Draft Message

It gives me immense pleasure to learn that the National Council of Science Museums, the apex body of Science
Centres and Museums in India is organizing an exhibition ‘India: A Culture of Science’ in Port of Spain,
Trinidad and Tobago under the cultural exchange programme between the two countries.

India is known for its vibrant cultural diversity. However, science has been an important pre-occupation of
ancient Indians. Basics of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, metallurgy, ship building, town planning,
harnessing water power, textiles and technical craft were part of the Indian cultural life thousands of years ago.
Some of the most basic discoveries in mathematics were made in India. Inventories, absorption and
modifications of techniques and processes were part of Indian living. Art and craft utilized some advanced
technical skills. This tradition continued for centuries before science got dissociated from public life during
British rule. But in 65 years after independence, India has made great strides in S&T. It all happened due to
very intelligently carved science policies under the leadership of our first Prime Minister, Pt. Jawharlal Nehru.
As a result, India today has made great progress in almost all fields of S&T. India has set up all kinds of scientific
institutions, called the temples of science, industries, explored oil, built satellites, launched unmanned missions,
built nuclear power plants and much more. S&T manpower especially in IT is a force to reckon with. A large
number of skilled S&T manpower is engaged in all frontier areas of research. Still there is a long way to go and
take one billion people into a path of prosperity where the diversity and culture of land would flourish in the
midst of and with assistance from a variety of specially tuned scientific endeavours.

The vibrancy of India cannot be fully portrayed through an exhibition of this size. The exhibition, however, is a
short story of a big emerging nation. I am sure the exhibits will engage you and facilitate exploration of India’s
glorious culture of science and technology, existing for over 7000 years.

I wish the exhibition all the success.

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 FOREWORD
“It is an inherent obligation of a great country like India with its traditions of scholarship and original
thinking and its great cultural heritage to participate fully in the march of science, which is probably
mankind’s greatest enterprise today.”
- Jawaharlal Nehru

The tradition of science and technology in India is over 7000 years old. The inventions, modification of
techniques and processes were always a part of Indian culture. The excavated sites of the Indus Valley
Civilization; the Vedic and Post-Vedic literature and artifacts provide ample evidences that beside art and
literature, there grew a very rich culture of science and technology on Indian soil. India made significant
contribution in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, shipping, metallurgy, town planning and architecture,
glass and ceramics, war technology etc. India has experienced a renaissance in Science and Technology in
the second half of the 20th century with the government adopting a vision of using Science and Technology
as an effective instrument for growth and development. Thanks to the “green revolution,” India is able not
only to feed its masses but has enough to spare and export. The “white revolution” has made India the
largest milk producer in the world.

Now India has the third largest scientific and technical manpower of the world. Significant progress has
been achieved in the areas of information technology, nuclear and space science, electronics,
telecommunications and defense. Besides being the only third world country to develop its own remote
sensing satellite and even the remotest and far flung villages of India are connected through phones.
Television has also reached homes in the remotest corner of the country. Considering the magnitude of the
country and the enormity of its population, this has indeed been a great achievement for our country. As a
nation S&T is perceived as an essential component of development. Therefore, adequate government
support is available in the form of huge infrastructure for S&T and funding. The young S&T manpower is
engaged in all frontier areas of scientific research and development.

The Indian scenario provides great challenges in science and technology. There appears to be no other
equivalent situation in the world wherein a developing country with a very large population has attempted to
make use of modern science and technology not only to solve the pressing problems of society but also to be
counted as a modern nation in a highly competitive world.

One of the hallmarks of the Indian civilization from the very ancient times was to develop harmony with life
and nature and to establish the infinite potential of human development. As a long term vision, India should
lead the world in establishing and demonstrating the harmony between science and spirituality, in the

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development and application of science with ethics as the backbone. Scientific temper and true joy of
science will be unfolded when the harmony between the science and the mankind’s highest quest is
achieved.

It is true indeed that our vibrant India may not be fully reflected in a single exhibition. However at the dawn
of 21st century ‘India: A Culture of Science’ will give you a glimpse of India, a emerging economic
superpower.
Prof. R.C. Sobti
Chairman, GB, NCSM

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 Quotable quotes
If there is one place on the face of earth where all the dreams of living men have found a home from the
very earliest days when man began the dream of existence, it is India!

~ Romaine Rolland, French scholar

If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most fully developed some of its choicest gifts, has most
deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life, and has found solutions, I should point to India.

~ Max Mueller, German scholar

… India for thousands of years peacefully existed. Here activity prevailed when even Greece did not exist…
ideas after ideas have marched out from her, but every word has been spoken with a blessing behind it and
peace before it. We, of all nations of the world, have never been a conquering race, and that blessing is on
our head, and therefore we live….!
~ Swami Vivekananda, Indian philosopher

The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity is of wonderful structure, more perfect than the Greek,
more copious than the Latin and more exquisitely refined than either.

~ Sir William Jones, British scholar

It is true that even across the Himalayan barrier India has sent to the west, such gifts as grammar and logic,
philosophy and fables, hypnotism and chess, and above all numerals and the decimal system.

~ Will Durant, American historian

India had the start of the whole world in the beginning of things. She had the first civilization; she had the
first accumulation of material wealth; she was populous with deep thinkers and subtle intellects; she had
mines, and woods, and a fruitful soul.

~ Mark Twain, American playwright

From the Vedas we learn a practical art of surgery, medicine, music, house building under which
mechanized art is included. They are encyclopedia of every aspect of life, culture, religion, science, ethics,
law, cosmology and meteorology.

~ William James, American philosopher

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Content
1 Cover Page
2. Title Page
3. Messages
4. Preface
5. Quotable quotes
6. Content
7. An Introduction to Indian
Civilization
8. Evolution of Science in Physical Concepts
India
Mathematics
Quest for Celestial
Knowledge
Medicine and Health Care
Earth Sciences
Chemistry
9. Technology in Ancient & Metals & Metallurgy
Medieval India
Ancient Maritime Activities
Town Planning and
architecture

Textile
Chemicals and dyes
Agriculture and Irrigation
Water Power Technology
War Technology
Technology in Art
Traditional Musical
Instruments
10. The Growth of Modern
Science and Technology
11. India Today
12. Great Scientific Minds
13. Scientific Research &
Education
14. Select bibliography
15. NCSM Nationwide

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An Introduction to Indian Civilization

India is one of the oldest civilizations in the world with a kaleidoscopic variety and rich
cultural heritage. It has achieved all-round socio-economic progress during the last 65 years of its
Independence. India has become self-sufficient in agricultural production and is now one of the top
industrialized countries in the world and one of the few nations to have a successful space programme for
peaceful purpose. India covers an area of 32, 87,263 sq. km, extending from the snow-covered Himalayas in
the north to the Indian Ocean in the south. The peninsular part tapers off into the Indian Ocean between the
Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west. It measures about 3,214 km from north to south
and about 2,933 km from east to west. It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. The total length of the
coastline of the mainland, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands is 7,516.6 km. As the 7th
largest country in the world, India stands apart from the rest of Asia, marked off as it is by mountains and
the sea, which give the country a distinct geographical entity. Politically India is divided into 28 states and 7
Union Territories. Indians speak more than 200 languages (of which Hindi is the Official language) and
many more dialects. People of all major religions live in India. Today, India follows a Parliamentary system
of government. It has a lower house of elected representatives called Loksabha and an upper house, called
Rajyasabha. In all, 780 parliamentary members meet in a palatial setting of buildings designed by architect
Sir Edwin Lutyens in Delhi.

Science and Technology in Indian History

India's history and culture is dynamic, going back to the beginning of human civilization. The beginning of
agrarian settlements in the Indian subcontinent dates back to 7000 BCE in the present day Baluchistan in
places like Mehrgarh, Kot diji etc. The early Neolithic villages cultivated mainly wheat and barley and
domesticated cattle and sheep. By the middle of the 3rd century BCE, we see a fairly developed urban
culture along the Indus and Saraswati rivers in the North West India: now known as the famous Indus Valley
Civilization or Harappan Civilization. The civilization is contemporaneous to the Sumerian civilization of
Mesopotamian, Chinese and the Egyptian civilization, but with distinct features that cannot be seen
anywhere in the ancient world.

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Indus Valley Civilization flourished around 2,600 BCE, in the western part of South Asia mainly along the
river Indus or Sindhu. The name India comes from “Sindhu,” a name given to the river Indus. From
“Sindhu” came the word Hind (the initial S became H in Persian tongue and thus came its Greek version
Ind), meaning “the land beyond the Indus.” The people of India later became known as Hindus and India as
Hindustan. Indus Valley Civilization was one of the most developed urban civilizations in the world that
utilized extensive knowledge of technology in developing their towns: Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lothal,
Kalibangan etc. The most prominent features of the civilization were its town planning and sewerage
systems, its great granaries for preserving grains (Indus people cultivated variety of crops like wheat, barley,
rice, different pulses, musk melons, date palms and most notably cotton – cotton was first cultivated in India
and Indus people exported cotton garments to the middle east), great bath where bitumen was used for
waterproofing, wheeled carts, Indus seals featuring a yet undeciphered script etc. But more important is the
uniform weights and measures system across the Indus Valley: a clear proof of technological advancement.

The Indus people traded with the Sumerian civilization: the finding of Indus seals in Mesopotamia and their
ideographical similarity with Mesopotamian seals speak clearly of the trade and cultural exchange between
these two great civilizations. Unfortunately we do not know much about how the Indus people thought about
science, but there is no doubt that they played a key role in the development of human wisdom of
technology in the early part of the world history.

The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history of ancient India associated with the coming of
Aryans. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people. The Vedic Civilization
flourished along the river Indus and its tributaries and along Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the
modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. The largely accepted view is that a section of Aryans reached
the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 2000-1500 BCE from the Central Asia and first settled in
Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rigveda were composed. The Aryans lived in tribes
and spoke an earlier version of Sanskrit, which belonged to the Indo-European group of languages. The
Aryans cultivated mainly Barley (wheat was considered as mlechchha shasya or forbidden crop and is still
not used in Hindu worships, but barley and paddy are used) fed on meat, milk and Soma (an inebriating
herbal juice) and lived in thatched mud huts. The Aryans were expert horsemen and by BCE 1000, they
brought in iron technology to India. Essentially their culture and social organization was tribal. But within
the next millennium the Aryans were assimilated to the Indian society and a historic synthesis was worked
out between the Aryan tribes and the original inhabitants. This synthesis broadly came to be known as
Hinduism, a highly developed and sophisticated culture, whose contribution to the world will be
remembered forever. The Upanishads were the expressions of highly sophisticated philosophical thoughts
and the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.

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Historic period started in India in around 7th and early 6th centuries BCE when sixteen great powers
(Mahajanpadas) flourished in Northern India including a few Republics. Two great souls lived during this
time who had cast an immense influence on the minds of the people of India. Buddha was the founder of
Buddhism, the religion and the philosophical system that evolved into a great culture throughout much of
southern and eastern Asia. Jainism was another great religion that was dedicated to the sacredness of life, its
chief concept being “Ahimsa,” or non-violence, founded by Mahavira , the last of 24 great Jain saints.

In 326 BCE, Alexander invaded India marking the beginning of an era of strong cultural exchange between
India and the West, which is most visible in the field of Science, Art and Architecture. The period of the
Mauryan Empire (322 BCE-185 BCE) marked a new epoch in the history of India. It was a period of
unification of the territories which lay as fragmented kingdoms. Moreover, Indian contact with the outside
world was established effectively during this period. The most famous of the Mauryan Emperors was
Ashoka the Great. He realized the wickedness of worldly conquest and the beauty of moral and spiritual
triumph. In the beginning of the 1st century CE, the Kushanas established their authority over the north-west
frontier of India. The most famous among the Kushana kings was Kanishka (125.-162 CE.

After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The Gupta period has been described as
the Golden Age of Indian history. Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, conquered the extensive
territories. This provided exceptional wealth, which added to the prosperity of the Guptas. The Guptas in
this period engaged in sea trade with the countries of the west. It was most probably during his reign that
Kalidas, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, as well as many other scientist and scholars flourished.

With the commencement of the 7th century, Harshavardhana (606-647 CE.) ascended the throne of
Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana. By CE 612 Harshavardhana
consolidated his kingdom in northern India. The ancient history of India has seen the rise and downfall of
several dynasties, which have left their legacies still resounding in the golden book of Indian history. With
the end of the 9th century A.D., the the last phase of ancient history of India started with the rise of empires
such as the Palas, the Senas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, and so on.

Exact sciences began in India around 600 BCE. It is somewhat related to the 2nd urbanization of the
northern India during this period. Astronomy was the earliest science that developed on the Indian soil. It
was probably related to metrology. We do not know much about the pre-Vedic concepts of astronomy. Prof
Asko Perpola in his monumental work ‘Deciphering Indus Script’ has shown that the symbols on certain
Indus seals point to certain astronomical knowledge. In the Rig Veda we find discussion about Creation, the
Sun, the Earth, the Moon, the Space, shape and motion of the earth, seasons, eclipse, precession of the
equinoxes etc. By around BCE 600, sage Lagadha compiled Vedanga Jyotisha in which the calculation of
time, day, tithi, month, year, yuga, (all based separately on the lunar and solar movement in the sky)
intercalary month, asterisms, variation of day and night in different seasons etc have been shown in detail
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and the accuracy with which they have been calculated clearly reveals the amount of importance the ancient
Indians attached to astronomy. The Jaina astronomy was another important branch of Indian Science and is
historically important for its queer concepts. The next major development was the Siddhantic Astronomy, in
which the Greek influence and indigenous concepts are both conspicuous. The most significant contribution
of the Siddhantic Astronomy is the accurate calculation of celestial events using spherical geometry. Indian
astronomers accurately calculated the motions of planets and in explaining their retrograde motions,
epicyclical motions and off-centred motions were assumed. Noted exponents of Siddhantic Astronomy were
Aryabhata I, Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Bhaskara II. Varahamihira’s Panchasiddhantika was a great
compilation of Indian astronomy of that time. Aryabhata I and Bhaskara II assumed that the earth is round
and is moving around the Sun, the idea that came to Europe after five hundred years from Bhaskara II !
There is no doubt that Indian Astronomy was ahead of its time.

During the ancient period, Indian mathematics reached its zenith. The unique contribution of ancient Indians
to the field of mathematics was the invention of zero (first appeared in the Bakhshali manuscript of 2nd
Century CE) and the decimal system of counting. The Arabs learnt these from India and later the Europeans
learnt them from the Arabs. The Sulvasutra of Baudhayana was the first in the world to state the theorem
now known as Pythagoras’ Theorem. The Sulvasutras have also discussed various aspects of geometry and
mensuration which includes the squaring of rectangles and squaring of circles, values of irrational numbers
like √2 and √3. They have also given the approximate values of π, but for all practical purpose it was taken
to be 3. During the Gupta era, there flourished renowned mathematicians Aryabhata I and Brahmagupta.
Aryabhata’s famous book titled Aryabhatiya and Brahamagupta’s Brahamasphuta Siddhanta were referred
to by scholars all over the world. Aryabhata demonstrated the methods of extracting square and cube roots,
fractions, progressive series etc. Arayabhata also calculated the value of π correct upto four decimal points
but knew that it was approximate. Brahmagupta was the first in the world to discuss indeterminate
equations of second degree. He also made valuable contribution to the theory of cyclic quadrilaterals in
summation of series of natural numbers. Brahamasphuta Siddhanta was subsequently translated in Arabic
during the reign of Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur. Other important mathematicians of the 1st millennium CE
were Shridharacharya, who was the first in the world to give the general solution of quadratic equations, and
Mahaviracharya, who discussed the problems of geometric progression. The last great mathematician of the
era was Bhaskara II, whose Siddhanta Shiromani was a book on Algebra and Arithmetic in addition to
astronomy. Bhaskara developed a method of cyclic solutions to the indeterminate equations of second
degree. He also correctly interpreted the divisions of a finite number by zero and gave the correct formulae
for surface area and volume of a sphere. It is believed that he almost discovered the principles of differential
calculus!
There developed in India a strong tradition of medical science called Ayurveda that was based on tridosha
theory (pitta, bata and kafa) and developed medicines from the indigenous herbs. Many of the Ayurvedic

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medicines are still popular. Three major medical texts of this time were Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita
and Ashtanga Hridaya. Sushruta was the first in the world to perform plastic surgery. Jeevaka
Komaravachcha was another famous physician of the ancient India. Indian doctors were said to have been
invited to the court of Persia for treating the Royals.

India had a prominence in metallurgy in the ancient world. Iron Age came to India by around 600 BCE. By
the early Christian era, India produced the best quality of wootz steel that was used for making Damascene
Swords. The Rust free Iron pillar of the Gupta era that now stands beside Qutab Minar in Delhi is still a
wonder. India was also the first country in the world to make brass and zinc. The antiquity of the Zawar
mines dates back to early Christian era.

The ancient Indians paid considerable attention to Agricultural science. In the Maurya era, Emperor Ashoka
promoted horticulture and arboriculture. Kautilya’s Arthashastra gives a vivid account of agriculture during
Mauryan era. Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira and Amarakosha of Amarasimha are important account of
agriculture in which manuring, sowing, pest control etc have been discussed in detail. Krishiparashara of
Sage Parashara and Vrikshaayurveda of Surapala were totally dedicated to Agriculture.

The Medieval Indian history started with the advent of Turk Afghans around CE 1200. The next few
centuries saw an intense Indo Islamic cultural synthesis. The social fabric changed, but a new culture
developed in India. This found expressions in art, architecture, literature, religious thought, music, cuisine
and so on. This is more prominent in the Mughal Era (CE 1526-1757). Famous Tajmahal, one of the finest
marble structures in the world, was built by Mughal Emperor Shahjahan. Islamic scholars and early
European travelers came to India during this time, resulting into infusion of Arabic, West Asian and
European knowledge into the Indian society.

Astronomy, medicine, and the Indian textile and steel making processes impressed travelers the most. There
is one astronomical work of the eighteenth century, that of Sawai Jai Singh, which has attracted a lot of
attention. Jai Singh wanted to explore why the time of different celestial phenomena, especially the eclipses
of the sun and moon, differs according to Siddhantic and Greco Arabic astronomy and does not very often
tally with that of actual occurrence. He consulted a large number of almanacs, traditional scholars and
European travelers. He was not satisfied with calculations done through astrolabes (brass instruments) and
though that stone observatories, bigger in size and fixed in one place, would give more accurate results. So
he constructed observatories in Delhi, Jaipur, Mathura and Varanasi. He was also presented with a telescope
by a French Jesuit. Jai Singh is credited with evolving a systematic scientific method. He sent his scholars
to Central and West Asia and invited European scholars to his court. The results of his efforts were later
compiled in the Zij-i-Muhammad Shahi (1728) which is considered to be the most important astronomical
work of medieval India and several commentaries were later written on it. In a commentary on Jai Singh’s
Zij, Mirza Khairullah Khan argued that the planetaryorbits must be elliptical.
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As in astronomy, Indian technology evoked a mixed response. Several foreign observers were awe struck
by the quality of Indian steel (called wootz) as well as Indian textiles. On the basis of tributes paid to Indian
textiles, metal-works, and construction and ship-building techniques by several early European travellers,
Sangwan argues that:“By the beginning of the eighteenth-century India had attained the distinct status of a
technologically advanced country. Indian workmen excelled in their profession. They had also adopted
some new techniques and technologies which appeared more useful. There was thus a continuous process of
technological change in pre-industrial (pre-colonial) India.”

In the realm of armaments, an area which concerned the State the moist, one finds Indian interests ahead of
its western counterpart. In sixteenth-century CE , Indian technologist, Fathullah Shirazi, who crafted a
multi-barreled cannon (a precursor of the machine-gun), a machine for cleaning gun-barrels called the
yarghu and a wagon mill. Shirazi was not an inventor but a wonderful adaptor. He was the first to use the
gear-wheel (which was confined only to devices for raining water) for other purposes. But all these
remained fancy devices and could not be used in serious industrial operations in the Mughal Karkhana. In
the late eighteenth century one finds a similar story in the use of rockets by the armies of Hyder Ali and
Tipu Sultan. The Mysore rockets were much more advanced than what the British had seen or known,
chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant which enabled higher bursting pressures in
the combustion chamber and hence higher thrust and longer range for the missile. In the last Anglo-Mysore
war, Wellesley (later the hero of Waterloo) himself was shocked by the ‘rocket fire’. Several rocket cases
were sent to Britain for analysis and these led to a great interest in rocketry in Europe.

The English East India Company capture political power in the crucial state of Bengal in 1757 CE and in
next fifty years, British became the paramount power in India. In 1857, the British Govt took over the direct
responsibility of ruling India through Queen’s Proclamation. The 19 th century saw the rise of the middle
class, social reform movement, spread of western education particularly the science education and women’s
education and above all the rise of Nationalism. However the British carried out a systematic economic
exploitation of India leading to deindustrialization of India, particularly in the textile and cottage industry
sector, in order to promote goods made in England. The true motive of the British, i.e. drain of wealth from
India, was soon exposed and Indians led a vigorous freedom struggle, primarily under the leadership of
Mahatma Gandhi (CE 1869-1948) through nonviolent means. Finally India was freed on 15 th August 1947
the country was partitioned into India and Pakistan on communal lines, much against the wishes of the
patriotic people.

The British were truly alien to the Indian society and its culture. But trading in India and ruling this diverse
and vast country were really two different propositions. As a ruler, the Company sought to gather
information and data on the history, geography, natural resources, population and many other matters that
11
were of concern to them. With this aim, The Asiatic Society of Bengal was set up in 1784. The primary aim
was to collect data on India and its people. In doing so, the Society conducted some research, but it never
had any intention to propagate science and technology in India. The sole concern of the Society was to
further the cause of imperialism and to serve them. The same is true about the other organizations that
followed soon namely, the Botanical Gardens, the Baptist Mission of Serampore, the Geological and
Trigonometrical Survey of India, the Medical Colleges etc.

The British people had no respect for Indian Science and Technology. Instead of encouraging India’s
scientific tradition, they actually denounced it. No government grant was released for indigenous science
and as a result, rich subjects like Ayurveda almost died during the colonial rule. Initially, there was a
struggle between orientalists and westerners. When James Princep wanted to translate the works of Bhaskara
II, he was prevented from doing so. Afterwards, during the time of Bentinck, the Company totally switched
over to western education, and Indian sciences suffered inevitable consequences. The Company also stopped
financial grant for all Indian institutions. However, the Company did not do any true research on Western
Science either.

The National Science arose as an Indian response. The first and foremost was the sense of nascent
nationalism. From the time of Raja Rammohun Roy, Indians were eager to embrace Western Science as a
symbol of progress. It, in the due course, resulted in setting up of scientific institutions and scientists like J C
Bose, P C Ray, C V Raman, M N Saha, S N Bose and others drawing global attention and recognition for
the contribution to science. It is to be noted that among Indians, there was no doubt about the effectiveness
of the western science. At the same time they felt it necessary to write popular scientific articles for the
masses. Raja Rammohun Roy Vidyasagar and Aukshoy Kumar Dutta. The colonialists never tried to
popularize science. Later, Dr Mahendralal Sircar and Ruchiram Sahni arranged a series of popular lectures
for the Indian students.

In 1947, India inherited a shattered economy from the British. The partition of the country and subsequent
political disturbances and mass exodus across the border stalled the economic development completely. The
reconstruction of the country became a major challenge to the Government. However successive five year
plans envisaged an overall development in agriculture and industry that put a check on ‘ Ship to mouth’
economy and with the aim of self-reliance, and placed India strongly among the scientifically and
technologically developing nations.. In last six decades or more India achieved remarkable development in
agriculture, heavy industry, irrigation, energy production, nuclear power capability, space technology,
biotechnology, telecommunication, oceanography and science education and research. Today India is an IT
superpower, has the largest scientific manpower and largest railway network in the world. The new look
India is all poised for a giant leap forward in science and technology.
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From its early inventions, including the zero, decimal place value, the Pythagorean Theorem, the value of Pi,
the development of natural medicine and perfumes through distillation process, hand guns, non-rusting iron,
and much more, India has provided a solid and effective base to further its program of self-sufficiency.

This exhibition demonstrates some examples of India’s development and exploration. Furthering public
understanding of science and technology and by giving intelligent answers to many of our problems will
help to shape man’s future for peace in the years ahead.

EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE IN INDIA

India has a long and glorious history of Science and Technology dating back to Mehrgarh Culture (c BCE
7000). The excavated sites of the Indus Valley Civilizations and the Vedic and post-Vedic literatures &
artifacts provide ample evidences that side by side with art and literature, there grew on Indian soil a very
rich culture of science and technology.

Extant manuscripts prove that in the field of mathematics, ancient Indians were a force to reckon with.
India's unique contributions of decimal place value system and the concept of zero have revolutionized the
world of mathematics. When the western civilization was still in its cradle, Indian astronomers had made
giant leaps in astronomy. Indian men of medicine utilized the wealth of indigenous herbs to make potent
antidotes for several incurable diseases and performed the first ever plastic surgery in the world. Town
planning, architecture and metallurgy flourished in ancient India. In metallurgy, India's primacy in zinc and
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brass metallurgy is well known. Agriculture and animal husbandry, ship building and navigation, weights
and measures, cotton textile, coin minting, water power technology, gems and jewelleries; acoustics and
development of musical instruments are some of the other areas where ancient India achieved substantial
progress.

These scientific and technological developments have found expressions in socio-cultural practices in India.
Agricultural practices and festivals, cuisines and ingredients, dance forms, music, indigenous medicines,
natural cosmetics, health and hygiene, household planning and designs, beliefs and traditions, rituals - all
have a degree of scientific elements of logic and experimentation in them.

PHYSICAL CONCEPTS

EVOLUTION OF THE MATTER AND UNIVERSE

The physical concepts, in their origin, have been an integral part of the Indian philosophical system. The
physical concepts attempt to explain the material world within their particular philosophical beliefs. The
Indian thinkers believed that special knowledge was contained in different sciences and that this knowledge
was real and only gave a glimpse of the total, the absolute. These theories were the result of systematic
practices and logical thought; yet these concepts are comparable to some of the most recent and advanced
scientific ideas of our time.

According to Samkhya Philosophy (6th – 2nd Century BCE) all objects may be classified into two
categories. Purusha and Prakriti. While Purusha represents consciousness, Prakriti is the first cause of the
Universe. It encompasses both matter and energy. Prakriti is composed of three essential characteristics or
Triguna. Gunas fall into three categories: Sattva (the essence or the intelligence), Rajas (the energy) and
Tamsas (the inertia or matter). The gunas though assuming infinite diversity of forms and powers can
neither be created nor destroyed. The totality of the energy stuff (rajas) and the matter stuff (tamas) remains
constant taking together the manifested and the un-manifested, the actual and the potential. It is only the
changes or differences in the aggregation which are responsible for the diversity of the phenomenon of
objects.

In the beginning, the prakriti was in a perfect state of equilibrium, with all the guna uniform. Evolution
began with a disturbance of this equilibrium. The disturbance is said to have been caused by Purusha,
through a transcendental magnetic influence on the sleeping prakriti. This disturbance led to the creation of
all organic and inorganic matter. Through this process of change it was believed that the diversity of all
phenomena of objects was created. It also is believed that there is constant tendency on the part of the
unstable equilibrium to revert back to the original stable equilibrium of prakriti with equal distribution of the

14
gunas. The Samkhya Philosophy contains the seeds of modern laws of transformation and conservation of
energy and thermodynamics.

According to the Samkhya philosophy, five subtle infra-atomic particles, called “tanmatra”, existed in a state
that was imperceptible to the human senses. These five tanmatras are related to the five human senses:
touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing- in energy potential. The tanmatras created the five grosser elements of
“bhuta”: space, air, fire, water and earth. These bhutas represent five abstract principles and form all earthly
things by grouping or regrouping the five elements.

NAYA-VAISHESIKA ATOMISM

The concept of atoms in Indian philosophy dates back to the 4th century BCE or before generally attributed
to Sage Kanada. Four basic elements of air, fire, water and earth were considered material and believed to
have atomic structure. Space, initially, was considered to have atoms, but was later rejected as having no
atomic structure.

According to this concept, atoms are indestructible, indivisible and infinitesimally small, as well as being
spherical and in eternal motion. The possibility of combination or two like atoms existed and could form a
dyad. Dyads, unlike atoms, were not eternal and are destructible. Atoms are visible as triads which are
formed out of three dyads. Dyads can combine to form a tetrad or a pentad. This philosophy contains the
basis or elemental concept of the molecule.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Gravity: Vaisheshika philosophy (c.500 BCE) regarded gravity not as a force but as a cause of the act of
falling. Though the word Gurutva has a connotation of heaviness or weight there was no correlation between
gravity and the mass of the substance.

Elasticity: Sthitisthapakatva or elasticity was conceived as a property that is responsible for a bow a thread
or a branch of a tree to undergo contraction or expansion. Elasticity was thought of as a cause for returning
of an object to original condition after it has been subjected to a change of state.

Viscosity: Snigdhatva or viscosity was conceived as the cause of cohesion and smoothness. As a result of
this quality, particles hold together to form a lump or thick liquid.

Fluidity: Dravyata or fluidity was conceived as the cause of the action of flowing. Fluidity was considered to
be a specific property of water. Fire was also regarded as a substance possessing the quality of fluidity.

MATHEMATICS

15
A process apparently as simple as counting has passed through many stages before reaching the present
level. The Indian invention of Zero has revolutionized the very practice of arithmetic the world over. It is
now well established that the so-called Arab Numerals are an Indian invention and are now referred to as
Hindu - Arabic Numerals. India gave to the world an ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means
of symbols, each symbol representing a value of position as well as an absolute value, a profound and
important idea that appears so simple now that we tend to ignore its true merit. Other important Indian
contributions in mathematics include calculation of the value of pi, and calculating the square and cube roots
of numbers by Aryabhata, the golden rule of three, and Brahmagupta's important contribution to the solution
of second order indeterminate equation. The so called Pythagoras’ theorem also seems to have been worked
out by the Indians as evidenced in the verses of Sulba-sutra treatises which predate Pythagoras. Bhaskara II
(1150 CE), another stalwart, developed the early concepts of calculus.

NUMBERS

Around 100 CE, a system of expressing numbers by words evolved in India. The numbers ranging from 0 to
9 were related to physical realities.

0 was represented by the emptiness of space.

1 by the moon.

2 by eyes.

3 by the cosmic properties: matter, energy, intellect or “gunas”.

4 by the “Vedas”, the earliest literary efforts in India

5 by the five senses (touch, smell, taste, sight and hearing).

6 by the six seasons in India

7 by the seven notes of music

8 by Vasu, the eight incarnations of Vishnu.

9 by the planets

Large numbers were expressed by word numerals read from

right to left- first the unit, then tens, then hundred and so on.
Thus, “3520” was expressed in writing the word numerals in
the reverse order, e.g. space, eyes, senses, gunas.
16
Aryabhata (499 CE) conceived a large number to express the revolution of the planets in Mahayuga. He
expressed 1,582,237,500 revolutions of earth in powers of 10. In a verse, he expressed the number in the
following manner:

“5 hundreds and 7 thousands and 23 ten-thousands and 2 millions and 8 ten-millions and 15 hundred-
millions”.

This gives clear evidence of the decimal place value system in early Indian mathematics.

DECIMAL PLACE VALUE AND ZERO

Indians were the first to use the so-called “Arabic” or “Hindu-Arabic” numerals with which we write today.

India also has been recognized as the country which invented

the concept of the zero, the most powerful mathematical tool for expressing large numbers.

Pingala’s Chandah Sutra of the 2nd century BCE and the Bakhshali manuscript of the 2nd century CE give
many examples of various mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction and multiplication of
numbers having zero at the end. Brahmagupta and other mathematicians from the 5th century CE performed
addition, subtraction and multiplication with zero. What seems just as important as the invention of zero is
the concept of the decimal place value system that Indian philosophers adopted more than 3,000 years ago.
In ancient Sanskrit texts, 10 was adopted as the basis of numeration, and large numbers were expressed by
successive multiplication by 10. Numbers up to 10 to the 12th power were given specific names and were
conceived on the basis on physical realities. The term “talakshana” appears in early Buddhist literature as
the name signifying the number the 53rd power of 10.

17
GEOMETRY

The concept of geometry emerged in India during the 10th – 6th century BCE from the practice of making
fire altars in rectangular, triangular or square shapes. Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, a treatise dated c. 6th century
BCE, describes the theorem that “the area produced by the diagonal of rectangle is equal to the sum of the
area produced by its two sides.” This theorem was enunciated by Euclid around the 3rd century BCE, but
attributed to Pythagoras of the 6th century by Greek writers. Geometric forms have been studied and used in
ancient Indian art in sculpture, architecture, painting and temple altars.

THE CIRCLE

The ratio of the circumference and the

diameter of a circle is presently known as “Pi”, which gives its value as 3.1459265 35897932384 … and so
on.

It states in old Sanskrit texts that Indian philosophers in the 6th century BCE were aware of this ratio which
was given as approximately equal to 3. Aryabhata in 499 CE worked out the value of Pi to the fourth
decimal place. Baudhayana Shulba Sutra, in the 6th century BCE, explains how a circle whose area is equal
to that of a square can be constructed.

Aryabhata calculated the area of a circle accurately: “the area of a circle is the product of half the
circumference and half the diameter.” To obtain the area of a circle, the Indian mathematicians divided a
circle radially into 384 small parts, thus approximating the arc to straight lines. One can compare this
approach with the concept of integral calculus which was developed in Europe much later.

MATHEMATICAL SERIES
18
Sulba-sutra (600 B.C.) derives the value of √ 2 as follows:

“Increase the measure by its third and this third by its own fourth less the thirty-fourth. This is the value with
a special quantity in excess”.

1 1 1 577
√ 2 = 1 + 3 + 3.4 – 3.4 .34 = 408

= 1.4142156

Trigonometric series was formulated by Indian mathematicians during 15th – 17th century CE, particularly
by Madhava, at least 200 years before Gregory and Euler in Europe. The series include the following:

π 1 1
=1- +
4 3 5

3 5
θ θ
sin θ = θ - +
3! 5!

2 4
θ θ
cos θ = 1 - +
2! 4 !

1 1
θ = tan θ - tan3θ + tan5θ ……
3 5

BINOMIAL THEOREM

In algebra, the binomial theorem describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial. It is possible to
expand the power (x + y)n into a sum involving terms of the form axbyc. For example,

(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3y+6x2y2 + 4xy3 +y4

The coefficient for varying n can be arranged to form Pascal’s triangle. It is named after the French
mathematicians, Blaise Pascal, although mathematician Pingala (2 nd century BCE or before) studied it
centuries before him in India as described in the Chhandah Shastra. In 10 th century CE, Halayudha called the
triangle. Meruprastaara, the “Staircase of Mount Meru”. It was also realized that the shallow diagonals of
the triangle sum to the Fibonacci numbers and was called Matrameru. In CE 1068, mathematician
Bhattotpala mentioned the combinatorial significance of binomial theorem.

CALCULUS

Calculus is the study of change. One of the important motivations for development of differential calculus
was scientific modeling of retrograde motion of planets. Ancient Indian astronomers had the idea of
instantaneous velocity of planets which paved the development of modern idea of derivative calculus.

19
Differential Calculus

Manjula (CE 932) was the first Indian mathematician to state that the difference of the sines, sin w’- sin w =
(w’-w) cos w, where (w’-w) is small. This is the modern equivalent of d (sin w)/dw = cos w.

Instantaneous velocity of Planets

Bhaskara II (CE 1150) says; “The difference between the longitudes of a planet found at any time on a
certain day and at the same time on the following day is called its (sphuta) gati (true rate of motion) for that
interval of time. This is indeed rough motion (sthulagati). … fine (suksma) instantaneous (tat-kalika) motion.
The tatkalika-gati (instantaneous motion) of a planet is the motion which it would have, had its velocity
during any given interval of time remained uniform.’

Integral Calculus

For finding the Volume of a Sphere, Bhaskara II states the following method:

‘Consider on the surface of the sphere pyramidal excavations, each of a base of a unit area having unit
sides and of a depth equal to the radius (r), as many as the number of units of area in the surface. The
apices of these pyramids meet at the centre of the sphere. The sum of the volumes of the pyramids is equal to
the volume of the sphere. So it is proved (that the volume of a sphere is equal to the sixth part of the product
of the surface area and diameter).’ The above results are the nearest approach to the method of the integral
calculus in early Indian Mathematics.

Other mathematical operations were done in India long before their introduction in Europe. One of them is
the problem of ratio and proportion which is termed “Trairashika”, or the Rule of Three. If X produces Y,
what will Z produces when X and Z belong to the same category?

This problem of ratio and proportion was freely expressed in the Bakhshali manuscript in the 2nd century
CE Aryabhata and all subsequent mathematicians from the 5th century CE onwards handled this problem in
a routine matter. The system of computation of square root and cube root of numbers is another example of
early mathematical genius found during the 5th and 6th century CE in India. Aryabhata, Bhaskara, I,
Brahmagupta, Shridhara, Mahavira, Aryabhata II, Bhaskara II and others were among the flourishing
mathematicians teaching in these systems.

QUEST FOR CELESTIAL KNOWLEDGE

Ancient Indian astronomers were keen to follow the Sun and the Moon to make a workable calendar. So
they determined a reference framework of stars with respect to which positions of Sun or Moon could be
ascertained. They adopted the 12 zodiacal constellations from Greeks and called them rasis. But, following
the moon's motion, they also divided the path in 27 naksatras (or 28 in some texts), whose names were
20
interpreted both as stars and as lunar mansions. While Greeks formed philosophical model of the universe
and later Europe practiced positional astronomy, Indians were adept in mathematical astronomy in the form
of Siddhantas (Final Solutions). Indian astronomers from Aryabhata (CE 498) to Bhaskara II (CE 1150)
predicted and explained eclipses, determined the diameter of the earth and moon and calculated precision of
equinoxes and the mean and real position of planets. They developed Indianized armillary sphere that could
simulate position of star and planets for any time of the night. Later Indian astronomers like Nilakanth and
Parameswara (16th Century) mathematically formed a kind of heliocentric model of the Solar system, in
which, the Sun still goes around the earth but all other planets are shown to rotate around the Sun.

The system of dividing the celestial sphere into 12 equal sections and naming them after certain important
constellations was developed in India almost 3,500 years ago. By a careful selection of suitable stars and
constellations in the ecliptic zone, the ancient Indian astronomers were able to provide a stellar frame of
reference for studying the motions of the sun and the moon. The system came to be known as that of the
“naksatras” and was useful in developing a workable calendar. Twenty-seven naksatras are described in
Vedic literature (c. 1500 BCE) and the 12 months are named after 12 important naksatras which appear in
line with the earth and moon on the full moon. This is referred to as the “lunar zodiac”.

Udaygiri is one of the principal ancient astronomical observatories in India dating back to 2nd century BCE.
On summer solstice day, there was an alignment of sun’s movement with the passageway. The day
mentioned in the inscription in cave 6, when calculated, is very close to the summer solstice of the year 402
AD. The famous Iron Pillar of Delhi was originally located in Udaygiri and installed in a way to cast shadow
on the feet of a sculpture of Lord Vishnu on summer solstice day.

STELLAR ZODIAC

“The use of this division and the present names of the signs can be proved to have existed in India at as early
a period as in any other country; and there is evidence less clear and satisfactory, it is true, yet of such a
character as to create a high degree of probability, that this division was known to the Hindus centuries
before any traces can be found in existence among any other people”

- E. Burgess

In translation of Surya Siddhanta

LUNAR ZODIAC

By a careful selection of suitable stars and constellations in the ecliptic zone, the ancient Indian astronomers
were able to provide a stellar frame of reference for studying the motions of the Sun and the Moon. The
system came to be known as that of the naksatras and was useful in developing a workable calendar. 27
naksatras are described in Vedic Samhitas, Vedanga Jyotisa and Surya-Siddhanta (BCE 1500. to CE 400.)
21
and 12 months are named after 12 important naksatras which appear in line with the earth and moon on the
night of fullmoon.

SOLAR ZODIAC

The ecliptic zone of the celestial sphere was divided into twelve equal sectors and interesting figures were
imagined around bright stars and constellations in each such sector. Ancient astronomers divided a year in
twelve equal parts and used to indicate each part of the year by the particular zodiac called rasi against
which the sun appears in the celestial sphere.

ASTRONOMICAL TEXTS

Vedanga Jyotisha, the earliest Indian astronomical work extant today, is dated to about 1000 BCE. Vedanga
Jyotisha states that after is its long absence in the night sky, the star Shravistha (identified as α or β delphini)
first becomes visible at the dawn during winter solstice. Earlier mathematical astronomy had developed with
the contacts from Greeks and predicts planetary positions and events like eclipses. It flourished during CE
499 (Aryabhata) to about CE 1114 (Bhaskara II). Pancha Siddhantika of Varahamihira assumes a correct
model of lunar eclipse and calculates the diameter of the shadow used to find possibility of eclipses.

MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE

It would be naive to insist that planets were unknown to Vedic seers. But there is no explicit reference to
planets in Vedic writings. Probably because of Ptolemaic influence, early Siddhantic Astronomy espoused a
geocentric world. Based mainly on the works of Parameswara (CE 1380-1460), Nilakantha (1444- 1550
AD) proposed several modifications of the Geocentric Planetary model proposed by Aryabhatta and
followed by the Siddhantic astronomers. Nilakantha showed with mathematical arguments that both interior
and exterior planets are to revolve round the Sun, which he thought to be revolving around the earth.

YANTAR MANTAR

Yantar Mantar, a cluster of huge masonry

astronomical instruments for naked eye
observation, as set up in Delhi in CE 1724 by
Sawai Jai Singh II, the King of Amber. Jai Singh
II is the only person in history to have made five
huge observatories in Delhi, Jaipur, Mathura,
Varanasi and Ujjain. He believed that the largest
the observational instruments the smaller the
possibility of error would be.
22
Samrat Yantra, one of the masonry structures used for measuring time, declination and position of the stars,
has a huge gnomon with two quadrants graduated in hours, minutes and seconds. The edge of the gnomon
points towards the celestial North Pole and is parallel to the plane of the equator. In actual practice, a man
climbs up the stairs with a stick and casts a shadow on the quadrants indicating local time as well as
declination. Ram Yantra, a twin instrument, was used for measuring the altitude and azimuth of celestial
bodies. The floor and the cylindrical wall are divided into 60 sections of 6” each. The alternate sectors are
depressed to facilitate observations so that in one instrument observation could be made between 0 to 60,
180 to 240, and 300 to 360 and so on. The height of the central pillar is same as the distance between the
base line of the pillar and inner edge of cylindrical wall. The observer places his eye on the floor in a straight
line with the altitude varying from 900 to 450 she/he has to move on the floor from the base of the central
pillar to the edge of the cylindrical wall. When the altitude is less than 450 she/he has to climb the wall. To
facilitate observation, an iron rod is placed between. Depending on the location of the celestial body she/he
has to choose either of the two instruments placed side by side.

ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS

In India along with theoretical works on astronomy, observational astronomy also gained ground since 6th
century AD. Aryabhata, Lalla and Bhaskara II made simple yet useful instruments for astronomical
observation and calculation. During the medieval era, due to Persian influence, sophisticated instruments
like astrolabe, armillary sphere or seamless celestial globe of high standard were made.

ASTROLABE

Manufacturing of astrolabe started in the latter half of the fourteenth

century under Firoz Shah Tughluq. During the Mughal era, a large number of astrolabes were manufactured,
particularly by Amal Ziauddin Muhammad ibn Mullah Humayun Astrulabi Lahori or Lahore during CE
1647.

ARMILLARY SPHERE

23
 The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times,
and was mentioned in the works of Aryabhata (499 AD). The Goladipika- treatise dealing on globes and the
armillary sphere was composed by Paramesvara (16th century CE).

SEAMLESS CELESTIAL GLOBE

The seamless celestial globe was invented in Mughal India, specifically in Lahore and Kashmir, is
considered to be one of the most impressive astronomical instruments and remarkable feats in metallurgy
and engineering. The earliest one was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in CE 1589 during
Akbar the Great’s reign; another was produced in CE 1659 by Muhammad SalihTahtawi. These
metallurgists developed the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.

MEDICINE & HEALTH CARE

AYURVEDIC SYSTEM OF MEDICINE

The beginnings of medical science in India are contained in the Vedic literature itself. Ancient Indian
medical texts say that Brahma, the Creator composed Ayurveda before creation of man. He expounded it to
Daksaprajapati, who taught it to the Aswin twins (the physicians of the gods). The Aswins expounded the
knowledge to Indra (the king of Gods), who ultimately revealed it to the sages to save the human being from
diseases and ill health.

Ayurveda is a subsidiary branch of Atharva-veda (10th – 6th cent BCE) one of the four oldest literary texts
in India. Made up of two Sanskrit words Ayuh (life) and Veda (knowledge), Ayurveda can be defined as an
ancient Indian health care system, comprising both practice and theory, and devoted to a systematized quest
for a long, healthy, vigorous and happy life. Major Ayurvedic medical texts Caraka-samhita dealing with
inner medicine or therapeutics (kaya-cikitsa), Susruta-samhita dedicated to surgery (salya) and
Vagbhata’sAstanga-samgraha (5th century CE) have been termed Ayurveda’s great triad ( brihat-trayi) or
ancient triad (vrddha-trayi), while three later texts , Madhava-nidana (7th / 8th cent. CE), Sarngadhara-

24
samhita (CE 1226) and Bhava-prakasa (16th cent. CE) have been called the three minor classics (laghu-
trayi). These texts are the most famous and are still consulted by medical practitioners today. The three
classics enumerate the eight branches of Ayurvedic medicine: Ayurveda surgery, ears-eyes-nose and throat,
therapeutics, pediatrics, toxicology, mental and supernatural diseases, rejuvenation and virility.

. The Charaka Samhita describes 341 plant

substances, 64 mineral substances and 177 substances of animal origin for the preparation of medicine.
Ayurvedic medicines are made into various forms depending upon end uses: gutika (pills), abaleha
(concentrated decoction), lepa (paste for external application), taila (oil base), asaba and arista (both
fermented drinks).and others. These medicines are still prepared in India, using the classical methods;
however, in some cases, these medicines are prepared in modern pharmaceutical laboratories.

UNANI MEDICINE

Unani is a natural healing a system which uses medicines from herbal, mineral and animal origins. Usually
these medicines were made into tablets, pastes and/or syrup. The raw ingredients are disintegrated, boiled,
diluted with water and sugar, filtered, passed through a heat exchanger, and stirred. After kneading and
drying, the mass is turned into tablets.

SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS OF SUSHRUTA

25
 A
ncient Indians excelled in surgery. The Sushruta Samhita describes eight different surgical operations:
incision, excision, scarification, puncturing, exploration, extraction, evacuation and suturing, as well as
descriptions of more than 300 operations and 42 surgical processes and 121 types of instruments. Some of
the instruments were conceived after the jaws of animals and birds to obtain the necessary grips and were
named after those respective animals. This text also describes in detail what is today called “plastic surgery”
by grafting skin and muscular tissues. The outstanding feats of ancient Indian surgery related to laparatomy,
lithotomy and plastic operations. The Susruta Samhita is regarded as the earliest document to give a detailed
account of rhinoplasty (plastic reconstruction of the nose). However, it was not before the eighteenth century
that plastic surgery made its appearance in Europe.

PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM

A well-planned Public health System developed in India as early as 3 rd century BCE. The second rock edict
of Girnar, Gujarat by famous Maurya Emperor Ashoka the Great (3 rd century BCE), clearly states that the
Emperor had constructed health centers along the main highways for the treatment of men and animals and
fruit as well as medicinal plants had been planted for the use in treatment and care. The Emperor had also
arranged to dig wells for the supply of drinking water to the public. In the 7 th century CE, noted Chinese
traveler and Buddhist scholar Hiuen Tsang described an elaborate public health system in the kingdom of
Emperor Harshavardhana of Thaneswar.

CHEMISTRY

The development of chemistry had a firm experimental base. Mercurial compounds, metallic preparations,
inorganic salts, and alloys began to find use in the treatment of diseases. Chemical process, such as the
making of alkalis, were known through the Sushruta and Charaka texts introduced in the 1st century CE The
early Indian alchemists had well-designed laboratories but were fully developed in the 5th century CE

26
Mercury-based alchemy was related to the male-female principle and symbolized by the god Shiva and his
consort Parvati.

RASASHALA - THE ANCIENT INDIAN CHEMICAL LABORATORY

Ancient Indians achieved great progress in alchemy (the older

form of chemistry). It is interesting to note that Joseph Needham claims that earliest distillation of
alcohol can be traced back to the archaeological finds at Taxila. Much of ancient chemistry in India grew
out of the early efforts to develop an elixir and to turn base metals into gold. The earliest available
documented alchemical text in Sanskrit, Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna was probably part of a larger text
Rasendramangala written by the same author. Nagarjuna was the most prominent scholar in the field of
Indian alchemy. Rasashala, a typical alchemical laboratory of Nagarjuna, depicts use of a number of
special types of yantras, for different chemical purposes like distillation.

NATURAL DYES

27
 Ancient India’s advanced knowledge of
chemistry finds expression in activities like manufacturing of dyes & chemicals, preparation of pigments &
colours and polishing of mirrors. Rigveda (BCE 1500) mentions chemical processes like tanning of leather
and dyeing of cotton. Gypsum cement containing sand clay, traces of calcium carbonate and lime, had been
used in the construction of a well in Mohejodaro. Products of plants like Madder, Turmeric and Safflower
were the principal dyeing materials. A number of classical texts like (BCE 1000) Atharvaveda had
mentioned some dye stuffs. Natural dyes have been used throughout the history. The early evidence of
dyeing a piece of cotton with Madder was recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjodaro. The roots
of the plants have been used since ancient times as a dye for leather, wool, cotton and silk. The dye is fixed
to the cloth with help of a mordant, most commodity alum. Most natural dyes come from the plants, the
best-known ones including Madder, Braziwood, Turmeric, Safflower and Indigo.

PERFUMERY
In ancient India, there was considerable use of cosmetics and perfumery for the purpose of worship, sale
and sensual enjoyment. Brhatsamhita (CE 500) of Varahamihira deals with gandhayukti (blending of
perfumes) in 37 verses. The word sugandhi, meaning well perfumed, is also used in Rig Veda.
Expressions involving the term gandha are found in Taittiriya Samhita, Maitrayani Samhita, Satapata
Brahman and Taittiriya Aranyaka. The ancient traditional method of making the attar using hydro
distillation is still used at Kanauj. Attars of Kanauj are used and acclaimed by the world both as perfumes
and medicines.

EARTH SCIENCES

GEOGRAPHICAL CONCEPT

28
In India the knowledge of geography is present since antiquity. Familiarity with the surrounding landscape,
mountains, rivers and weather was the preliminary geographical study which flourished through the Vedic
and Post-Vedic periods. Extensive geographical descriptions are found in ancient literatures.

While the earth has been conceived to be divided in seven dvipas or continents, India or Bharatavarasa was
considered as a part of Jambudvipa. The epics and the puranas have further divided Bharatabarsa into
several regions with elaborate list of geographical landmarks and natural vegetation.

Sapta DvipaVasumati

Ancient Indians conceived the earth as consisting of seven dvipas or islands. According to Markandeya
Purana, the seven dvipas are said to be in seven concentric circles of land, like seven rings, one inside the
other. The names of these dvipas starting from the innermost are Jambu, Plaksa, Salmali, Kusa, Kraunca,
Saka and Puskara. Each of these dvipas is surrounded by a particular sea. Beginning from the innermost,
these are Lavana, lksu, Sura, Sarpi, Dadhi, Ksira and Svadudaka.

Jambudvipa

According to SaptadvipaVasumati concept, the Jambudvipa is divided into nine Varsas (divisions), of which
three lie to the south of Meru, three to its north, one around Meru and one each to its east and west. Bharata
in the extreme south is bounded in the north by Mt. Himavat and by the salt ocean on the three other sides.

Bharatabarsa

The Bharatabarsa is described in the puranas as semi-circular and lying between Himavat in the north and
the sea in the south.

HYDROLOGY

Water is the substance without which no life form can exist. Water plays an essential role in causing health,
prosperity, and happiness in the life of man. From ancient time, human civilizations have valued water as
precious resources for different purposes like drinking, cooking, washing, agricultural processes, medicinal
and treatment purposes. Long before the Christian era began, ancient Indian had made extensive studies in
groundwater, rainfall and water bodies. Such knowledge was scientifically explained and complied by
Kautilya and Varahamihira.

Ground Water

In Brahatsamhita, Varahamihira discusses subterranean streams or water table in the desert region at great
depth and in the shape of the neck of a camel. Varahamihira also explained occurrence of water in
mountainous regions and relation of soil and water

The technique of underground water exploration as described by Varahamihira in BrhatSamhita has

emphasized the role of termite knolls as an indicator of underground water.

29
“If there is a termite mound nearby, to the east of Jambu tree, plenty of sweet water, yielding for a long time
occurs at a depth of two purusha (height of a man) at a distance of three hastas (cubit) to the south of the
tree.”

Artesial Well

Ramayana mentions water coming out of deep earth sources continuously through the hole created by the
arrow of Lord Rama. Mahabharata mentions Sri Krishna locating the artesian wells guided Arjuna to the
spot that he would have to hit with his arrow, to release the water like a spring.

Rainfall

Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira laid immense emphasis on rainfall studies: “The living beings depend on food
for their existence. The availability of food depends on the monsoon. Therefore, the rainy season deserves
careful investigation.’ Arthasastra has delineated geographical zones of India based on the annual
prescription. The arid regions are those which receive annual rain fall of 16 dronas (i.e. 32 inches or 810
mm); and wet regions receive annual rain fall of one and half times (48 inches or 1220 mm). As per Kautilya
the annual rain fall average of different regions is been given below:

1. Asmaka region (Maharastra) i.e. south- western region of India- 27 inches;

2. Ujjain region (Avanti), i.e. Northern slope of Satapura border – 46 inches;
3. Aparanta on western slope of Sahyadri range i.e. Coastal Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala – unlimited;
4. Haimanya, i.e. the Himalayan region- unlimited;

EARTHQUAKE STUDIES

Reference to earthquake and allied phenomena in a number of Sanskrit treatises suggest that the ancient
Indian were fascinated and affected by earthquakes. Apart from the Vedas, Puranas, the epics, BrhatSamhita
of Varahamihira (5-6th century CE) and AdbhutaSagara of BallalaSena (10-11 th century CE) have valuable
information regarding earthquakes. While several theories for occurrence of earthquakes are expounded,
these texts are silent on dates and locations. However, in both Brhat Samhita and Adbhuta Sagara regions of
India prone to seismic activity are indicated.

Causes of Earthquakes

30
 According to
Indian legend, the earth rests on the head of the mythical snake Vasuki. Tremors occur when the snake
shakes its head. Attempts to explain earthquake scientifically were made in ancient period. According to
Vasishta, tremors are due to atmospheric currents which eventually impact the oceans and shake the earth.
According to Parashara, earthquakes are caused by the solar and lunar eclipses and planetary aberrations and
by the unnatural changes in planet. Varahamihira (c. AD 550) says earthquakes occur due to the peculiar tilt
of prithvi (earth) towards the northern side and due to this tilt, the northern hemisphere of the earth is more
likely to be earthquake prone.

Varahamihira’s Bhukampamandals

Varahamihira demarcated four major seismic zones (Bhukampamandala) of differing damage types in India,
1500 years ago. The geographical locations of his earthquakes are in tune with the modern zones of high
seismicity in the Himalayan frontal arc. Varahamihira also classified earthquakes into four types as given
below according to their origin.

 Agneya (volcanic eruption).

 Varuna (tsunami)
 Vayavya (atmospheric turbulence)
 Aindra (cosmic/ meteroric).

TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL INDIA

METALS AND METALLURGY

Metallurgy in India started during the 3rd - 2nd millennium BCE probably with copper mining at Khetri
in Rajasthan. Metals were extracted and utilized in the past in stages progressing usually from the use of
31
native metal, to those metals which could be smelted easily from ores, to those which were more difficult
to smelt. Commonly used metals in antiquity include gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc and
mercury. Ancient mining sites and metallurgical activities at Dariba, Zawar, Agucha and Singbhum
provide telltale evidence of metallurgical skills of ancient Indians. People of Indus valley civilization
made use of gold jewellery. A number of copper mining and smelting sites have been found in Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Right from the Harappan period (2500 BCE) down to the early historic time,
copper-bronze technology flourished in Indian subcoontinent. Bronze Age swords of copper were found
to be created from 2300 BCE. These swords consist of bronze but more commonly copper. Many of these
were discovered in Fatehgarh. These swords date back to the period 1700 BCE to 1400 BCE but they
were more commonly used in during the opening centuries of 1st millennium BCE.

ZINC SMELTING BEGAN IN INDIA

Late in 1983, Indian archaeological team unearthed a series or medieval zinc furnaces in Zawar. One bank
of furnaces is dated by radio-carbon to the 16 th century which pre-dates the 18th century discovery of zinc
distillation process in Europe. The radio-carbon dating of timbers from ancient zinc mines in Zawar suggests
that zinc smelting existed 2000 or more years ago. Thousands of tonnes of slag heaps are evidence of very
long period of smelting activity in Zawar. The Indian zinc furnace represents one of the most sophisticated
pyrotechnic process in use before the Industrial Revolution, a process which is still basic to all high
temperature distillation operation today. The process of zinc smelting does not appear in the west until
around 1740 when William Champion took a patent for his process in England. Zawar supplied zinc to
Europe until the 18th century. By the 19th century zinc production at Zawar had ceased. A sketch from
Champion’s patent is reproduced here to give an idea about his zinc smelting furnace. You may notice a
close similarity between the Champion and Zawar furnaces. History records extensive trade contact between
Bristol and the east during the 18th and 19th centuries. Researchers may find out whether the British East
India businessmen docking in Bristol carried the secrets of zinc smelting process from India.

The furnaces which have been found at Zawar are 70 cm. at the base and tapering to 40 cm. at the top and
standing about 60 cm. tall. Each furnace contains 36 retorts mounted vertically. The furnaces are divided
internally by perforated brick plates. The retorts rested on the plate with their necks protruding down
through the larger holes into the collection vessels that lay in the cooler lower chamber. Around each large
hole, there are smaller holes to supply air to the fire burning around and above the retorts and allow ash to
fall through. The open retort were filled with calcined ore, charcoal or cow dung cake, salt and other
reagents. A stick would be set in the middle of the retort and funnel like condenser fitted at the end and
sealed in the place with clay. When the retort was set neck-down in the furnace the stick would stop the
reagents falling out, but once the process had begun and the temperatures had risen, the contents would

32
begin to fuse, the stick would char and drop out; leaving a central channel through which the molten zinc
could run.The real problem of zinc smelting lies in accurate control of temperature in the furnace. Zinc melts
at 4200C and boils at 9070C but the zinc oxide inside the retort would require 1100 0C for reduction to zinc.
This means that zinc oxide is reduced directly to zinc vapour which would permeate to the cooler region of
the condenser neck where it liquefies and runs into collecting vessels.

LEGENDARY WOOTZ STEEL

In 300 BCE, southern India was producing high quality steel be using the crucible steel. In this method,
iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed together in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed
carbon. The first of this crucible steel was Wootz steel (Ultra-high carbon steel with 1-2 % carbon).
Wootz steel which originated in India before the Common Era was exported to ancient Europe, China,
and Arab world. Wootz is an Anglicized version of the south Indian term ukku meaning steel. It became
prominent in the Middle East where it was soon known as the steel that the razor sharp Damascus swords
with a watered steel pattern were made of. Megalithic site of Kodumanal proves that this steel was in
production from 300 BCE.

THE LEGACY OF IRON METALLURGY

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 In India iron metallurgy has
undergone a process of evolution leading to the production of marvelous edifices like the Delhi Iron
Pillar. Although there is very little data available by way of exact designs of ancient iron smelting
furnaces, archaeo-metallurgical studies have helped in reconstruction of some of these furnaces. Based on
these studies ancient iron furnaces have been broadly classified as bowl shape furnace, dome shape
furnace and shaft furnace. It is also certain that by early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was already
used in India. The oldest ancient Iron furnace excavated and documented by archaeologists is the
Naikund Iron Furnace that was operative in 700 BCE. The Naikund excavation has also revealed a
plethora of iron objects directly implying that a full time working group of iron smiths with a high level
of metallurgical skills existed at the site.

COPPER IN ANCIENT INDIA

34
The discovery of copper marks the beginning of the Chalcolithic period. Archaeological studies have
unearthed a number of copper hoards, revealed copper mining activities and smelting sites in Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Copper-bronze technology flourished in the Indian sub-continent since Harappan
period. Some fragments of the earliest copper in ancient India from Mehrgarh date back to the fifth
Millennium BCE. Various ancient texts like Arthasastra and Rasaratnasmuchchaya have mentioned copper
mining and process of its extraction. Copper is also used in Ayurveda for medicinal purposes. Archaeo-
metallurgical researchers have pointed to the existence of ancient Indian copper furnaces capable of melting
copper at 10830C and gold at 10630C. Chimney or bellows were used for these furnaces to provide high
temperature since open fire could not yield temperature in excess of 7000C.

COIN MINTING

The first documented coinage in India is

deemed to start with ‘Punch Marked’ coins issued between the 7 th-6th century BCE and 1st century CE.
These coins are called ‘punch-marked’ coins because of their manufacturing technique. Mostly made of
silver, these bear symbols, each of which was punched on the coin with a separate punch. Later, ancient
coins of different dynasties have been excavated from different parts of the country and preserved in various
Indian museums and abroad. Indian coins were mostly made using Die-striking, Droplet condensation,
Punch marking and casting techniques. It is a significant feat of metallurgy that India could use metals like
silver, copper, gold and lead in coin making and could also made different alloys like bronze and brass to be
used for the purpose. Historians have used coins of different periods as a source for reconstructing Indian
history.

35
MARITIME ACTIVITIES

Ancient Indian boat technology and navigational knowledge

flourished from 3rd Millennium BCE to the Harappan times.
Traditional boat builders could make sea-worthy ships that could sail
to West Asia. The Harappans constructed the first tidal dock of the
world for berthing and servicing ships at the post town of Lothal. We
can find references of use of boats and ships in ancient Indian
paintings, murals, drawings, terracotta models, sculptures etc.

Harappan Boats

The terracotta models of a boat from Lothal and engravings on Indus

seals give some idea of ships going to the sea. For inland waterways,
flat-bottom boats of the type suggested by the terracotta models were
used. Trade on the high seas and along the coast was possible because
the ships were fitted with sails.

Boat Building Technology

The traditional construction of a boat starts with the laying of a keel

followed by the stem post (rearmost part of a ship or boat) and stem
post (the pointed front part of a ship or boat). Other parts of the
traditional ships include the rudder, the mast and sail. All these parts
of the ship are carefully crafted to make the ship sea worthy.
Traditional method of building boats and ships, used either for transport or fishing, are followed even today
in various places all across Indian especially on the coastal areas.

Yukikalpataru, a manuscript of 11th century CE, gives dimensions and types of Indian sea-going vessels
which are shown here in comparison with two celebrated European ships of late 15 th century. Indian sea
going vessels in 11th century CE were much larger in size than Santa Maria (CE 1492) of Columbus or Sao
Gabriel (CE 1498) of Vasco Da Gama.

The Lothal Dockyard

The discovery of the Lothal port and dock in 1955 highlighted the maritime activity of the Indus
Civilization. At Lothal, a trapezoidal shaped reservoir measuring 214 m x 36 m has been excavated, and
which has been identified as a dockyard. The structure was connected to the old river bed of Sabarmati. At
least two ships could simultaneously pass and enter easily. Lothal was the main port city of Indus Valley
Civilization, from where ships used to sail to Mesopotamia and other places in the West Asia.
36
AGRICULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Agriculture

The earliest evidence of agriculture in India came from Mehrgarh Culture. The people of Indus Valley
Civilization cultivated mainly wheat, pulses and cotton. The Great Granary of Harappa is the evidence of
extensive cultivation. Cotton was the main cash crop. Indus people exported cotton to Mesopotamia. The
Vedic Aryans, brought barely with them. India is the home of different varieties of rice. Since time
immemorial, spices and condiments also flavoured Indian cuisine. Spices were exported to all over the
world. Ancient Indians also studied Agriculture Science.

Animal Husbandry

Bull and horse were the main drought animals. Cattle, goat, pig and sheep were domesticated. India was the
home of Zebu Cattle (Bosindicus) and Common fowl (Gallus gallusmurghi). Utmost importance was given
to care and treatment of domesticated animals. Emperor Ashoka (3rd cent. BC) established veterinary
hospitals.

Irrigation

The earliest evidence of

irrigation comes from Indus Valley Civilization (BCE 2600-1900). Archaeological
investigations in Maharashtra (BCE 1300), revealed a large mud embankment on a stone foundation for
diverting flood water from the Ghod River through a channel. Rigveda mentions irrigation from wells.
Buddhist literature (BCE 500-300) provides evidence of building small tanks for irrigation. Artha-sastra of
Kautilya refers to sluice gates of tanks. Extensive tank irrigation systems were developed in southern Indian

37
during the first two centuries of the Christian era. Availability of irrigation made it possible to extend
cultivation of rice to large areas, and thus improve food security.

Irrigation from wells was practiced throughout India in ancient times. Bullocks pulled a leather bag with
ropes to draw water from wells for irrigation. The so-called “Persian wheel” used for drawing water from
wells was first developed in northern India around CE 1100. Tughlaq King Firoz Shah Tughlaq (CE 14 th
century) dug a network of canals in the Gangetic plain.

ANCIENT TEXTILES

In ancient India, textiles were mostly made of

cotton, silk and wool. Cotton as textile material originated in India and spread to the world. The most basic
skill involved in textiles is spinning of fiver into yarn and then weaving it into fabric.

According to Sir John Marshall, textile industry flourished in India during Harappan period and was not
extended to western world until 2000 years later.

Majority of archaeological sites in the Indian sub-continent have revealed spindles made of terracotta
providing direct evidence of spinning and weaving technology. The Harappans invented the needle with the
eye at the pointed end (as is used in sewing machines). Later this type of needle was reinvented in Europe
during Roman times. The Greeks and Romans extensively imported textiles from India. Roman achieves
recorded official complaints about massive cash drainage due to textile imports from India. Spinning,
ginning, weaving and embroidery have always been special skills of Indian weavers from ancient times and
continues to be so even today. Britain became leader in textiles because they adopted the technology,
designs and even raw cotton from India
38
TOWN PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

The Indus Valley Civilization, at its peak during 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE, knit together more than 1000
cities, towns and settlements scattered across 725,000 sq km of India and Pakistan. It featured urban
planning; a rich layer of standardized material culture, the world's earliest writing system, carefully
planned residential complexes complete with wastewater systems, special shapes and decorative styles of
ceramic vessels and an array of products from sophisticated craft industries. Indus technological
traditions are exemplified in their material culture which is evidenced from archaeological findings of
ceramics, pottery, refined personal ornaments such as faience, and stoneware bangles, metallurgy,
steatite, agate, and shell ornaments. Indus artisans developed elegant objects out of bronze, gold, silver,
terra cotta, glazed ceramics, and precious and semi-precious stones

INDUS TOWN PLANNING

Indus cities show town planning of an

amazing complexity. Systematic town planning, fortification of citadel, lower town, elaborate drainage
system, establishment of granaries and surplus economy, standardization of brick sizes, weights and
measures, use of geometric instruments like right angles, linear scale and plumb bob etc are the principal
gifts of the Harappans to the succeeding cultures. The Harappans gave the idea of welfare for the workers
by establishing workmen's quarters and building granaries for collection and redistribution of grains from
granaries built specially for this purpose. City houses in matured Indus Valley stage have been many-
storied, palatial, solidly built imposing walls of well-baked bricks with standardized 4:2:1 brick size ratio
and supplied with such amenities as good bathroom and lavatories. Town planning also used designs with
straight roads meeting at right-angles, and an astonishing drainage system with covered drains for

39
draining out the rain-water and cesspools for clearing the sewage. No other ancient civilization offered
civic amenities of such complexity.

WAR TECHNOLOGY

Empire building activities

and resistance to foreign aggression resulted in the development of advanced war technology and strategy in
ancient India. The great epic Mahabharata described large numbers of innovative weapons and battle
formations. Maces, spears, swords, bows and arrows and shields were common. However, in the epic era,
these were made of copper-bronze. Iron made weapons came later and due to their strength they were called
Vajra or thunder.

Mahabharata also described battle formations practiced during the Kurukshetra war. Notable among them
were Chakra Vyuha (disc shaped), KrauncaVyuha (bird shaped), Mandala Vyuha (necklace shaped) and
ChakrashakataVyuha (Wheel shaped).

ROCKETS AND CANNONS

From its birthplace China, cannon technology came to

India through Arabs during the 15th Century. Panchanan Neogi was the first to catalogue some of the
wonderful forge welded iron cannons of India in his landmark 1914 book, “Iron in ancient India”.
Adopting European and Ottoman knowledge, major innovations of cannon technology, in India, occurred
during early 16th Century CE. Besides the Iron cannons, Bronze Cannons, Forge-welded Cannons and
Composite type Cannons were also common in India. Important Indian Innovations in cannon technology
Include the Shaturnal, Multi piece screwball Cannons, Yarghu (the Multi barrel cannon cleaner) etc.

40
Indian innovations in cannon technology like shaturnal (cannons fired from back of camels),composite
cannons (of inner wrought iron bore and outer bronze casting) and bans (battlefield rockets) offer
sufficient proof of Indian ingenuity in this technology. Tipu Sultan was the first to apply scientific
principles to test and perfect rocket and missile technology. Some of the rockets fired by Tipu's men are
preserved in the Artillery Museum at Woolwich in London.

ARCHITECTURE

TAJMAHAL

The World’s best known tomb, the Taj Mahal, situated on the banks of Jamuna, stands testimony to an
immortal love story – that of 17th Century Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and his queen Mumtaz Mahal.
For 22 years after Mumtaz’s death in CE 1631, over 20,000 workers and master craftsmen laboured to
complete this monument. The whole Taj complex forms a rectangle aligned north to south measuring
approximately 580 metres in length and 305 metres in breadth. The tomb building is raised on square
terrace platform 5.496 metres high and 9.5 metres square with four minarets approximately 42 metres
high. This monument represents a perfect synthesis of Indian and Islamic art and expression.

BRIHADISWARA TEMPLE

The Brihadiswara Temple at Tanjore dedicated to Siva and called the Great Pagoda, was built in c. 1000
CE. by Bajaraja Deva Chola. It is surrounded by a wall and moats. The tower (Vimana) over the shrine is
215 ft. High. This is one of the finest examples of architectural monuments in Chola style.

SANCHI STUPA

On a hill overlooking the plain and about 40 km from Bhopal, capital of Indian state Madhya Pradesh, the
site of Sanchi comprises monolithic pillars, palaces, temples and monasteries etc. These all are in different
states of conservation. Sanchi is famous for outstanding specimen of Buddhist art and architecture,
belonging to the period between the third century BC and the twelfth century AD. The ‘Sanchi Stupa 1’, was
originally built by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka the Great. The Sanchi Stupa is one of the best preserved
early stupas in central India.

TECHNOLOGY STANDARDS FOR MASS PRODUCTION

41
 Apart from the known sites like Harappa and Mohenjo- Daro, other rich Indus cities like Dholavira,
Kalibangan and Lothal had remarkable water conservation system and a clear indication of a standardized
bricks, weights and measures scale. Artistically finished measuring pieces show that 13.67 gm was
considered as the basic unit of weight measurement. Other multiples and submultiples of this weight were
common. These facts coupled with the presence of a large naval dockyard at Lothal provide clear indication
to burgeoning trade both internal and international. Indus Civilization, in its formative period used multi-
coloured pottery. But as it matured into its peak urban characters, it settled down for Red and Black pottery
standardized both in colour and shapes. This is a clear attempt to mass production technique.Studies have
shown that starting from the Indus Valley Civilization up to the onstruction of Iron Pillar, India used
standard lengthunit of Angulam (close to an inch) over a period of almost 3000 years.

TECHNOLOGY IN ART

STONE TECHNOLOGY

Lacking the strong canine teeth like carnivores, humans learnt

using sticks and stones for hunting and tearing up carcasses. They used fire to harden wood to use them as
weapons and tools. Due to perishable nature of wood, only stone tools have been recognized as the first
technology in the human history.

Starting with simple crude tools for cutting wild plants and killing animals for food, humans enhanced their
understanding of properties of stones throughout the history. Chronologically stone tools can be classified as
Paleolithic (2 million to 12000 BC), Mesolithic (12000 to 8000 BC) and Neolithic (8000 to 6000 BC).

During Neolithic period humans adaptation to seasonal food availability and introduction of iron technology
gave rise to the first agro-pastoral communities.During this period new ground & polished tools were
introduced. Stone tools were used to process plant foods, wood work, building and primitive agriculture.

42
Iron technology revolutionized stone tools & implements for dislodgements of large stones from hillsides.
These were transported to construct cists, circles, menhirs, dolmens etc. The religious and political processes
led the proliferation of stones for different mega purposes. Stones were quarried transported and used for
raising imposing temples and stupas. Excavation and sculpted hill sides made them to know the hardness
and flawless characteristics of rock beds.

Sculptures and images from rocks like sandstone, basalt, granite and limestone were prepared. This period
also saw engraving inscriptions on rocks for recording achievements of rulers.

During the medieval period people started making use of stone implements for military purposes.

Even in the present age we see the usage of stone tools for making pathas, prinding, statues & many others.

GLASS WORKS

There is evidence to suggest that Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture of the Ganga valley (c. 1000 BC)
did have elegant glass beads. There is also archaeological evidence in the form of a number of glass
objects found at Maski that date back to 1000-900 BC, which suggest existence of glass technology in
India in the Chalcolithic site in the southern Deccan, which is older than the beginning of the first
millennium BC. Kaca is a Sanskrit term used for glass in the Vedic text, Satapatha Brahmana. About 30
excavated sites in different regions of India have produced several glass objects in different colors such
as green, blue, red, white, orange and some other shades. Archaeological excavations have revealed the
presence of a traditional glass factory at Kopia in Basti District of Uttar Pradesh.

GEMS AND JEWELLERY

43
 The f antastic
stories about the wealth of India are so mystifying that ancient India was often referred to as the Golden
Bird. India’s traditions in ancient and medieval gems are authenticated by the travelers’ account by Pliny
(CE 77) and Ptolemy (CE 140-60). Akbar was the first Mughal king who organized a ‘treasury for precious
stones’ as described by Abul Fazl. He classified rubies, diamonds, emeralds, red and blue yaquts under 12
classes and pearls into 16 classes. During the time of Alexander the Great (4th century BCE) diamonds
travelled from India to the Mediterranean. The Arthasastra of Kautilya mentions about diamond trade in
India. By 3rd century BC, Indians were aware of the desirable qualities of a diamond such as strength,
regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals and good refractive properties. Jewelleries tradition in India
can be understood from the description of Shakuntala’s jewelleries by the great poet Kalidasa.Jewellery is
one of the most frequently found relics and artifacts of the Harappan society of Indus Valley Civilization.
The traditional art of India depicts a richness and profusion in the jewelry adorned by both men and women
of that period. Earlier jewelry used to be massive, but the workmanship was coarse. Ornaments made of
gold, silver, copper, ivory, clay and beads have been discovered in ancient civilizations found at Harappa
and Mohenjodaro. Jewellery was designed for the ornating the gods and also for decorating animals like
elephants and horses, on special occasions. The rajas and maharajas rivaled each other to possess the most
exquisite and the most magnificent pieces of jewelry. India has been a leading exporter of gemstones and
jewelry. Women of India find pride in adorning themselves with expensive jewelry.

POTTERY AND CERAMICS

44
 On the basis of radio
carbon dating by the French archaeological mission at Mehergarh, the beginning of handmade pottery
manufacture in Indian can be traced to about 5000 BC. Around 4000 BC the Potter’s wheel was introduced.
The potteries from ancient India are classified as; Black and Red Ward, Harappan, Ochre Coloured,
Chalcolithic Painted, Painted Gray Ware, Malwa Ware, Jorwe Ware, Lustrous Red Ware and Northern
Black Polished Ware potteries. Each one of these potteries had distinguishing characteristics.

TRADITIONAL CRAFT

BIDRI WARE

The Bidri Ware is valued all over the world for its fine craftsmanship. Its sleek and smooth dark coloured
metalwork with intricate eye-catching designs on its glossy surface makes it unique. Bidri is a high zinc, low
copper alloy that contains 76-98% (normally in the neighborhood of 95%) zinc, 2-10% copper, up to 8%
lead, 1-5% tin and traces of iron. The craft of Bidri Ware is a kind of damascene work, which has been
defined by Sir Georgy Birdwood as “the art of encrusting one metal on another –not in crustae, which are
soldered or wedged, but in the form of wire, which by undercutting and hammering, is thoroughly
incorporated into the metal which it is intended to ornament.
Making of Bidri Ware

The Bidri Ware is an original technique, which involves inlaying of gold or silver on a steel or copper base.
The content of zinc gives the alloy a deep black color. It is engaged or overlaid with silver or brass. After
causing and moulding, the surface is filled smooth till it acquires the typical Bidri sheen. It is then
temporarily blackened with copper sulphate solution and etched into a traditional design using a sharp iron
tool. Silver wire or sheets are beaten into the designed grooves, making it stand out like the stars in the night
sky. During the final oxidation process, the shiny surface is briefly heated and rubbed with a thick paste of

45
ammonium chloride. The chemical is supposedly mixed with special clay from the walls of the Bidar Fort.
In the final step groundnut or coconut oil is used to polish each them, which may be a vase, bangle, bracelet,
goblet, ashtray, plate, jewelry box.

SILVER FILIGREE

Filigree involves delicate designs made of silver wire. This art is most prevalent in Orissa. The main tools
required by a craftsman are pliers, cutters, hammer, forceps and silver wire. The wire is drawn into different
thickness and roundness. Recently the craftsmen have adopted many folk designs and enriched their art. The
extremely delicate design, workmanship and forms are increasingly attracting the sophisticated strata of
society in modern India.

LOST WAX CASTING

Lost Wax process is the most precise ancient metal casting technique in
existence that faithfully reproduces the original sculpture. From the
famous Indus dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro dating back to about 2500
BC, to the famous Chola bronze statutes of southern India, and the
contemporary bronze cast statues of modern times including the Dhokra
metal casting works of the north India, the lost wax technique of bronze
casting has continued to exist in India. The lost-wax method is well-
documented in ancient Indian literary sources. From the Silpasastras, a
text from the Gupta Period, to Vishnusamhita, all refers directly to the modeling of wax for making metal
objects.

MARBLE INLAY WORKS

The marble tomb of ShaikhSalimChisti in FatehpurSikri was built in 1572 by Emperor Akbar. It is the
precursor to an age known as the 'Reign of Marble' for, with the accession of Emperor Jahangir, sand stone
gave way to marble, the crafting of which peaked during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan with the building
of the TajMahal in Agra. Marble was used not only in building but also in other ways. Craftspersons used it
in mosaic patterns combined with red sand stone and other colours of marble and embedded it in cement.
They used marble to make intricate jaalis (perforate relief) that filtered light and they used it most
exquisitely for inlay work or pietradura.

Here precious and semi-precious stones, jasper, cornelian, topaz, mother of pearl, turquoise, lapis lazuli,
coral, jade, agate, and porphyry were shaped and set in shallow chases carved in the marble. The most

46
frequently used decorative motif was the arabesque, the ornamentation being in a stylised floral form with
geometric interlocking.

Since the time of Shah Jahan, Agra in Uttar Pradesh has remained a thriving centre for marble work,
including inlay. The marble is obtained from Makrana and the semi-precious stones come from all over the
world. The artisans of today fashion vases, coasters, table tops, boxes, plates, and trays, models of the
TajMahal, lamp bases, flooring, fountains, chairs, water basins, chess sets, and hookah stands.

The process followed in pietradura is complex. Here the semi-precious stones are first sliced finely with a
bow of tensed steel wire --- the process in slow as it can take up to an hour to cut through an inch of stone.
The stone is then washed and cut into smaller pieces to facilitate the intricate and minute shaping required.
The shaping of the stone is done against a rotating disc. The artisan works the disc with his right hand and
holds the stone in his left hand. When each minutely shaped piece is ready it is placed in its designated
position on the marble surface. The outline of the pattern is then defined with a sharply pointed instrument.
The stone is then pressed into place and fixed with a burning charcoal. If the whole process has been
executed finely there should be no line of cement visible between the inlaid stone and the marble. The final
polishing is done with zinc power.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Indians played on variety of string instruments, wind instruments and percussion instruments since
antiquity. Apart from the understanding of acoustics necessary for the fabrication of these instruments,
Indians also excelled in selecting the appropriate materials for their main body and preparation of the alloys
or processing of membranes to be suitably used in these instruments.

EKTARA

In origin, the Ektara was a regular string instrument of wandering bards and minstrels from India and is
plucked with one finger. The Ektara usually has a stretched single string, an animal skin over a head (made
of dried pumpkin/ gourd, wood or coconut) and pole neck or split bamboo cane neck. There are no markings
or measurements to indicate what pressure will produce what note, so the pressure is adjusted by ear. It is an
instrument that is played with folk songs.

SHEHNAI

The Shehnai is like a north Indian Oboe. This quadruple- reed instrument has a wooden body with a brass
bell. In the past, Shehani was part of the Naubat or traditional ensembles of nine instruments found at royal
courts. This instrument is a close relative of the Nadaswaram found in south Indian music. The playing of
the Shehnai is found in temples and indispensable during wedding in India.

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BANSURI (FLUTE)

The Bansuri is very simple but versatile bamboo transverse flute. Unlike string instruments, it does not need
tuning once it is tuned by the flute maker. It can easily produce all basic elements of Hindustani music
variations. According to Hindu mythology, it is the instrument of Lord Krishna and is very popular in rural
India.

KHAMAK

The Khamak is set up like a one headed drum with a string attached to it which is plucked. It is used in
Indian folk music. The performer plucks the strings briskly with the plectrum. However, the fundamental
tone produced does not remain fixed and completely depends on the tension applied to the string.

SARANGI

It is used as an accompanying instrument especially with vocal recital. The instrument has been described in
Sangitasara by Hainayaka of 15th century, where description tallies with the modern Sarangi. There is a
reference of this instrument in Sangeet Ratnakar, a musical treatise of Sarangadeva of the 13th century.

CONTINUING CULTURE OF CREATIVITY

Since antiquity India has always been in pursuit of creativity, be it in art, science or technology. Passing
through prolonged period of foreign subjugation, the resurgent India is again geared up today to join the
world of cutting-edge innovation.

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