc.

 Flexibility – is the range of movement at the joint. It is also called mobility or suppleness
of a person. Flexibility is an important part of fitness as it reduces the chances of muscle
pull and allows a full range of movement. Most sport requires a high degree of
flexibility. To perform in gymnastics, flexibility at most joints is essential, but there are
other sports where flexibility is very important. For example at the hips in hurdling, at
the shoulder joint in javelin, swimming butterfly stroke and in throwing events.

 Muscular strength – is the ability of the muscles to exert force as they contract.
Strength is needed in everyday life in many ways. Without good strength, sports such as
weight lifting will be impossible. There are three different types of strength; that is
dynamic strength, explosive strength and static strength.

Dynamic strength is the type of strength required to start and maintain the movement
of the body. It is related to muscular endurance but effort is required in earlier parts of
the activity, e. g. starting in a cycle or rowing race where considerable effort is required
initially and needs to be maintained when full speed is reached. In rowing, this effort
must be continued because the boat will slow down quickly force being applied.

Explosive strength is necessary in many sports. To move the body quickly with force in
gymnastics, or to apply force to an object such as javelin, requires a special kind of
strength. It is sometimes called power, and it is a combination of speed and muscular
strength.

Static strength is a force applied by muscles to a fixed object. Muscle size is important –
the larger the size the more static strength. Activities such as tug-of-war or pushing in a
rugby scrum require high static strength. There is very little movement of the limbs but
considerable internal forces are being applied against relatively immobile objects.

 Body composition – is the amount of fat mass compared to lean muscle mass, bone and
other body organs. It can also be termed as the component parts of the body in terms of
the relative amounts of body fat compared to lean body mass. This can be measured
using underwater weighing, Skin-fold readings, and bioelectrical impedance.
Underwater weighing is considered the “gold standard” for body fat measurement,
however because of the size and expense of the equipment needed very few places are
set up to do this kind of measurement. Body composition is very important in most
sports for optimum performance.

SKILL RELATED FITNESS COMPONETS (ALSO REFERRED TO AS SPORT RELATED FITNESS

COMPONENTS OR SPECIFIC FITNESS COMPONENTS)

58
Since health related fitness will help you play sport better you also need specific fitness to be
really good at it. Skill related fitness has a more narrow focus as compared to health related
fitness. It is that portion of physical fitness directed towards optimizing athletic performance;
or can be said to be specific for sport performance.

 Speed – is the ability to move the body or parts of the body quickly. For example,
sprinting in a 100 metre run. It is an important part in most sports.

 Agility – is the ability to change the position and direction of the entire body in space
quickly and accurately. For example, to dodge a tackle in rugby, or to change direction
to reach a ball in tennis. Agility is dependent on strength, speed and balance. In most
sports it is an advantage to be agile.

 Balance – is the ability to hold posture without wobbling or falling over when moving or
stationary. For example, standing on one leg, hand stand in gymnastics, or skating in ice
skating.

 Coordination – is the ability to move body parts smoothly and accurately in response to
what your senses tell you. For example, returning a serve in tennis, or juggling a ball in
football.

 Reaction time/Speed of reaction – is the amount of time that one takes to respond to a
stimulus; or how fast one reacts to a stimulus. For example; how long it takes to start
running in response to the starting pistol in sprints. Fast reactions are a big advantage in
most sports.

 Power – is the ability of the body to exert more force within the shortest possible time;
or it is the ability to do work per unit time. Power is mostly needed in activities that
require bursts of energy or explosive strength like sprinting, boxing, rugby, jumps and
throws in athletics, etc.

 Timing – is the ability act at the right moment. For example, you need to judge the best
time to tackle your opponent on the football field or return a hard shot in tennis.

TESTS USED TO MEASURE DIFFERENT FITNESS COMPONENTS

(i) Speed; is the ability to move the body and limbs quickly.

 The 30-50 metre dash run

Equipment
 A 30-50 metre distance marked out on a level non-slippery surface
 A stop watch

59
 Procedure
 Stand, using a standing start, behind the line.
 At ‘Go’, sprint as fast as you can from there to the finish line.
 Your partner will record your speed in seconds, from the moment you cross the line.
 The time taken to do this short sprint determines your speed.

(ii) Cardiovascular endurance; is the ability of the heart to supply oxygen to the
muscles for the body to work for long periods without getting tired.
Cardiovascular endurance can be measured using a variety of tests.

 The Cooper 12-minute run test

Equipment
 A measured running track, in the gym or outside
 A stop-watch and whistle

Procedure
 Jog on the spot to warm up.
 When the whistle goes, start running round the track as fast as you can. Your laps
will be counted.
 The whistle will go again when 12 minutes are up. Stop running. The further you ran
in the time, the fitter you are.
 The table below illustrates ratings for Cooper 12-minute run test

Age Sex Excellent Good Fair Poor

13-14 yrs Male 2,700 2,400 2,200 2,100
female 2,000 1,900 1,600 1,500
15-16 yrs Male 2,800 2,500 2,300 2,200
Female 2,100 1,900 1,700 1,500
17-18 yrs Male 3,000 2,700 2,500 2,300
female 2,300 2,100 1,800 1,500

 Harvard step test

Equipment
 A stepping bench or box (around 50 cm high)
 A stop watch

Procedure

60
 Take resting pulse rate twice and record the lowest.
 Step up and down on the bench/box for 5 minutes at a rate of 30 steps per minute.

 After 5 minutes, the person sits down and the pulse is taken at six, seven and eight
minutes. Write down the pulse rate at each interval.
 Calculations are then made using the following formula to determine your level of
cardiovascular fitness.

Time of exercise = 5 minutes = 300 seconds

Total number of pulse counts = (P1 + P2 + P3) X 2

Time of exercise in seconds x 100

Score = Total pulse counts x 2

The table below illustrates ratings for Harvard step test

High Above Average Below Low

average average
male 15/16 yrs above 90 90-80 79-65 64-55 below 55
female 15/16 above 86 86-76 75-61 60-50 below 50
yrs

(iii) Strength – This is the force muscles exert when they contract

 The grip strength test – this tests strength in the hand muscles.

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Equipment
 A hand-grip dynamometer

Procedure
 Squeeze on the dynamometer as hard as you can with your preferred hand, for at least
two seconds.
 Do three times and record the highest reading of the three.

 The sit-up test – this tests the strength and endurance of the abdominal muscles.
 Lie on the floor with your hands touching your head above the ears, knees bent at 90
degrees, and feet flat on the floor.
 Get your partner to hold your feet down.

 Raise your trunk until your elbows are past your knees. Then lower yourself to the floor
again. This is one sit-up.
 Do as many as you can in 30 seconds. Your partner keeps check of time. Record your
result.

(iv) Flexibility – This is the range of movement at a joint.

 The sit-and-reach test – tests flexibility

at the hip joints.

Equipment

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  A gymnastics bench
 A metre ruler
 Sellotape

Procedure
 Warm up first with stretching exercises
 Turn a bench on its side. Sellotape the ruler on top so that it extends 15 cm over the
edge, with the zero nearest you.
 Get a partner to hold the bench steady
 Sit with your feet flat against the bench, legs straight
 Slowly reach forward as far as you can and hold
 Your partner notes where your fingertips reach on the ruler
 Subtract 15 to find how far the fingertips stretched beyond your heels. The best of three
scores is taken.
 The table below illustrates ratings for sit-and-reach test

Age 15/16 High score Above Average Below Low score

yrs average average
Male above 28 cm 28-24 cm 23-20 cm 19-17 cm less than 17 cm
female above 35 cm 35-32 cm 31-30 cm 29-25 cm less than 25 cm

(v) Agility – This is the ability to change the body’s position and direction quickly.

 The Illinois Agility Run

Equipment
 A firm, non-slippery surface, six cones.
 A stop watch

Procedure
 After a suitable warm-up, using the course for familiarity, the subject lies face down in
the direction of travel.

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  After the starting signal, the subject then runs the exact route as fast as possible.
 Subjects should have at least two runs, and the best time is recorded.
 The table below illustrates ratings for Illinois agility run test.

Age 15/16 yrs High score Above Average Below Low score
average average
male Faster 15.9 15.9-16.7 16.8-18.6 18.7-18.8 Slower 18.8
secs secs secs secs secs
female Faster 17.5 17.5-18.6 18.7-22.4 22.3-23.4 Slower 23.4
secs secs secs secs secs

(vi) Balance – This is the ability to hold a posture without wobbling or falling over.

 Balance test – this is a test of your balance when standing on one leg.

Equipment
 A gymnastics bench
 A stop watch

Procedure
 Stand on one foot on the bar – whichever foot you prefer.
 Hold the other foot high behind your back, using the nearest hand.
 Stand for as long as you can. The attempt ends when you touch floor or let go the foot
you are holding.
 Keep trying until one minute is up. Record how many attempts you made.
(vii) Coordination – This is the ability to move your body parts smoothly and
accurately in response to what your senses tell you.

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 Alternate hand-wall-throw – this tests your hand-eye coordination.

Equipment
 A tennis ball

Procedure
 The subject stands two metres away from the wall.
 The ball is thrown with one hand and caught with the other
 The test lasts 30 seconds and the number of successful catches is recorded.

(viii) Reaction time – This is the time it takes to respond to the stimulus.

 Ruler-drop test – simple reactions can be tested with this.

Equipment
 A metre ruler

Procedure
 The subject rests a hand on a table with finger and thumb extended over the edge.

 A metre ruler is placed between the thumb and forefinger at a marked height.
 Without warning the partner drops the ruler, which must be grasped between the
thumb and finger.
 The height dropped is recorded; the greater the distance, the slower the reaction.

(ix) Body Composition – This is the component parts of the body in terms of the
relative amounts of body fat compared to lean body mass.

 Skin Fold Measures using calipers: by far the simplest measure. On the left side
of the body, take measures at the following sites:
 biceps
 triceps
 subscapullar
 supra iliac

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 Equipment
 Skin Fold Callipers

Procedure
 Add the totals of the measured sites together in millimeters and
record your
results.

Advantages
 a simple test that is widely used
 scores can be used to identify changes in body fat over time.

Disadvantages
 the testing procedure can vary between tester. For example was the
measurement taken in exactly the correct place.

Skin Fold Test Sites

 Body Mass Index (BMI) – The most common and simplest measure of body fat is made

66
 through the Body Mass Index. Through calculation of an individual’s BMI, body fat can
be predicted. The body mass index is calculated by measuring the body mass of the
subject (weight in kg) divided by the height (in metres) of the individual squared. That is:

weight in kg___________
BMI = height in metres squared

The higher the score, the greater the levels of body fat:

Healthy 20-25
Overweight 25-30
Obese >30

Although this test is very quick and a prediction can be made instantaneously, it can obviously
be inaccurate since it does not make a difference between fat mass and muscle mass. In this
case large, lean and muscular athletes may fall into the wrong category.

THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE OF GOOD HEALTH

Probably the most important thing in life is good health. Without good health we may
experience debilitating diseases and an unnecessarily short life span. It's fairly easy to achieve
good health, but it involves certain changes in your life style that are sometimes difficult to do
at first. The most important to remember is to begin slowly and try to make small changes at
first. So maintaining good health:
 Reduces the chances of getting sick
 Increases one’s lifespan
 Helps one cope with the demands of everyday life
 To feel good and look good

In order to keep healthy we have to look after our bodies and minds. Feeling good and looking
good will make our lives more enjoyable. There are four main factors that make up a healthy
lifestyle; which are exercise, diet, hygiene and rest.

(a) Exercise
Exercise keeps our body in good physical and mental condition. The heart actually works
better if the body is exercised regularly. The minimum amount of exercise
recommended is three times a week for approximately 20 minutes. The intensity of the
exercise needs to be enough to make you breathless.

(b) Diet
The key is maintaining a balance or having a balanced diet. A balanced diet is a meal
containing all the nutritional or dietary elements in their right proportion. There are
seven nutritional elements that make up a balanced diet; which are carbohydrates, fats,

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 proteins, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre. And in order to stay healthy our
bodies need these nutritional elements:

(c) Hygiene
Hygiene involves keeping yourself clean. Personal hygiene has an important effect on
how your body functions and how you perform in sporting activities.

When we exercise or exert ourselves, our bodies sweat. After playing sport it is
important to wash away this sweat, and also the grime and dirt we pick up when we fall.
Sweat can create body odour, which can be unpleasant for our friends and family. A
dirty body or clothes, or an unhygienic environment in general can cause diseases.

(d) Rest
Lack of sleep or feeling tired is another factor that can affect our health, and
performance. On average most people require at least eight hours sleep to function
properly. Sports performers may need more than this. Insufficient sleep can reduce
sports performance.

HYPOKINETIC DISEASES

Today the leading causes of death are HYPOKINETIC diseases (HYPO meaning low and KINETIC
meaning movement). Hypokinetic diseases are conditions that occur from a sedentary lifestyle.
Examples could include obesity, high blood pressure, heart disease, strokes, diabetes,
osteoporosis, cancer, anxiety, depression, arthritis, and low back pain and complications arising
from sedentary behaviour.

Sedentary lifestyle is a medical term used to denote a type of lifestyle with no or irregular
physical activity. A person who lives a sedentary lifestyle is known as a couch potato in pop
culture. It is commonly found in both the developed and developing world and characterized by
sitting, reading, watching television and computer use for much of the day with little or no
vigorous physical exercise. A sedentary lifestyle can contribute to many preventable causes of
death. Hypokinetic diseases spread when we believe myths like “old people can not exercise,”
“exercising is dangerous,” or “I don’t have time to exercise.”

CONDITIONS AND DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH POOR NUTRITION, ALCOHOL, DRUG ABUSE
(SUBSTANCE ABUSE) AND SEDENTARY LIVING

(a) Obesity and Overweight

Overweight is when you have extra body weight that may come from muscle, bone, fat
and/or body water. Obesity is when you have a high amount of extra body fat. You can
be overweight without being obese. For example, a body builder or other athlete who
has a lot of muscle. Being overweight or obese puts you at risk for many diseases and
conditions. The more body fat that you carry around and the more you weigh, the more

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 likely you will develop heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallstones,
breathing problems, and certain cancers.

Causes of overweight and obesity

 Eating too much food, which contain more calories than one uses, and lack of exercise.
 Oversized food portions.
 Lack of access to healthy foods

Signs and Symptoms of Overweight and Obesity

Most people know when they’ve gained weight. Signs and symptoms of obesity may
include:
 Clothes feeling tighter and need for a larger size
 The scale showing you have gained weight
 Have extra fat around the waist, or high fat ratio.
 A higher than normal body mass index and waist circumference. Body mass index is a
measure of an adult’s weight in relation to his or her height.
 Thickness around the midsection
 Obvious areas of fat deposits
 Large body frame or excessively huge bodies.
 Difficulty in doing daily activities.
 Lethargy.
 Breathlessness.

(b) Malnutrition
Malnutrition is the condition that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which
certain nutrients are lacking, in excess (too high an intake), or in the wrong proportions.
A number of different nutrition disorders may arise, depending on which nutrients are
under or overabundant in the diet.

Causes of Malnutrition
 inadequate diet
 unbalanced diet
 weight loss diets
 anorexia/bulimia
 lactose intolerance

Signs and Symptoms of Malnutrition

 Irritability
Bad moods can happen to everyone, but if you are in a bad mood constantly, this may
be a sign you are not getting enough nutrients to keep your energy sustained and your
spirits high.

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 Exhaustion
Eating regularly helps keep your metabolism active by burning the energy provided by
nutrients in the food you eat to keep you moving along throughout the day. Denying
yourself certain nutrients or any nutrients will cause you to feel tired and worn out
before the day has even started.

 Weight Loss
Losing weight is likely the goal of your diet, but excessive weight loss and loss of
appetite are major signs that you are malnourished. Consulting with a nutritionist, and
following a set diet plan, will help you lose weight the right way while maintaining your
appetite.

 Weak Muscles
Your body requires enough protein to repair wounds and grow muscle. Protein nutrients
are essential to keeping you healthy and preventing you from feeling weak.

 Skin Changes
A good sign of malnutrition is how your skin changes. Skin is a vital, and sometimes
forgotten, organ of your body and requires water and nutrients from the food you eat to
keep you safe from viruses and bacterial infestations.

 Hair Changes or Loss

Putting your body in a state of malnutrition will cause your hair to fall out or become
dry, brittle and dull.

(c) Anorexia Nervosa

A psycho-physiological disorder usually occurring in young single women, characterized
by an abnormal fear of becoming obese, a distorted self-image, a persistent
unwillingness to eat, and severe weight loss. It is often accompanied by self-induced
vomiting, excessive exercise, malnutrition, amenorrhea, and other physiological
changes. Anorexia is a kind of self-imposed starvation, and it may also be inherited.

Causes of Anorexia
 Eating insufficient amounts of food.

Signs and Symptoms of Anorexia

There are many symptoms for anorexia, but some individuals may not experience all of
the symptoms. The symptoms include:
 Excessive weight loss – body weight that is inconsistent with age, build and height
(usually 15% below normal weight). Victims may become emaciated, and may ultimately
die of starvation or one of its complications.
 Osteoporosis.
 Abnormal patterns of menstruation.

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 Amenorrhea (absence of menstruation)
 Not wanting or refusing to eat in public.
 Anxiety.
 Weakness.
 Brittle skin.
 Shortness of breath.
 Obsession about calorie intake.
 Brain abnormalities.
 Depression.

(d) Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia Nervosa is an eating disorder marked by out of control eating followed by some
form of purging. This disorder typically affects single, middle-class, young, white females
and is also known as binge-purge syndrome. It is characterized by overeating at least
twice a week followed by purging by self-induced vomiting, strict dieting and fasting,
vigorous exercise or use of laxatives or diuretics.

Causes of Bulimia
 Abnormal eating habits followed by binge-purge episodes.

Signs and Symptoms of Bulimia

 Compulsive and excessive exercising
 Flu
 Dry skin
 Acne
 Loss of hair

(e) Stroke/Cerebro-vascular Accident

The most common brain disorder is Cerebro-vascular Accident (C. V. A.) also called
stroke. CVAs are classified into two principal types; that is ischemic stroke (the most
common type, which is due to decreased blood flow in the artery), and hemorrhagic
stroke (due to a rupture of a blood vessel in the brain).

Causes of Stroke
Common causes of CVAs are:
 Intra-cerebral hemorrhage – from the blood vessel in the pia mater or brain.
 Emboli – blood clots in the blood vessel.
 Atherosclerosis (formation of cholesterol combining plagues that block blood flow) of
the arteries.
 A CVA is characterized by abrupt onset of persisting neurological deficits. Stroke can also
be caused by high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, heart disease, narrowed
carotid arteries, transient ischemic attacks, diabetes, smoking, obesity, and excessive
alcohol.

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Signs and Symptoms of Stroke
 Trouble with walking. You may stumble or experience sudden dizziness, loss of balance
or loss of coordination.

 Trouble with speaking and understanding. You may experience confusion. You may slur
your words or be unable to find the right words to explain what is happening to you
(aphasia). Try to repeat a simple sentence. If you can't, you may be having a stroke.

 Paralysis or numbness on one side of your body or face. You may develop sudden
numbness, weakness or paralysis on one side of your body. Try to raise both your arms
over your head at the same time. If one arm begins to fall, you may be having a stroke.
Similarly, one side of your mouth may droop when you try to smile.

 Trouble with seeing in one or both eyes. You may suddenly have blurred or blackened
vision, or you may see double.

 Headache. A sudden, severe "bolt out of the blue" headache, which may be
accompanied by vomiting, dizziness or altered consciousness, may indicate you're
having a stroke.

(f) High blood pressure/Hypertension

Hypertension is a medical condition in which one's blood pressure is abnormally high; or
systolic blood pressure is 140 mmHg or greater and diastolic blood pressure is 90 mmHg
or greater. Blood pressure of 120/80 mmHg is normal and desirable in a healthy adult.
Diastolic is relaxation of the heart muscle whereas systolic is contraction of the heart
muscle.

Hypertension is the most common disorder affecting the heart and blood vessels; it is
major cause of heart failure, kidney disease and stroke.

Causes of Hypertension
 Hypertension can be caused by many factors, but the most common known causes
include genetic pre-disposition, metabolic defects, stress, heredity, diet (especially high
sodium diet) and lack of exercise.

Signs and Symptoms of Hypertension

 Hypertension is often referred to as "the silent killer" because a person may not
experience any discernible symptoms. In many cases, the person experiences these
symptoms, but attributes them to other causes. These are some of the most common
symptoms of high blood pressure: A headache here and there is no cause for alarm, but
if it persists or occurs frequently, you may want to consider seeing a doctor. Frequent
nosebleeds for no apparent reason may be indicative of elevated blood pressure. Seeing
double or having blurred vision may be signs of hypertension. Dizziness is often

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 experienced by people with hypertension. Dizziness can also be an indication of low
blood pressure. Either way, persistent dizziness should be reported to your physician.

(g) Other conditions and diseases associated with poor nutrition, alcohol, drug abuse
(substance abuse) and sedentary living are:
 Diabetes mellitus
 General weakness
 Brain damage
 Dehydration
 Addiction
 Low back pain
 Colon cancer

THE EFFECTS OF NUTRITION, ALCOHOL, DRUGS (INCLUDING TOBACCO), HIV AND AIDS AND
THE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON LONG TERM GOOD HEALTH

NUTRITION
Some foods are good for us whist others are not. A balanced, healthy diet is one that provides
us with the nutrients we need, in correct proportion, and does not lead to ill health – often
simply because we eat too much of a particular food group, such as sugars or fats. A balanced
diet has seven essential components: carbohydrates, fats, protein, vitamins, minerals, water
and dietary fibre.

 Carbohydrate – is vital to the athlete since it is the primary energy fuel (particularly
during high intensity exercise), it is essential for the nervous system to function properly
and also determines fat metabolism in the body. Intake of carbohydrate should
comprise approximately 65% of the athlete’s diet. Carbohydrate comes in various forms,
including: simple sugars (glucose, fructose) and complex starches (rice, pasta, potatoes).

Carbohydrate is stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen, but the amount that can be
stored here is limited and therefore regular re-fuelling is needed. Even though
carbohydrate is also available in the blood as glucose, it is rarely used for muscle
contraction. It is more widely used to supply the brain and energy requirements of the
nervous system. Excellent sources of carbohydrate include cereals, fruit and vegetables
and confectionery.

 Fat – is also a major source of energy in the body, particularly during low intensity
exercise such as endurance activities. Up to 70% of our energy is derived from fat during
our resting state. Fat exists in the body as: triglycerides (the stored form of fat), or fatty
acids (the usable form of fat for energy production).

Muscles use a mixture of fat and glycogen. The mixture depends on how intense the
exercise is, how long it lasts and how fit you are. When oxygen is available to the muscle

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 cell, fatty acids constitute the favoured fuel for energy production, as the body tries to
spare the limited stores of glycogen for higher intensity bouts of exercise and this can
delay the effects of fatigue. This is known as glycogen sparing. Through training, the
body adapts by increasing its ability to use fat as a fuel. The body, however, cannot use
fat as its sole fuel source, due to its low solubility in the blood. This means that
transportation of fat to the muscle cell is slow and so energy production in the muscle is
usually fuelled by a combination of glycogen and fat. Eating fat alone does not improve
the muscle’s ability to use it as a fuel source. The problems associated with excessive fat
consumption are well documented. Fat is found in butter, margarine, sunflower oil and
cooking oils.

It is recommended therefore that the athlete should keep the consumption of fatty
foods low (at a maximum of 30% of total calories consumed) which will ensure adequate
energy stores, good health and a greater proportion of calorie intake to be supplied by
carbohydrate.

 Proteins – are chemical compounds composed of chains of amino acids. Their functions
are to: help in tissue growth and repair (including muscle tissue); provide enzymes,
hormones and haemoglobin; build cells (including blood cells), and can provide energy
when glycogen and fat stores are low. Proteins are found in meat, liver, chicken, eggs,
fish, beans, lentils and nuts.

 Vitamins – are chemical compounds required only in small amounts by the body.
Vitamins occur in two main groups; which are fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and
K) and water soluble vitamins (vitamins B and C). Vitamins perform the following
functions. They: help aid growth, increase resistance to infection, regulate some body
functions, and help energy production and the metabolism of certain foods. Generally
the body can gain the required amounts of vitamins through a well-balanced diet.
Vitamins are largely found in fresh fruit and vegetables and wholegrain cereals. Even
though some vitamins, like vitamin A and D, can be stored in the liver others like vitamin
C cannot be stored. If you eat more of it than you need, the extra is excreted. That
means you must eat it regularly.

Vitamin A is needed to see in dim light and for healthy skin. It is found in liver, fish,
vegetables, eggs, milk. It deficiency leads to night blindness and flaking skin.

Vitamin C is needed for healthy skin and gums and to help wounds heal. It is found in
oranges and other citrus fruits and vegetables.

Vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium for strong bones and teeth. It is made by skin in
sunshine. Its deficiency leads to rickets.

 Minerals – are nutrients that are also required in relatively small amounts by the body,

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 but are vital for tissue functioning. Minerals are just as important as vitamins. Many of
the minerals are dissolved by the body as ions and are called electrolytes. These have
the important function of maintaining the permeability of the cell, and also aid the
transmission of nerve impulses and enable effective muscle contraction. Many minerals
may be lost through sweating during exercise. These must be replaced quickly and there
is now a vast array of fluid replacement products on the market designed for just that
purpose.

Calcium is needed for strong bones and teeth and for muscle contractions. Without
calcium, you would have no bones, teeth or muscle contractions. Calcium is found in
cheese, dried fish, sardine, green vegetables. Deficiency leads to fragile bones.

Iron is needed for haemoglobin, which helps transport oxygen, in red blood cells. It is
found in liver, beans, lentils, green vegetables; and it is also added to bread. Iron
deficiency leads to anaemia.

Iodine is used in hormone formation. Iodine deficiency leads to a swollen thyroid gland
(goitre).

Sodium regulates body fluids. Sodium deficiency can lead to condition known as
hyponatremia.

 Water – is a nutrient whose importance is sometimes neglected. Water does not give
energy, but around half the body weight is water. Up to a third of water in the body is
contained in the blood plasma. (Plasma carries oxygen via the red blood cells to the
working muscles, transports nutrients such as glucose and fatty acids, transports
hormones vital to metabolism and removes waste products such as carbon dioxide and
lactic acid). Water has many functions, some of which are to: provide a catalyst for
chemical reactions in the body, carry nutrients to and removes waste products from the
body cells, and help control body temperature.

Water loss through sweating is accelerated during prolonged exercise and in hot
conditions, and it is essential that this fluid is replaced in order to maintain a good state
of hydration. Dehydration of as little as 2% of body weight will have a detrimental effect
on performance. Even small losses of water can impair performance and adversely
affect work capacity in a number of ways. These include: reducing the efficiency of the
circulatory functioning largely by a drop in blood pressure, which reduces blood flow to
the active muscles; inhibiting the thermoregulatory centre which can lead to problems
such as heat stroke; and the loss of electrolytes such as sodium, chloride and calcium.

 Dietary fibre or fibre – should be an essential part of every athlete’s diet. Fibre is found
(as cellulose) in all plant cells and is part of a plant that cannot be entirely digested.
Functions of fibre are that it: absorbs poisonous waste from digested food; causes a bulk

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 in the intestine, absorbing many times its weight in water and helping the whole
digestion and excretion process (this prevents constipation and bowel cancer); and
makes you feel full so you eat less. It is found in fruit and vegetables.

If the balance of nutrients is not right, there may be serious consequences for health. Serious
under-eating may lead to a condition known as anorexia, causing a severe loss of weight and ill
health. Alternatively, eating too much of all or some of the dietary elements, and lack of
exercise, may cause people to be overweight for their height and weight. The extreme form of
this condition is obesity.

What you eat before, during and after exercise will have a direct effect on how you perform,
either in training or in competition. Some athletes seek to manipulate dietary intake before
competition in order to optimise performance. One method of doing this is by carbohydrate
loading or super-compensation, also known as glycogen loading or carbo-loading. This process
involves depleting the glycogen levels seven days prior to the event by doing endurance-based
training, and then starving the body of carbohydrate over the following three days by omitting
such foods from the diet. For the remaining days leading up to competition the athlete will
consume high carbohydrate meals to boost muscle glycogen stores up to twice that normally
stored. This method of manipulation is widely practised in endurance events and maximises
energy production via the aerobic pathway.

ALCOHOL
All alcoholic drinks contain a chemical called ethanol. It is what makes people drunk. Alcohol
does not do much harm in small quantities but larger quantities are dangerous. Drinking alcohol
is a socially accepted activity. Alcohol is associated with the relaxing social side of sport and in
moderation it’s an enjoyable aspect of most people’s lives.

Dangers or effects
 Alcohol affects coordination, judgment, balance, speech and hearing.
 It can make people aggressive.
 It causes the blood vessels of the skin to dilate, so body heat is rapidly lost. This can be
fatal in cold weather.
 It lowers the level of glycogen in the muscles. This means they can’t work so long or so
hard.
 Athletes who drink too much lose their drive to train and compete.
 Long term alcohol abuse leads to kidney and liver damage.
 Alcohol is a diuretic drug, which means that it increases the loss of fluid through
urination. Since water is so essential in performance, this is obviously something
performers wish to avoid.
 Alcohol also slows down reaction time and may lead to unjustified confidence in ability
or a misguided assessment of a situation – these are the reasons why it is illegal to drink
and drive.

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DRUGS

Types of drugs used Reasons for use Side effects Which sports
Anabolic steroids – Promote muscle growth. Liver damage Power and
‘artificially produced male Increase lean body weight. Heart disease explosive events
hormones’ e.g. nandrolone Ability to train harder with Acne e.g. weight lifting
testosterone less fatigue. Excessive aggression athletics
Repair body after stress. Females: swimming
Increase aggression. Male features
Irregular periods
Narcotic analgesics – ‘pain Reduce amount of pain. Highly addictive All sports
killers’ e.g. morphine Mask injury. Increase initial injury
methadone Increase pain limit. Breathing problems
Nausea and vomiting
Stimulants – ‘stimulate Reduce tiredness Rise in blood pressure Cycling
body mentally and Increase alertness Rise in body Boxing
physically’ Increase competitiveness temperature.
e.g. amphetamine Increase aggression Increased heart beat
ephedrine Loss of appetite
Addiction
Death

Beta blockers – can be Steady nerves Low blood pressure Shooting

used medically Stop trembling Slow heart rate Archery
e.g. antenolol Tiredness Snooker
propranolol Diving
Diuretics – ‘remove fluid Lose weight quickly Dehydration Jockeys
from body’ Increase rate of passing Faintness Boxers
e.g. triameterine urine Dizziness
bendrofluazide Muscle cramps
Peptide hormones – Stimulate growth of Muscle wasting Similar to steroids
‘naturally occurring’ Naturally occurring steroids Abnormal growth
e.g. erythropoietin/HCG Build muscle of hands and feet
analogues ‘synthetic’ Mend tissue EPO – increases cells
e.g. EPO Increase oxygen transport in blood
Clotting
Stroke
Blood doping – injection Body gets more energy to Allergic reactions Running
of blood to increase number work Hepatitis or AIDS Cycling
of blood cells Overload circulatory Marathons
system Skiing
Blood clots
Tobacco – social drug used Used just for fun Addictive None
for fun Increase heart rate
and blood pressure.
Reduce fitness levels
Loss of smell, taste
and appetite.
Less resistance to
illness e.g. bronchitis
Increase risk of heart
disease.

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TOBACCO
Smoking is harmful to your health, and has serious consequences for the components of fitness.

Dangers or effects
 Smoking makes heart rate and blood pressure rise, so it increases the likelihood of
heart malfunction or heart disease.
 Nicotine, which is a poison in tobacco, is addictive.
 It negatively affects the process of gaseous exchange.
 Smoke contains poisonous carbon monoxide which is picked by the red blood cells in
the lungs. This reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
 Smoking causes damage to and reduces the capacity and efficiency of the lungs.
 It increases the likelihood of blockages in the veins and arteries.
 It induces loss of smell, taste and appetite.
 There is less resistance to illnesses such as bronchitis, lung cancer, and throat cancer.
 It reduces levels of fitness.
 Tar collects in the lungs and respiratory system, and clogs the lungs, and stops your
breathing properly.

THE LONG TERM EFFECTS OF A PHYSICALY ACTIVE LIFESTYLE ON THE BODY SYSTEMS AND ON
GOOD GENERAL HEALTH

Recommendations from experts agree that for better health, physical activity should be
performed regularly. The most recent recommendations advise people of all ages to include a
minimum of 30 minutes of physical activity of moderate intensity (such as brisk walking) on
most, if not all, days of the week. It is also acknowledged that for most people, greater health
benefits can be obtained by engaging in physical activity of more vigorous intensity or of longer
duration. The following are long term effects of a physically active lifestyle on the body systems
and on good general health:

 A high level of physical activity helps one get fit, and therefore one will look good and
feel good.
 It helps improve mental wellbeing.
 It relieves tension and stress which can cause high blood pressure and heart disease. A
good work-out helps get rid of the tension from a difficult day.
 It helps get rid of aggression.
 It strengthens the bones.
 It helps prevent diseases such as high blood pressure, back pain, heart disease and
cancer. Swimming and walking help people with asthma.
 It helps tone up the muscles of the back and abdomen so as to improve posture.
 It helps reduce body weight.

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DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

The following are some of the definitions of exercise:

 A structured and planned physical activity.
 A single acute bout of bodily exertion.
 A healthy physical exertion.
 A muscular activity which require an expenditure of energy above resting level and
which generally results in voluntary movement.

Reasons why people exercise

 For health reasons. Exercise reduces chances of illness and increases life expectancy.
 To gain and maintain fitness. It increases strength and fitness and general fitness.
 To deal with stress and anxiety.
 To help improve body shape, posture and muscle tone.
 For fun or as a recreational activity.

FACTORS AFFECTING FITNESS

AGE
People are usually at their fittest in their twenties. From their thirties onwards fitness fails
because:
 Muscles get weaker.
 Bones get lighter, brittle and weak.
 Heart rate decreases.
 Joints get stiffer so one becomes less flexible.
 Body movement gets slow; that is, both reaction speed and limb speed decrease.
 Body fat increases.

SEX/GENDER
Up to about age of 11, males and females are equal in terms of general fitness. But things
change from then on because of the following factors:
 Strength – Males grow 50% stronger because they have more muscle mass. The male
muscle testosterone promotes the growth of muscle and bone. It is released at puberty.
 Cardiovascular Endurance – Males are better at transporting oxygen as they have larger
hearts and lungs, and more blood. Their red blood cells contain more haemoglobin
which is the oxygen carrier.
 Bone Structure – Males are usually larger and heavier than females. They also have a
narrower pelvis. This makes it easier to transmit power between the legs and trunk,
which is an advantage in most sports.
 Speed – Because they have longer bones and bigger muscles, males can move faster.
This means they can generate more power.

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  Flexibility – Females score higher for flexibility. Females of all ages tend to be more
flexible.
 Body Composition- Females usually have more body fat than males. Fat acts as padding
and keeps the body warm, but it is a disadvantage in women since it is extra weight to
carry and it puts extra strain on the heart, joints and muscles.

PHYSIQUE
 Your build and shape makes you fitter for some sports than others.
 A tall thin person is probably more suited to basketball than boxing.

DIET
 Your body needs nutrients for energy, growth and repair.
 You get them from food.
 If you don’t eat healthy then your body will not function properly. You have to eat for
health and fitness.

EXERCISE
 No matter how unfit you are, regular exercise will make you fitter.
 Running and doing weights is not the only way.
 Walking the dog, cycling, gardening, etc, are some.

PHYSICAL DISABILITY
 A disability means part of your body does not function properly.
 Exercise can keep the rest of the body very fit.
 Many disabled people are first class athletes.

ILLNESS AND FATIGUE

 When you are tired or ill you are less fit for activity.
 If you work too hard and do not have enough rest you can become ill.

DRUG TAKING
 Alcohol, cigarettes and many other substances lower your fitness.
 If you get caught for taking drugs in competition you get a large fine and a ban from
your sport.

STRESS
 Stress (or anxiety) and arousal can act as both motivators and depressors of
performance levels. Either, or both, in moderate amounts can act as a spur to better
performance.
 Exams, arguments, overwork, money problems – all these lead to stress.
 Continual stress can lead to illness, causing high blood pressure and heart disease. It is
also linked to cancer.

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  Short term stress can affect your performance in sports events. Your muscles become
tense, you can’t concentrate, and you make mistakes.
 One good way to deal with stress is to practice relaxation.

ENVIRONMENT
 Fumes from traffic and factories over long periods of time will change your lungs and
make breathing difficult. This means your fitness suffers.
 The weather – hot, cold, humidity. Your performance in sport events is affected by hot,
humid environment since you can overheat, which makes you weak and dizzy.
 At high altitude the air is thinner and you need to breathe harder to get enough oxygen.
 For all, you need time to adapt.
EDUCATION
 Educated people will have an advantage over uneducated people when it comes to
interpreting a training programme. They also know the importance of getting fit hence
they will take part in physical activities that enhance fitness.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS

 People of lower social and economic status are less involved in physical activities that
make them fit because they can’t afford to buy training gear with the little they have.
Most times you find that they are less informed on issues of health and fitness.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

Training to improve an athlete's performance obeys the principles of training. Principles of

training are guidelines to training. Training is a programme of exercise to help you reach your
fitness goals.

Principles of Warm-up and Cool down

Adequate warm-up should pre-cede every training session. This helps to raise body
temperature, increase blood flow, and make soft tissue such as muscles and tendons more
supple and prepare the body for the demands of the training or performance ahead. Warm-up
helps the boy prepare for the activity ahead and prevents injury. The body needs to be well
prepared for physical exercise. It is not such a good idea to suddenly begin strenuous activity
and expect the body’s systems to adapt instantly and without injury. Cool down is just as
important as warm-up.

Cool-down is where you help your body to recover after vigorous exercise by doing gentle
exercise such as jogging. This helps to keep your circulation going, so more oxygen reaches the
muscles and lactic acid is cleared away faster. Cool-down helps a player perform better next
time, and speeds the recovery process. It also slows the heart rate down gradually to stop the
feeling of being lightheaded. Stretching follows so as to help loosen up the muscles and prevent
stiffness. After heavy exercise muscles often get very tight. Cool-down reduces the
phenomenon of venous pooling of blood and the possibility of sore or tight muscles.

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Principle of individualization
This principle assumes that everyone is different, and your training should be structured to fit
your own individuality. Your fitness routine should be adapted to your needs and goals, and
your physical body. Scientific principles provide excellent tools, and there are lots of very well-
planned programs available, but your program must be effective for you and your unique
needs!

Principle of Specificity
This principle implies that for training to be most effective it must be specific to the activity or
aspect of fitness for which it is intended. This means you must first decide what you want to
improve and then choose the right exercises. To improve in a sport, you must exercise the
muscles and joints you use in the sport and at the speed you use them. For example, to
improve the range of movement for a particular joint action, you have to perform exercises that
involve that joint action. It is quite possible for an athlete to have good flexibility in the
shoulder joint but to have poor hip flexibility. Conducting shoulder flexibility exercises may
further improve the shoulder flexibility but it will not affect hip flexibility.

In addition to developing general levels of all round flexibility in an athlete, coaches need to
consider the specific flexibility requirements of a given event. The coach can analyze the
technique of his/her event, identify which joint actions are involved and determine which need
to be improved in terms of the range of movement. A thrower, for example, might require
improvements in his/her shoulder and spine flexibility. A hurdler might need to develop his/her
hip flexibility.

The amount and nature of the flexibility training required by each athlete will vary according to
the individual athlete's event requirements and his/her individual range of movement for each
joint action. It may be necessary to measure the range of movement for particular joint actions
to determine the present range and future improvement.

Specificity is an important principle in strength training, where the exercise must be specific to
the type of strength required, and is therefore related to the particular demands of the event.
The coach should have knowledge of the predominant types of muscular activity associated
with his/her particular event, the movement pattern involved and the type of strength
required. Although specificity is important, it is necessary in every schedule to include exercises
of a general nature (e.g. power clean, squat). These exercises may not relate too closely to the
movement of any athletic event but they do give a balanced development and provide a strong
base upon which highly specific exercise can be built.

Principle of Periodization
Periodization is the process by which a season or year is broken down into a number of phases
that address specific training needs or goals. One of the most important aspects of training is
the systematic assembly of training into a cohesive unit.

Principle of Overload
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This is forcing the body to work harder than usual or beyond its current known limits. When an
athlete performs a flexibility exercise, he/she should stretch to the end of his/her range of
movement. In active flexibility, the end of the range of movement is known as the active end
position. Improvements in flexibility can only be achieved by working at or beyond the active
end position.

A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity. The load
must be progressively increased in order to further adaptive responses as training develops,
and the training stimulus is gradually raised. Overload can be progressed by:
 increasing the resistance e.g. adding 5kg to the barbell
 increasing the number of repetitions with a particular weight
 increasing the number of sets of the exercise (work)
 increasing the intensity- more work in the same time, i.e. reducing the recovery periods

The FITT principle

The FITT Principle describes how to safely apply the principles of overload and progression:
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type of exercise

Frequency
Frequency is how often a person performs the targeted health-related physical activity. For
each component of health-related fitness, a safe frequency is three to five times a week.

Intensity
Intensity is how hard a person exercises during a physical activity period. Intensity can be
measured in different ways, depending on the health-related component. For example,
monitoring heart rate is one way to gauge intensity during aerobic endurance activities, but
gives no indication of intensity during flexibility activities.

Time
Time is the length of the physical activity or how long the activity lasts. As with the other
aspects of the FITT principle, time varies depending on the health-related fitness component
targeted. For example, flexibility or stretching may take 10-30 seconds for each stretch, while
the minimum time for performing aerobic activity is 20 minutes of continuous activity.

Type of exercise
Type of exercise, refers to the specific physical activity chosen to improve a component of
health-related fitness. For example, an individual wishing to increase arm strength must
exercise the triceps and biceps, while an individual wishing to increase aerobic endurance
needs to jog, run, swim or perform some other aerobically challenging activity.
Principle of Progression

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This means that to continue to develop, increase, grow and improve the systems being trained
the body must be subjected to overload progressively. Exercise levels should be built up
gradually or progressively. Moving too quickly from basic level of training to the advanced level
of training does not enable smooth progression but you risk torn muscles and other injuries,
and improvement in fitness would be harder to gain. This overload does not necessarily occur
on a daily basis, but should span successive days, months and years. Progression can be
achieved by ensuring that three specific pathways are followed; that is from easy to difficult,
general to specific and quality to quantity. Greatest gains are found at the start of a programme
and subsequently slow down.

Principle of variation
This means you should vary your routine to work all your muscle groups. The body is an
efficient machine, and can get adjusted to the same routine. So to prevent boredom, staleness
and injury through training it is necessary to ensure that the training programme employs a
range of training methods and loads so as not to impose too much psychological or
physiological stress on the performer.

Principle of Recovery
The Principle of Recovery dictates that your body must build back up after you break it down
during workouts. Your body rebuilds when you rest. This is when your muscles make specific
changes you are targeting according to the type of workouts you do. This principle is also
known as the Principle of Recuperation or Rest Principle.

Rest is required in order for the body to recover from the training and to allow adaptation to
take place. You must give your body’s systems adequate time to recover following a training
session or you run the risk of overtraining. There is no simply way of determining how much
recovery you need it’s simply a judgment call on how you feel. If you feel stronger and able to
work hard during a session it is a good sign that you have recovered. If however you feel tired,
sluggish and unable to meet aims of the session it is a good indicator of not being fully
recovered. The amount of time needed for recovery after a session will be based on:
The intensity of the session
The duration of the session
Current fitness level
Diet

Principle of Adaptation
The body will react to the training loads imposed by increasing its ability to cope with those
loads. Adaptation occurs during the recovery period after the training session is completed.
If exercises lasting less than 10 seconds (ATP-CP energy system) are repeated with a full
recovery (approximately 3 to 5 minutes) then an adaptation in which stores of ATP and CP in
the muscles are increased.
This means more energy is available more rapidly and increases the maximum peak power
output. If overloads are experienced for periods of up to 60 seconds, with a full recovery, it is
found that glycogen stores are enhanced.
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The most noticeable effect of weight training with heavy loads on fast twitch muscle fibres is
larger and stronger muscles (hypertrophy).

Principle of Reversibility or Detraining

This means improvements in fitness are reversible, or when training ceases the training effect
will also stop. It gradually reduces at approximately one third of the rate of acquisition. Exercise
harder and your body gets fitter, stop exercising and it loses its fitness again. It takes only three
or four weeks to get out of condition. Athletes must ensure that they continue strength training
throughout the competitive period, although at a much reduced volume, or newly acquired
strength will be lost. This means that if you stop doing an activity, perhaps due to injury, then
fitness is lost at the rate of one-third of the time it took to gain.

Principle of Maintenance
This principle implies effectively sustaining achieved training gains or fitness level. For example,
if one wants to gain a certain level of fitness he/she must train at the same level that made
him/her reach that level of fitness in order to maintain or sustain it. Training at a lower level
would make him/her lose that fitness, and training at a higher level would cause over-training.
The ability to maintain fitness and performance between training bouts is essential for top
athletic performance. Modified and reduced workouts administered at the appropriate time
will allow an athlete to maintain performance levels with minimal training.

TRAINING METHODS

(i) Interval training

 This is intermittent training with periods of high-intensity work
interspersed with rest or very low-activity periods. Distances above 30
metres or times of thirty seconds - 5 minutes are used to decide the work
rate. After each activity a set time or distance is allotted for the rest or
very light-activity period. During this rest period, the oxygen debt which
will have occurred during the work phase can be repaid. The activity is
restarted and the process continues for a number of repetitions and sets.
Interval training needs careful planning, as the duration, intensity of work
and rest phases need to be carefully matched to the level of fitness of the
athlete. Interval training can be used for most team games and is an
effective and accurate method for training athletes in athletics and
swimming.

(ii) Continuous training/Long slow-distance

 This involves working without rest for long periods at a moderate
intensity, about 75 per cent of maximum. Fitter sports people can work at
a higher rate than this. Continuous activity such as running, swimming
and aerobics classes mean that the heart rate and breathing are
maintained at a high level over a sustained period of time. In fitness

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 gyms, the same effect can be achieved by skipping, running on a
treadmill, or using rowing machines and exercise cycles.

Activity needs to be maintained at the correct level for at least 15

minutes. Long slow-distance running is another way of continuous
training.

(iii) Aerobic circuit

 This is continuous training usually done to music, and involves the use of
legs, arms and whole-body movements. Variations of this include:
→ step classes: similar routines are carried out, but a step is used to
maximize body effort. Steps can be varied in height for different fitness
levels.
→ aquaerobics: is performed in water. The resistance of the water to
movement is a useful way of increasing the work rate, while the
buoyancy of the water relieves stress on the joints.
→ chair aerobics: this is an effective way of maintaining fitness for older
people and wheelchair users.

(iv) Fartlek, or speed-play

 Based on Swedish training methods, the word means ‘speed play’.
Athletes can vary their pace and style of running and walking as they
wish. There are no fixed amounts of each activity, and much depends on
how the athlete feels during training, which could take place on a track,
or cross country. Because of its flexibility, both aerobic and anaerobic
systems can be improved. It is both enjoyable and a valuable method of
training, giving variety and maintaining motivation. Athletes need to have
a planned session however, to make the best use of this training. A
typical session might be:
→ 5-minute slow jog
→ 3-minute normal jog
→ 3-minute fast walk
→ 5-minute fast jog
→ 2-minute hopping alternate legs
→ 5-minute 30-metres sprint / 30 metre walk
→ 3-minute fast jog
→ 2-minute fast walk
→ 2-minute cool down

(v) Circuit training

 Circuit training was originally devised to improve fitness levels with large
numbers of people in a small space during a relatively short session. A
minimum amount of equipment is needed, as the performer’s body

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 provides the ‘weight’. It is a highly adaptable form of training suitable for
different aspects of fitness and skills or both at the same time.

 Areas or equipment in the gym or hall (or outside) have specified

activities. These locations are known as stations. After completing the
activities at one station, the subject then moves to the next station in the
correct order. Activities at each station differ, so that different muscle
groups can recover while other muscle groups are working. There may be
five to fifteen stations, and the activities will be determined by the type
of circuit planned. Activities at each station will be repeated a specified
number of times or for a fixed period of time. There may be rest intervals
between activities, or better still a range of low-intensity activities
interspersed, allowing oxygen debt to be repaid. An example of circuit
training could be a nine-station circuit to improve cardiovascular and
strength fitness:
→ sit ups – abdominals
→ bench dips – arms
→ step-ups – legs
→ squat thrusts – abdominals and legs
→ press ups – arms
→ shuttle runs – legs
→ burpees – abdominals
→ pull-ups – arms
→ star jumps – legs

(vi) Weight training

 This is training which involves the use of weights. Dynamic, explosive and
static strength are all dependent on the force exerted by the muscles.
Weight training is an effective way to improve muscle strength, but the
type of strength which will be developed determines how this is applied.
The general principles of developing strength are as follows:
→ a light weight moved many times increases muscular endurance
→ a medium weight moved very fast will increase explosive strength
→ a heavy weight moved a few times will increase static strength.

Weight training can be done with barbells (a bar with weights at each
end) and dumbbells (similar to barbells but with a very short bar). These
are often referred to as free weights. Weight-training machines have now
replaced barbells and dumbbells in schools, colleges, fitness gyms and
sports centres. Although there are many ways of using loose weights,
some machines are able to exercise muscle groups which could not be
achieved previously with loose weights.

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 (vii) Altitude training
 This is training at high altitude above sea level. Training at altitude is
particularly important for distance runners, as at a high altitude there is
less oxygen available, and the body increases the mass of red blood cells
as well as levels of haemoglobin to cope with this. When the athlete
returns to sea level there are normal amounts of oxygen and the athlete
is able to make better use of this and so increase his or her performance
in endurance events. Athletes who live at high altitude and train at sea
level are able to increase the oxygen –carrying capacity of the blood.

(viii) Plyometrics
 This is an effective way of improving explosive strength. It involves rapidly
stretching a muscle, and using the energy generated in the elastic part of
the muscle. The muscle then contracts using the stored energy.
An example of this type of training is a simple jumping exercise. On
landing there is little flexion at the knee and ankle joints. As soon as the
feet touch the ground, the next jump should be made, minimizing the
time in contact with the ground.

(ix) Anaerobic training

 This involves training at high intensity for a short period of time. In many
sports short bursts of activity are needed: in netball a fast movement at
the centre pass to receive the ball, in athletics the run up phase in the
long jump and in cricket running to field the ball on the boundary.
Training is done by repetitions of sprints over short distances of between
10-20 metres, or up to ten seconds sprinting with appropriate rest
periods (the work/rest ratio should be around 1:5). The work rate can be
increased by sprinting up an incline. If distances are increased then it is
important to run at maximum speed.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TRAINING METHODS

METHOD OF ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

TRAINING
Interval - You can mix aerobic and - Needs careful and
anaerobic work. accurate planning.
- Less chance of boredom. - Increases risk of injury due
- Easy to see when an athlete to higher intensity.
gives up. - More time is needed.
- Easy to monitor progress.
- Can be very sports-specific, e.g. sprints.

Continuous - May not require much equipment. - Does not develop anaerobic

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 - Easy to organize. fitness and change of pace is
- Time efficient. required for many sporting
- Training levels easily controlled by the activities.
sportsman or woman. - Can be monotonous.
- Trains cardiovascular and muscular - May not be specific to some
endurance. activities, e.g. team sports.
- Less chance of injury because of - Difficult to measure training
lower intensity. amounts.
- Can be sports-specific, e.g. distance running.
Aerobic circuit - Time efficient. - Needs access to equipment.
- Can train at high intensity. - Higher risk of injury to joints.
- Can be very sports-specific.
Fartlek - Trains at a higher intensity than in - May not be sports-specific.
continuous training. - Higher intensity may increase risk
- Adds variety of pace. of injury.
- Range of both aerobic and anaerobic training. - Difficult to measure training
- Can be adapted for different sports. amounts.
- Needs self-discipline to maintain
work rates.
Circuit - Can be very sports-specific. - Need access to equipment.
- Time efficient. - Needs considerable organization
- Trains cardiovascular and muscular and planning.
endurance as well as strength. - May need specialist equipment.
- Variety of activities keep motivation - No maximal improvements in
levels high. endurance and strength.
- Adaptable for fitness and skills for
a variety of sports.
- Can be done with little specialist
equipment.
- Can incorporate aerobic, anaerobic
and weight-training exercises.
- Can accommodate large numbers of
people in a small area.
Weight training - Specific muscle groups can be - Special equipment needed,
targeted. which can be expensive, as well as
- Can be adapted for most sports. needing a suitable location.
- Muscles’ strength and endurance - Needs to be well planned, so
can be quickly increased. that the correct training of
isometric, isotonic and isokinetic
exercises are used.
Altitude training - Very effective for training for events - Expensive, particularly for
which require good aerobic levels. countries which do not have high
- Good preparation for events to be mountains, such as UK and the
held at both high altitude and at lower levels. Netherlands.

Plyometrics - Little specialist equipment required. - Not suitable for inexperienced

- Can be used for sports. sports-

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 - Develops muscle. men and women.
- Training levels not easily
measured.
Anaerobic - Very specific. - Little variety possible in this type
of training.

MODULE 5: ADVENTURE EDUCATION

TOPIC: LEISURE AND RECREATION

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module learners should be able to:

 Differentiate between leisure and recreation.
 Participate in leisure and recreational activities.
 Explain the benefits of positive use of leisure time.
 Analyse data relating to leisure and recreational activities in a given area.
 Share skills of leisure and recreational activities with others.
 Explain how individuals and communities utilize physical recreational facilities in a given
environment.
 Discuss factors that exclude different groups of people from participating in physical
recreational activities.
 Discuss ways of promoting physical recreation in a selected area.
 Discuss ways of bringing the communities to leisure and recreational centres.
 Discuss ways of protecting the environment and self.
 Maintain an orderly and safe environment when engaged in a variety of activities.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEISURE AND RECREATION

Leisure means free time or spare time one has when not working or sleeping. It can also be
termed as freedom from occupation, employment or engagement. This is the time in which
one may make voluntary choices. Leisure is the means by which recreation takes place, or it is
the opportunity for recreation to occur. There are two types of leisure; that is active leisure and
passive leisure.
 Active leisure activities involve the exertion of physical or mental energy. This include
low-impact physical activities that include walking and yoga, which expend little energy
and have little contact or competition and high-impact activities such as kick-boxing and
football that consume much energy and are competitive. Some active leisure activities
involve almost no physical activity, but do require a substantial mental effort, such as
playing chess or painting a picture. Active leisure and recreation overlap significantly.
 Passive leisure activities are those in which a person does not exert any significant
physical or mental energy, such as going to the cinema, watching television, or gambling
on slot machines. Some leisure experts discourage these types of leisure activity, on the
grounds that they do not provide the benefits offered by active leisure activities. For
example, acting in a community drama (an active leisure activity) could build a person's
skills or self-confidence. Nevertheless, passive leisure activities are a good way of
relaxing for many people.
Recreation is what you do during free time, and play is one form of recreation.

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  Recreation involves activity of some kind. It may be vigorous activity like playing tennis
or climbing a mountain, or the lesser effort of reading a book or listening to music. It is
action rather than rest.....physical, mental, or emotional action.
 Primary motivation for participating in the recreation activity is for personal enjoyment
and satisfaction.
 Recreation takes place during leisure.....free from obligations.
 Recreation is voluntary....freedom of choice by the participant.
 Recreation has no single form, pattern or setting. It can be planned or spontaneous,
organized or unorganized, involve many or just one, cost millions of dollars or not a
dime, and sponsored or unsponsored.
 Recreation is ALWAYS positive.

THE BENEFITS OF POSITIVE USE OF LEISURE TIME

 Improvements in health
 This improves the physical and mental health. You might take up jogging or swimming
for health reasons. Exercise helps to prevent illness and relieve stress. It helps to
improve shape. You will look and feel better and will probably live longer.
 It helps people live longer
 It helps one to have a balanced and healthy lifestyle.
 Social benefits
 It creates an opportunity for socialization (social wellbeing). This gives you the chance to
meet new people and make new friends. Activities such as skiing and sailing can be very
sociable. Some business people use golf as a good way to entertain their contacts.
 Mental benefits
 It helps relieve stress and boredom, and improves on the individual’s wellness.
 Enjoyment
 You might go sailing or scuba diving or jazz dancing just because you love it, and enjoy it.
 Helps individuals discover their talents.

Examples of recreational facilities

 Parks
 Game reserves
 Community halls
 Stadium
 Museums
 Cinemas

FACTORS THAT EXCLUDE DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PEOPLE FROM PARTICIPATING IN PHYSICAL

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

 Time

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 Due to the hectic lifestyles of people nowadays it becomes very difficult for people to
find time for recreational activities. They use the time they have trying to meet their
daily needs. This can also be compounded by long working hours which leave little time
for recreation.

 Education
 The level of education of individuals is important in some recreational activities where
instructions are given in written form, which would be difficult to comprehend for
uneducated individuals.

 Tradition and culture

 Some traditions and culture do not encourage participation in recreational activities by
females. Recreational activities were thought of being for men since they involve
aggression and violence which are characteristics of masculinity.

 Age
 As people grow old they feel shy and embarrassed by their age. They associate
recreational activities with young people who are still active.

 Social and Economic status

 Most recreational activities require money to buy equipment and for entry fees. This
then means those who are not well to do financially are left out of recreational
activities.

 Locality/Environment
 If one lives in a locality where recreation takes place or where there are recreational
activities he/she would develop interest in recreational activities unlike someone who
lives where there is nothing at all. People in towns are involved more in recreational
activities than those who are in rural areas due to availability of facilities, interest and
exposure from media.

 Climate
 If climatic conditions are the right ones people will take part in recreational activities.
One might have a passion for skiing but if the climatic conditions are not snowy that
would be impossible.

 Peer group
 One’s friends might determine what they do during leisure time. If your friends are not
interested in recreational activities this might also influence you as well.

 Gender
 Females don’t take part in recreational activities in large numbers due to circumstances
surrounding feminity and stereotype.

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  Facilities and equipment
 In some places facilities do not exist or distance to facilities is long, and this has lead
people to have nothing to use for them to participate.

 Skill level
 Some recreational activities require a certain level of skill to perform which might
exclude those without skill.

 Religion
 Some religions view sport and recreational activities as encouraging nudity. By so doing
they discourage their members from taking part.

 Disability
 Many recreational facilities are not favourable to disabled people, and this exclude
disabled people who need modified facilities that suit their needs.

WAYS OF BRINGING THE COMMUNITIES TO LEISURE/RECREATIONAL CENTRES

 Giving information about the about availability of recreational centres.

 Information can be given through the word of mouth or any media about availability of
facilities. This would encourage those with interest to take part.
 Advertising the programmes they have.
 This can be done by billboards or I newspapers.
 Promote competition in communities.
 Reducing entry fees to recreational facilities.

WAYS OF PROMOTING PHYSICAL RECREATION IN THE COMMUNITY

 Involving prominent sports personalities

 Giving incentives
 Improving facilities
 Promoting formation of clubs

HOW INDIVIDUALS AND COMMUNITIES UTILISE PHYSICAL RECREATIONAL FACILITIES IN THEIR

COMMUNITIES

 Recreational parks
 People visit them to relax and for picnics, and this helps relieve stress and boredom.

 Game Reserves
 People visit them to view different animal species and vegetation.

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  Community halls
 They serve as recreational centres in their towns. This is where young people meet and
exchange talents in different areas.

 Stadium
 Stadia are used for sports competitions, talent identification and development.

WAYS OF PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT AND SELF

 Do not pollute the environment. This can be through littering, loud noise, and spilling of
waste into water sources like rivers. Pollution has adverse effects on plant and animal
life.
 Avoid cutting down trees. Trees are very important as they act as wind breakers, and
also are a source of oxygen which is needed by people and animals.
 Recycle all recyclable waste where necessary.
 When camping try to dispose off all waste by burying it or burning it to protect animals
that might eat it. Extinguish all camp fires to avoid bush fires.

MODULE 7: SPORT AND SOCIETY

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 TOPIC: SPORT PARTICIPATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter learners should be able to:

 Define sport in the context of society.
 Discuss sporting activities in society.
 Describe organizational structure of sporting activities in society.
 Recognize various levels of participation in sport.
 Voluntarily organize and run sports activities at local level.
 Discuss the role of the National Sports Organising bodies.
 Discuss the functions of a sports club.
 Explain the role of the local authority in sport such as the chief, regional sports officers,
BISA, coaches, department of sports and recreation and youth and culture.
 Explain factors which affect participation in sport such as motivation, level of skill,
gender, age, physique, stress, facilities, etc.
 Explain societal perceptions and attitudes towards participation in sport.
 Discuss the importance of sport and its place in society.
 Explain the role of sport in society.
 Differentiate between positive and negative aspects of sport through issues such as
doping, substance abuse, good/bad sponsorship, tolerance, racism, gender, media
influence, hooliganism and religion.
 Discuss the risks associated with doping and substance abuse.

WHAT IS SPORT IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIETY?

 An activity involving physical exertion and skill that is governed by a set of rules or
customs and often undertaken competitively. It can also be done for exercise or
pleasure, usually in a special area and according to fixed rules. And society is a
community of people living in a particular region with shared organisations, customs,
laws, etc.

SPORTING ACTIVITIES IN SOCIETY

 Softball
 Basketball
 Judo
 Rugby
 Wrestling
 Netball
 Swimming

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  Cricket
 Tennis
 Athletics
 Hockey
 Football
 Archery
 Badminton
 Boxing
 Table tennis
 Karate

LEVELS OF PARTICIPATION IN SPORT

 School level
 Club level
 District/Regional level
 National level
 International level

PROVIDERS OF RECREATIONAL FACILITIES IN THE COMMUNITY

 Public sector/Local authority

 Private sector
 Voluntary sector

THE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF SPORT

1. The Organisational Structure of a sports club

The organizational structure of any sport club is very similar. Clubs are made up of
members, who elect a committee which help run the affairs of the club on behalf of the
members since all the members cannot run the club.

(a) Members
 People who belong to a club are its members. In most clubs members take part in club
activity, although may not always be active. Club members are the life-hood of the club:
they pay subscription fees that finance the club, they take part in activities of the club,
and they participate in fundraising events for the club.

(b) Committee
 Even in the smallest clubs, it would be difficult for every member to be involved in
making decisions about the club. Therefore members usually elect a smaller number of
people to look after the club’s affairs. This is usually known as a committee and these

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 are the officials of the club (not to be confused with match officials who control the
games). Members of the committee tend to have skills in running the club. The
committee comprises of the following:
 Chairperson: This is usually the most important official in the club, and is the person in
overall charge of a club with major responsibilities. They will chair meetings and make
decisions regarding the club on their own, and with the help of other committee
members. They represent the club at special events.
 Treasurer: This is the person in charge of the finances of the club. They may have to
collect money such as match fees and make sure that accounts are produced for all
sales and purchases. They also pay the club’s bills. Each year the treasurer will have to
produce a set of accounts showing how the money was raised and spent throughout the
year.
 Secretary: He / She arrange committee meetings, and carry out club correspondence.
During a meeting they will take notes, which are known as minutes. After meetings, the
secretary will let the rest of the members know what the committee has decided.
 Vice – Chairperson: If the Chairperson is ill or unable to attend a meeting, then the Vice
– Chair will stand in.
 Club Captain: This is the person who might be in charge of one or other of the playing
teams. They have to pick or select teams and probably be in charge of them in a
competitive situation.
 President/Vice-President/Patron: The President or his vice are not usually involved with
the running of the club. They are often appointed to this special position because they
are well known people in the community who might raise the profile and improve the
image of the club. They may or may not have been club members; in some cases they
may not have even played the sport.

In larger clubs there may be more officials such as fixtures secretary, a coach, a physical
trainer, a physiotherapist, a team doctor, etc. In most clubs the officials are voluntary they
do not get paid for the work they do for the club). They are usually club players or former
players and have a commitment to their sport or club. Quite often they have specialist skills
which are useful in running the club. The treasurer may be an accountant, or the coach
might be a P. E. teacher with special skills in a particular sport. As clubs get larger, officials
might get paid for work they do. They then become officers rather than officials although
they still work for the club members.

2. The Organisational Structure of Botswana National Sports Commission (B. N. S. C)

The Botswana National Sports Commission is the umbrella body that controls sport in
Botswana. All the governing bodies fall under it hence they are called affiliates of B. N. S. C.
The B. N. S. C. executive committee is made up of affiliates of B. N. S. C. which are governing
bodies of each sports code in the country. The B. N. S. C. executive committee is the one
which takes decisions, which are implemented by the administrative staff of the B. N. S. C.
The administrative staff is employed to perform the day to day duties of the council on daily

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 basis, and is headed by the Chief Executive Officer who also sits in the executive committee.
Members of the executive committee are not employees of B. N. S. C. they only hold
elective office. The executive committee is made up of the following members:
 Chairperson: The chairperson of the Botswana National Sports Commission is appointed
by the minister responsible for sport.
 Executive Secretary: The executive secretary is the Chief Executive Officer and he heads
the administrative staff of B. N. S. C. He is the only one in the committee who is a full-
time employee of the council.
 Vice-Chairperson
 Treasurer
 Three Additional members

The Vice-Chairperson, Treasurer and three Additional members are elected by the affiliates
of the sports council at the general meeting where all sports codes are represented.

THE FUNCTIONS OF SPORTS CLUBS

The role of any local club in any sport is:

 To provide facilities for members.
 To organize competitions for members.
 To promote the sport and encourage new members. One good way to encourage new
members is to make links with local schools, this also benefits schools.
 To bring people together.
 To provide opportunities for members to participate at high levels of competition.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPORTS CLUB

 Membership is voluntary; that is, you join because you want to do it, not because you
are told to do so.
 Members pay a subscription fee.
 Clubs have to affiliate to sport associations.
 A club participates in different competitions.
 A club is made up of members.

THE ROLE OF THE LOCAL AUTHORITY IN SPORT

The local authority include such people or institutions as the chief, regional sports officers, BISA,
coaches, the town council, the department of sports and recreation or the department of youth
and culture.
 They provide facilities and equipment for schools and communities for recreation, e.g.
recreational parks, swimming pools, golf courses, playgrounds and community halls.
 They encourage as many people as possible to play sport.

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Responsibilities of sports governing bodies

A governing body is a body that runs a particular sporting code.

 Organising local and national competitions. This can range from local leagues and
teams right through to international competitions.
 Team selection; they choose and select regional and international teams and players.
 To keep players and participants informed; ranging from coaching information, rule
changes, equipment provision, etc.
 Maintaining relationships with the media; including negotiating television rights and
advertising, etc.
 Drafting the rules and laws of the game or activity; this includes upholding them and
considering any changes.

THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL SPORTS ORGANISING BODIES

National sports organising bodies are such bodies as BISA and BNSC. They help organize sports
at a national level.
 Advice government on sport matters.
 Provide a channel for participation at national and international level.
 To develop sports facilities for the community.
 To coordinate sport.
 To develop sports opportunities for women and people with disabilities.
 To work with the governing bodies to develop sport at “grass roots” level, especially
among young people.
 To bring people together through sport.
 Arrange fixtures for games.
 Publicity: helps publicize sport.
 Finance sport.

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT PARTICIPATION IN SPORT

(a) PHYSIQUE
 Physique refers to the physical make up, or the body type, or body build, or body
structure, or body composition of a person. Physique can greatly influence participation
and performance in sports. Being tall is important for basketball and volleyball. Being
tall and heavy is ideal for many positions in rugby particularly in scrimmaging and line-
outs. Many leading backs in rugby are big and when moving fast, they are difficult o
stop. So people’s size, weight and shape may help them to participate in some sports
but not in others. Success in sports depends to a large extent on your body build.
SOMATOTYPING is a way to describe body build. It looks at how fat, how muscular, and
how linear you are, in that order. The three body types are as follows:

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  Endomorph
 Wide hips and narrow shoulders (pear shaped).
 A lot of fat in the body.
 A lot of fat on the upper arms and thighs.
 Quite slim wrists and ankles.
 Suitable for weightlifting

 Mesomorph
 Broad shoulders and narrow hips (wedge-shaped).
 A large head.
 A muscular body.
 Strong forearms and thighs.
 Very little body fat.
 Suitable for activities which require strength and power.

 Ectomorph
 Narrow shoulders and hips.
 Narrow shoulders and hips.
 Thin face and high forehead.
 Thin narrow chest and abdomen.
 Thin legs and arms.
 Very little muscle or body fat.
 Suitable for activities which require endurance.

The following are some activities in which the body type can be an advantage:
 Gymnastics: Extreme mesomorphs are relatively short and small. This gives them a low
centre of gravity with a low body weight therefore allowing them to perform rotation
activities much more easily.
 Weightlifting: Extreme endomorphs are generally large with short legs in relation to
their trunks. This gives them a low centre of gravity with body bulk, which greatly assists
in lifting heavy weights.
 Basketball: Extreme ectomorphs are generally tall and thin. Their long legs and long
arms enable them to receive higher passes and shoot at the basket more easily.
 Marathon: Ecto-mesomorphs have features of an ectomorph and a mesomorph, the
dominant feature being the ectomorph. They can be able to carry their bodies over long
distances since they are light with some bit of muscle strength and endurance.

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N.B. THERE ARE FEW INSTANCES WHERE YOU FIND EXTREME BODY TYPES. MOST TIMES
BODY TYPES ARE A COMBINATION OF TWO BODY TYPES; E.G. ENDO-MESOMORPH, MESO-
ECTOMORPH, ECTO-MESOMORPH, ETC.

(b) MOTIVATION
 Motivation is the desire, or enthusiasm, or driving force to succeed that makes you
perform at your best. It is also the drive to participate in a goal-orientated activity
(sport), which is usually associated with the expectation that there will be beneficial
experiences gained from that participation. Motivation can influence how well or badly
an individual will perform. The more motivated you are about something the more likely
you are to succeed. Motivation may be intrinsic or extrinsic or a mixture of the two.

Types of motivation

 Intrinsic motivation
 This is the desire or drive to succeed that comes from within you or from the activity
itself. (Intrinsic means built in). In intrinsic motivation you enjoy the activity and you
want to experience the satisfaction and pride of winning or just taking part. If you play a
sport because you enjoy it and feel proud of your skill at it, you are intrinsically
motivated.

 Extrinsic motivation
 This is the desire or drive to succeed which comes from, external rewards, or is
stimulated by external factors. These may be winning a trophy, a prize, money, medals
or to please another person such as a coach. Extrinsic motivators such as trophies and
medals are used a great deal to encourage players. The Ryder Cup for golf and FA Cup
for football are examples. Money is an important motivator for some sports.

Arousal and how it affects performance

 Arousal is a state of excitement and alertness. Arousal helps improve performance. At

low arousal, people are lethargic and perform badly. Increased arousal improves

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 performance – but only to a point, after which increasing arousal actually decreases
performance. Before a competition you may reach a high level of arousal. Increase in
arousal beyond optimum level (over arousal) has a detrimental effect on performance.
Too little arousal causes the level of performance to be low, but too much arousal
causes control of behaviour to be lost hence poor performance because of panicking.
Arousal will be different according to the complexity, nature of the task, and to specific
situations. People tend to perform best at medium level of arousal. Research has found
that different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal performance. For
example, difficult or intellectually demanding tasks may require a lower level of arousal
(to facilitate concentration), whereas tasks demanding stamina or persistence may be
performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase motivation).

The physiological response of the body to arousal

 Production of adrenalin.
 Increased heart rate.
 Increased breathing.
 Muscles tense in readiness for action.
 Sweaty palms.
 Dry mouth.

Causes of arousal

 The level of arousal for a sports event will affect performance. Things that can cause, or
increase, arousal are:
 A pep talk from the coach before an event.
 The warm up before the event.

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 Having a definite goal you want to achieve in the event.
 Bright lights and lots of noise around you.
 Friendly or hostile sports fans looking on.

Techniques used to control anxiety as a result of over arousal

 Relaxation: Use techniques such as slow deep breathing and relaxing different muscle
groups in turn.
 Visualisation: This is where you go through the event in your mind in advance, in detail.
You “see” yourself performing well and staying calm and confident. It is also called
mental rehearsal.
 Focusing: You can concentrate completely on the activity you are about to perform. You
don’t allow any distractions to affect your concentration.

(c) GENDER
 This is whether you are male or female

Reasons for low participation by women in physical and recreational activities

 Past attitudes to women: A hundred years ago women were regarded as fragile
creatures. It was thought that vigorous physical activity would harm their internal
organs and affect their ability to have children. It was also un-lady like to look glowing,
tousled and sweaty. A woman should look delicate. These attitudes persisted for
decades among both women and men.
 Lack of time and energy: The traditional role of a woman has been wife, mother and
homemaker. This leaves little time or energy for physical recreation. Now many women
work outside the home and bring up a family. That means even less free time.
 Lack of money: Women who don’t have a job outside the home often don’t have the
money to spend on physical recreation.
 Lack of access to facilities: The number of facilities is increasing but if a woman at home
does not have the use of a car, getting to a facility (especially with small children in tow)
can take enormous effort.

Reasons why more women take part in sport than in the past

 The sports council’s effort to promote sport for everyone. Nowadays women are
encouraged to take part in sport.
 Funds for facilities for women sports are available.
 Growth in popularity of certain activities that are targeted at women, and they appeal to
them e.g. step aerobics.
 Emergence of women role models in sport.

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 Recognition that women can compete in events which in the past were considered too
strenuous for women have opened the door for women participants, e.g. marathon,
triple jump, pole vault, etc.
 Men and women are now competing on equal terms, e.g. equestrian sport.
 Recognition that exercise is good for health.
 There is greater economic freedom for women. Nowadays, more women earn more and
do not have to depend on men for money.

Reasons why less women took part in sport in the past

 Traditionally, women did not have equal opportunities to participate in sporting

activities due to:
 Clothing: The type of clothing they wore hampered performance.
 Motherhood: Women were expected to be homemakers and carers of the family.
 Social attitudes: Men always thought that they knew better and most events were
thought to be strenuous for women. Women were considered the weaker sex.
 Lack of women role models in sport.
 Lack of money.
 Low or little media coverage
 Lack of coaches trained to handle women.
 Physique.
 Lack of sponsorship for women sports.
 Mistaken beliefs that sport is a men’s world.

(d) MEDIA
 Media are all the means by which information is delivered to you or it is various means
of communication.

Types of media
 Magazine
 Television
 Newspaper
 Internet
 Mobile Phone
 Radio

Functions of media in sport

Media has several key functions within the world of sport which are as follows:

 Informing – e. g. news programmes. This type of programme tells people about

upcoming activities, and those that have already taken place.

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 Educating – e. g. documentary programmes or student revision programmes. This type
of programme develops knowledge in the audience.
 Entertaining – e. g. programmes to allow people to enjoy their leisure time. This type of
programme provides excitement for an audience without actually having to participate.
 Advertising – e. g. adverts between programmes or events. This is a key aspect of
modern sport as commercial sponsorship provides the money for sport to develop and
evolve, and the securing of this sponsorship relies upon media coverage.

Positive influence of media coverage on sport

 The media helps to promote sport. More people can see, hear and read about sport in
the media.
 They create sports “stars” that may inspire young athletes. David Beckham and Cristiano
Ronaldo are examples.
 Sports that get a lot of media coverage, especially on TV, find it easier to attract
sponsorship. With sponsorship a sport can improve its facilities, equipment and training.
 The media can educate and inform people about sport. For example, through
documentaries, coaching programmes and discussions on current issues.
 TV companies pay large sums of money to the governing bodies of sport for the right to
broadcast events. This is used to develop the sport.
 The media can give a better understanding of performance which enables people to
either enjoy watching the activity more or even to improve their actual performance.
This can be achieved by slow motion replays of an activity (such as gymnastics) which
allows all of the movement to be shown in detail and appreciated fully.
 The media will apportion a large amount of coverage to certain events. This will raise
their profile and make people more aware of them. An example of this is the coverage
of gymnastics within the Olympic Games, which triggers off an increase in participation
and membership in gymnastics clubs throughout the world. When a sport gets a lot of
media attention it becomes popular, and more people get interested in playing it.
 Media has brought about changes in the rules and organization of cricket. Television
replays help with umpiring, i.e. third umpire. Miniature cameras giving good action
shots are always placed in cricket stumps.

Drawbacks of media coverage on sport

 This can also be termed as negative influence of media coverage on sport.

 The media may have excess coverage of certain activities. This can discourage people
from going along to see the event. As there is much coverage of Premiership soccer on
television viewers will watch these matches instead of watching lower level games and
the revenue these lesser clubs receive is therefore reduced significantly.
 The media can interfere with the timings of events. This is done to cater for the largest
viewing audiences they can have. An example is cricket where there are not only

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 day/night matches but also games arranged out of normal playing seasons to make sure
there are sufficient matches.
 Media exposure may foster the desire to win at all cost rather than play for enjoyment.
An example is where athletes fail the drug test because of the desire to win.
 Sports stars lose privacy. Their private lives get reported on. David Beckham was once
victim to this.
 The media may over - sensationalise events.
 There is pressure on managers and team captains to get results. The media may hound
them out of their jobs if they fail.
 The media may become very critical of referees/officials’ decisions hence chasing
potential referees from the sport.

The impact of television on sport

 Of all the media, TV has the biggest impact on sport and vice versa.
 Sport occupies a large percentage of the viewing time; television allows viewers to see
the biggest competitions in the world.
 Event/Match analysis allows the viewer to see the events in great detail, e.g. slow
motion replays.
 Television companies decide, due to their financial support, which sport will be shown.
They contribute a lot of money in the form of Television Rights which go towards events
prize money.
 Colour TV allows some sports to be clearly seen which were not possible with black and
white TV, e.g. snooker, bowls, etc.

(e) FACILITIES

 Facilities for physical activities vary depending on where people live, and might
influence people’s participation in sport. Urban centres may have leisure centres, sports
stadia, and specialist sports clubs. Rural areas and remote areas are unlikely to have
purpose built sports facilities but may have natural facilities for such activities as sailing,
hill walking, rock climbing, etc. Therefore access to facilities may determine your
participation in sport.

Sport and recreation facilities may be controlled and run by local authorities like the city
council, private companies or voluntary organizations. Local authorities normally own
sports facilities but do not always run them. Companies compete for chances to use or
run the facilities. Dual use facilities are often school facilities which are also used by the
local community.

(f) SKILL

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 Skill is the learned ability to bring about a pre-determined result with maximum
certainty and efficiency. In other words, it means you can perform an activity or
movement to get exactly the result you intended without wasting time or energy, or
both. Most often people do not participate in sport because they do not have the
requisite skill hence they fear embarrassment from their peers. Others however do
participate because they have skill.

Types of skill

 All skills in sport are motor skills; that is, they involve movement and they form the basis
of all sports. There are a number of ways of classifying skill. These could be according to
the:

i. Complexity of the skill

 Basic or simple skill: These skills do not require intricate body movements and are
learnt at an early age, and are easily transferable to a number of situations e.g. jumping,
throwing, catching and hitting.
 Complex skill: These skills involve more movements and finer control of many parts of
the body. They are specific to a given sport and need much more practice to learn
correctly e.g. a serve in tennis, high jump using fosbury flop and the backstroke in
swimming.

ii. Stability of the environment or the situation in which the skill is performed
 Open skill: These skills are mostly influenced by the environment or external factors.
For example, they depend on where your opponent is in netball or football, deciding
when to tackle in a football game, the direction of the wind in sailing.
 Closed skill: A closed skill is one where the movements are always exactly the same.
The skill follows a set, predetermined pattern of movement regardless of external
factors or environment e.g. throwing a dart, a cartwheel in gymnastics, etc.

iii. Degree of bodily involvement or precision of movement

 Fine motor skill: They require small muscle movements, and usually involve
manipulation of tools or objects. They are associated with speed, accuracy and
efficiency e.g. dart throwing, fencing, archery, playing golf, etc.
 Gross motor skill: They require large muscle movements, and usually involve total body
or multi-limb movements. They are associated with strength, endurance and power e.g.
kicking a ball, running, jumping, etc.

iv. How clearly defined the beginning and end of the skill is
 Continuous skill: The skill has no distinct beginning or end. It requires repetition of
movement pattern, and the activity goes on for unspecified time e.g. cycling, running on
the track, rowing, etc.

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  Discrete skill: The skill has a well defined beginning and end. It is usually brief in nature
e.g. kicking a ball, throwing an object, etc.

Factors affecting variations in skill level

 Age and maturity

 It is easier to learn a skill at a young age than when somebody is old. As the person
matures there is a high degree of skill retention.

 Motivation
 Whether intrinsic or extrinsic.

 Personality
 Personality traits determine behaviour in normal life and in sporting situations. People
who are quiet, shy, calm and retiring, can be described as introverts, whereas
extroverts are the direct opposite, being outgoing, loud, lively and sociable.

It is true that introverts prefer:

 Individual sports
 Sports with intricate skills
 Sports with restricted movements
 Routine and repetitive sports.

Extroverts may prefer:

 Team sports
 Whole body activities
 Sports with a lot of movement
 Sports with high levels of excitement.

 Feedback

This is the response you get to your performance. It can also be defined as the
information received by the individual or group either during or after completion of the
performance. This can be in the form of scoring goals, being praised for good
performance by the coach, and your opponent missing a shot.

Types or forms of feedback in sport

(i) Intrinsic or internal feedback

This type of feedback comes from within the performer from the proprioceptors. When
a golfer swings at the ball they can feel the timing of the arm movement and the hip
movement in conjunction with a perfect strike of the ball. The golfer can see and hear

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 their club swing, and hear the ball being struck, which serves to back up the
proprioceptive information being received. All this information is inherent to the task.
The more experienced and skilled a performer is, the more effective their use of intrinsic
feedback will be. As the performer becomes more skilled, they are able to detect and
correct their own faults. For example, a more experienced gymnast completing a vault
will be able to feel if they opened from the tuck position at the correct time.

(ii) Extrinsic or external feedback

This type of feedback is information received from outside the performer about the
performance and is given and used to enhance (augment) the already received intrinsic
feedback. This type of feedback can be received usually via sound or vision, through
their exteroceptors, from the coach, teacher, team mates (within the context of a game)
or even spectators. Performers usually receive this type of feedback by visual or
auditory means; for instance the coach or teacher tells or shows a performer the
reasons why success or failure has occurred. A less experienced gymnast completing a
vault will rely on guidance from the coach concerning their performance, as they have
not yet developed their kinaesthetic awareness fully.

Extrinsic feedback can obviously be made up of different types and forms. These are:
knowledge of performance and knowledge of results.

Knowledge of performance lets you know how well or badly you have performed. Examples
of knowledge of performance are how smooth you executed a skill like a serve or
somersault, recording own performance and watching it later with your coach and also
feeling how hard you hit a ball (proprioception; that is, own body awareness).

On the other hand knowledge of results tells you the outcome of your actions. Examples of
knowledge of results are watching the football go into the net, or seeing how far you have
thrown the discus, the number of goals scored, recorded times or distances, number of rally
wins or accuracy of the pass, the announcement of the score or a cheer from supporters
and by feeling from own body awareness if you have executed a skill properly. The coach of
a sprinter may analyse his or her technique from the starting blocks with the use of video,
identify weaknesses and adjust the training programme accordingly. If used effectively, not
only does performance improve but so too does the athlete’s motivation.

(iii) Continuous feedback

This feedback is sometimes referred to as an ongoing or concurrent feedback. This form

of feedback is received during the activity via proprioceptors or kinaesthetics. For
example, a badminton player knows if he or she is hitting the shuttlecock properly
because of the ‘feel’ and sound experienced during the rally. Information may also be
received from an external source, e. g., a coach.

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(iv) Terminal feedback

This is feedback received after the activity. For example, it may be given immediately by
the coach or some time later, such as when analyzing a video of the performance.

(v) Positive feedback

It is used as a form of reinforcement if the performance was successful, encouraging a

repetition of the action. For example, the coach of a netball team would praise a good
shot or attempt at the ring.

(vi) Negative feedback

It is received if the performance was incorrect, to discourage a repetition of the action.

For example, the coach of the same netball team would highlight faults in a poor
attempt.

The importance of feedback in sport

 Feedback motivates you to try harder

 Reinforcement of actions. It helps you reinforce the skill in your mind more especially if
you are praised on good performance
 Correction of errors; to improve your performance and helps you become more and
more skillful.

The principles of feedback

 Feedback should be given immediately after the attempt for it to be useful in correcting
errors.
 Learning cannot take place without feedback; that is both KP and KR
 Feedback should be clear correct and to the point. It should be understandable so that
you know what to change at the next attempt.
 You should have enough time to process the feedback before the next attempt. If you
get too much feedback too quickly, without time to process it, you will just get
confused.

 Guidance

Guidance is information given to the learner or performer in order to help them limit
possible mistakes (incorrect movement) thus ensuring that the correct movement
patterns are carried out more effectively. While guidance or instructions are usually
given to beginners when skills are unfamiliar, it is obviously used continually in various
forms at all stages of learning and performance. The form of guidance given, together
with it effectiveness, will depend on several aspects such as:
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 - the type or nature of the skill,
- the environment or situation,
- the motivation of the learner.

Types of guidance

(i) Visual guidance such as demonstration, film/video/slow motion, posters/charts,

OHTs/slides, etc. Its disadvantages are that it depends on the coach’s ability
demonstrate the correct model, can be dependent on expensive equipment, e. g. video,
is of limited value to group coaching situation regarding technical skill, it is difficult to
use in isolation, it’s dependent on coach’s ability to demonstrate problems within skills
and some skills may be too complex to be absorbed by the performer.

(ii) Verbal guidance is a common form of guidance used by teachers and coaches and can
be either very general or specific. A coach may talk through a particular strategy in team
games in order to give players a general picture of what is required before putting the
move into practice. Its disadvantages are that it is heavily dependent on the coach’s
ability to express the necessary information, less effective in early stages of learning,
dependent on the performer’s ability to relate the verbal instruction to the skill under
practice, some techniques are very difficult to describe verbally and verbal guidance can
become boring if too lengthy.

(iii) Manual/mechanical guidance involves trying to reduce errors by some way physically
moving or supporting a performer’s movements. This form of guidance is particularly
useful in potentially dangerous situations. A performer may initially need physical or
mechanical support in order to develop the confidence to ‘have a go’ themselves. This
physical or mechanical guidance may be in the form of holding the performer’s hand,
using twisting belts, holding a racket in tennis or supporting the performer’s body in
swimming. Its disadvantages are that it is of limited use in group situations, of limited
use in fast/complex movement, the ‘feel’ of the movement is not experienced by the
performer to the same extent as an unaided movement, kinaesthetic awareness can be
limited, performer may become reliant on the ‘support’ and there is possible implied
sexual misconduct.

 Teaching/Coaching

Acquisition of skill is greatly influenced by how the skill is taught and practiced. There
two important methods of practicing a skill, which are as follows:

a. Part method practice

Here a performer tries to develop specific subroutines of a skill in isolation

before putting them into the correct sequence. This practice method lends
itself to long sequences (gymnastic routines), complex skills (hurdling), low-
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 level organization skills (swimming) or dangerous tasks (gymnastic vaulting).
It is useful for those performers who are beginners, have limited motivation,
or attention span, and for those who need to rectify particular faults in
technique.

b. Whole method practice

This is a practice method in which the performer attempts to complete the

entire movement, after observing a demonstration or being given verbal
instructions. This form of practice has the advantage of helping the individual
to experience and develop the feel or kinaesthetic awareness of the whole
action, allowing them to begin to understand the relationship between the
different phases. It can be used when learning to catch and throw a ball,
swing a golf club or throw a javelin. It is advisable to use this method when
the performer is motivated, experienced and possesses high levels of
attention, or with skills that are simple, discrete, ballistic in nature and
comprised of easily linked subroutines.
 Arousal conditions

If the degree of arousal is low this will affect performance negatively hence the skill level
will be low. If arousal is increased to an optimum level performance will improving
hence improving acquisition of skill, but if a person becomes aroused beyond optimum
level (over-arousal) this inhibits performance and results in poor learning of skill.

(g) The following are some more factors that might affect participation in sport:
 Age
 Level of education
 Tradition and culture
 Religion
 Peer group pressure
 Family
 Money
 Disability
 Politics
 Environment and climate.

 Facilities
 Environment
 Teaching/Coaching
 Arousal conditions
(h) The following are some more factors that might affect participation in sport:
 Age
 Level of education

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  Tradition and culture
 Religion
 Peer group pressure
 Family
 Money
 Disability
 Politics
 Environment and climate.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SPORT AND ITS PLACE IN SOCIETY

 Cultural exchange
 During tournaments such as the World Cup supporters of the travelling teams meet
others from different cultures thus copying positive traits from each other’s cultures.

 Brings about unity

 It brings people of all races together, regardless of their differences. It also gives players
and supporters from different countries the chance to meet and develop friendship. It
unites people from different races, religions, cultures and classes in a shared interest.

 It is a form of recreation
 Sport encourages and spreads people’s interest in recreation. This discourages
delinquency as more people will have something to do during leisure.

 Creation of jobs
 More people take up sport as a form of employment. Nowadays sport is one of the
biggest employers in the world.

 Helps improve fitness

 Sport helps enhance fitness. A fit person is less likely to fall sick, and this in turn reduces
the cost of health care for the individual and the government.

 Economical boost
 As more people get employed in sport they pay tax. Also revenue accrues to the country
as it hosts major sporting events.

 Political boost
 Countries that excel in sport have an improved image and reputation. It gets more
recognition internationally.
 Sport attracts sponsorship
 Sponsorship brings money into sport. Even at local level, small businesses often sponsor
teams and help them financially, allowing more people to take part. Sponsoring sport

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 helps businesses because sponsorship is always tax deductible; that is, businesses do
not have to pay tax on the amount it spends on sponsorship.

 Provides scholarship to excelling athletes

 Sport gives the world’s top athletes the chance to compete against each other. This
encourages excellence. Athletes given scholarship through sport programmes train with
top coaches in top facilities; they don’t have to worry about money.

SOCIETAL ISSUES IN SPORT

 DOPING/SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Doping is the use of drugs or chemical substances to enhance performance. According to
the International Amateur Athletic Federation doping is the use by or distribution to an
athlete of certain substances which could have the effect of improving artificially the
athlete’s physical and/or mental condition and so augmenting his athletic performance.
There are two types of doping, which are drug doping and blood doping. Blood doping is
the practice of taking blood from an individual and transfuse it at a later stage before
competitions to increase red blood cells in the body hence more oxygen carrying capacity of
the athlete’s blood. ‘Ergogenic aids’ is a general phrase which refers to any substance that
improves performance.

Drugs are any chemical substance introduced to the body which affects how the body
works. Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a substance (drug) in
which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to
themselves or others for mood-altering purposes..

Reasons why sports persons take drugs

 To kill pain.
 To prolong activities or to perform for a long time without getting tired.
 To improve performance.
 To reduce weight, or for weight control.
 To build muscles for explosive events.
 To train harder.
 To increase aggression.
 Because of high expectations from peers, coaches and media.
 To steady nerves.
 Rewards are worth the risk.
 Drugs are easily accessible.
 Fear of ‘not making it’.

Types of drugs identified as performance enhancing and banned by the International Olympic
Committee

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Substance Negative effect

Stimulants  pain and fatigue can be masked and the athlete can continue to
perform causing further injury
 the athlete can feel really low afterwards
 can cause aggressive behaviour
 can lead to high blood pressure, and high body temperature
 Loss of appetite
 Addition
 can cause liver damage
 can cause brain damage
Narcotic  can cause low blood pressure
analgesics  result in constipation
 they are addictive
 if a performer becomes addicted they will suffer withdrawal
symptoms
 masking of pain which can cause further injury
 morphine and heroin are illegal in many countries so use can result
in legal action
Diuretics  sodium and potassium salts are excreted causing an imbalance in
the body of minerals
 low levels of potassium lead to muscle weakness
 low levels of potassium can lead to heart damage
Beta-blockers  lowers performance during lengthy events
 can cause sleep problems
 can cause depression
 can cause blood pressure to drop
Anabolic  heart disease
steroids  high blood pressure
 weakened ligaments and tendons
 infertility
 cancer
 aggressive behaviour/depression
 changes in sexual characteristics
 deepening of the voice

Drugs subject to certain restrictions

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  Alcohol – even though alcohol is a legal drug it is not for sale to minors, and people a
restricted from performing certain duties under the influence of alcohol – a case in point
being driving a motor vehicle.
 Marijuana – this drug is illegal in most countries but in countries where it is legal people
have to use it under certain strict conditions.
 Beta blockers

 HOOLIGANISM
Sports hooliganism is a specific form of deviant behaviour. It is disorderly, destructive,
violent behaviour displayed by spectators. It is also aggressive and violent behaviour before,
during and after games by spectators, or simply spectator violence. Hooligans go to matches
to engage in aggressive and violent behaviour before, during and after games.

Effects of spectator violence/hooliganism on sport

 It causes damage to property and facilities.

 It causes injury to spectators/athletes/officials, and also traumatizes them.
 It dents the image of the sport.
 It scares away potential sponsors and sponsors.
 It causes death.
 It scares away potential athletes and spectators

Different ways of combating hooliganism at sporting events

The following are some of the steps taken to fight hooliganism:

 Qualified stewards at events: To watch the crowd and help seat them, or help with
emergency situations such as evacuation.
 Increased police presence: To ensure correct behaviour to and from games or events.
 Use of video surveillance: to identify trouble makers.
 All-seater stadia: To ensure no overcrowding.
 Upgrading facilities: To make sure that they are safer.
 Fencing removed from perimeter of pitches: To allow crowds to get out in an
emergency.
 All ticket matches or membership schemes: To prevent known trouble makers from
attending, and make it easier to ban them.
 More severe penalties for trouble makers: To discourage hooliganism.
 Crowd segregation at venues: To keep fans apart.
 Police in different countries sharing information about known hooligans and passing on
warnings about them.

 RACISM
Racism is a set of beliefs or ideas based on the assumption that races have distinctive
cultural, and to some extent, intellectual characteristics determined by hereditary factors,

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and that this endows some races with an intrinsic superiority. These ideas might lead to lack
of equal opportunities in sport. For example, in the former South Africa blacks were not
allowed to take part in cricket and rugby, the evidence of which is still visible.
 Historically, the sports associated with black people during the slavery era were boxing
and horse racing. In boxing, the white owners would train up a black boxer, and use the
fight as a way of entertainment and opportunity for wagering. The boxer would have
gained considerably less from the situation, and parallels can be drawn to the
gladiatorial concept.
 In horse racing, white owners were involved in training and planning but the jockeys
were usually black, fulfilling a role which required a more mechanical and physical input.
 Racial stacking in sports teams is a well reported issue, where players from a certain
racial group are either over – or under-represented in certain positions in a sports team.
Black players traditionally have not occupied which require decision making but have
been placed in positions which rely on the physical attributes of speed, reflexes and
strength e.g. quarterback.
 During the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games Jesse Owens, who was a black American athlete,
won 4 gold medals. The games were hosted by Adolf Hitler’s Germany – they hoped for
Aryan winners (blond hair, blue eyes). Adolf Hitler refused to acknowledge Owens
because of his race.

 GOOD OR BAD SPORTSMANSHIP

In sport there are many performers who are regarded as great sportspersons but not all of
them show the necessary qualities or attitudes.

Examples of good sporting attitudes in sport

 Congratulating opponents on good play

 Welcoming opponents
 Shaking hands after a game, especially with officials and accepting the officials’ decisions
without arguing
 In cricket a player walks away from the crease when he knows he’s out. He doesn’t wait
for the umpire to tell him
 When a football player is injured the ball may be kicked out of play on purpose so that
the casualty can get treatment. When play resumes, it is usually given back to the team
that kicked it out
 Not remonstrating with the referee even if the referee has made a wrong call or
decision.

These are not rules they are to do with a sporting attitude and a sense of fair-play. The
opposite of all these are a sign of bad sportsmanship.
 RELIGION

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Some religions perpetuate certain restrictions. For example:
 They do not allow females to participate or take a leading role in sports
 They do not allow them to wear clothes that are user friendly
 Certain groupings do not allow their members to take part in sporting activities on
particular days.

 HOSTING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

Hosting is securing the right to stage an event in your country. Countries work very hard to
secure the right to host sporting events such as the World Cup, the Commonwealth Games,
the Olympic Games and Africa Cup of Nations. Hosting an event can have its advantages and
disadvantages:

Advantages

 Better sporting facilities that can be used after the event has passed.
 More jobs for the people in the host country; that is, job creation.
 More wealth for businesses in the host country.
 Improved transport system.
 Good publicity for the host country.
 The athletes act as role models and encourage or inspire people in the host country to
participate in more physical activity.

Disadvantages

 It requires a large amount of money to build facilities and countries may not get the
return on investment if the event is not a success.
 Political groups can use the event to draw attention to a particular issue, sometimes
with violent results.
 Once the event is over some jobs will be lost.
 Some sporting facilities may become white elephants (not used) after the event.

 POLITICS

Over the years sport has been used by some people or countries to express political
opinions and view points.

 In 1968, Mexico Olympic Games – American athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos
chose the winners’ podium to bring awareness to the civil rights struggle in the USA.
They wanted racial equality at a time when black people were considered second rate
citizens. Their message of defiance was broadcast on live TV across the world.
 During the 1972 Munich Olympic Games terrorists from the black September terrorist
group took hostage members of the Israeli Olympic team in the athlete’s village. Their

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 aim was to publicise the struggle for power by Palestinians on West Bank. In the attempt
to rescue the athletes 11 of the athletes lost their lives.
 At the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games, the USA refused to send their team to Moscow in
protest against the communist political system that governed the Soviet Union at the
time and also because the Soviet Union had just invaded Afghanistan.
 It was during the 1996 Africa Cup of Nations Games held in South Africa that Nigeria
boycotted the games, which were finally won by the host nation. This was after
president Nelson Mandela had critisized the then military regime of Sani Abacha for
killing Ogoni rights activist Sam Sarowiwa who was campaigning against oil spills in the
Niger Delta.

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