Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 187–195. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol.

30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 211–220.

Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Pustovitov.

TOKAMAKS

Error Field Amplification near the Stability Boundary

of the Modes Interacting with a Conducting Wall
V. D. Pustovitov
Nuclear Fusion Institute, Russian Research Centre Kurchatov Institute,
pl. Kurchatova 1, Moscow, 123182 Russia
Received June 24, 2003

Abstract—The effect is considered of the amplification of an external resonant error field near the stability
boundary of the so-called resistive wall modes observed in the DIII-D tokamak. The analysis is performed in a
standard cylindrical approximation. The model is based on Maxwell’s equations and Ohm’s law; therefore, the
results of the analysis are valid for any large-scale modes interacting with a conducting wall. In contrast to ear-
lier approaches, the model considers the resonant field amplification as a dynamic effect. It is shown that, when
the effect is the strongest, the stationary solutions proposed earlier are inapplicable. The problem of plasma
response to a probing pulse of the resonant field of a given amplitude and duration is analyzed. The relationships
obtained explain the basic features of the observed phenomena in the DIII-D tokamak and allow direct experi-
mental verification. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION The RFA effect was discovered experimentally; this

happened quite recently, and it remains mysterious in
It is well known that, in one of the most attractive many respects. The very first attempts to describe it are
tokamak scenarios, the so-called “advanced operation” now being made in theory. When discussing the exper-
[1–8], a serious obstacle to large β (the ratio of plasma imental results, paper [28] is always cited; until
pressure to magnetic pressure) can be the instability of recently, it is the sole theoretical work completely
external kink modes partially stabilized by a conduct- devoted to the problem of the resonant interaction of
ing wall, which are usually referred to as resistive wall plasma with external static perturbations at the stability
modes (RWMs) [9–12]. In recent years, the RWM boundary of RWMs. The interest in this paper stems
physics and methods for suppressing this instability primarily from the fact that the main statements of [28]
have been actively studied in the DIII-D tokamak [13– qualitatively reflect the observed phenomena. However,
26]. An impressive result of these studies is the demon- the RFA effect is described in [28] rather sparingly, in
stration of the steady sustainment of the plasma at β the context of discussing another phenomenon—the
values twice exceeding the RWM instability threshold experimentally observed damping of plasma toroidal
[20–26]. This was achieved when the measures taken rotation during RWM onset [13–26]. A recent paper
earlier to suppress RWMs were combined with the sup- [29] by the same author and on the same subject just
pression of the so-called error fields—weak stray fields briefly repeats the conclusions of [28] regarding RFA;
breaking the tokamak symmetry. This happened after it basically, [29] is devoted to the calculation technique.
was experimentally demonstrated that these fields play Here, we consider the RFA effect in more detail and
an important role in the RWM dynamics. Before this analyze the theoretical model and results of [28] to clar-
discovery, the results of experiments on RWM suppres- ify some important points.
sion by a feedback system in the DIII-D tokamak were The aim of the present paper is to analyze the effect
much more modest [13–19]. of external resonant magnetic perturbations (error
fields) on the RWM dynamics. We are actually going to
Convincing experimental evidence that a slowly discuss the strong influence of a weak magnetic pertur-
growing or saturated n = 1 perturbation measured out- bation on the behavior of a tokamak discharge.
side the plasma is the plasma response to a static reso- To describe the RFA effect, the existing theory [28]
nant error field was presented for the first time in [17, offers a certain steady-state solution that can become
18]. It was shown that the plasma reacts much more infinite at the RWM stability boundary. This solution is
strongly to such a field when β > βno wall, where βno wall reproduced in different forms in other papers [21, 23,
is the stability limit for ideal MHD modes in the 26, 27, 29]. It will be shown below that, when the RFA
absence of a conducting wall. This effect has become effect is the strongest, the steady-state solutions pro-
an interesting new object of research [17, 18, 21–27] posed earlier are unacceptable, the process is essen-
and has received the name “resonant field amplifica- tially dynamic, and the “amplification factor” of the
tion” (RFA) [21–26]. error field depends on the time during which the plasma

1063-780X/04/3003-0187$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

188 PUSTOVITOV

passes through a “dangerous zone” near the RWM sta- is the magnetic permeability, σ is the conductivity (σ = 0
bility threshold. We will also consider the problem of in vacuum), and µ0 = 4π × 10–7 H/m is the permeability
plasma response to a pulse of the resonant field. We of a vacuum.
recall that the RFA effect was discovered with just such In tokamaks, the conducting walls are thin com-
plasma probing [17, 18]. The switching on and off of pared to the characteristic scales of the problem; there-
the resonant field of a given amplitude was then fore, in an RWM analysis, the walls can be regarded as
exploited to study the quantitative RFA characteristics thin shells. For a thin shell with a constant thickness,
in DIII-D [21–26]. Naturally, plasma response to equations (1)–(4) reduce to
pulsed probing should be considered as a dynamic pro-
cess. The model solution that was discussed in [28] and ∂
µ 0 σ s ----- B n = n ⋅ — ( B n – B n ),
out in
(5)
later in [21, 23, 26, 27, 29] does not describe the RFA ∂t
dynamics.
Our analysis is performed in a standard cylindrical where σs is the surface conductivity (for real conduc-
approximation. The basic equations and the statement tors, we have σs = σd, d being the wall thickness), n is
of the problem are briefly described in the next section. the external unit normal to the surface, Bn = n · B, Bout
A nontrivial step there is the closing of the problem by is the value of B on the outer side of the shell (the side
introducing a parameter that, in the strict approach, is to which the normal is directed), and Bin is B on the
determined by the structure of a magnetic perturbation inner side. The model is described in more detail in [30,
in plasma. The necessary explanations concerning this 31].
step are given in Section 3. In Section 4, the amplifica- Resonant field amplification is observed in experi-
tion of the static error field by the plasma at the RWM ments as an increase in a magnetic perturbation near the
stability boundary is considered. In Section 5, the prob- wall, where the measuring magnetic probes are located
lem of plasma response to a pulse of the resonant field [21–26]. This increase could be described by Eq. (5) if
is analyzed. In Section 6, our RFA model and the the jump in the derivative on its right-hand side could
results obtained are compared to the model and results be expressed through Bn (the unknown function) and a
of [28]. In the conclusion, the basic results are sum- perturbation from external sources (a parameter). A
marized. similar problem was solved in [30, 31] in a cylindrical
approximation. Here, we will use the results of [30, 31],
2. BASIC EQUATIONS AND THE FORMULATION ignoring toroidicity. In [21, 23, 26, 28, 29], the RFA
OF THE PROBLEM effect was also analyzed with the use of equations for a
cylindrical configuration. Below, we will consider a
The complete solution of the problem requires the cylindrical plasma column surrounded (at a certain dis-
calculation of the perturbed magnetic field in the tance) with a coaxial conducting shell.
plasma, vacuum regions, and conducting metal shells We describe a magnetic field perturbation in vac-
outside the plasma. The field in the external (with uum by its radial component
respect to the plasma) region can be found if the per-
turbed magnetic field at the plasma boundary is known.
In this case, only the plasma boundary appears in the
br = ∑b m ( r, t ) exp ( imθ – inζ ), (6)
problem as a surface on which boundary conditions where t is time and r, θ, and ζ = z/R are cylindrical coor-
should be set. The problem will be considered here in dinates related to the symmetry axis. Here, instead of
just such a formulation; namely, the plasma will be the length z, we have introduced the angular coordinate
modeled by a certain perturbation with given proper- ζ, which is an analogue of the toroidal angle, with 2πR
ties. Arguments in favor of such a model are given in being the length of the equivalent torus. We are inter-
[30, 31]. The results of numerical calculations [32, 33] ested in perturbations with low poloidal and toroidal
confirm that such modeling is quite reliable. wavenumbers (m and n, respectively). In this case,
Perturbations in the external region are described by instead of exact expressions for bm [34], one can use the
Maxwell’s equations approximate expression
in – µ – 1 out µ – 1
∂B bm = Bm x + Bm x , (7)
— × E = – ------- , (1)
∂t
where x = r/rw , rw is the radius of the conducting wall,
— ⋅ B = 0, (2) µ = |m | and B m and B m are time-dependent complex
in out

— × H = j, (3) amplitudes. The first term in Eq. (7) describes the con-
tribution to bm from the inner region with respect to the
and Ohm’s law,
point x, and the second one, from the outer region. One
j = σE. (4) should remember that, at x < 1, the field of the currents
flowing in the conducting wall must be included in
Here, E and H are the electric and magnetic fields, out in
respectively, B = µm µ0H is the magnetic induction, µm B m , while at x > 1, this field must be included in B m .

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 ERROR FIELD AMPLIFICATION NEAR THE STABILITY BOUNDARY 189

In cylindrical geometry, Eq. (5) for long-wavelength x = rp/rw). Finally, the strict approach requires the cal-
perturbations reduces with the help of Eq. (7) to the fol- culation of the perturbed magnetic field in the plasma.
lowing set of equations (see [30, 31] for details):
Numerical calculations show that variations in the
∂B field Bext created by the correction coils do not distort
τ w ---------m- = Γ m B m + 2µB m ,
ext
(8)
∂t the structure of the mode in the plasma at fixed param-
eters of the equilibrium configuration [12, 19, 35–39].
where τw = µ0σsrw = µ0σdrw is the characteristic time This effect was investigated in [19] and was called
during which the magnetic field penetrates through the “mode rigidity.” It can be explained by the fact that a
in out
wall, Bm = bm(rw) = B m + B m is the amplitude of the magnetic field perturbation in the plasma is determined
by the current and pressure profiles, which change
(m, n)th harmonic of the radial perturbed magnetic field insignificantly under the action of a weak external field
ext
at the wall, B m is that part of Bm that is created by all Bext. This was discussed in more detail in [31]. Cer-
the sources located outside the shell (in the region r > tainly, the aforesaid applies to the radial dependence of
rw). We note that here τw is a constant determined by the the perturbation amplitude, but does not allow us to
wall properties only. The quantity τw /2µ is sometimes judge its phase. In many cases, the assumption that the
called the resistive wall time. phase of the complex quantity bm is preserved can be
quite acceptable; however this point requires a special
The parameter Γm in Eq. (8) is formally defined by analysis.
the equality [30, 31]
The invariability of bm(r) in the plasma means that
rb 'm ≡ – ( µ + 1 ) – Γm , (9)
-------- the value of rb m' /b m at the plasma surface must remain
bm in
unchanged when either Bext or the mode amplitude
where the index “in” refers to the value at the inner side vary. Accordingly, Γm also will not change.
of the shell, r = rw – 0, and the prime stands for the
derivative with respect to the radius r. To make use of Following [30, 31] and leaning on the results of [12,
Eq. (8) for calculating Bm, we must somehow specify 19, 35–39], we will consider the quantity Γm in Eq. (8)
the parameter Γm.
ext
to be a given (independent of Bm and B m ) characteris-
tic of the unperturbed equilibrium configuration. When
RWMs are stabilized by a feedback system, the rigidity
3. PARAMETER Γm of the mode structure in a plasma is confirmed not only
Substituting expression (7) into equality (9), we by MHD calculations, but also by the experimental
obtain results from DIII-D [19]. Thus, one can consider the
model with a given Γm, in particular, with Γm = const, to
out
Bm be well justified. In some cases below, the latter restric-
Γ m = – 2µ ----------------------,
in out
(10) tion on Γm will not be needed. These cases will be
Bm + Bm
expressly specified.
The parameter Γm has a simple physical meaning.
out wall ext
where B m = B m + B m is the field created by all the
sources external to the plasma. In our case, there are According to Eq. (8), in the absence of an external mag-
three such sources: the currents induced in the wall; the ext
netic perturbation ( B m = 0), we have
known currents in the correcting coils; and, generally,
unknown sources of the error field. The denominator of Γ m = τ w ( γ 0 + inΩ 0 ), (12)
expression (10) contains the total field, which can be
experimentally determined using magnetic probes. where γ0 is the growth (decay) rate and Ω0 is the angular
out
Then, in order to determine B m in the numerator, it is frequency of the mode toroidal rotation. The latter
in quantities can be found from magnetic measurements
necessary to know B m —the magnetic field perturba- outside the plasma, as was done in the DIII-D tokamak
tion created by the plasma currents. [22]. This allows one to close the problem without find-
In the vacuum gap between the plasma and the wall, ing bm(r) in the plasma.
we have
The plasma is stable at γ0 < 0 and unstable at γ0 > 0.
rb 'm 2µΓ m x
2µ The stability boundary corresponds to γ0 = 0. RWM
-------- = – ( µ + 1 ) – ----------------------------------------
-. (11) rotation is never very fast [12–14, 22]. Most dangerous
2µ + Γ ( 1 – x )
bm 2µ
m is the full stop of mode rotation—the so-called mode
locking [9]. This general information, which is actually
Therefore, the Γm value determined by equality (9) can
a simple phenomenological description of Γm, turns out
be expressed through rb m' /b m at the plasma surface (at to be sufficient for modeling the RFA effect at γ0 ≤ 0.

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190 PUSTOVITOV

4. AMPLIFICATION OF A STATIC ERROR FIELD On short time intervals, when inequality (15) is satis-
NEAR THE RWM STABILITY BOUNDARY fied, no additional restrictions on Γm are required.
Therefore, it can be stated, e.g., that, if the field Bm is
For Γm = const and B m = const, which corresponds
ext

initially zero, it will reach a level of 0.2µ B m /|Γm | over

ext
to a given equilibrium state and fixed external condi-
tions, the solution to Eq. (8) is the time t = 0.1τw /|Γm | at any Γm. At |Γm | = 0.1, this cor-
responds to the amplification of the error field by a fac-
2µ ext tor of 2µ.
B m = – ------ B m + C exp ( Γ m t/τ w ), (13)
Γm Condition (15) on t becomes weaker and the appli-
where C is a constant specified by the initial conditions. cability range of solution (14) expands when Γm
ext evolves toward Γm = 0. This means, in particular, that
The additive constant proportional to B m and deter- the effect of the resonant error-field amplification must
mining the level of the steady-state solution depends on be observed not only near the stability threshold of con-
the plasma properties through the Γm value. At Γm = 0, ventional RWMs, but also in the vicinity of all other
the right-hand side of expression (13) is singular. This zeros of Γm. An important point in our problem is the
singularity can be related either to the accepted interaction of the plasma-induced perturbation with the
assumption Γm = const or simply to the fact that the wall; therefore, the term RWM should be considered
point Γm = 0 must be considered separately. In any case, here as a generic name of all such perturbations, includ-
the presence of Γm in the denominator of expression (13) ing those destabilized by the current, rather than only
shows that one must pay close attention to the range of by the plasma pressure.
small Γm values when the plasma response to a static If ReΓm < 0, then, after a certain period of time, only
external helical field is being investigated. the first term in solution (13) will survive. This term
In [23, 26–29], it was proposed to consider RFA, at describes the equilibrium deformation of the plasma
best, as a quasi-steady process. The time dependence in column under the action of the static resonant field Bext.
the equations was therefore ignored, so that the solu- In this case, the RWM is stable by definition; however,
tions presented in [21, 23, 26–29] actually correspond this formally stable solution may not be achieved in
to the steady state described by formula (13) with C = practice if it gives too large values of Bm at Γm 0.
0. As a result, the RFA effect in [23, 26–29] was Solution (13) with C = 0 can also be used at Γm =
directly related to the zeroing of the denominator. In Γm(t) when the left-hand side of Eq. (8) is small. This
particular, it was stated in [29] that this singularity condition reduces to
dominates the physics of resistive wall modes and error
field amplification. ∂ 1
τ w ----- ------ Ⰶ 1, (16)
The description of the RFA effect with the help of ∂t Γ m
formula (13) at C = 0 is incomplete or even incorrect. It
since in this case ΓmBm = –2µ B m = const. If, for exam-
ext
is obviously incorrect in the most interesting case of
Γm = 0. At Γm = 0 and B m = const, Eq. (8) has the fol-
ext
ple, the value of 1/Γm increases by a factor of 10 over
lowing linearly growing solution without singularities: the time on the order of 100τw , then the first term on the
right-hand side of expression (13) will increase tenfold.
ext t
0
B m = B m + 2µB m ----- . (14) The growth rate of Bm in the course of such Γm evolu-
τw tion is much smaller than that given by formula (14).
On short time scales, such a growth of Bm is not danger- Nevertheless, we again obtain large values of Bm.
ous, the more so as the growth rate of Bm is proportional Thus, in the dynamic approach, when the Bm evolu-
to B m and, therefore, can be small. However, at t Ⰷ τw ,
ext tion is described by formula (14), or in a quasi-steady
case, when Bm is described by the first term in expres-
solution (14) gives very large values of Bm. For exam-
ple, at t = (50–100)τw , which is well below the pulse sion (13), the static resonant field Bext is amplified to
very large values (in our model, Bm increases without
duration in the DIII-D tokamak, the amplification fac-
tor in solution (14) is equal to 200–400. Such an ampli- bounds as Γm 0). According to formula (10), the
equality Γm = 0 corresponds to B m = 0. In this case, Bm
out
fication of the resonant field may be considered unlim-
ited since it can result in intolerably large values of Bm. is the field created by the plasma only and measured at
However, this “physical” infinity differs radically from the point r = rw . At the plasma boundary, the amplitude
the infinity in expression (13) at Γm = 0. of the perturbed field bm(rp) is (rw /rp)µ + 1 times larger.
Generally, solution (14) can be used at any Γm satis- Large Bm values, irrespective of their origin, may lead
fying the condition |ΓmBm | Ⰶ 2µ B m , which, at B m =
ext 0 to the loss of equilibrium and the collapse of a dis-
0 in formula (14), reduces to charge.
In any case, an important fact is that the amplifica-
Γm t Ⰶ τw . (15) tion factor is time-dependent. This is illustrated most

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 ERROR FIELD AMPLIFICATION NEAR THE STABILITY BOUNDARY 191

clearly by formula (14) for locked modes at the stability Bm, arb. units
boundary Γm = 0. 1.2
At γ0 ≤ 0, the rate of change of Bm is limited from
ext 1.0
above by the value 2µB m /τ w , which can be very small.
Slow plasma deformation related to the slow growth of 0.8
Bm can cause the slow deterioration of plasma confine-
ment, which can result in a slowing down the growth of 0.6
β or even lead to a decrease in β. This can stop the
growth of γ0 or even make γ0 decrease, eventually 0.4
resulting in the reduction of Bm and the returning of the
discharge to its former state. In this case, a “soft” 0.2
restriction of β will be observed: the discharge will
remain stable, resisting an increase in β by an apprecia-
ble increase in losses near the RWM stability threshold. 0 1 2 3 4
The elimination of Bext is the most radical way to –γ0t
resolve the problem. In this case, Eq. (8) will provide a Fig. 1. Plasma response to a short pulse of the resonant field
“good” solution even at Γm = 0. However, to completely (–γ0T = 1.6).
remove Bext is not an easy matter. To avoid too large an
amplification of Bext near the RWM stability boundary,
one must somehow bypass the point Γm = 0. A favorable 0
t = 0), B m = 0. In this case, when pulse (17) is switched
factor resulting in the shifting of Γm away from zero on, we have
into the complex plane is mode rotation. At Ω0 ≠ 0, the
singularity in expression (13) is eliminated. In this case, ∂B m 2µ er
the RFA effect is still possible, but the field amplifica- ---------- = ------ B m . (19)
∂t τw
tion is weaker than at Ω0 = 0. It worth noting that, in any
case, the amplification factor is finite and depends on The Bm value grows linearly as long as the inequality
how long plasma stays in a state with a given Γm value.
|ΓmBm | Ⰶ 2µ B m is satisfied, which reduces to condi-
er

tion (15).
5. PLASMA RESPONSE TO A PULSE
OF THE RESONANT FIELD If probing pulse (17) is very short, T Ⰶ 1/|γ0 |, Bm
grows linearly till the end of the pulse, reaching the
Let an additional resonant magnetic field be applied value
over a finite time interval,
2µ er
B , 0 < t < T
er B m = ------ B m T . (20)
ext
Bm =  m (17) τw
 0, t < 0, t > T ,
Just after the pulse is switched off, we have
er
where Bm is a constant. It is such pulses with well-con- ∂B Γm Bm 2µ er
trolled amplitudes that are used in DIII-D experiments ---------m- = ------------- = ------ B Γ T. (21)
to study the influence of external resonant magnetic ∂t τw τw
2 m m

perturbations on the RWM dynamics [17, 18, 21–26].

This decay rate of Bm turns out to be |γ0 |T times smaller
At a constant external perturbation, the general solu-
tion to Eq. (8) is than the growth rate defined by Eq. (19). We note that
formulas (19), (20) and (21) are also applicable at γ0 = 0.
2µ ext
B m = B m exp (Γ m t/τ w ) + ------ B m [ exp (Γ m t/τ w ) – 1 ]. (18)
0
In experiments, the right-hand sides of formulas
Γm (19) and (20) should be known, while the left-hand
This solution for Bm is applicable at any time. It is only sides can be measured. Thus, formulas (19) and (20)
0
allow direct experimental verification. Equation (21)
necessary to remember that the constants B m in solu- can be used to experimentally estimate the perturbation
tion (18) are different at t = 0 and after the end of pulse decay rate entering into the right-hand side of this equa-
(17). Clearly, at Γm = 0, solution (18) reduces to for- tion.
mula (14). The pulse can be considered short if Bm does not
We assume that γ0 = ReΓm /τw < 0, i.e., the plasma is reach a saturation level. Solution (18) for this case is
stable with respect to RWMs and, in the initial state (at shown in Fig. 1. If probing pulse (17) is long enough

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

192 PUSTOVITOV

Bm, arb. units max er

In the opposite case, we have B m < B m , which can
1.2
be called resonant field attenuation.
1.0 It should be noted that we are always speaking here
about the frequency of toroidal rotation of a magnetic
0.8 perturbation. This frequency can be measured using a
set of magnetic probes. In DIII-D experiments, in the
0.6
stage of RWM onset and growth, this frequency is sub-
stantially smaller than the frequency of plasma rotation,
Ωp [12–14, 22]. According to [14], Ω0 ~ τ p Ⰶ Ωp from
–1
0.4
the onset of RWMs.
0.2 Although field (22) can be large, the plasma
response to an external resonant field at small negative
Γm values nevertheless remains finite. Moreover, when
0 5 10 15
–γ0t a probing pulse is switched off [t > T in formula (17)],
the field Bm exponentially decays to zero (see Figs. 1,
Fig. 2. Plasma response to a long pulse of the resonant field 2). Such behavior of the measured field Bm has been
(–γ0T = 11.6).
repeatedly observed in the DIII-D tokamak [17, 18, 21–
23, 25, 26].
(T Ⰷ 1/|γ0 |), the exited field (18) grows up to the satu-
ration level 6. DISCUSSION
max 2µ er Let us compare our analysis to that of [28]. This is
B m = – ------ B m . (22)
Γm not a difficult task since, in [28], the RFA effect was
The initial growth of a perturbation is described by for- also analyzed in a cylindrical approximation. In that
mula (19) and is determined by the properties of the paper, one mode of perturbation was considered and its
conducting wall only. Just after the pulse is switched amplitude was described by an equation similar to
off, we have Eq. (8). A quantity analogous to Γm in Eq. (8) was also
ext
∂B m Γm Bm 2µ er assumed to be constant (independent of Bm and B m ).
---------- = ------------- = – ------ B m . (23)
∂t τw τw However, the choice of this constant was different.
Equation (8) is a consequence of Maxwell’s equa-
In this case, the decay rate of Bm is equal to growth rate tions and Ohm’s law for a conducting wall; therefore, it
(19) at the instant at which the probing pulse is contains only the wall parameters (τw) and the charac-
switched on. Two latter formulas can also be experi- teristics of the perturbed magnetic field. In [28], the
mentally verified. The response of Bm to a long pulse of problem was formulated in other terms (certain s and
the resonant field is illustrated by Fig. 2. The constants α), which are related to γ0 and Ω0 in a rather compli-
γ0T in Figs. 1 and 2 are chosen so that these figures cated manner even in a cylindrical model. According to
could be compared to the measurement results reported
Eq. (8), Γm = 0 with B m = 0 corresponds to a steady
ext
in [22]. The agreement turns out to be very good.
It can be seen from expression (10) that, in the state in which Bm does not change with time. At γ0 =
absence of a plasma, Γm = –2µ. In this case, Eq. (22) ReΓm /τw < 0, the perturbation Bm decays in the absence
max er
yields B m = B m . The amplification of the resonant of an external resonant field, while at γ0 > 0, it increases
exponentially. The RWM stability threshold is naturally
> B m ) will happen if the ratio 2µ/|Γm |
max er
field ( B m the point γ0 = 0. As was shown above, the RFA effect is
becomes larger than unity in the course of plasma evo- strongest in the vicinity of this point.
lution (an increase in β or a change in the current pro-
file). It follows from (22) that In [28], the stability boundary was defined in a dif-
ferent way: by the formal equality s = 0, without refer-
er
max 2µB m ence to Eq. (8). We will not discuss here the reasons
Bm = ---------------------------------
-. (24) resulting in this difference because, in this case, we
τw γ 0 + n Ω0
2 2 2
would have to go into details of Boozer’s model related
This formula shows that the effect of amplification is to the introduction of a certain “control surface” [28,
most pronounced when γ0 passes through zero at the 40–42]. Instead, we will only mention one of the essen-
RWM stability boundary and, in addition, the mode tial statements of [28], supported there by calculations
does not rotate. At small values of γ0, the amplification performed in a cylindrical model: the stability bound-
ary in [28] is called a state in which γ0 ≠ 0 in the pres-
of the resonance field occurs at
ence of mode rotation. For a thus defined stability
nΩ 0 τ w < 2µ. (25) boundary, the formulas of [28] yield γ0 > 0, which is,

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 ERROR FIELD AMPLIFICATION NEAR THE STABILITY BOUNDARY 193

however, against all logic. Thoroughly examining these 14]. Equation (8) allows us to make judgements only
formulas, one finds a mistake in the sign of γ0. How- about the perturbation amplitude and phase. Therefore,
ever, γ0 < 0 as a stability boundary also looks strange. a comparison of our results with the results of [28] can-
Specifically, at small α, the expression obtained in [28] not go beyond conclusions drawn about RFA, by which
for the RWM growth rate at Boozer’s stability bound- the damping of plasma rotation was explained in [28].
ary can be written in the form According to formulas (13), (18), (22), and (24), the
RFA effect is the strongest at γ0 = 0, whereas in [28], the
γ 0 = – nΩ max ( 1 – 1 – Ω 0 /Ω max ),
2 2
(26) point at which RFA is maximum is shifted to negative
γ0 values for Ω0 ≠ 0, as is described by formula (26).
where The greater the Ω0 value, the larger this shift. The shift
disappears at s = α = 0 only; however, in this case, we
µ
nΩ max ≡ ---------------------- , (27) encounter another, much more serious contradiction:
τw ( 1 – c ) the solution proposed in [28] [similar to that given by
Eq. (13) with C = 0] turns out unattainable. Instead of
c ≡ (rp /rw )2µ; and rp and rw are the radii of the plasma such a solution, one must use equality (14).
and the conducting wall, respectively. For c ≠ 1 (in Formulas (13), (18), (22), and (24) show that mode
DIII-D, c ≈ 0.2) and Ω0 ≠ 0, this equality yields γ0 < 0. rotation efficiently counteracts the RFA effect even at
However, in our case, γ0 = 0 at the stability boundary, the RWM stability boundary. For example, it follows
irrespective of the Ω0 and c values.
from formula (24) that B m < B m if Ω0 does not sat-
max er
A more thorough examination of the results of [28]
0 when Ω0 ∞.
max
reveals another peculiar feature of the model used in isfy inequality (25) and B m
that paper: in a general case, it implicitly contains a However, in [28], large values of Ω0 are forbidden:
restriction on the RWM rotation frequency. For exam- |Ω0 | ≤ Ωmax (note that this restriction was not com-
ple, it follows from the formulas of [28] that mented on in [28]; most likely, it was merely not per-
max Ω 0 = Ω max , (28) ceived), which, first of all, is inexplicable and, besides,
substantially underestimates the role of rotation in sup-
where Ω0 is the quantity entering into expression (26) pressing RFA.
and Ωmax is the quantity defined by formula (27). With In [28], the RFA effect was considered in a steady-
such a restriction on Ω0, for the DIII-D tokamak with state approximation. In this case, Bm is described by
c ≈ 0.2, we would obtain from formula (24) that formula (13) with C = 0. In [28], it was proposed to use
such a solution at the RWM stability boundary, where
B m > B m at the stability boundary (either at γ0 = 0
max er
it tends to infinity, which contradicts the initial assump-
or at Boozer’s stability boundary). However, Eq. (24) tion of [28] about the steady-state nature of RFA.
also allows the opposite result if the mode rotation is Meanwhile, Eq. (8), which is the starting point of our
fast enough. analysis, shows that, at Γm = 0, a steady-state solution is
Restriction (28) arises in [28] only as a consequence ext
possible only in the trivial case B m = 0; however, in the
of model manipulations in which the quantity Ω0
case of B m ≠ 0, which is of interest to us, it is slowly
ext
appears as a parameter, without any equation for it.
Also, the main conclusion of [28] about the damping of growing solution (14) that is valid.
plasma rotation at the RWM stability boundary is The difference between our results and the results of
drawn without reference to the equations of plasma [28] is related to the difference in the formulations of
motion. the models. A detailed analysis of Boozer’s model is a
The strong damping of plasma toroidal rotation at separate problem. The aforementioned contradictions
β > βno wall, accompanied by the fast RWM growth and in applications show that this model is to be revised.
(if special measures are not taken) by the discharge col- Our model is based on Eqs. (1)–(4). A transition
lapse, is typical of the DIII-D tokamak [13–25]. The from Eqs. (1)–(4) to Eq. (8) uses only geometrical
statement in [28] agrees with the observations, assumptions (cylindrical geometry, a thin-wall approx-
although, strictly speaking, it remained unproved in imation, and long-wavelength perturbations) that
[28] even with in the frame of the accepted model underlie whole sections of the MHD plasma theory.
assumptions. The sole nonstandard element is the assumption Γm =
If we lean on Eqs. (1)–(4) only, we have no const (although not always used here), which, in an
grounds to draw conclusions about plasma rotation, ideal case, is to be replaced by a proper equation for Γm.
because the latter should be determined from the However, there are solid reasons for such an assump-
equations of plasma motion. The quantity Ω0 entering tion, as was discussed in Section 3. All our calculations
into formulas (12) and (24) is the frequency of RWM are much simpler than those in [28], which makes them
rotation at Bext = 0, which can differ substantially persuasive and allows a reader to independently repro-
from the frequency of plasma toroidal rotation [12– duce all the chain of the proofs offered here.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

194 PUSTOVITOV

7. CONCLUSIONS point in which our results differ from all previous ones
[21, 23, 26–29].
The proposed RFA model, which is based on
Eq. (8), explains the main features of the phenomena At Γm = 0, even a weak error field can lead to a
observed in experiments carried out in the DIII-D toka- strong deformation of the plasma column. The concept
mak [17, 18, 21–26]: of a “precision tokamak” [43] appears to be quite rea-
sonable from this standpoint. The aim is complete sup-
(i) The RFA effect is the strongest at the RWM sta- pression of the resonant error field. For this purpose, a
bility boundary [21–26], as follows from Eqs. (13), tokamak should be equipped with a system of correct-
(18), (22) and (24). ing coils, as was done, e.g., in the DIII-D tokamak [12,
(ii) The growth of Bm can be slow, but can become 14, 16–26] and is planned for the Korean KSTAR toka-
faster [17, 18] if the plasma, being stable, evolves mak [44]. It is now becoming clear that such a system
toward Γm 0 [see Eqs. (8) and (18)]. is necessary not only for suppressing RWMs and pass-
(iii) When a pulse of the resonant field is applied, Bm ing to the range β > βno wall, but also for weakening the
can either grow slowly or, after reaching the saturation dangerous consequences of RFA at β < βno wall.
level, remain constant [22]. This is shown in Figs. 1 and The measurements of the rates of change of Bm and
2, which illustrate relationships (19), (20), and (22). the value of Bm itself by probing the plasma using a
(iv) After the pulse is switched off, the Bm perturba- pulse of the resonant field [22] can be used to determine
tion can decay [17, 18] if γ0 < 0 [see (21) and Figs. 1, 2]. the values of τw , γ0, and Γm by formulas (19)–(23). The
results of our analysis provide a simple theoretical
Our analysis also shows that any mode rotation model of RFA, explain the phenomena observed, and
(even slow) eliminates singularities in expressions (13), allow direct experimental verification in terms of a
(18), (22) and (24), thus significantly reducing the dan- number of parameters.
ger of RFA. It should be stressed that we are speaking
here about a direct relation between RFA and mode
rotation. Plasma rotation, however, never appears in ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Eqs. (1)–(4), on which our RFA model is based. Rota- I am grateful to Yu.V. Gribov and V.S. Mukhovatov
tion certainly must somehow affect the bm(r) behavior for drawing my attention to this problem and encour-
in the plasma and, as a consequence, the Γm value. The aging this study, to N.V. Ivanov for his support, and to
determination of Γm (to be exact, the linking of Γm to V.D. Shafranov for discussing the results obtained.
specific experimental conditions) is a separate task. As This work was supported in part by the Nuclear Sci-
was shown above, the RFA effect can be satisfactorily ence and Technology Department of the RF Ministry
described without detailed information about Γm. In our for Atomic Energy and the Russian Federal Program
analysis, Γm is prescribed as a parameter with proper- for State Support of Leading Scientific Schools (grant
ties inferred from numerical calculations [12, 19, 35– no. 2024.2003.2).
39]; this is reliably confirmed by experiments in DIII-D
[19].
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PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 196–213. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 221–240.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Bulanov, Esirkepov, Koga, Tajima.

NONLINEAR
PHENOMENA

Interaction of Electromagnetic Waves with Plasma

in the Radiation-Dominated Regime
S. V. Bulanov1, 2, 3, T. Zh. Esirkepov2, 3, J. Koga2, and T. Tajima2
1 ProkhorovInstitute of General Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Vavilova 38, Moscow, 119991 Russia
2 Advanced Photon Research Center, Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI-Kansai), 619-0215 Kizu, Kyoto, Japan
3 Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Institutskiœ per. 9, Dolgoprudnyœ, Moscow oblast, 141700 Russia

Received July 14, 2003

Abstract—A study is made of the main regimes of interaction of relativistically strong electromagnetic waves
with plasma under conditions in which the radiation from particles plays a dominant role. The discussion is
focused on such issues as the generation of short electromagnetic pulses in the interaction of laser light with
clusters and highly efficient ion acceleration in a thin plasma slab under the action of the ponderomotive pres-
sure of the wave. An approach is developed for generating superintense electromagnetic pulses by means of up-
to-date laser devices. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION interaction regime, is called nonlinear Thomson scat-

tering [3–6]), it plays a dominant role when an electro-
The interaction of a charged particle with an electro-
magnetic wave propagating in a plasma is sufficiently
magnetic wave is one of the most fundamental physical
intense, because the electromagnetic energy scattered
processes. When the dimensionless wave amplitude
by a charged particle per unit time is proportional to the
a0 = eE0 /meω0c is much smaller than unity, the electron
fourth power of the particle’s kinetic energy.
oscillatory velocity is low in comparison to the speed of
light in vacuum, so that, in describing the interaction of In focusing a petawatt laser pulse with a wavelength
an electromagnetic wave with charged particles, rela- of 0.8 µm to a spot diameter of about one wavelength,
tivistic effects can be ignored. Here, E0 and ω0 are the the radiation intensity reaches values on the order of
electric field and frequency of the electromagnetic 5 × 1022 W/cm2, in which case the dimensionless wave
wave, m and e are the mass and charge of an electron, amplitude a0 is equal to 160. (Note that the value a0 = 1
and c is the speed of light in vacuum. When the wave is corresponds to an intensity of 1.38 × 1018 W/cm2.)
relativistically strong (a0 Ⰷ 1), i.e., when the kinetic Thus, the wave field of a petawatt laser is certainly rel-
energy of a charged particle in the wave field exceeds ativistically strong. Higher intensity laser radiation
the particle’s rest energy, the dynamics of the particle interacts with plasma in a qualitatively new regime in
differs qualitatively from that in the nonrelativistic limit which a significant part of the energy transferred from
in both classical and quantum mechanics (see [1, 2]). the wave to the particle is reemitted as high-frequency
In the present paper, we mainly focus on the interac- radiation. Thus, the vector potential of a circularly
tion of a charged particle with an electromagnetic wave polarized electromagnetic wave propagating in a colli-
in regimes in which the particle dynamics is dominated sionless plasma is given by the expression
by the radiative friction force. It is well known that the 2
me c
electromagnetic field of a charged particle in a plasma - ( e y cos k 0 ξ – e z sin k 0 ξ ),
A ⊥ = a 0 ---------- (1)
can be conditionally divided into two component. The e
first, relatively long-wavelength component contributes
to collective plasma fields, resulting in changes in the where k0ξ = k0x – ω0t and the energy of an electron is
related to the wave amplitude by Ᏹ = mec2(1 + a 0 )1/2
2
dispersion properties of electromagnetic waves and
giving rise to such plasma modes as Langmuir and ion [7].
acoustic waves. The second, relatively short-wave-
length component is responsible for collisional pro- An electron moves along a circular orbit with fre-
cesses (including bremsstrahlung) in the near zone, quency ω0 and emits radiation at frequencies that may
while in the wave zone, it corresponds to Thomson or be as high as ωm = ω0γ3, where the relativistic gamma-
Compton scattering. As the radiation intensity factor is equal to γ = Ᏹ/mec2 [7]. The moving electron is
increases, the role of collisional processes decreases, so subject to a radiative friction force, which is estimated
that they can be ignored in describing a plasma irradi-
to be on the order of fR ≈ 8π2merec2γ2 a 0 /3λ 0 , where
2 2
ated by a relativistically strong electromagnetic wave.
As for Thomson scattering (which, in the relativistic re = e2/mec2 = 2.8 × 10–13 cm is the classical electron

1063-780X/04/3003-0196$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 197

radius and λ0 = 2πc/ω0 is the laser wavelength. Com- possible to amplify the radiation to intensities corre-
paring the radiative friction force with the Lorentz sponding to the quantum regime. A fundamentally
force, equal approximately to eE0 = meω0ca0, we find important point here is that this amplification can be
that the behavior of a charged particle becomes domi- achieved in present-day laser devices. In the conclu-
nated by radiative friction when the amplitude of an sion, we summarize the main results of our investiga-
electromagnetic wave satisfies the inequality tions.
3λ 1/3
a 0 >  ----------0- . (2)
 4πr e 2. EFFECT OF RADIATIVE LOSSES
ON THE MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE
Hence, the dimensionless parameter that describes the IN THE FIELD OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC
role of the intrinsic radiation of a particle (or, more pre- WAVE PROPAGATING IN A COLLISIONLESS
cisely, the role of Thomson scattering) is defined as PLASMA
4πr 2.1. Motion of an Electron in the Field of a Circularly
ε rad =  -----------e . (3) Polarized Electromagnetic Wave in Plasma
 3λ 0 
Let us consider in more detail an electron moving
For a laser wavelength of λ0 = 0.8 µm, this parame- without radiative losses in the field of a circularly polar-
ter is equal to (1/408)3 = 1.48 × 10–8. ized electromagnetic wave propagating in a plasma (see
Nonlinear effects occurring in the interaction of also [11]). According to [7], the dependence of the
charged particles with electromagnetic waves are, on wave phase velocity vph = ω0/k0 in expression (1) on the
the one hand, of great interest for numerous astrophys- wave frequency ω0 and wave amplitude a0 is given by
ical problems (see [8, 9]) and, on the other hand, have the formula
received considerable attention in research on the inter- 2 1/4
action between petawatt (and higher power) laser ω0 ( 1 + a0 )
v ph = c -------------------------------------------------------
-, (4)
pulses with matter. With the advent of petawatt lasers in 2 1/2 2 1/2
[ ω 0 ( 1 + a 0 ) – ω pe ]
2
recent years, it has become possible to investigate such
nonlinear interaction regimes experimentally [10]. where ωpe = (4πn0e2/me)1/2 is the plasma frequency.
The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, we The equations of motion of an electron have the
systematize different regimes of the interaction of laser integrals of motion
radiation with plasma. We determine the parameter
ranges of such regimes as the relativistic interaction P y = p y – m e ca y , (5)
regime; the regime dominated by the radiative friction
force; and the quantum regime, the upper bound of P z = p z – m e ca z , (6)
which corresponds to fields that are so strong that they
can produce electron–positron pairs in vacuum. In Sec- where P⊥ = Pyey + Pzez = P⊥[ey cosk0ξ0 + ez sink0ξ0] is
tion 3, we discuss how the behavior of a charged parti- the transverse canonical momentum, p⊥ = pyey + pzez is
cle interacting with an electromagnetic wave in a the transverse momentum of the electron, and
plasma, under conditions such that the ponderomotive a⊥(ξ) = a0(ey cosk0ξ – ez sink0ξ). (7)
pressure force is balanced by the force of the charge-
separation electric field, differs from the behavior of a The equations of motion for the longitudinal
particle interacting with a wave in vacuum, where the momentum px and longitudinal coordinate x can be
ponderomotive force is unneutralized. In Section 4, we written in a Hamiltonian form:
present two examples of the results obtained from
numerical simulations of the interaction between a ∂H
ṗ x = – -------, (8)
strong electromagnetic wave and charged particles in ∂ξ
the regime dominated by the radiative friction force.
Specifically, we consider the problem of the coherent ∂H
ξ̇ = -------------- , (9)
electromagnetic emission from a cluster in the field of k0∂ px
a laser pulse and the problem of the interaction of an
electromagnetic wave with a thin foil. In the first prob- with the Hamiltonian
lem, the cluster emits a short high-frequency electro-
H ( p x, ξ ) = [ m e c + p x c + ( P y – a y ( ξ ) ) c
2 4 2 2 2 2
magnetic pulse, and, in the second problem, conditions
favorable for highly efficient ion acceleration are (10)
2 2 1/2
achieved. In Section 5, we describe the results of com- + ( Pz – az ( ξ ) ) c ] – p x v ph .
puter simulations of the interaction between two laser
pulses propagating in a plasma toward one another. We Since the Hamiltonian does not explicitly depend on
show that, owing to the nonlinear frequency upshifting time, the condition for the function H(px , ξ) = mec2γ –
of the electromagnetic radiation and its focusing, it is pxvph = mec2h to be conserved allows us to determine

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

198 BULANOV et al.

p ation of electron–positron pairs [14–18]. The longitudi-

50 nal component of the momentum of each such electron,
1/2
 β ph 2a 0 [ 1 – cos ( k 0 ξ ) ] 
2 2
px
- =  -----------------------
-------- + -------------------------------------------- 
β ph – 1
me c 2 2
 ( β ph – 1 ) 
2
(13)
β ph
25 – ----------------
β ph – 1
2

increases from zero to the maximum value pmax =

mec[βg /(1 – β g )][ 1 + 4a 0 ( 1 – β g ) – 1]. Here, we took
2 2 2

into account the fact that the phase and group velocities
0 of an electromagnetic wave are related by the relation-
ship vphvg /c2 = 1, which yields βg = 1/βph. Accordingly,
the electron energy increases from mec2 to mec2 + pmaxc.
The electron orbit is a helix with an axis forming a cer-
tain angle with the wave vector of the electromagnetic
wave.
–25
–10 –5 0 5 10
ξ 2.2. Effect of Radiative Losses on the Interaction
of a Charged Particle with an Electromagnetic Wave
Fig. 1. Phase plane for Eqs. (8) and (9). in Plasma
In the equations of motion, the effects of radiative
damping in the interaction of a charged particle with an
the dependence of the longitudinal component px of the electromagnetic wave are described by the radiative
electron momentum on the variable ξ: friction force. We write the equations of motion in stan-
dard form [1]:
2 1/2
h β ph 1 + Π⊥ ( ξ ) – h
2 2 2
px hβ ph i
--------
- = ----------------------- + -----------------------------------
- – ----------------. (11) du e ik i
m e c ------- = --F u k + g , (14)
β ph – 1
2
β ph – 1
me c 2 2
( β ph – 1 )
2
ds c
where ui = dxi/ds = (γ, p/mec) is the velocity 4-vector,
Here, for the electromagnetic wave described by
expression (1), the function Π⊥(ξ) has the form ∫
γ = (1 – v 2/c2)–1/2, s = c dt/γ , and Fik = ∂i Ak – ∂kAi is
the electromagnetic field tensor. The radiative friction
2 2 force is equal to
Py Pz
Π ⊥ ( ξ ) = --------
- + ay(ξ) - + az ( ξ )
2
+ --------
me c me c
2e  d u i kd u 
2 2 i 2
2 2
(12) i
g = --------  ---------2- – u u ---------2-k . (15)
P⊥  2eP ⊥ A 0 eA
=  -------- - cos ( k 0 ( ξ + ξ 0 ) ) +  ----------0-2
- + ------------------ 3c  ds ds 
 m e c me c
2 3 m c 
e
The electric and magnetic fields are expressed in terms
and βph = vph /c. It is obvious that, without loss of gen- of vector potential (1) by the familiar relationships E =
–c–1∂A/∂t and B = — × A.
erality, we can set ξ0 = 0. The phase plane for Hamilto-
nian equations (8) and (9) is shown in Fig. 1. It can be The radiative friction force gives rise to a longitudi-
seen that there are no separatrices or closed orbits. nal force, which is nothing more than a ponderomotive
force. Here, we consider the case in which the ponder-
For each of the main plasma electrons, we have omotive force acting on an electron is balanced by the
P⊥ = 0 and h = 0. Such an electron moves in a circular force of the charge-separation electric field. As a result,
orbit of constant radius, and the longitudinal compo- the longitudinal component of the total force vanishes:
nent of its momentum remains zero. eEx + e(vyBz – vzBy)/c = 0. Setting the electron velocity
in the wave equal to the speed of light and estimating
For an electron that is initially at rest, the parameters the charge-separation electric field as Ex = 4πn0elx , we
of the solution should be chosen as follows: Py = meca0, find that the mean displacement of the electrons with
Pz = 0, and h = 1; i.e., P⊥ = meca0. These initial condi- respect to the ions is lx ≈ E0 /4πn0e = dea0(ω0/ωpe).
tions may refer to the electrons that are produced in a Under these conditions, an electron does not move
plasma either by ionization [12, 13] or due to the cre- along the x axis. In a perpendicular plane, the electron

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 199

moves along a circle with a frequency equal to the fre-

quency of the electromagnetic wave.
In order to analyze the solutions to Eqs. (14) and lnγ
(15), we turn to the approach developed in [19–21].
Since the energy of an electron is constant, the temporal 4
component of Eq. (14) has the form
e 0k 0 3
0 = --F u k + g . (16)
c
2
This equation is equivalent to the condition that there
be a balance between the work done by the energy elec- 1
tric field on the electron and the energy emitted by the
0.010 25
electron per unit time, e(E · v) = εradω0γ2 p ⊥ /me, where
2
0.008 20
0.006 15
εrad is given by formula (3). The spatial components of εrad 0.004 0.002 5 10 lna0
Eq. (14) can be written as
( p ⊥ – a 0 m e c ) = – iε rad p ⊥ γ .
3
(17) Fig. 2. Dependence of the logarithm of the electron energy
on the logarithm of the wave amplitude and on the parame-
We represent the electron momentum in a complex ter εrad.
form, py + ipz = p⊥ exp(–iω0t), where p⊥ = pexp(iϕ) is
the complex amplitude and ϕ is the phase equal to the
angle between the electron momentum vector and the
electric field vector in the wave. We then obtain σ

p 2 p 2 p 2 3 10
a 0 –  --------- = ε rad  --------- 1 +  --------- .
2 2
(18)
 m e c  m e c  m e c

It can be seen that, for a0 Ⰶ arad = ( ε rad – 1)1/2 ≈ ε rad ,

–2/3 – 1/3
5
the electron momentum is proportional to the electro-
magnetic wave amplitude, p ≈ a0mec, and the electron
energy is equal to Ᏹ⊥ ≈ mec2(1 + a 0 )1/2. In the limit a0 Ⰷ
2

0
arad = ( ε rad – 1)1/2 ≈ ε rad , we have p ≈ mec(a0/εrad)1/4
–2/3 – 1/3
0 0.10
[20]. Figure 2 shows the electron energy Ᏹ⊥ = ( m e c +
2 4

5 0.08
p2c2)1/2 ≡ mec2γ as a function of the dimensionless
amplitude of the laser pulse a0 and the parameter εrad. lna0 10 0.06
The energy flux reemitted by the electron is equal to 0.04 εrad
e(E · v) = εradω0γ2p2/me. The integral scattering cross 15
section by definition equals the ratio of the reemitted 0.02
2
energy to the Poynting vector P = cE 0 /4π : Fig. 3. Dependence of the scattering cross section on the
logarithm of the wave amplitude a0 and on the parameter
γ
2
εrad.
σ = σ T ----------------------, (19)
1 + ε rad γ
2 6

where the dependence of the electron energy mec2γ on σ = σT (1 + a 0 ) and reaches its maximum σm ≈ σ T a rad
2 2

the wave amplitude a0 is given by relationship (18) and at a0 ≈ arad; for a0 Ⰷ arad, it decreases according to the
the Thomson scattering cross section is σT = 8πr e /3 =
2
law σ ≈ σ T a rad /a 0 .
3

6.65 × 10–25 cm2. The dependence of the Thomson cross

section on the wave amplitude and the parameter εrad, When radiative losses are taken into account, we
which characterizes the wave frequency, is shown in arrive at the following dependence of the characteristic
Fig. 3. frequency of radiation from the electron on the electro-
magnetic wave amplitude. For 1 Ⰶ a0 Ⰶ arad, the fre-
It follows from expression (19) that, as the wave quency is proportional to the wave amplitude cubed,
amplitude increases over the range 1 Ⰶ a0 Ⰶ arad, the
ωm = ω 0 a 0 . In the limit of high wave intensities such
3
scattering cross section increases according to the law

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

200 BULANOV et al.

that a0 Ⰷ arad, we have ωm = ω0(a0/εrad)3/4; i.e., the fre- In the radiation-dominated regime in the quantum
quency increases far more gradually. limit, we should to use, instead of Eq. (18), the equation
Quantum electrodynamic effects come into play at p 2 p 2 6 2
a 0 –  --------- = ε rad  --------- γ U ( ϒ ).
2 2
(23)
electron energies at which the energy of a photon emit-  m e c  m e c
ted by an electron becomes comparable to the electron
kinetic energy, i.e., បωm ≈ Ᏹ⊥. In particular, these This equation is obtained from Eq. (18) by replacing
effects change the radiative loss function. In the quan- the energy lost by an electron with the quantum electro-
tum regime, it is necessary to take into account not only dynamic function, which in turn equals the energy
radiative damping effects but also recoil momentum emitted by an electron per unit time. In other words, the
effects, which change the direction of motion of the expression ≈ ε rad ( p/m e c ) should be replaced with the
2 8
electron because the outgoing photon carries away the
momentum km = ωm /c. Since photons are emitted in a function ε rad ( p/m e c ) U2(ϒ). The quantum-electrody-
2 8

statistically random way, the motion of an electron is a namic calculations of this function were performed in
superposition of the regular rotation in the wave field the theory of synchrotron radiation [22] and in the the-
and a kind of Brownian random walk. This is a familiar ory of the interaction of charged particles with electro-
effect in the electron motion in circular accelerators in magnetic waves [28]. In Eq. (23), we have introduced
the limit where quantum electrodynamic effects play a the dimensionless variable ϒ = (បω0/mec2)(p/mec)2. The
role in synchrotron radiation from the particles [22]. function U(ϒ) is expressed in terms of the Airy function
It has been shown above that, when radiative losses and its derivative. In the classical limit (ϒ Ⰶ 1), this
are taken into account, an electron in the electromag- function is close to unity, U(ϒ) ≈ 1, whereas, in the
netic wave field acquires the energy Ᏹ⊥ = mec2γ = quantum limit (ϒ Ⰷ 1), it is described by the approxi-
mec2(a0 /εrad)1/4. Such an electron emits photons with the mate formula U(ϒ) ≈ (128π/31/281)ϒ–2/3. Substituting
energy បω0γ3 = បω0(a0/εrad)3/4. This implies that quan- this formula into Eq. (23), we determine the change in
tum electrodynamic effects should be taken into con- the electron momentum in the quantum limit (a0 > aqua)
sideration for electrons with energies on the order of as a function of the electromagnetic wave amplitude:
Ᏹ⊥ = mec2(mec2/បω0) and higher or for electromagnetic បω 1/2 a 3/8
wave amplitudes equal to a0 = εrad(mec2/បω0)2 and larger. p ≈ m e c  ----------0-2  0.34 ------0- . (24)
m c   ε rad
The corresponding threshold Lorentz factor of an elec- e

tron irradiated by laser radiation with a wavelength of Let us make some estimates. In describing the inter-
one micron is about γ = (mec2/បω0)1/2 ≈ 700. The elec- action between plasma and laser radiation with a wave-
tromagnetic wave amplitude corresponding to this length of one micron, relativistic effects should be
threshold is equal to taken into account for a0 ≥ 1, which corresponds to
laser intensities of Irel = 1.38 × 1018 W/cm2 and higher.
re λ0
2
2e m e c The threshold wave amplitude for the radiation-domi-
a qua = ----------------- = -----------
-, (20)
3ប ω 0
2
3π⑄ c
2 nated regime is a0 ≈ arad with arad ≈ 400, which corre-
sponds to a laser intensity of about Irad = 3 ×
the equivalent value of the electric field in the wave 1023 W/cm2. The quantum effects come into play for
being a0 ≈ aqua ≈ 2500, which gives Iqua = 1.38 × 1025 W/cm2.
2 2 For the nonlinear quantum electrodynamic regime with
2em e c re electron–positron pair production in a vacuum, the lim-
- = -------
E qua = ----------------- -E . (21)
3ប
2 3⑄ c Schw iting laser pulse field is equal to the Schwinger field
2 3
ESchw = 2m e c /eប , which corresponds to the dimen-
We can see that the wave electric field is weaker than
sionless wave amplitude aSchw = 2m e c /បω 0 ≈ 106 and
2 2
the limiting electric field ESchw in quantum electrody-
namics by a factor of 3បc/e2 = 3/α, which is approxi- laser intensity ISchw = 1029 W/cm2.
mately equal to 411. The limiting electric field, which Reemission of the energy of an electromagnetic
is also called the Schwinger electric field, is given by wave into higher harmonics, which freely escape from
the expression [23, 24] the plasma, causes wave damping in a homogeneous
2 3 plasma or gives rise to a skin layer of finite depth (the
2m e c depth of penetration of the field into the plasma). Esti-
E Schw = --------------
-. (22)
eប mating the penetration depth from the balance condi-
tion for the scattered energy flux, ∇P = ne(E · v), we
The Schwinger electric field is so strong that, at a obtain lσ = 1/nσ. At a0 ≈ arad, the skin depth reaches its
distance equal to the Compton length, it performs the
minimum value of 1/nσT a rad ≈ 10–4(1023/n) cm. This
2
work 2mec2, sufficient to create an electron–positron
pair [23–27]. indicates that, in the interaction of a laser pulse with a

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 201

solid target, the laser energy is fully converted into hard potential. Here, the superior bar denotes the values of
X radiation or gamma radiation in a target layer several the quantities in the accompanying frame. In contrast,
microns thick, provided that the laser intensity is equal the parameter εrad, which is given by expression (3), is
in order of magnitude to Irad = 3 × 1023 W/cm2. That this not relativistically invariant. It is easy to show that
process is important was pointed out in [29]. ε rad = 4πre / 3λ 0 = εrad /(1 + a 0 )1/2. To do this, it is nec-
2

essary to take into account the fact that, in the rest frame
3. ROLE OF RADIATIVE LOSSES of the electron, the wavelength of the radiation is equal
to λ 0 = λ0[(c + v||)/(c – v||)]1/2 = λ0(1 + a 0 )1/2. The
2
IN THE INTERACTION OF A CHARGED
PARTICLE WITH A PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC bound of the radiation-dominated regime can be found
WAVE IN VACUUM
from the condition a0 ≈ ε rad . In the laboratory frame,
– 1/3

For further discussion, we give here some informa-

we obtain a0 ≈ ε rad . It can be shown that quantum
– 1/2
tion about the motion of a charged particle in the field
of a plane electromagnetic wave in vacuum (see [1, effects come into play for electromagnetic waves
30]). The equations of motion for charged particles whose amplitudes correspond to the limiting electric
imply that the transverse component of the generalized field in quantum electrodynamics.
momentum is constant, p⊥ – eA⊥ /c = const. The energy
and the longitudinal momentum component are related An analytic description of the interaction of a
2 4 2 2
charged particle with an electromagnetic wave in vac-
by the relationship ( m e c + p ⊥ + p || )1/2 – p||c = const. uum runs into serious difficulties even for waves with
The form of this integral of motion stems from the fact circular polarization. This is why we will consider the
that the vector potential A⊥ describing an electromag- particle motion in crossed constant electric and mag-
netic wave in vacuum depends on the coordinate and netic fields. Ritus [28] noted that the dynamics of a
time through the combination x – ct. We consider the charged particle in crossed fields exhibits the main fea-
electron motion in a frame of reference in which the tures characteristic of both classical and quantum phys-
electron is at rest up to the time when it begins to be ics. The reason for this is the following: In the accom-
affected by the electromagnetic wave. This choice of panying frame of reference, in which a relativistic (in
the reference frame determines the constants in the the laboratory frame) particle is at rest, an arbitrary
above integrals of motion. As a result, we determine electromagnetic field is nearly transverse, with mutu-
how the kinetic energy K/mec2 = [1 + (p/mec)2]1/2 – 1 of ally orthogonal electric and magnetic fields having
the electron and its momentum depend on the vector almost equal magnitudes.
potential A⊥(x – ct): K = mec2 |a⊥ |2/2, p⊥ = meca⊥, and We consider a charged particle that is initially at
p|| = mec|a⊥ |2/2. Here, we have introduced the function rest. We choose the reference frame in which the mag-
a⊥ = eA⊥(x – ct)/mec. These expressions are exact solu- netic field B points along the z axis and the electric field
tions to the equations of motion. Regardless of the E is parallel to the y axis and assume that the electric
strength of the electromagnetic wave field, the kinetic and magnetic fields are equal to one another, E = B. In
energy of an electron is expressed through the trans- this case, it is convenient to express the radiative fric-
verse or the longitudinal momentum component as K = tion force in terms of the external electric and magnetic
2 fields [1]. For particles with ultrarelativistic energies,
p ⊥ /2me or K = p||c. The Lorentz gamma-factor (the we have
electron energy normalized to mec2) is equal to γ = 2
Ᏹ/mec2 = [1 + (p/mec)2]1/2 = 1 + |a⊥ |2/2. From this, we 2r p
- [ ( mcγE + p × B ) – ( p ⋅ E ) ], (25)
2 2
g = – -------e- --------------
can determine the electron velocity: the longitudinal 3 m c γ 3 3
and transverse velocity components are equal to v|| =
c|a⊥ |2/(2 + |a⊥ |2) and v⊥ = 2ca⊥ /(2 + |a⊥ |2). It is seen where we have retained only the lowest order terms in
that, in the nonrelativistic limit (a0 Ⰶ 1), the transverse the expansion in powers of the parameter γ in the limit
component of the electron momentum is much larger γ ∞. Accordingly, in crossed electric and magnetic
than its longitudinal component. In the opposite fields, the radiative friction force is
(ultrarelativistic) limit (a0 Ⰷ 1), the longitudinal 2
2r 2 p 2
g = – -------e- E v  γ – ------x- .
momentum component is much larger than the trans-
(26)
verse component. These relationships can be derived 3c  mc
from formulas (4)–(13) in the limit βph 1.
In the accompanying frame in which the electron is, As a result, the equations of particle motion can be writ-
on average, at rest, the dimensionless wave amplitude is ten as
nearly the same as that in the laboratory frame of refer- 2
2r 2 2 ẋ 2
ṗ x = --Eẏ – -------e- E ẋγ  1 – -- ,
ence, a 0 = a0; this is a consequence of the relativistic e
(27)
invariance of the transverse component of the vector c 3c  c

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

202 BULANOV et al.

2 which yield
ẋ 2r 2 2 ẋ 2
ṗ y = eE  1 – -- – -------e- E ẏγ  1 – -- . (28)
 c 3c  c d px p  2 px – κ py
3
-------- = -----x  ------------------------. (35)
We switch to dimensionless variables in which the d py py  p – κ p 3 
x y
coordinates, momentum, and velocity are expressed in
units of re, mc, and c, respectively; the time is normal- This equation has the solution
ized to re /c; and the electric field is given in units of 1/2
px = κ py ± py [(κ py) + C] ,
3 2 2
2 4 3 2 (36)
Ee = m e c /e = (i.e., in units of ESchw /2α). We
e/ r e
switch from the independent variable t to the variable where C is an arbitrary constant. In the limit κ Ⰶ 1, solu-
a = E(x – ct), which is merely the value of the vector tion (36) should yield the same relationship between px
potential of the wave at the particle’s position. In these and py as that following from solution (31); in other
new variables, Eqs. (27) and (28) reduce to 2
words, we must have px = p y /2. This gives C = 1/4, in
which case the second term on the right-hand side of
- + κ p x γ  1 – -----x ,
py p
p x' = – ------------- (29) Eq. (36) should be written with the plus sign. In the
γ – px  γ opposite limit py Ⰷ 1/2κ (i.e., for |a| Ⰷ 3/2E), Eq. (36)
yields px ≈ 2κ p y . Using this relationship and Eq. (34),
3

p y' = – 1 + κ p y γ  1 – -----x ,
p
(30)
 γ we obtain
1 3 1
where κ = 2E/3 and the prime denotes the derivative p x = – --- κa , 20Et = κ a .
2 5
p y = – --- a, (37)
with respect to a. 4 2
In the limit of relatively weak fields (E Ⰶ 1), On infinitely long time scales (t ∞), the particle
Eqs. (27) and (28) have a solution that coincides with energy changes in time according to the law γ ~ t 3/5.
the solution presented in [1]:

p x = a /2,
2
p y = – a, p z = const. (31) 4. RADIATION-DOMINATED REGIMES
OF THE INTERACTION
This solution demonstrates the particular case of the OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
dependence of the particle momentum that has been WITH A CLUSTER AND A THIN FOIL
discussed above, namely, p⊥ = meca⊥ and p|| = Above, we considered the interaction of laser light
mec|a⊥ |2/2. We see that, in the ultrarelativistic limit, the with a charged particle in the point-particle approxima-
longitudinal momentum component increases most tion. Another approximation in which the effects simi-
rapidly. The particle trajectory in the coordinate plane lar to those caused by radiative damping play a key role
is implicitly determined by the equations is associated with targets whose sizes are less than the
laser wavelength. It is well known that, in this approxi-
3 2 3
x = a /6E, y = a /E, Et + a + a /6E = 0. (32) mation, a target behaves as a particle whose charge is
equal to the total charge of the target’s electrons. Exam-
In the (x, y) plane, the trajectory has the form 9x2 – ples of such targets are cluster targets and thin foils.
4Ey3 = 0. On infinitely long time scales (t ∞), the
particle energy changes in time according to the law
mec2γ ≈ (mec2/2)(6eEt/mec)2/3. This asymptotic formula 4.1. Interaction of an Electromagnetic Wave
is written in the above dimensional variables. with a Cluster
Using relationships (31) and (32), we find that radia- As was pointed out in [31], the interaction of a laser
tive losses begin to play an important role in the dynam- pulse with a cluster is accompanied by the conversion
of laser energy into the energy of the scattered radia-
ics of a charged particle when a ≈ arad = E–1. In this limit, tion. Under typical conditions, the cluster sizes are
using the condition px Ⰷ py, we can represent the much smaller than the laser wavelength, so that the
gamma-factor of the particle as γ = px + p y /2 p x + ….
2
laser radiation is scattered in the collective regime, in
Substituting this representation into Eqs. (29) and (30), which the scattering cross section is larger than that in
we obtain the single-particle regime by a factor of N 2, where N is
the number of electrons involved in the scattering pro-
2p cess. This can be explained in terms of the familiar
p x' = – --------x + κ p y ,
2
(33) expression for the total cross section for electromag-
py
netic wave scattering by a small spherical particle, σ =
py
3 8π|α|2V 2ω4/3c4 [32], which is valid for small-ampli-
p y' = – 1 + κ -----. (34) tude waves. Here, V is the particle volume and
px α = (3/4π)[(ε(ω) – 1)/(ε(ω) + 2)] is the polarizability, in

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 203

(‡) (b) (c)

4 4 4 0.4

2 2 2 0.2

0 0 0 0

–2 –2 –2 –0.2

–4 –4 –4 –0.4

0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 10
(d) 1.0 (e)
t = 6TLaser
0.8

0.6

z 0.4
y
0.2
x
0 2 4 6 8 10
k/kLaser

Fig. 4. Emission of a high-frequency radiation pulse in the interaction of an electromagnetic wave with a cluster: the distributions
of the z component of the magnetic field in the (x, y) plane at the times t = (a) 7 × 2π/ω0, (b) 8 × 2π/ω0, and (c) 9 × 2π/ω0; (d) an
electron cloud that forms under the action of laser radiation and the distribution of protons; and (e) the spectrum of high-frequency
radiation from the cluster.

which the dielectric function ε(ω) for a plasma is equal process is sometimes called cluster ionization. Obvi-
to 1 – ω pe /ω . For ω > ωpe, we obtain σ = σT (nV)2 =
2 2 ously, under conditions such that the kinetic energy
acquired by the electrons in the wave field is higher
σT N 2. The total number of electrons in a cluster can be than the Coulomb potential of the ion cluster compo-
estimated at N ≈ 108 for a cluster having a typical radius nent, all electrons leave the cluster. At lower intensities
of rcl ≈ 10–5 cm and at N ≈ 1011 for a micron-size cluster. of the laser electromagnetic radiation, only some of the
Regarding the cluster as a macroparticle with an elec- electrons are pushed away from the cluster by the laser
tric charge of eN and using the above results, we can wave (the corresponding limits are discussed in [33–
determine the dimensionless amplitude of laser radia- 36]). Note that, in the context of our analysis, the wave
tion at which it is necessary to take into account the is regarded as being weak if its electric field is much
effects of the radiative friction force: arad = less than the electric field at the boundary of a fully ion-
(4πNre /3λ0)–1/3. This amplitude, which is about ized cluster, E0 < 4πnercl /3. At both strong and weak
500 times smaller than that in the case of scattering by fields, an electron bunch forms whose dimensions are
one electron, corresponds to the laser intensity Icl = smaller than the laser wavelength. During several peri-
1018 W/cm2 at an operating wavelength of one micron. ods of the electromagnetic wave, the bunch is acceler-
It has been shown above that, at this laser intensity, the ated as a single entity and, consequently, emits radia-
scattering cross section is maximum. Hence, the case tion coherently. A relatively weak electromagnetic
under consideration, on the one hand, can serve to wave gives rise to a bunch in which the number of elec-
trons is equal in order of magnitude to δN ≈ E 0 r cl /e .
2
model the radiation-dominated interaction regime and,
on the other hand, is of interest for creating high-power The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the bunch is
sources of hard electromagnetic radiation. illustrated in Fig. 4, which shows the results of a three-
Under the action of a sufficiently strong electromag- dimensional particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of the
netic wave, the electrons escape from the cluster. This interaction of a laser pulse with a cluster.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

204 BULANOV et al.

p
(a) (b)

p3 p

15

p2 10

0
p1 4 2
8 3
δ 12 4 a0
a1 a0 16 5

Fig. 5. (a) Dependence of the momentum of an electron on the wave amplitude within the cluster and (b) surface in the (p, δ, a0)
space that corresponds to this dependence.

3
In this version of numerical simulations, a semi-infi- in turn requires that the condition Ne Ⰶ 4πnr cl /3 be
nite laser pulse propagates along the x axis. The dimen- satisfied. As a result, we obtain the equation
sionless pulse amplitude a0 = 10 corresponds to an
δm e c
2
intensity of 1.37 × 1020 W/cm2 at the wavelength λ0 = p 2
–  --------- 1 – ---------------------------------
2
a0
1 µm. At the pulse front, the electromagnetic field var-  m e c 2 1/2
( me c + p )
2 2
ies on a scale of 3λ0. A spherical cluster 0.2 µm in (38)
diameter is at the center of the computation region, 2 2 3
= ε̃ rad  --------- 1 +  ---------
2 p p
which has the form of a cube of side 10.2λ0. The cluster ,
 m e c  m e c
is assumed to be composed of an electron–proton
(mp /me = 1836) plasma of density n0 = 100ncr. The num- where δ = (ωpe /3ω0)2 Ⰷ 1 and ε̃ rad = 4πreNe /3λ0. The
ber of cells in the numerical grid is 10243, the total dependence of the momentum p on the electromagnetic
number of macroparticles being 3 × 106. The simula- wave amplitude a0 is depicted in Fig. 5. For 0 < a0 < a1
tions were carried out using the REMP code [37]. (where a1 ≈ δ), the momentum can take on three differ-
In Fig. 4d, we can see that, in the course of several ent values. This is characteristic of the nonlinear reso-
periods of laser radiation, all electrons escape from the nance described by Eq. (38). At a0 = a1, the momentum
cluster, leaving the net electric charge of the cluster’s increases in a jumplike manner from p1 ≈ mecδ1/3 to
ions unneutralized. Under the action of repulsive forces p3 ≈ mec(a0 / ε̃ rad )1/4, passing through the value p2 ≈
between like charges, the ion cloud begins to expand; mecδ. The upper branch of the solution shown in Fig. 5
this phenomenon is known as Coulomb explosion. Fig-
ure 4e shows the spectrum of radiation from the cluster. corresponds to the radiation-dominated regime.
It can be seen that the spectrum contains high harmon- That processes similar to plasma resonance play an
ics of the laser carrier frequency. important part in the interaction of strong electromag-
netic radiation with cluster targets was pointed out in
In the opposite limit, in which the wave amplitude is [38–41], though, in the first two of these papers, such
about 4πnercl /3 or greater, the number of electrons that targets were not referred to as cluster ones.
have not been ejected from the cluster is relatively
small in comparison with the total number of cluster’s
ions. Under the action of the electromagnetic field of 4.2. Regime of Highly Efficient Ion Acceleration
the laser pulse, the electrons that remain in the cluster in the Interaction of a Laser Pulse with a Thin Foil
circulate within it. Taking into account the smallness of It is well known that, in the interaction of laser radi-
the cluster in comparison with the laser wavelength, we ation with thin solid targets (foils), fast ion beams are
describe the motion of an electron bunch as the motion generated such that the number of ions in the beam is
of a charged particle (macroelectron) with an electric fairly large and the transverse beam emittance is small.
charge of eNe . The momentum of the electrons can be The acceleration of ions is a direct consequence of the
determined from Eq. (18), which must be modified to acceleration of electrons. Since the mass of the electron
include the electric field of the ions, E = 4πner/3. This component is small, the laser energy is converted pri-

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 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 205

marily into the kinetic energy of electrons. The electron y

component is displaced and its density changes; as a
result, spatial regions appear in which the charge sepa-
ration is great and the electric fields are strong. In the Ez
simplest one-dimensional case, when a wide laser pulse
is incident on a thin foil, an electron layer is displaced
with respect to the ion layer; as a result, the electric
field produced in the region between the layers acceler-
ates the ions. In the non-one-dimensional situation, the
high symmetry of one-dimensional processes is vio-
lated by such factors as the finite transverse size of the
laser pulse, the instability of the wide wave packet of
electromagnetic radiation in the plasma, and the Cou- x
lomb explosions of electron and ion layers. However, as
will be shown below, the process of ion acceleration in Fig. 6. Distribution of the z component of the electric field
the radiation-dominated regime of the interaction of an in the (x, y) plane at the time t = 87.5 × 2π/ω0. The wave-
electromagnetic wave with a target exhibits qualita- length of the reflected electromagnetic wave is seen to be
much shorter than the wavelength of the driving electro-
tively new features. In particular, the electromagnetic magnetic pulse. (In this and other figures, the driving pulse
pulse and the accelerated charged-particle beam do not propagates from right to left.)
break into smaller bunches. The electrons are acceler-
ated under the action of the ponderomotive force of the
wave. It should be noted that the ion acceleration mech-
anism under discussion is closely associated with the y
ion acceleration mechanism proposed by V.I. Veksler
[42]. Veksler’s concept of the collective acceleration of Ne
ions in an electron–ion bunch moving under the action
of the ponderomotive force of an electromagnetic wave
has had a profound effect on the development of accel-
erator physics and plasma physics. Below, we will
present the results of numerical simulations that give
(to the best of our knowledge) the first demonstration of
this acceleration mechanism. Our numerical results y
show that, in the radiation-dominated regime of the
interaction of an electromagnetic wave with a thin Ni
plasma slab, the ion layer moves with approximately
the same velocity as the electron layer. This indicates
that the ion kinetic energy is substantially higher than
the electron kinetic energy. The ions are accelerated as
a result of the action of the ponderomotive force on the
electron component and the energy transfer to them
through the charge-separation electric field. The main
results of two-dimensional PIC simulations are shown x
in Figs. 6–8.
In this version of numerical simulations, a linearly Fig. 7. Distributions of the electron density (on top) and ion
density (on bottom) in the (x, y) plane at the time t = 87.5 ×
polarized (s-polarized) laser pulse interacts with a thin 2π/ω0. The electrons and ions are seen to move in essen-
film. The pulse is assumed to be Gaussian, with effec- tially the same manner, forming a cocoon in which the elec-
tive sizes of 10λ0 × 10λ0 and the amplitude a0 = 316. tromagnetic radiation is localized.
This amplitude value corresponds to a pulse intensity of
1.37 × 1023 W/cm2 at the wavelength λ0 = 1 µm, in
which case the electrons in the wave are ultrarelativis- leading edge of the cocoon moves at a relativistic
tic. However, in accordance with the above parameter speed. As a result of this process, a plasma layer with
values, radiation effects for individual electrons can an overcritical density, moving at nearly the speed of
still be ignored. The thickness of the foil is equal to l0 = light, interacts with the electromagnetic wave and
λ0 /4, and its density is sixteen times higher than the reflects it. In other words, electromagnetic radiation is
critical density, n0 = 16ncr. reflected from a relativistic mirror. In the laboratory
A foil interacting with a laser pulse becomes frame ᏸ, the electromagnetic pulse and the mirror
deformed and changes into a “cocoon,” which, in turn, move in the same direction. We denote the propagation
traps the electromagnetic wave (see Figs. 6, 7). The velocity of the relativistic mirror by V and make the

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206 BULANOV et al.

N(ε) This equation has the solution

100 2 3/2 2
2 p + 2(m p c + p )
3 2 2
E0
---------------------------------------------------- + p = ---------------
- t + m p c, (41)
10–1 3m p c
2 2 2πn 0 l0

10–2 where the integration constant is chosen to satisfy the

1
condition p = 0 at t = 0. In parametric form, the time
10–3 dependence of the momentum can be written as
1
10–4 2 p = m p c sinh ( u ) – ---------------------- , (42)
4 sinh ( u )
10–5 where
10–6 2
u = --- arcsinh  -------------------------
- + 2 .
1 3E 0 t
(43)
3  2πn 0 l 0 m p c 
10–7
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
ε, MeV In the limit t ∞, we have p ≈
2
mpc( 3E 0 t/8πn 0 l 0 m p c )1/3 or
Fig. 8. Energy spectra of (1) protons and (2) electrons at the
time t = 87.5 × 2π/ω0. 3 2 m ω 2 ct 1/3
p ≈ m p c  --- a 0 ------e  -------0- ---- . (44)
 2 m p  ω pe l 0 
Lorentz transformation to the frame of reference ᏹ in Note that formulas (40)–(44) are clearly analogous to
which the mirror is at rest in the x' = 0 plane. The time the solution to the problem about the motion of a
and coordinate (t', x') in frame ᏹ are related to the time charged particle under the action of the ponderomotive
and coordinate (t, x) in laboratory frame ᏸ by the rela- pressure force of an electromagnetic wave (in the limit
tionships v c, the corresponding expression given in [1] can
be rewritten as Wσ T t/mc ≈ (21/2/3)/(1 – v 2/c2)3/2, with
x' = γ M ( x – Vt ), t' = γ M ( t – Vx/c ),
2
(39) 2
W = E 0 /4π ). In the case at hand, the role of the effec-
where γM = (1 – βM)–1/2 and βM = V/c. In the accompa- tive scattering cross section is played by the quantity
2/n0l0.
nying frame ᏹ, the wave frequency is equal to ω' =
ω0[(1 – βM)/(1 + βM)]1/2 ≈ ω0/2γM, the wave vector being From relationships (41)–(44), it follows that, with
the parameter values chosen for numerical simulations,
k x' = ω'/c. protons are accelerated to relativistic energies on a
characteristic time scale approximately equal to ten
In the mirror-at-rest frame ᏹ, the plasma density is periods of the electromagnetic wave. From Fig. 8, we
higher than the critical density calculated with allowance see that, by the time t = 87.5 × 2π/ω0, the maximum
for the relativistic dependence of the plasma frequency proton energy attains a value of about 34 GeV, the
on the wave amplitude, n > ω'2me(1 + a 0 )1/2/4πe2 ≈
2
energy of the electrons being about three times lower,
≈1.2 GeV.
ω 0 m e a 0 /γ M πe [7], and the thickness of the plasma
2 2 2
The intensity of the wave reflected from the relativ-
layer is larger than the collisional skin depth. In this istic mirror is equal to Ir = I0[(1 – βM)/(1 + βM)]2 ≈
frame, the wave is totally reflected from the mirror. In
I0 /(16 γ ph ). In the limit γph Ⰷ 1, this intensity is negligi-
4
the Lorentz transformation to a moving frame of refer-
ence ᏹ, the electric field strength in the wave is trans- bly low in comparison to the intensity of the original
formed according to the law E' = E0(ω'/ω0); conse- laser pulse. Taking into account the change in the pulse
quently, the pressure (the force per unit area of the mirror) length in the reflection process, we find the energy of the
is equal to E 0 (ω'/ω0)2/2π = ( E 0 /2π)(1 – βM)/(1 + βM).
2 2 reflected wave in frame ᏸ: Ᏹr = Ᏹ0(1 – βM)/(1 + βM).
Since the energy of the electromagnetic pulse reflected
It is well known that this pressure is relativistically from the relativistic mirror in the laboratory frame ᏸ is
invariant [43]. As a result, the equation of motion for much lower than the original laser pulse energy, the
the leading edge of the cocoon in the laboratory frame wave energy is absorbed by the plasma almost com-
ᏸ can be represented in the form pletely. It can be seen in Fig. 8 that the ions are acceler-
ated to energies that are considerably higher than the
E 0  ( m p c + p ) – p
2 2 2 2 1/2
dp energy acquired by the electrons. This is explained by
------ = ----------------  -------------------------------------------. (40) the fact that the velocities of the electron and ion layers
dt 2πn 0 l 0  ( m 2 c 2 + p 2 ) 1/2 + p
p are of the same order of magnitude, as is seen in Fig. 7.

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 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 207

Since the mass of the ions is much larger than the mass exciting a quasi-soliton standing wave between two
of the electrons, the ion energy is appreciably higher foils by an external pump laser pulse of sufficiently
than the electron energy. Hence, the laser energy is large amplitude.
almost completely converted into the energy of the ion One of the most attractive methods for solving the
component. problem of electromagnetic wave amplification is to
Numerical simulations show that the acceleration use a combination of the two effects—field frequency
process is highly stable. Its stability results from the rel- upshifting and laser pulse compression. That these
ativistic slowing down of the rate at which the trans- effects can indeed be involved has been demonstrated
verse modes develop. In other words, since the longitu- in many experiments; but they were generally achieved
dinal momentum of the particles is much larger than by different mechanisms. Thus, the amplification of an
their transverse momentum, the transverse velocity is electromagnetic wave during its reflection from an
much lower than the longitudinal velocity. Conse- oppositely propagating layer of relativistic electrons
quently, the plasma in the interaction region expands on was discussed in [52–55]. The frequency upshifting
a time scale longer than the characteristic time for the during reflection from a propagating ionization front
acceleration of charged particles. was investigated in [56–59]. A technique for frequency
upshifting that utilizes the reflection of an electromag-
netic wave from a nonlinear Langmuir wave propagat-
5. AMPLIFICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ing toward it was proposed in [60]. All these proposals
RADIATION IN ITS INTERACTION are based on the phenomenon of the frequency upshift-
WITH A PARABOLIC RELATIVISTIC MIRROR ing of an electromagnetic wave during its reflection
FORMING IN THE WAKE WAVE OF A SHORT from a relativistic mirror. The problem of a uniformly
LASER PULSE moving relativistic mirror was discussed as early as
The above regimes of the interaction of electromag- 1905 by Einstein [61]. Note that an elegant solution to
netic radiation with plasma can occur only when the the problem of reflection from a uniformly accelerated
electric field in the electron’s frame of reference is suf- relativistic mirror was given in [30].
ficiently strong. However, such electric fields are sub- There exists substantial literature on the amplifica-
stantially stronger than those achievable at the present tion of electromagnetic pulses propagating toward one
time (the only exception being the problem of a cluster another in a plasma [62–65]. Under the conditions in
in the field of laser radiation). question, the waves are amplified by parametric pro-
The maximum electric field amplitudes that are of cesses.
interest in the context of our discussion correspond to It is well known that the frequency of an ultrashort
the critical field at which nonlinear quantum electrody- electromagnetic pulse can be upshifted in its interaction
namic effects in vacuum come into play. One possible with a Langmuir wave propagating in the same direc-
way of achieving this maximum was demonstrated in tion. In [66], this phenomenon was called photon accel-
experiments at Stanford University [44–46] on the eration. It received considerable attention in [67–69].
interaction between a beam of ultrarelativistic electrons However, in this interaction regime, the maximum fre-
and a laser pulse propagating toward it. In those exper- quency upshift and the maximum degree of wave
iments, the electromagnetic wave amplitude in the elec- amplification are appreciably smaller than those in the
tron’s frame of reference was as large as 25% of the case in which a pulse and a wave propagate toward one
critical field in quantum electrodynamics. another.
A feasible but technically complex method of In the present paper, we propose to use highly non-
increasing laser power through the compression of linear wake waves to form parabolic relativistic mirrors
megajoule laser radiation by seven orders of magnitude with the objective of achieving the following three
was discussed by Tajima and Mourou [47]. They sug- effects simultaneously: during the reflection from the
gested that this may be done at two laser sources that mirror, the frequency of an electromagnetic radiation
are now under construction—the National Ignition pulse is upshifted and the pulse is accordingly com-
Facility (NIF) in the United States and the megajoule pressed in the longitudinal direction, which is accom-
laser system in France. It is expected that a power close panied by a great pulse compression in the transverse
to 0.1 × 1021 W, or 0.1 ZW (zetawatt), can be achieved direction at the expense of focusing. These three effects
by compressing original laser pulses to a duration of act to form a narrow, ultrashort, highly directed pulse of
10 fs with an efficiency of 70%. high-intensity high-frequency coherent radiation. In
Another possible approach is to use high-frequency comparison with the approaches discussed above, this
electromagnetic pulses and to focus them to a spot scheme is very stable (stiff). A brief description of the
diameter of about one wavelength. In this way, the scheme was given in [70].
expected gain in laser intensity is to be achieved geo- The model proposed here makes use of the charac-
metrically with X-ray lasers [48–50]. teristic features of wake plasma waves generated by
Shen and Yu [51] proposed to generate electromag- ultrashort laser pulses (drivers) in a subcritical plasma.
netic fields of moderate strength, ≈1024 W/cm2, by Since the group velocity of an electromagnetic pulse in

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

208 BULANOV et al.

a subcritical plasma is close to the speed of light, the within an angular range of ∆θ ≈ 1/γph). The above
phase velocity vph of a Langmuir wave generated by a dependence of the frequency of the reflected radiation
short electromagnetic pulse is equal to the group veloc- on the viewing angle is an important feature of the
ity of the driver and thus is close to the speed of light mechanism under discussion that is to be verified
[71]. In a nonlinear wake wave, the electron density is experimentally.
modulated in such a way that the electrons form rela-
tively thin layers moving with the velocity vph. It is A parallel beam of light reflected from a parabolic
assumed that the second laser pulse (signal) propagates mirror is focused to a region with a characteristic diam-
toward the first laser pulse (driver) and, accordingly, eter on the order of one wavelength. This conclusion
toward the wake wave. Under certain necessary condi- concerns an immobile mirror. The frame of reference ᏷
tions, the signal is partially reflected from the wake in which a parabolic mirror is at rest moves with the
wave, which thereby plays the role of a relativistic mir- speed vph with respect to the laboratory frame ᏸ. In the
ror. The Lorentz factor of the moving mirror is equal to mirror-at-rest frame, the wavelength of both the inci-
γph = (1 – β ph )–1/2 ≈ ωd /ωpe, where ωd is the driver fre-
2
dent and reflected wave is equal to λ s' = λs[(1 – βph)/(1 +
quency and ωpe is the Langmuir frequency. As the wake βph)]1/2 ≈ λs /2γph, where λs is the wavelength of the laser
wave amplitude approaches the threshold for wave pulse (signal). We carry out the Lorentz transformation
breaking (i.e., when the electron velocity in the wave back to the laboratory frame ᏸ and take into account
approaches the wave phase velocity), the electric field the shortening of longitudinal scale length and the fact
profile in the wave steepens nonlinearly and localized that the transformation leaves the transverse sizes of the
peaks form in the electron density profile [7]. At the focal region unchanged. As a result, we find that an
breaking point, the electron density formally tends to electromagnetic wave reflected from an oppositely
infinity, which, however, is an integrable singularity, propagating parabolic mirror is focused into a focal
ε
∫ n ( x ) d x ≠ ∞ (see [33] for details). In the context of region of radius ≈λs (2γph) and length ≈λs /(4 γ ph ).
2
–ε e
the question discussed in this section, an important
point is that the singularity does indeed exist; this cor- We now determine the energy of the reflected wave
responds to partial reflection of the electromagnetic and its intensity. We again denote by Ᏹ0 the energy of
pulse energy. The reflection coefficient depends on γph. the electromagnetic pulse before its interaction with the
Below, we will show that the amount of the reflected mirror in the laboratory frame ᏸ. In the accompanying
energy is proportional to γ ph . According to the familiar
–1 frame ᏷, the pulse energy is equal to Ᏹ 0' = Ᏹ0[(1 +
theory in [61], the frequency is upshifted by a factor of βph)/(1 – βph)]1/2 ≈ Ᏹ02γph. After reflection, the pulse
energy becomes κᏱ0[(1 + βph)/(1 – βph)]1/2 ≈ κᏱ02γph,
ωr 1 + β ph where κ is the reflection coefficient to be calculated
- ≈ 4γ ph ,
2
----- = --------------- (45)
ωs 1 – β ph below. Performing the Lorentz transformation back to
the laboratory frame, we see that the energy is equal to
where ωs is the frequency of the incident electromag-
κᏱ0[(1 + βph)/(1 – βph)]1/2 ≈ κᏱ04 γ ph . If the volume of
2
netic signal and ωr is the frequency of the reflected
wave. Another important point is that, since the fre- the original pulse is πD2L0 (where D and L0 are, respec-
quency of a relativistically strong Langmuir wave tively, the transverse and longitudinal sizes of the pulse
depends on its amplitude, a laser pulse (driver) of finite before its interaction with the mirror), then the volume
width excites plasma waves in the form of paraboloids 2
of revolution [72–76]. Consequently, we are dealing of the pulse near the focal region is πλ s' L 0 (1 – βph)/(1 +
with reflection from a parabolic mirror. This leads not βph). This, in turn, indicates that, as a result of longitu-
only to the frequency upshifting of the reflected wave dinal compression and focusing into a region with the
and its compression in the longitudinal direction but transverse size λ s' , the intensity of the radiation pulse
also to its focusing, which results in an additional com-
pression. During reflection from a moving parabolic reflected from a parabolic mirror increases by a factor
of about κ[(1 + βph)/(1 – βph)]3(D/λs)2 ≈ κ64 γ ph (D/λs)2.
6
mirror, the frequency of the reflected wave depends on
the angle of reflection according to the law
Then, we calculate the reflection coefficient κ,
1 + β ph which is defined as the ratio of the energy of the
ω r ( θ ) = ω s ---------------------------
-, (46)
1 – β ph cos θ reflected wave flowing through a unit area of the
medium to the energy of the incident wave flowing
where θ is the angle between the line of sight and the through a unit area in the laboratory frame ᏸ. We con-
propagation direction of the driver. As is seen, for- sider the interaction of a plane electromagnetic wave
mula (46) implies that the frequency of the reflected with a localized maximum in the electron density that
wave is maximum at θ = 0 and that radiation at the max- forms during the breaking of the wake wave. Under the
imum frequency is highly directed (i.e., is confined assumption that the wave amplitude is small, the wave-

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 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 209

breaking process in the laboratory frame is described for x' < 0 (which corresponds to an incident and a
by the equation reflected wave) and
4πe n e ( x – β ph t )
2
Ꮽ ( x' ) = τ ( q ) exp ( iqx' ) (51)
∂ tt A z – c ∆ A z + ---------------------------------------
2
- A z = 0. (47)
me γ e
for x' > 0 (which indicates that, in the half-space x' > 0,
Here, Az(r, t) is the vector potential of the field of the there is only a reflected wave). The problem as formu-
signal; ne(x – βpht) is the electron density profile; and lated is equivalent to the problem of scattering by a
γe = Ᏹe /mec2 is the gamma-factor of the electrons, potential in the form of a delta function. The coeffi-
which is equal to γph near the breaking point (i.e., near cients ρ(q) and τ(q) are determined from the condition
the maximum in the electron density profile). that the function A(x', t') is continuous at the mirror,
According to the results obtained by Akhiezer and { Ꮽ ( x' ) } 0 = Ꮽ ( +0 ) – Ꮽ ( – 0 ) = 0, (52)
Polovin [7], the density of the electron component and
its velocity in a relativistic Langmuir wave are related and the condition that the jump in its derivative is equal to
by n = n0vph /(vph – ve). It can be seen that, at the break-
ing point, at which ve = vph (i.e., γe = γph), the electron dᏭ 
density becomes infinite. Since, in a steady-state Lang-  --------  = χ Ꮽ ( 0 ). (53)
muir wave near the breaking threshold, the electron  d x' 0
velocity changes within the limits –vph < ve < +vph, the
minimum electron density is equal to n0/2. In a nonlin- As a result, we obtain
ear wave, roughly half of the electrons are in the narrow χ 2iq
peaks; the other half are equally distributed in the ρ ( q ) = – -----------------, τ ( q ) = -----------------. (54)
regions between the peaks and have the density ne = χ + 2iq χ + 2iq
n0/2 (see, e.g., Fig. 1 in [76]). Hence, the function ne(x – From this, it follows easily that |ρ(q)|2 + |τ(q)|2 = 1.
βpht) can be approximated by the expression
The wavelength of a nonlinear Langmuir wave
n e ( x – β ph t ) = ( n 0 /2 ) [ 1 + λ p δ ( x – β ph t ) ], (48) depends on its amplitude [7]. For a wake wave excited
in a plasma by a short laser pulse, this dependence can
where δ(x) is the Dirac delta function and λp is the be represented as λp ≈ 4(2γph)1/2c/ωpe [33, 76], which is
wavelength of the wake wave. This approximation is valid in the limit of relativistically strong waves near
valid under the conditions for the breaking of a Lang- the breaking threshold (γe ≈ γph). In this case, we have
muir wave, i.e., when the wavelength of the electro-
magnetic pulse is short and the skin depth c/ωpe is small χ = 4(2γph)1/2ωpe /c. Taking into account the relation-
2
ships ω s' = 4γ ph ω s and γph = ωd /ωpe, we find the
2 2
as compared to the thickness of the electron layer.
Transforming to the reference frame ᏷, which reflection coefficient in the accompanying frame of ref-
accompanies the wake wave, does not change the form erence:
of Eq. (47). The Lorentz transformation to this frame is
given by Eqs. (39) with V = –vph. Let us determine the (᏷)
κ ≈ ( ω d /ω s ) / ( 2γ ph ).
2 3
(55)
coefficient of reflection of an electromagnetic wave
from a partially transparent relativistic mirror—a thin In the laboratory frame, the reflection coefficient for a
plasma layer moving with a relativistic velocity. We plane wave incident normally on the thin plasma layer
seek a solution to Eq. (47) in the form Az(x', t') = that forms during the breaking of the wake wave takes
Ꮽ(x')exp[–i( ω s' t' + k x' x' + k y' y' + k z' z' )], where ω s' = the form
(ωs + kxvph)γph, is the frequency in frame ᏷, k x' = (kx + (ᏸ)
κ ≈ 8 ( ω d /ω s ) γ ph .
2
ωsvph /c2)γph and k ⊥' = k⊥ are the components of the (56)
wave vector k' = ( k x' , k ⊥' ) in this frame, and k x' > 0. With allowance for the change in the volume of the
Using these formulas, we reduce Eq. (47) in the moving electromagnetic pulse as a result of its focusing into a
frame to the form
region with a transverse size of ≈ λ s' = λs /2γph, we find
d Ꮽ
2
----------2- + q Ꮽ = χδ ( x' ) Ꮽ ,
2
(49) that the intensity of the reflected wave increases by a
d x' factor of
2
where q2 = ω s' /c2 – k ⊥ – ω pe /(2γphc2) and χ = ω 2 D 2 3
2 2
I sf
----- ≈ 32  ------d  ----- γ ph . (57)
ω pe λ p /c .
2 2
The boundary conditions for the equation Is  ω s   λ s
can be specified as follows:
Using this relationship and taking into account the fact
Ꮽ ( x' ) = exp ( iqx' ) + ρ ( q ) exp ( – iqx' ) (50) that the reflected pulse is compressed by a factor of

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

210 BULANOV et al.

≈4 γ ph , we obtain the ratio of the energy of the reflected

2
driver generating a wake wave to be capable of produc-
pulse to the energy of the incident wave: ing a wide parabolic mirror in the plasma, its intensity
must be sufficiently high and its transverse size must be
Ᏹ sf ω 2 1 sufficiently large. Let the intensity of the driver be equal
------- ≈ 2  ------d ------. (58) to Id = 1018 W/cm2 and let its diameter be Dd = 800 µm.
Ᏹs  ω s  γ ph
In this case, we find that the more intense and less
In future studies, the above estimates of the intensity intense laser pulses under consideration, each of which
of the reflected wave will have to be refined, in particu- is as long as several wavelengths, have energies of sev-
lar, by accounting for both the nonlinear processes and eral tens of joules and of several joules, respectively.
the effect of the non-one-dimensional geometry of These energies are achievable with laser devices that
reflection on the value of the reflection coefficient. are now in use in many laboratories around the world.
We can thus conclude that, by implementing the above
One of the nonlinear effects in question is associated scenario of the amplification of electromagnetic radia-
with the ponderomotive force exerted by a signal elec- tion, it will be possible to achieve electric fields in the
tromagnetic wave on the relativistic mirror produced by focal region that are as strong as the critical field in
the wake wave. As a result, the parameters of the mirror quantum electrodynamics.
should change. Using the reflection coefficient given by
expression (55) or (56), we determine the strength of We now present the results of two-dimensional sim-
the ponderomotive force: ulations of the process under discussion here—the
interaction between two laser pulses propagating
c 2 2c 2 ω 2 toward one another in a low-density plasma. PIC simu-
------E s ≈ ------ E s  ------d γ ph .
(ᏸ)
P = κ (59)
4π π  ωs lations were carried out using the REMP numerical
code [37].
The time required for the ponderomotive force to per- In the model, a driver propagates along the x axis
form work comparable to the kinetic energy of the from left to right. The dimensionless driver amplitude
reflecting electron layer (≈n0mec2λpγph /2) is equal in is ad = 1.7, which corresponds to the intensity 4 ×
order of magnitude to ∆t ≈ 2–1 ω pe a 0, s (2γph)1/2. This
–1 –2 1018 W/cm2 (1 µm/λd)2. The driver is polarized by an
electric field pointing along the y axis and is Gaussian
relationship restricts the duration and/or amplitude of in shape in both longitudinal and transverse directions,
an incident laser pulse, for each of which the nonlinear with sizes 3λd × 6λd. The wavelength of the signal prop-
processes occurring during reflection can legitimately
be ignored. Another nonlinear effect stems from the agating toward the driver is two times longer, λs = 2λd.
transparency of a relativistic dense plasma layer [7, 77] In order to ignore the nonlinear effects occurring during
and takes place for relativistically strong electromag- the reflection of the signal, its amplitude was set suffi-
netic waves with a dimensionless amplitude larger than ciently small, as = 0.05. The signal is rectangular in
unity, a0, s > 1. Using the results obtained in [78] (see shape in the longitudinal direction and is Gaussian in
also [79–81]), in which the coefficient of reflection of a shape in the transverse direction, the corresponding
relativistically strong electromagnetic pulse from a thin sizes being 3λs × 3λs. In order to distinguish between
dense plasma layer was calculated, we can show that the electromagnetic fields of the driver and of the sig-
accounting for the effect at hand should reduce the nal, the polarization of the signal is assumed to be lin-
reflection coefficient. As a consequence, expression (56) ear, namely, the signal electric field is chosen parallel to
becomes κ(ᏸ) ≈ 8(ωd /ωs)2γph /a0, s. the z axis and, accordingly, perpendicular to the polar-
ization direction of the driver. The two laser pulses
As an example, we consider the generation of a propagate in a low-density plasma layer with the elec-
wake wave in a plasma with the density ne = 1017 cm–3 tron density n0 = 0.09ncr, which corresponds to the
by a short electromagnetic pulse (driver) with a wave- Langmuir frequency ωpe = 0.3ωd. In the longitudinal
length of one micron. The wavelength of the wake field direction, the plasma layer occupies the interval 2λd <
that corresponds to these parameters is equal to λp ≈ x < 13λd. The size of the computation region is
100 µm, so that the Lorentz factor γph is γph = ωd /ωpe = 19.5λd × 22λd. The number of cells in the numerical
100. Let a laser pulse (signal) propagating toward the grid was chosen to be large enough to ensure the
driver have a wavelength of one micron and the inten- desired resolution of the structure of the short-wave-
sity Is = 1017 W/cm2 (which corresponds to a dimen- length reflected radiation pulse at the frequency pre-
sionless amplitude of a0, s ≈ 0.27). In this situation, the dicted by formula (43). Specifically, the grid consisted
signal is partially reflected from the peak in the electron of 1950 × 2200 cells, the spatial step being dx = λd /100.
density in the wake wave and is focused by this wave. At the left and right boundaries of the computation
If the effective transverse size of the signal equals D = region, the boundary conditions corresponded to com-
200 µm, then, from expression (57), it follows that the plete absorption of both the electromagnetic field and
intensity of the reflected radiation in the focal region is the particles. At the upper and lower boundaries, the
approximately equal to Isf ≈ 1.5 × 1029 W/cm2. For a boundary conditions were assumed to be periodic.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES WITH PLASMA 211

y y

x
x
Fig. 10. Projection of the z component of the electric field
Fig. 9. Electron density distribution within the plasma layer of the passing incident laser radiation (on the left of the fig-
in a wake plasma wave. The density is maximum near par- ure) and the radiation reflected and focused by the wake
abolic surfaces. wave of the laser pulse.

The results of numerical simulations are illustrated accordance with formula (44). Most of the radiation
in Figs. 9 and 10. energy is confined within the angular range ∆θ ≈ 1/γph,
In Fig. 9, we see a parabolic modulation of the elec- indicating the formation of a narrow beam of high-
tron density in a wake plasma wave excited by the intensity high-frequency radiation.
driver. The transverse scale length of the modulation At this point, we should emphasize that, in accor-
exceeds the transverse size of the signal, which is dance with the conclusions of [60] (see also [33]), effi-
reflected from the peaks in the electron density propa- cient reflection of the electromagnetic radiation from
gating toward it. Figure 10 shows the distribution of the the wake wave can only be achieved during the break-
z component of the electric field of the laser radiation in ing process, i.e., during the formation of sharp peaks in
the (x, y) plane. The radiation passes through the wake the electron density in the wake wave.
wave (see the left part of Fig. 10) and is partially We have considered a situation in which both of the
reflected by it. We can see that a substantial portion of interacting pulses are produced in a controlled manner.
the signal is reflected and is focused into regions whose However, the processes (similar to those discussed
sizes are considerably smaller than the original laser above) that are responsible for the frequency upshifting
wavelength. This indicates, in particular, that the fre- of electromagnetic radiation can occur in the plasma
quency of the reflected electromagnetic wave is spontaneously. This can happen, for example, when the
upshifted. laser pulse generating a wake wave undergoes stimu-
For the parameter values chosen in numerical simu- lated Raman backscattering and emits part of its energy
lations, the phase velocity of the wake wave corre- in the form of a wave packet propagating in the oppo-
sponds to the value βph = 0.87, i.e., to γph = 2. The num- site direction. This can also happen as a result of the
ber of waves in the reflected electromagnetic pulse is scattering (reflection) of electromagnetic radiation
the same as that in the incident pulse by virtue of the from plasma inhomogeneities. The model described
fact that the number of waves in the wave packet is rel- above implies that, if a propagating electromagnetic
ativistically invariant. The frequency of the reflected wave meets a nonlinear wake wave moving toward to it
electromagnetic wave is 14 times higher than the wave with a relativistic speed (i.e., with γph Ⰷ 1), then such
frequency in the incident pulse. This degree of upshift processes as reflection, frequency upshifting, focusing,
is in complete agreement with that predicted by for- the amplification of radiation, and the formation of a
mula (43), because, in this case, we have (1 + βph)/(1 – collimated (within an angle of about ≈1/γph) beam of
βph) ≈ 14.4. The electric field of the reflected and electromagnetic radiation will also occur in the plasma.
focused radiation is stronger than that in the incident
pulse by a factor of approximately 16, which corre-
sponds to an increase in the radiation intensity by a fac- 6. CONCLUSIONS
tor of 256. On the outside of the focal region, the radi- We have classified different regimes of the interac-
ation propagates in the form of an expanding wave tion of electromagnetic waves with plasmas in terms of
whose frequency depends on the propagation angle in the wave amplitude. We have shown that, over the

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

212 BULANOV et al.

entire range of the wave amplitudes under consider- 2. V. B. Berestetskii, E. M. Lifshitz, and L. P. Pitaevskii,
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PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 214–217. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 241–244.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Zaburdaev, Smirnov, Chukbar.

NONLINEAR
PHENOMENA

Nonlinear Dynamics of Electron Vortex Lattices

V. Yu. Zaburdaev, V. V. Smirnov, and K. V. Chukbar
Russian Research Centre Kurchatov Institute, pl. Kurchatova 1, Moscow, 123182 Russia
Received April 14, 2003; in final form, July 24, 2003

Abstract—Weak and strong nonlinearities that determine the evolution of regular ensembles of electron vorti-
ces in a magnetized plasma are analyzed. Qualitative differences in behavior between such a medium and stan-
dard nonlinear media are revealed. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”.

In recent years, it has become rather popular to rep- where summation is performed over the entire lattice.
resent magnetized plasma as a medium filled with two- In the continuous medium approximation adopted here,
dimensional vortices, vortex filaments, or other vortex the sum is replaced with an integral over a plane (see
structures (see, e.g., [1]). Therefore, investigation into [2]). The local nature of Eq. (1) (although, as follows
the dynamics of large chaotic or regular vortex ensem- from the form of the function ψ, the motion of each vor-
bles seems to be a very interesting and challenging tex is determined by its neighbors, which are ~(b/a)2 in
problem. In [2], the following equation describing the number) is associated with the fact that the characteris-
evolution of long-wavelength nonlinear perturbations tic perturbation wavelength meets the inequality λ Ⰷ b.
in a triangular lattice (the only one that is stable) of The lattice elasticity moduli, which characterize the
identical electron-type two-dimensional point vortices response of the lattice to uniform compression and tor-
was derived: sion (shear), are time-independent (depend on its
unperturbed structure alone),
∂x
------ = – Re z × — ( ∇ ⋅ x ) + D— ( e z ⋅ ( ∇ × x ) )
∂t 2q 0
R ∂ξ ∂ξ
+ ---e z × — ( ∇ ⋅ x ) + --------α --------β ,
2
(1) R = -----------
3a ∫
-2 ψ d x dy, D ∼ q0 ψ ( a )
2 ∂x β ∂x α
and differ significantly from each other: D ~ R(a/b)2.
where x = {ξx , ξy} is the two-dimensional deformation The reason is that the discrete lattice demonstrates poor
(displacement) vector of the vortex crystalline medium compressibility in vortex flows. For electron vortices in
treated as a continuous medium and summation is per- the electron magnetohydrodynamics [3], using the
formed over repeated Greek indices. Equation (1) can results of [2] and the pioneering work on vortex lattices
be regarded as an analog of the acoustic equation for [5], we obtain
ordinary crystals. In [2], its linear properties were
mainly analyzed. Below, we will study specific nonlin- 4πq b 2
R = ------------0  --- ,
q
ear properties of Eq. (1). D = -----0
First, we will comment on this basic equation (see 3  a 8
[2] for details). It is derived through a series expansion
in the vortex displacement from the lattice points. (the same behavior is typical of vortexes in supercon-
Therefore, Eq. (1) is valid when the deformation is ductors [4], in which ψ is the Macdonald function
small (|x | Ⰶ a, where a is the distance between the K0(rωpe /c)).
neighboring lattice points; more precisely, it is the dif- It can be seen that, within Eq. (1), nonlinear waves
ference between the displacements of the neighbors can be analyzed in terms of the normal coordinates of
that must be small) and, accordingly, the nonlinearity is shear and compression deformations, ez · (∇ × x) and
small. By the point vortex, we mean a vortex whose ∇ · x.1 For nonlinear effects, it turns out to be more con-
core (a domain with a nonzero curl of the generalized venient to consider potentials of these deformations by
electron momentum) is small compared to a. Micro- representing the displacement vector as x = ez × —φ + —ϕ.
scopic vortices are characterized by their (identical)
intensities q0 and the screening-type flux function 1 The fact that only one type of waves that interrelate these defor-
ψ(|r |/b) with the screening scale b Ⰷ a. Both these mations exists in two-dimensional media (unlike ordinary crys-
parameters describe the flow produced by each vortex tals, in which they evolve independently) is caused by Cartesian
rather than Newtonian vortex mechanics (the position of a parti-
(for a vortex located at r = 0, we have v = q0ez × —ψ) cle determines its velocity rather than acceleration). As a result,
and the vortex interaction energy Ᏹ = q 0 ∑ ψ (ri – rj ), the two-dimensional vortex problem is, in a sense, equivalent to
2
i< j an ordinary one-dimensional problem (see [2]).

1063-780X/04/3003-0214$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

 NONLINEAR DYNAMICS OF ELECTRON VORTEX LATTICES 215

Interestingly, the Schrödinger character of the phonon sign of u (i.e., whether the traveling wave is converging
spectrum of a triangular electron vortex lattice (ω ∝ k2) or diverging) and the sign of q0 (i.e., the twist direction
can be emphasized by combining these potentials into of microscopic flows in the crystal). Single integration
the wave function Φ = φ + i R/Dϕ , which reduces the now yields a more exotic relationship for weakly non-
linear cnoidal waves
linear portion of Eq. (1) to:
2 3
∂Φ = const  ------- φ – 1 ,
u 2 u u
φ' + -------- φ – ----------------φ
2 3
(5)
i ------- + RD∆Φ = 0
∂t RD 3RD r
2  Dr 
(removing the ∇ operator from both sides of the equa- which cannot be reduced to an ordinary Sagdeev potential.
tion produces constant terms, which are hereafter set The strongly nonlinear evolution described by
equal to zero; this, however, has no effect on the physi- Eq. (1) is of particular interest. The possibility of this
cally observed quantity x). This expression also clearly kind of evolution, in spite of the above assumptions
demonstrates that, since in linear waves the ratio D/R is used in deriving this equation, is also associated with
small, shear deformations dominate over uniform com- the small value of a/b. In fact, the nonlinearity appears
pression: φ ~ b/aϕ (cf. [2]). when quadratic (with respect to the deformation) cor-
Let us start our nonlinear analysis with the study of rections are taken into account in the first term on the
stationary weakly nonlinear traveling acoustic waves. For right-hand side, which is proportional to R. This term
these waves, an important effect is that the nonlinearity can significantly exceed the second (caused by disper-
depends on the shape of the leading edge. In fact, it can sion) linear term, which is proportional to D. For purely
easily be seen that the terms of Eq. (1) that are quadratic shear deformations (ϕ ≡ 0), the largest term vanishes,
in x contain both φ and ϕ. However, for plane waves, which yields the following equation (D 0):
x(x – ut), because of the geometrical degeneration, the
∂ φ∂ φ ∂ φ
2
∂φ
2 2 2
much stronger (due to the deformation hierarchy φ Ⰷ ϕ
------ = R -------2- -------2- –  ------------ , (6)
indicated above) nonlinearity φ2 (as well as the weaker ∂t ∂x ∂y  ∂x∂y 
nonlinearity φϕ) does not contribute to the equation
which contains the Hessian on its right-hand side and
2
u has a very symmetric form: Eq. (6) remains unchanged
ϕ'' – ( ϕ'' ) + -------- ϕ = 0
2
(2) under the scaling transformations x αx, y βy,
RD
φ γφ, and t α2β2/γt and under any rotation of
(here, the prime stands for the derivative with respect to the xy coordinate system. Although the approximation
the independent argument described above), which fol- D = 0 is physically justified, it significantly changes the
lows from Eq. (1). As a result, this equation contains form of the equation, so that the evolution no longer has
only the weakest nonlinearity related to ϕ2. Single inte- a wave character. For ordinary continuous media, this is
gration of Eq. (2) (taking into account the smallness of equivalent of completely ignoring the crystal elasticity
the nonlinear term) yields the following equation for (although we partially take it into account here) or the
cnoidal waves (i.e., waves that can be represented in temperature (i.e., pressure) of an ideal gas (see below).
terms of elliptical functions; there are no solitons here): Equation (6) can be written in terms of the varia-
2 2 2 tional derivative as
ϕ' + -------- ϕ – ---  -------- ϕ = const.
2 u 2 2 u 3
(3) δᐁ
RD 3 RD  ∂φ
------ = R --------,
∂t δφ
The form of this equation is quite typical. However, for
nonplanar wave fronts, nonlinear torsion effects are where
“switched on.” These effects, as can easily be seen,
ᐁ = ∫ φ x φ y φ xy dx dy,
become dominant at λ/r Ⰷ (a/b)2, where r is the radius
of curvature of the wave front [cf. Eq. (2) and (4)]. or, in a more invariant form,
Strictly speaking, a curved traveling wave is unsteady;
however, at λ Ⰶ r, the unsteady behavior of the wave is 1
not pronounced and the evolution of perturbations of 4 ∫
ᐁ = – --- ( —φ ) 2 ∆φ dx dy.
the form x(r – ut) (where r is the radius in polar coor- It can easily be seen from these expressions that, since
dinates) can be studied using the equation the density ᐁ is a homogeneous function with respect
2 to derivatives in φ, solutions to Eq. (6) satisfy the fol-
φ'' + --------  φ + --------- φ'  = 0,
u R 2 lowing evolutionary relationships:
(4)
RD  2ur 
d 2
which follows from Eq. (1) when the above inequalities dt ∫
----- φ d x dy = 6R ᐁ ,
are satisfied. Here, the radius r in the coefficient by the
∂φ 2
2
-------2 φ d x dy = 6  ------ d x dy.
d
nonlinear term can be considered constant. Unlike
∫ ∫
2
or
usual equation (2), new equation (4) is sensitive to the dt  ∂t 

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

216 ZABURDAEV et al.

Further, the right-hand side of Eq. (6) is a meaning- However, as t t0, higher order nonlinearities and/or
ful block of the Monge–Ampére equation [6], associ- dispersion effects prevent the deformations from grow-
ated with the differential geometry of surfaces. This ing without limit. The last singularity in (9) differs from
block vanishes as the Gaussian curvature of the surface the others in that it appears on a line rather than at a
z = φ(x, y) vanishes. In other words, a nonuniform point. It is also of interest because, in the variables ζ =
deformation of the vortex crystal is static if φ describes x – Ay2 and t, the one-dimensional Hessian is autono-
a developable surface (a cylindrical or conical surface mous with respect to the independent argument and
or a surface produced by tangents to an arbitrary three- Eq. (6) transforms to the solvable equation
dimensional curve). The general parametric expression
for such φ has the form [6] ∂φ ∂φ ∂ φ
2
------ = – 2 AR ------ -------2- ,
φ = ζx + f ( ζ )y + g ( ζ ), x + f ' ( ζ )y + g' ( ζ ) = 0, ∂t ∂ζ ∂ζ

where f(ζ) and g(ζ) are arbitrary functions. In fact, which reduces to the classical nonlinear diffusion equa-
since the physically observed quantity is the deforma- tion through the simple change of variables φζ = T (it is
tion x itself (rather than its potentials), the configura- relevant to refer here to the excellent handbook [6]):
tions for which the Hessian of φ is constant are also
∂T ∂ ∂T
static. They can also be described by a general paramet- ------ = – 2 AR ------  T ------ . (10)
ric expression, but this is only possible when this con- ∂t ∂ζ  ∂ζ 
stant is negative [6].
Negative values of ART lead to the well-known
If we expand the right-hand side of Eq. (6) in a monotonic spread of the T profile according to the
power series in x and y, then the nontrivial evolution attractive self-similarity law, i.e., to the disappearance
starts with the emergence of linear terms. Moreover, if of the perturbation, whereas in the case of ART > 0, the
φxxφyy – (φxy)2 = c1x + c2y, then the deformations can eas- profile collapses in an explosive manner, which gener-
ily be seen to increase by a linear ballistic law: alizes the last local singularity in (9):
x ( x, y, t ) = x ( x, y, 0 ) + ( c 1 e y – c 2 e x )t. (7) 1  2 ζ
2 
T = -----------------------------------------  ζ 0 – -
------------------------------------- (11)
6 [ 2 AR ( t 0 – t ) ]  [ 2 AR ( t 0 – t ) ] 
1/3 2/3
There is a very wide range of initial deformation con-
figurations (not only power functions) that produce
at ζ2 < ζ 0 [2AR(t0 – t)]2/3 and T = 0 outside the indicated
such an evolution [6]. For example, at c1 = –1 and c2 = 0 2

(in view of the symmetries of Eq. (6), this does not limit interval. In fact, solution (11) describes both these cases
the generality of our consideration), a suitable initial (at t > t0 and t < t0, respectively). The amplitude of T at
condition in the region x > 0 is ζ = 0 (i.e., the parameter ζ0) is uniquely determined by
2 3/2 the integral
φ 0 = ± --- x y + f ( x ) + C y , (8)
3 +∞
4 3
where the function f and constant C are arbitrary. Of ∫ T dζ = --- ζ 0 ,
3
course, such deformations grow without limit as x ∞ –∞
(seemingly, such behavior is unavoidable in this case,
because it is only singularities at infinity that can allow which remains constant in the course of evolution.
a nonuniformly deformed crystal to be displaced as a Peaking solution (11) describes the explosive growth of
whole). However, because of the local character of the shear deformation along the lines ζ = const with the
equations, if condition (8) holds only over a bounded same torsion (clockwise or counterclockwise) as that of
region, then the evolution described by Eq. (7) can last the flow produced by an individual vortex of the lattice.
here over a fairly long time. Let us stress once again that the applicability of
As a rule, the greatest amount of information about Eq. (6) to real lattices is limited in space (because of
the evolution described by nonlinear equations can be problems arising at |x|, |y| ∞) and time (because we
obtained from studying the possible singularities that ignored lattice rigidity with respect to shear). The
exhibit themselves in a finite time. Three types of such increase in the magnitude of the deformation vector x
singularities can be distinguished (since Eq. (6) is local, and the decrease in its scale length near the singularity
we expand φ about the singularity point (0, 0)): points also violate the approximations of small nonlin-
earity and locality (λ Ⰷ b). At the same time, the evolu-
x y
2 2
(x + y )
2 2 2 tion described by Eq. (6) is non-Hamiltonian (which
φ = – --------------------------, φ = --------------------------, clearly exhibits itself in the case of diffusion described
12R ( t 0 – t ) 48R ( t 0 – t ) by Eq. (10)) with a tendency toward single-sided growth
(9)
2 3 (which is seen from the fact that d(RU)/dt > 0), which
( x – Ay )
φ = – ------------------------------. raises the question of the problem of energy conservation
36RA ( t 0 – t ) in the system. However, it can be seen that, by the defini-

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 NONLINEAR DYNAMICS OF ELECTRON VORTEX LATTICES 217

tion of this energy for Eq. (6) (taking the unperturbed Thus, the above analysis has demonstrated that there
state of the lattice as the reference state), it is equal to is a qualitative difference between the nonlinear disper-
sion hierarchy of a vortex plasma (more precisely, the
∂ φ∂ φ ∂ φ
2 2 2 2
vortex ensemble in plasma) and that of a usual wave
Ᏹ = q 0 R ∫ -------2- -------2- –  ------------ dx dy, media described by equations like that of Korteweg–
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y
de Vries. Such peculiar behavior and its sensitivity to
the internal chirality would seem to be of particular
because, since ψ simultaneously contributes to the interest.
dynamics and energy of the vortex ensembles, their
energy density is proportional to the term under the
operator ez × — in the dynamic equation for x = ez × —φ. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Since this energy density is proportional to the total This work was supported by the Russian Foundation
derivative, the total energy of any localized perturba- for Basic Research (project no. 03-02-16765) and the
tion is identically equal to zero (of course, only within Russian Federal Program for State Support of Leading
this approximation). As for the “time arrow” in the Scientific Schools (project no. 2292.2003.2).
direction of evolution, it is more correct to talk about a
tendency toward the increase in — × x (i.e., ∆φ, which
REFERENCES
determines the sign of ᐁ) in accordance with the
microscopic characteristic q0 (which determines the 1. B. N. Kuvshinov, J. Rem, I. J. Shep, and E. Westerhof,
Phys. Plasmas 8, 3232 (2001).
sign of R), because the preferred rotation direction of
2. V. V. Smirnov and K. V. Chukbar, Zh. Éksp. Teor. Fiz.
the continuous flow about certain vortexes destroys the 120, 145 (2001) [JETP 93, 126 (2001)].
chiral symmetry.2 3. A. S. Kingsep, K. V. Chukbar, and V. V. Yan’kov, in
2 The
Reviews of Plasma Physics, Ed. by B. B. Kadomtsev
change in the type of the equation when two Hamiltonian (Énergoizdat, Moscow, 1987; Consultants Bureau, New
variables (φ and ϕ) are reduced to one is not unique. As a crude York, 1990), Vol. 16.
analogue of this effect in an ordinary medium, one can consider a
one-dimensional (see above) flow of a compressible gas (for 4. G. Blatter, M. V. Feigel’man, V. B. Geshkenbein, et al.,
which these two variables are the potential of the velocity field Rev. Mod. Phys. 66, 1125 (1994).
and the density) at a zero temperature. The classic dynamic equa- 5. V. K. Tkachenko, Zh. Éksp. Teor. Fiz. 50, 1573 (1966)
tion for the velocity ∂v/∂t + ∂(v 2/2)∂x = 0, which remains mean- [Sov. Phys. JETP 23, 1049 (1966)].
2
ingful, can be rewritten for the potential v = ϕx as ∂ϕ/∂t = − ϕ x /2, 6. A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaœtsev, Handbook of Nonlinear
Equations of Mathematical Physics (Fizmatlit, Moscow,
which quite clearly defines the time arrow for the functional ᐁ̃ = 2002), p. 247.
2 ˜ /dt > 0. Of course, the evolution described by
∫
– ϕϕ d x : dᐁ
x
Eq. (6) is much more complicated and diversified. Translated by A.D. Khzmalyan

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 218–227. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 245–255.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Aleksandrov, Volkov, Grabovskiœ, Zukakishvili, Zurin, Mitrofanov, Nedoseev, Oleœnik, Porofeev, Samokhin, Sasorov, Smirnov, Frolov.

PLASMA
DYNAMICS

Interferometric Measurements of the Plasma Density

at the Z-Pinch Periphery in the Angara-5-1 Facility
V. V. Aleksandrov*, G. S. Volkov*, E. V. Grabovskiœ*, G. G. Zukakishvili*, M. V. Zurin*,
K. N. Mitrofanov*, S. L. Nedoseev*, G. M. Oleœnik*, I. Yu. Porofeev*, A. A. Samokhin*,
P. V. Sasorov**, V. P. Smirnov*, and I. N. Frolov*
* Troitsk Institute for Innovation and Fusion Research, Troitsk, Moscow oblast, 142190 Russia
** Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Bol’shaya Cheremushkinskaya ul. 25, Moscow, 117218 Russia
Received May 19, 2003; in final form, July 25, 2003

Abstract—Knowledge of spatial mass distribution is important for understanding the physics of implosion of
megaampere-current wire arrays. The paper presents results from studying the electron density distribution at
the periphery of a tungsten wire array near the instant of maximum compression by using laser interferometry
at λ = 0.69 µm. It is found that, at the instant of maximum compression (~100 ns after the beginning of the
discharge), the estimated maximum local electron density inside the wire array reaches ~1018 cm–3 at a distance
of 0.3–3 mm from the initial wire positions. Assuming the average tungsten ion charge to be 10, the local linear
mass density in this region turns out to be 30 µg/cm, which amounts to about 10% of the total linear mass den-
sity of the liner. A fraction of the generator current flows through this plasma. The duration of the soft X-ray
pulse is 5–8 ns, which indicates the achievement of a fairly high compression ratio. © 2004 MAIK
“Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION the current and, hence, reduce the X-ray yield in the
course of implosion.
In recent years, there has been increased interest in
Z-pinches formed in the implosion of high-current In this study, we investigate the distribution of the
wire arrays. This interest stems primarily from fact plasma density at the periphery of a wire array near the
that such pinches can be used in inertial confinement instant of maximum compression. By the periphery, we
fusion research as sources of high-power soft X-ray mean the zone between two coaxial cylindrical sur-
(SXR) emission for igniting indirect thermonuclear faces, the outer of which coincides with the initial posi-
targets [1–3]. tion of the wires, while the inner one is shifted inward
by a distance from a fraction of millimeter to 2–3 mm.
In order to understand the physics of implosion of The measurements were performed using laser interfer-
high-current wire arrays, it is important to know the ometry, with a laser beam propagating perpendicular to
spatial distributions of the mass and current inside a the discharge axis.
wire array. The current distribution was studied in [4,
5]. The spatial distribution of the plasma density is
expected to significantly affect the current distribution, 2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
magnetic energy dissipation, and SXR yield.
We employed the following diagnostic techniques:
To determine the amount of substance remaining at (i) a frame microchannel plate (MCP) pinhole cam-
the periphery of the wire array at the instant of maxi- era for recording X-ray images of an imploding liner,
mum compression is an important problem of the phys-
ics of wire array implosion. Immediately before the (ii) a streak camera for recording the evolution of
maximum compression, when the liner radius is the radial profile of visible liner emission,
already small, while the implosion velocity is still high,
the electric field at the periphery of the wire array can (iii) SXR diagnostics consisting of four vacuum
X-ray diodes (XRDs) equipped with absorbing filters
exceed 1 MV/cm. If, at this moment, there is a suffi-
for recording the evolution of the SXR emission power,
cient amount of well-conducting plasma at the initial and
liner radius, then the plasma is able to partially shunt
the liner current and decrease the efficiency of implo- (iv) active frame laser shadowgraphy and interfer-
sion. Estimates show that even a relatively small ometry for determining the spatial distribution of the
amount of plasma (a few percent of the initial liner plasma density in a wire array in the course of its implo-
mass) is sufficient to intercept a significant fraction of sion.

1063-780X/04/3003-0218$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

 INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE PLASMA DENSITY 219

The total current flowing through the liner was 12 3 4 5 6 7 8

recorded with eight magnetic probes placed at a dis-
tance of 55 mm from the liner axis.
X-ray images of the imploding liner were taken with
the help of a four-frame X-ray camera equipped with a
sectioned MCP image intensifier. The X-ray images at Interference
the entrances of the MCP sections were produced by region
four pinhole cameras. The frame exposure, which was
specified by a gating pulse applied to the MCP section, Fig. 1. Schematic of the shift interferometer: (1) photofilm,
(2) optical filter, (3, 5) polarizers, (4) birefringent wedge
was 1.5 ns. The frame X-ray camera was sensitive to (Iceland spar crystal), (6) focusing lenses, (7) vacuum
X-ray photons with energies from twenty to a few thou- chamber window, and (8) wire array.
sand electronvolts with maximum sensitivity at
~200 eV. A 2.5-µm-thick Mylar filter was installed at
the entrance of the MCP camera. The spatial resolution
of this diagnostics in the object plane was 85–120 µm Ç First image ë
for X-ray photons with energies of 250–600 eV. Ç
Ä
The time resolution of an SFER-2 visible-light Ä
streak camera was 0.3 ns. The spatial resolution and the
focal depth in the object plane were <80 µm and
± 23 mm, respectively.
A set of four XRDs was placed at a distance of 3.5 m
from the wire array axis. The time resolution of the Shift Second
recording system was 0.7 ns. The X-ray emission image
power was measured in the 0.1- to 2-keV photon
energy range [6].
The main technique for determining the spatial dis- Fig. 2. Schematic of a shift interference pattern.
tribution of the electron density at the periphery of a
wire array was laser interferometry. We used a Rb laser
shift interferometer operating at λ = 0.69 µm. object on photographic film 1. Polarizer 3 is set after the
The laser system consisted of a driving Rb laser Iceland spar crystal to superimpose the ordinary and
(8 mm in diameter and 120 mm in length), a Pockels- extraordinary beams and to enable interference
cell switch, an external electrooptical shutter forming a between them. The superimposed beams produce an
short pulse with a duration 3–5 ns, and two optically interference pattern (laser interferogram) on the photo-
isolated two-passage laser amplifiers. The beam gener- graphic film. Varying the angle between the polariza-
ated by the driving laser was amplified and then passed tion planes of polarizers 3 and 5, it is possible to change
through a telescopic system, where it was expanded to the contrast of the interference pattern. At low contrast,
a diameter of 40 mm. To prevent stray exposure caused the interferogram contains both the result of interfer-
by daylight and liner radiation, we used a special car- ence and the shadow image produced by one of the
tridge protected with a KS-19 light filter and a photo- beams. This may be used, e.g., for positioning the inter-
graphic camera equipped with a 40 × 180-mm electro- ference pattern or analyzing the character of implosion
mechanical shutter remotely controlled by the operator. in a particular experiment.
In each experiment, we controlled and recorded the Laser shadowgraphs show that there is no plasma
instant of laser probing with respect to the liner current beyond the region initially enclosed by the wire array.
pulse. Therefore, this region can be considered unperturbed;
The energy of the probing laser pulse was 100 mJ i.e., laser radiation passing outside the wire array does
and the full width at half-maximum was 3–5 ns. The not undergo phase shift, whereas inside the array, the
spatial resolution in the object plane was 50 µm. phase of the laser radiation is affected by the plasma
The optical scheme of the laser shift interferometer produced in the course of wire evaporation. Hence, the
is shown in Fig. 1. This interferometer was previously interference pattern can be divided into several zones as
used in studying the initial stage of plasma formation in is shown in Fig. 2.
experiments on the implosion of wire arrays [7]. In zones B residing on the left and right margins of
The laser radiation passed through liner 8 enters the the interferogram, the interference pattern is produced
interferometer. The key element of the shift interferom- by the unperturbed parts of the laser beams and has the
eter is wedge 4 made of Iceland spar crystal with a form of parallel interference fringes. In zones A, the
wedge angle of 3°. After passing through polarizer 5, perturbed part of one laser beam interferes with the
laser radiation is split by the wedge into ordinary and unperturbed part of the other laser beam. In zone C, the
extraordinary polarized beams shifted with respect to perturbed parts of the laser beams interfere with each
each other. These beams form two images of the plasma other.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

220 ALEKSANDROV et al.

3. PRECONDITIONS FOR EFFICIENT LASER obtain the following restriction on the temporal varia-
INTERFEROMETRY tions in the linear mass density:
In the absence of a magnetic field, there are three dm 817 A
------- [ g/(cm s) ] < ---------------------------------------- --- h ( R L – h ) ,
factors determining the interferogram contrast: dt λ L [ µm ] t L [ ns ] Z
(i) absorption of laser radiation, where Z is the average ion charge, λL is the laser wave-
(ii) variations in the electron density during the laser length, and A is the atomic mass. For tungsten, at Z =
pulse (unsteadiness of the interference pattern), and 5–10, tL = 3 ns, λL = 0.69 µm, h = 0.1 cm, and a liner radius
(iii) loss of spatial coherence because of electron of RL = 0.6 cm, we have dm/dt < 1.6–3.2 µg/(cm ns).
density fluctuations. This restriction seems to be significant because the
average rate of the mass inflow into the liner interior is
~3 µg/ns, whereas the maximum value of dm/dt can
3.1. Absorption of Radiation exceed the average value by nearly two times.
The attenuation coefficient of laser radiation in a
tungsten plasma can be estimated from above by taking 3.3. Spatial Coherence
into account the multiplier 0.55 in the expression for
Gaunt factor and replacing the Coulomb logarithm with Phase fluctuations destroy the interference pattern
unity. The attenuation coefficient for Rb laser radiation when the two following conditions are met [8, 9]:
is then δn e
- δl || l > 1,
----------- δl ⊥ < b .
S λ L n cr
 2 
∫
exp  2.4 ( Z/T )n e ds ,
1.5
Here, δne is the deviation of the electron density
 0 
from its average value, l is the beam path length in the
where S (in cm) is the path length of the probing beam, plasma, ncr is the critical electron density for a given
Z is the average ion charge, T (in eV) is the plasma tem- laser wavelength, δl|| is the inhomogeneity scale length,
perature, and ne (in units of 1019 cm–3) is the electron and δl⊥ is the transverse (with respect to the laser beam)
density. correlation length of plasma density fluctuations.
Assuming for estimates that δl⊥ = δl||, b ~ 100 µm, RL =
For an average ion charge of Z = 10, a plasma tem- 0.6 cm, and the probing beam passes along a chord
perature of 100 eV, an electron density of 1019 cm–3, and 0.1 cm distant from the initial liner radius, we find that
a liner radius of 0.6 cm, the laser beam intensity l = 0.66 cm and the amplitude of plasma density fluctu-
decreases by a few percent. When probing the liner ations is limited by δne < 2 × 1018 cm–3. Hence, we can
periphery along an arc chord, the maximum admissible conclude that, for a dense plasma with ne ~ 1019 cm–3, no
density is inversely proportional to the chord length.
Hence, we can conclude that, under our conditions, interference pattern occurs. In contrast, for a rarefied
absorption insignificantly affects the interference pat- plasma with ne < 1018 cm–3, density fluctuations are of
tern. minor importance. Spatial coherence is violated in the
denser part of a discharge. On the whole, the problem
of plasma fluctuations needs further investigation.
3.2. Effect of the Exposure Time Thus, plasma unsteadiness and spatial fluctuations
Plasma unsteadiness imposes a strict restriction on in the electron density are the main factors limiting the
the exposure time tL. The phase velocity Vf of the contrast of the interference pattern. These factors are
responsible for the absence of an interference pattern at
interference pattern on the film is limited by the condi-
tion ne > 1019 cm–3. In contrast, for a rarefied plasma with
ne < 1018 cm–3, density fluctuations affect the interfer-
Vf < b/tL, ence pattern only slightly. For RL = 0.6 cm and a plasma
where b is the width of the interference fringe on the thickness of 1 mm, a one-fringe shift corresponds to
film. We note that, in the presence of a plasma, the mmin = 26/Z µg/cm; consequently, at Z = 7, we have
fringe width b is smaller than the fringe width b0 related mmin ⯝ 3 µg/cm.
to the phase shift caused by a birefringent wedge alone.
The doubling of the fringe number in a layer of 4. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE PLASMA DENSITY
thickness h = 0.05 cm at the liner periphery is sufficient PROFILE AT THE WIRE ARRAY PERIPHERY
to reliably diagnose plasma. It was shown in [8] that, in IN THE FINAL STAGE OF IMPLOSION
this case, the phase velocity Vf is typically less than In these experiments, the liners consisted of two or
7 cm/µs and the density is ne ~ 3 × 1017 cm–3. Identifying three coaxial cylindrical wire arrays. A 1.5- to 2-mm-
the velocity Vf with the plasma mass velocity, we diameter agar–agar foam column doped with micron-

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE PLASMA DENSITY 221

size tungsten powder with a total linear mass of 170– P, arb. units
300 µg/cm was installed on the liner axis. In some J, åÄ dJ/dt, 1012 Ä/s
experiments, we used a 6-mm-diameter wire array con-
3.0
sisting of sixteen to forty 6-µm tungsten wires with a
total linear mass of 110–380 µg/cm. When studying the 2.5
1 3
mass distribution at the liner periphery, the region 2.0
around the outer wire array is of the most interest. This 1.5
array was composed of 24–40 tungsten wires 5–8 µm in 1.0 –40
diameter placed along a 12-mm-diameter circle; the –20
0.5
total linear mass density was 120–380 µg/cm.
0 0
The laser shift interferometer was adjusted so that 20
the probing was performed almost at the instant of max- 2 40
imum compression. The instant of probing ∆T, counted
60
from the SXR burst, was varied from –12 to +35 ns. The
implosion lasted for 120–150 ns. The current through 80
the liner in the final stage of implosion was 3–3.5 MA. 750 800 850 900 t, ns
As an example, we consider the experimental data
obtained using a composite liner with the following Fig. 3. Waveforms of the (1) current J, (2) current time
derivative dJ/dt, and (3) SXR intensity P.
parameters: The outer 12-mm-diameter wire array con-
sisted of 40 6-µm tungsten wires with a total linear
mass density of 220 µg/cm. The inner 6-mm-diameter
wire array consisted of twenty 6-µm tungsten wires S, P, arb. units
with a total linear mass density of 110 µg/cm. A 200
1.5-mm-diameter agar–agar foam column doped with
micron-size tungsten powder with a total linear mass of ∆T = –5 ns
250 µg/cm was installed on the liner axis. Figure 3 150
shows the waveforms of the current, the current time 2
derivative, and the SXR intensity, while Fig. 4 shows 1
the waveforms of the laser and SXR intensities. As is 100
seen from Fig. 3, the implosion lasted for 140 ns. Laser
probing was performed at the leading edge of the SXR
pulse, 5 ns before the instant of the maximum SXR 50
intensity (see Fig. 4).
Figure 5 presents two interferograms obtained 0
(a) before the discharge (a “cold” interferogram) and
(b) at the instant of maximum compression (a “hot”
interferogram). The intensities of the two interfering –50
beams were different; it was therefore also possible to 860 870 880 890 900 910 920 930 t, ns
observe the liner shadow. In Figs. 5a and 5b, the x axis
is directed along a horizontal and the y axis is directed
Fig. 4. Waveforms of the (1) laser intensity S and (2) SXR
along a vertical and coincides with the liner axis. emission intensity P (∆T is the time shift of the laser pulse
with respect to the SXR burst).
The four vertical lines in each interferogram corre-
spond to x = 2.34, 1.75, 1.25, and 0.65 cm. Let us recall
that the interferogram is a result of the interference of
two laser beams shifted in the horizontal direction with In the regions 1.75 < x < 2.34 cm and 0.65 < x <
respect to each other. The right vertical line (x = 1.25 cm (regions A in Fig. 2), the laser beam perturbed
2.34 cm) corresponds to the right boundary of the liner by the plasma interferes with the unperturbed laser
for the right beam. The left line (x = 0.65 cm) corre- beam.
sponds to the left boundary of liner for the left beam. In At 1.25 < x < 1.75 cm (region C), both beams are
the regions x > 2.34 cm and x < 0.65 cm (regions B in perturbed by the plasma. In this region, no interference
Fig. 2), both of the laser beams did not traverse the fringes were recorded; hence, this part of the interfero-
liner; hence, the interferograms obtained before the dis- gram was not processed.
charge and during implosion were expected to be the In regions A and B, the interferograms were pro-
same in these regions. In fact, they differ because a cer- cessed as follows: First, we calculated the phase shift
tain amount of plasma expands beyond the region ini- for both the hot and cold interferograms as a function of
tially enclosed by the liner. x and y. The phase shift was measured by the number of

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

222 ALEKSANDROV et al.

y, cm
0.8

1.0

1.2 (a)

1.4

1.6

0.8

1.0

1.2 (b)

1.4

1.6

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

x, cm

Fig. 5. Two interferograms of the same wire array (a) before the discharge (a “cold” interferogram) and (b) 5 ns before the SXR
burst (a “hot” interferogram).

interference fringes. One fringe corresponded to a of the blackening density, the phase shift was calculated
phase shift of 2π. In fact, we determined the coordi- by linear interpolation.
nates corresponding to the maxima and minima of the At x > 1.75 cm, the phase shift was determined by
blackening density. Between the maxima and minima summing the number of fringes moving from right to
left, starting from the maximum value of x at which the
interference pattern could be detected. At x < 1.25 cm,
the phase shift was determined by summing the number
∆ϕ, rad of fringes moving from left to right, starting from the
3.0 minimum value of x at which the interference pattern
could be detected. Obviously, the phase shift at a cer-
2.5
tain point can be determined only if there are interfer-
ence fringes along the entire path from region B to
2.0 region A.
1.5
The effects related to plasma dynamics in the liner
reflect themselves in the phase difference between the hot
and cold interferograms. A phase difference of 2π corre-
1.0

0.5
∫
sponds to the surface density n dl = 3.17 × 1017 cm–2,
where the integral is taken along the laser beam.
0 Figure 6 shows an idealized radial profile of the
2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 phase difference ∆ϕ in the right part of the liner: to the
x, cm right of the liner boundary (at x > 2.34 cm), ∆x is a con-
stant (because it is supposed that there is no plasma
Fig. 6. Idealized radial profile of the phase difference ∆ϕ in beyond the liner boundary), while when moving to the
the right part of the liner. The vertical line at x = 2.34 cm left from the liner boundary, the phase difference
shows the right boundary of the liner. related to the presence of plasma appears.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE PLASMA DENSITY 223

∆ϕ, rad y, cm
3.0π 0.9

1.0
2.5π

1.1
2.0π

1.2
1.5π
1.3
1.0π
1.4
0.5π
1.5
0 π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π
2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 ∆ϕ, rad
X, cm

Fig. 7. Measured phase difference ∆ϕ in the right part of the Fig. 8. Measured phase difference ∆ϕ in the right part of the
liner as a function of x for different horizontal cross sections liner as a function of y for different vertical cross sections in
in the range 1.3 < y < 1.4 cm. The right boundary of the liner the range 2.36 < x < 2.38 cm. The right boundary of the liner
is shown by the vertical line at x = 2.34 cm. is at x = 2.34 cm.

It should be noted that the interference pattern was file calculated for such an electron density profile
not observed over the entire region where the two inter- turned out to be very close to the profile shown in
fering beams overlap. Generally, there were certain Fig. 6. The value of n∆x was determined from the con-
intervals along the axis within which the interference dition that the phase difference at the distance ∆x from
pattern was observed. Moreover, it is observed not over the liner boundary for the given profile n(r) be equal to
the entire range of the radial coordinate but only over a the measured phase difference.
distance ∆x from the initial radius of the wire array
toward the liner axis. Below, the distance ∆x will be The interferometry technique enables the determi-
referred to as the probing layer depth. nation of the electron density. To move from the elec-
tron density to the mass density, it is necessary to know
We recall once again that the phase difference ∆ϕ is the average ion charge. Since direct measurements of
a function of x and y. Figure 7 shows the radial profile the average ion charge were not performed and esti-
of the phase difference in different horizontal cross sec- mates based on the numerical simulations of radiative
tions, and Fig. 8 shows the axial profile of the phase dif- processes and indirect measurements provide rather
ference in different vertical cross sections. It can be low accuracy, the only result of our interferometric
seen from Fig. 7 that, for horizontal cross sections lying measurements is the electron density. The natural ques-
at 1.3 cm < y < 1.4 cm, interference fringes are seen tion arises as to what the mass density for any arbitrary
only at a distance of ∆x = 0.14 cm from the liner bound- ion charge Z is, provided the electron density is mea-
ary. For other cross sections, the probing layer depth ∆x sured. Here and below, we assume that Z = 10. For other
is usually smaller or even equals zero. values of the average charge Z, the mass density can be
To move from the surface plasma density to the vol- calculated by multiplying the density so obtained by a
umetric density, it is necessary to solve an ill-posed factor of 10/Z. An argument in favor of choosing Z =10
problem by applying the Abel inversion procedure. is that the Z-pinch emission spectrum corresponds to an
Keeping in mind that the Abel problem for the electron electron temperature ranging from 30 to 100 eV. It is
density can be correctly solved only in the case of cylin- unlikely that, for such an emission spectrum, the aver-
drical symmetry (which is generally not the case), we age ion charge is higher than 10. If the average ion
nevertheless attempted to estimate the electron density. charge is lower than 10, then the mass density at the
The electron density profile n(r) beyond the liner liner periphery will be somewhat higher. Therefore, it
boundary was assumed to be zero, whereas inside the should be remembered that, wherever it is encountered
liner, it was sought in the form below, we mean by the measured plasma mass, a mass
obtained under the assumption that the average ion
n(r) = n∆ı[(RL – r)/∆x]0.5, charge is equal to 10.
where RL is the initial liner radius and n∆x is the electron As was mentioned above, the interference pattern
density at the radius RL – ∆x. The phase difference pro- was not observed over the entire region where the two

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

224 ALEKSANDROV et al.

The measured local surface electron density and the estimated plasma linear mass density at the liner periphery
Recorded local Estimated maximum Estimated local ion lin- Initial linear mass
Instant Probing layer
phase shift ∆ϕ, local electron density ear mass density within density of the outer
of probing ∆T, ns depth ∆x, cm
rad in the ∆x layer, cm–3 the ∆x layer, µg/cm wire array, µg/cm
–12 7.8 0.03 14 × 1017 125 380
–10 3.1 0.03 6 × 1017 47 220
–5 4.1 0.14 3.5 × 1017 13–30 220
+1 6.3 0.15 5 × 1017 5–16 380
+15 3.1 0.3 2 × 1017 3–13 120
+25 18.8 0.2 14 × 1017 31 120
+33 9.4 0.25 7 × 1017 9–16 160
+35 3.1 0.16 3 × 1017 9 160

interfering beams overlap. For this reason, we will con- inside a layer with a depth of up to 3 mm, the measured
sider the local linear mass density in regions where the linear mass of the plasma is ~10–30 µg/cm. This is
interference patterns occur, rather than the mass of the about 10% of the initial mass of the outer wire array.
liner as a whole. Nothing can be said about the plasma Nevertheless, 10% of the initial mass is quite a signifi-
density in regions where no interference patterns were cant amount because this plasma may be sufficient to
observed. The measured local surface electron density shunt an appreciable fraction of the liner current.
in regions where it could be measured and the estimated It is of interest to analyze how the parameters of the
plasma linear mass density in these regions for several interference pattern depend on the time shift ∆T of the
discharges are presented in the table. laser pulse with respect to the SXR burst.
It can be seen from the table that, in some dis- Figure 9 presents the dependence of the probing
charges, the estimated local electron density at the liner layer depth ∆x (reckoned from the liner edge) on the
time shift ∆T of the laser pulse with respect to the SXR
periphery reaches ~1018 cm–3. The corresponding prob- burst. One can see that the probing layer depth
ing layer depth ranges from 0.3 to 3 mm. At the instant increases with increasing time shift. Such behavior
of maximum compression, the local linear mass density indicates that the liner material still continues moving
inside the probing layer is ~10–30 µg/cm, which toward the axis. The interelectrode gap at the liner
amounts to about 10% of the initial linear mass density periphery becomes more transparent for laser radiation
of the wire array. If we assume that the plasma density because of the decrease in the plasma mass in this
in regions where no interference pattern was observed region.
is the same, then this estimate can be applied to the
entire liner. Hence, by the instant of the SXR burst, Although the plasma mass detected in different dis-
almost all the liner mass is located inside a region 6 mm charges resides inside layers of different thickness and
in diameter. At the periphery of the initial wire array, the amount of the undetected plasma mass is unknown,
it is nevertheless possible to trace how the detected
mass within the probing layer depends on the time shift
∆T of the laser pulse with respect to the SXR burst (see
∆x, cm Fig. 10). As was expected, the plasma linear mass den-
0.3 sity at the periphery decreases as the instant of probing
approaches the maximum of the SXR intensity. At the
instant of maximum compression, it reaches 10–
0.2 30 µg/cm. A certain increase in the linear mass density
at the liner periphery 20–30 ns after the instant of max-
imum compression is probably related to pinch expan-
0.1 sion.

5. DISCUSSION
0
–20 0 20 40 A preliminary analysis of the interferograms shows
∆T, ns a significant inhomogeneity of both the interference
pattern and the liner shadow. This points to the axial
Fig. 9. Probing layer depth ∆x (reckoned from the liner nonuniformity of the implosion process. The presence
edge) vs. time shift ∆T of the laser pulse with respect to the of such a nonuniformity is also confirmed by Fig. 8,
SXR burst. which shows the profiles of the phase difference in dif-

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE PLASMA DENSITY 225

ferent vertical cross sections located in the vicinity of å, µg/cm

the right boundary of the liner, at 2.36 < x < 2.38 cm 150
(the right boundary of the liner is at x = 2.34 cm). It can
be seen from Fig. 8 that the electron density at the liner
periphery is nonuniform along the axis and variations 100
in the phase difference reach a value corresponding to a
half-fringe.
In some regions, there is no interference pattern at 50
all. The absence of interference fringes could be caused
by the high density gradients, which would lead to
large-angle deflections of the laser beam and its escape 0
from the optical system. However, this is not the case, –20 0 20 40
because in regions where no interference fringes are ∆T, ns
observed, the average blackening density of the film is
nearly the same as in the neighboring regions with Fig. 10. Measured linear mass density M of the peripheral
plasma within the probing layer vs. time shift ∆T of the laser
interference fringes. The absence of an interference pulse with respect to the SXR burst.
pattern can be related to the fairly large duration of the
probing laser pulse (3–5 ns). Over this time, the inter-
ference fringes can shift by a distance comparable to these estimates refer only to regions in which the phase
the fringe width, as was described in Section 3; as a shift was measured.
result, the interference pattern becomes smeared out. Nevertheless, in spite of the low accuracy in deter-
In some discharges, the estimated local electron mining the absolute value of the local linear mass den-
density at the periphery of the initial wire array reached sity, we succeeded in detecting the presence of a plasma
~1018 cm–3. The thickness of the layer with such an at the periphery of the initial wire array at the instant of
electron density ranges from 0.3 to 3 mm. Under the maximum compression. The linear density of this
assumption that the average plasma ion charge is close plasma was estimated roughly.
to 10, we find that, at the instant of pinching, there are The presence of a significant amount of plasma at
regions at the liner periphery in which the estimated the liner periphery is also confirmed by the fact that the
local linear mass density is ~10–30 µg/cm (i.e., about plasma is seen on the shadow images of the Z-pinch at
10% of the linear mass of the initial wire array). Thus, the instant of liner stagnation.
after the SXR burst, almost all the liner mass resides
near the axis, inside a cylinder 1–6 mm in diameter. Indirect confirmation of the presence of plasma at
Nevertheless, as was said above, a plasma with a mass the liner periphery is provided by the measurements of
equal to 10% of the initial liner mass may be sufficient the voltage across the gap at r = 6 cm. As was noted
to shunt an appreciable fraction of the liner current. above, at the instant of pinching, the voltage across a
1-cm-long gap should be higher than 1 MV. However,
It is of interest to evaluate the accuracy of the above the measured maximum voltage does not exceed
estimates. The minimum estimated error in calculating 0.5 MV. This indicates that a fraction of the current
the phase difference using linear interpolation between flows aside the pinch. Note that the plasma residing at
the maxima and minima of the blackening density is the liner periphery at the instant of maximum compres-
π/3 rad. The oscillations with a characteristic amplitude sion is also observed with the help of alternative diag-
of 0.3π in Fig. 7 agree with this value. The recorded nostics (see Figs. 11 and 12).
phase differences lie in the range 3–20 rad. Thus, the
relative error in determining the phase difference and Figure 11 shows the evolution of the radial distribu-
the surface electron density along the laser beam is 5– tion of the optical emission intensity from an imploding
30%. The abelianization procedure significantly liner. It can be seen that, the glow from a plasma that is
increases the error in determining the density at a radius accelerated toward the liner axis arises at the periphery
of RL – ∆x (the quantity n∆x). If one could guarantee the of the initial wire array (in the lower part of the figure)
near the instant of maximum compression.
cylindrical symmetry of the liner under study, the rela-
tive error would be slightly larger than 5–30%. How- Figure 12 presents photographs of a Z-pinch taken
ever, the recorded interference pattern is clearly asym- in its own SXR emission with an exposure time of
metric. In this case, it is reasonable to talk about the 1.5 ns for two discharges near the instant of maximum
averaged value of n∆x , which can differ from that compression. It can be seen that there is a plasma at the
obtained by abelianization procedure by a factor of 1.5– periphery of the initial wire array. The irregular struc-
2. The next reason is the uncertainty in the average ion ture of the plasma glow at the liner periphery complies
charge, which can result in an additional error factor of with the irregular interference pattern discussed above.
1.5. Since these factors are independent, the resulting The question is how any plasma can remain at the
error in determining the local linear mass at the liner periphery of the initial wire array at the instant of max-
periphery can reach a factor of 2–2.5. Remember that imum compression. Indeed, all the plasma should be

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

226 ALEKSANDROV et al.

10 ns

5 mm

Fig. 11. Streak image showing the radial distribution of the optical emission intensity from an imploding liner.

∅8 mm ∅8 mm

Fig. 12. Photographs of a Z-pinch taken in its own SXR emission with an exposure time of 1.5 ns for two discharges near the instant
of maximum compression.

driven by the Ampére force toward the liner axis. One 6. CONCLUSIONS
possible explanation is that the plasma continues to be The plasma density at the periphery of a wire array
produced in the course of implosion. By the instant of at the instant of maximum compression was measured
maximum compression, most of the plasma-forming using a technique based on laser shift interferometry.
substance has already been converted into plasma, It was found that, at the instant of maximum com-
which drifts toward the liner axis together with the pression (~100 ns after the beginning of the discharge),
magnetic field frozen in it. However, a certain fraction the estimated maximum local electron density at a dis-
of the plasma-forming substance in the form of drop- tance of 0.3–3 mm from the initial wire positions
lets and small wire residues remains near their initial reaches ~1018 cm–3. Assuming that the average tungsten
positions. The substance in these residues is a dense, ion charge is Z = 10, we find that the local linear mass
poorly conducting plasma that does not impede the density in this region is 30 µg/cm, which amounts to
penetration of the magnetic field into the axial region about 10% of the total linear mass density of the liner.
of the liner. The hot plasma continues to be produced This plasma is likely to be formed from localized wire
from the surfaces of these residues. This plasma is seen residues. A fraction of the liner current flows through
this plasma. The duration of the SXR pulse is 5–8 ns,
in a streak image that shows the evolution of the radial
which indicates the achievement of a fairly high com-
distribution of the optical emission intensity from an pression ratio.
imploding liner (Fig. 11), as well as in shift interfero-
grams of the liner periphery. Places in which the resi-
dues of the plasma-forming substance were located ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
can also be seen in frames taken with an X-ray MCP This study was supported in part by the Russian
camera near the instant of maximum compression (see Foundation for Basic Research, project nos. 01-02-
Fig. 12). 17319 and 02-02-17200.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE PLASMA DENSITY 227

REFERENCES C. Deeney, and N. Pereira; AIP Conf. Proc. 651, 87

(2002).
1. R. B. Spielman, C. Deeney, G. A. Chandler, et al., Phys.
Plasmas 5, 2105 (1998). 6. A. V. Branitskiœ and G. M. Oleœnik, Prib. Tekh. Éksp.,
No. 4, 58 (2000).
2. S. V. Lebedev, F. N. Beg, S. N. Bland, et al., Phys. Plas-
mas 8, 3734 (2001). 7. V. Alexandrov, A. Branitskii, E. Grabovsky, et al., in
Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Iner-
3. V. V. Alexandrov, I. N. Frolov, M. V. Fedulov, et al., in tial Fusion Sciences and Application, Bordeaux, 1999,
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Ed. by Ch. Labaune, W. J. Hogan, and K. A. Tanaka
Dense Z-Pinches, Albuquerque, 2002, Ed. by J. Davis, (Elsevier, St. Louis, 1999), p. 591.
C. Deeney, and N. Pereira; AIP Conf. Proc. 651, 91 8. J. W. Goodman, Statistical Optics (Wiley, New York,
(2002). 1985; Mir, Moscow, 1988).
4. V. V. Alexandrov, I. N. Frolov, E. V. Grabovsky, et al., 9. A. A. Samokhin, Preprint No. 0100-A (Troitsk Institute
IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 30, 559 (2002). for Innovation and Fusion Research, 2002).
5. V. V. Alexandrov, I. N. Frolov, M. V. Fedulov, et al., in
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on
Dense Z-Pinches, Albuquerque, 2002, Ed. by J. Davis, Translated by N.N. Ustinovskiœ

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 228–234. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 256–262.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Ignatov.

DUSTY
PLASMA

Surface Activity of Dust with Variable Charge

A. M. Ignatov
Prokhorov Institute of General Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Vavilova 38, Moscow, 119991 Russia
Received May 28, 2003; in final form, July 10, 2003

Abstract—A simple model is developed for the self-consistent charging of a dust layer in an electrode plasma
sheath, as well as for the force balance in this layer. The anisotropy of the plasma pressure near the plasma
boundary makes it possible to introduce the notion of surface tension. The equilibrium charge, the height at
which the dust layer levitates above the electrode, and the plasma surface tension are calculated numerically as
functions of the dust density. In all of the cases under analysis, the presence of dust is shown to increase the
plasma surface tension, which indicates that the plasma sheath may become structurally unstable. © 2004 MAIK
“Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION point too has been investigated both theoretically [7, 8]

and experimentally [9].
The parameters of a thin low-temperature plasma
sheath near a discharge chamber wall (or near an elec- It was shown in recent papers [10, 11] that even a
trode) differ considerably from those of the plasma vol- few charged dust grains can significantly change the
ume [1]. If, for example, the electrode is at a floating surface tension of an electrode plasma sheath. Since, in
potential, then, at distances of about several Debye radii this context, the notion of surface tension was appar-
from the electrode surface, the plasma quasineutrality ently introduced only quite recently [11], it is necessary
is violated, a strong electric field appears, the electron to discuss it in more detail. Let an electrode be placed
density decreases markedly, and an electrode-directed at the z = 0 plane, the ion velocity in the electrode
ion flow forms. sheath being directed downward (Fig. 1). At suffi-
ciently great heights above the electrode, the plasma is
It is under these conditions that experiments with quasineutral. Let us consider the momentum balance in
dust grains are often carried out. A certain number of the electrode sheath. Since, under conditions typical of
specially prepared dust grains (or, sometimes, only one most experiments, the collisions of plasma particles
grain), usually several microns in diameter, are placed with neutrals can be ignored, the plasma momentum is
above a horizontally positioned electrode. The plasma conserved. Assuming that all the quantities are inde-
may be created either by applying a high-frequency pendent of the transverse coordinates and that there are
voltage to the electrode or by external sources. In some no external charges (dust grains) in the plasma, we can
experiments, the electrode is also negatively biased. write the momentum conservation equation in the form
Under these conditions, the grains acquire fairly large ∂Piz /∂z = 0. The momentum flux tensor Pij is repre-
negative electric charges, so that their weights are bal-
anced by the electric field in the electrode sheath (see sented as a sum of the plasma pressure (which is gener-
Fig. 1). A detailed discussion of numerous experiments ally anisotropic) and the Maxwell stress tensor. If all
can be found in review [2].
Since the plasma parameters and the electric field
are essentially nonuniform across the electrode sheath, z
the charge of a grain changes with the distance from the Quasineutral plasma, ne ~~ n i
electrode surface. Consequently, at a certain height
above the electrode (which depends on the grain size zs
and mass), the total vertical force acting on the grain
vanishes; sometimes, there are several heights at which QE Dust layer
such equilibrium conditions are satisfied. The questions zl
about the equilibrium charge of the grain and the height Mg f
at which the grain is in equilibrium, as well as of how vi(z)
S1 S0
the dependence of the grain charge on height affects the
vertical oscillations of the grains, have been discussed
in a number of papers [3–6]. On the other hand, the x1 x0
presence of many charged grains in the sheath can sub-
stantially change the electric field distribution and the Fig. 1. Schematic representation of a dust layer near the
distributions of the electron and ion densities. This electrode.

1063-780X/04/3003-0228$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

 SURFACE ACTIVITY OF DUST WITH VARIABLE CHARGE 229

z P
E 5 10 15 20
1.0 1
1
–0.2 0.8

–0.4 0.6

–0.6 0.4 2
3
0.2 2
–0.8
5 10 15 20
–1.0 z

Fig. 3. Pressure profiles. Curves 1 and 2 are, respectively,

Fig. 2. Electric field profiles. The solid curve is for a dust for the longitudinal and transverse pressures described by
layer with α = 0.05 and β = 1. The dashed curve is for an formulas (12) and (13) with α = 0.05 and β = 1. Curve 3 is
electrode sheath without dust (α = 0). for the transverse pressure in the absence of dust.

the quantities depend solely on the z coordinate, then quantity (1) characterizes the decrease in this repulsive
symmetry considerations obviously imply that the force per unit length of surface, it can be identified with
momentum flux tensor has only three nonzero compo- the plasma surface tension.
nents, Pzz =Pl (z) and Pyy = Pxx = Ptr(z). By virtue of the
In gas discharge physics, the surface tension is usu-
conservation of momentum, the component Pl (z) ally of minor importance. However, it may have a deci-
should be constant, whereas the transverse momentum sive impact on the horizontal force acting on an inho-
flux Ptr(z) may be a function of the z coordinate. If we mogeneous charged dust layer. For instance, let there be
disregard possible pressure anisotropy (e.g., due to ion- a semi-infinite (x < 0) dust layer with a certain surface
ization in an rf field) in a quasineutral plasma, then, at charge density at a height zl above the electrode (Fig. 1).
great heights above the electrode, we have Ptr(z) ≈ Pl = The horizontal force acting on the charged layer is
P0. The characteristic profile of the transverse pressure equal to the difference between the fluxes of the x com-
Ptr(z) in the model to be discussed below is shown by ponent of the momentum through the planes x = x0, 1. If
curve 3 in Fig. 3. the distances x0, 1 from the planes to the layer edge are
Of course, in the plasma volume, the collisions of chosen to be sufficiently large, then, in calculating the
plasma particles with neutrals play a significant role momentum flux tensor at x = x0, 1, we can ignore the
and, on a spatial scale of about the mean free path λn or dependence of all the quantities on x. In this case, the
the discharge chamber length L, the longitudinal pres- total horizontal force per unit length is equal to f = s0 –
sure Pl can depend on the coordinates. In what follows, s1, where the quantities s0, 1 are determined by integral
it is assumed that the electrode sheath thickness, which (1) at x = x0, 1. Based on similar considerations, we can
is determined by the electron Debye radius λDe, is much also relate the density of the horizontal force acting on
smaller than any other characteristic scale length of the a weakly inhomogeneous charged layer to the deriva-
system, so that it is possible to choose a certain distance tive of surface tension (1) with respect to the charge
L0 such that it satisfies the conditions λDe Ⰶ L0 Ⰶ L, λn. density.
We can also assume that, at the surface z = L0, the
Hence, the main interest lies not so much in the sur-
plasma is quasineutral and its pressure is equal to face tension itself as in its dependence on the density of
Ptr(L0) = P0. additional charges, e.g., charged dust grains. This
The deviation of the transverse plasma pressure dependence was calculated in [10, 11] on the basis of
from being constant is characterized by the quantity two simple models. It was found that additional nega-
L0
tive charges introduced in an electrode sheath often
enhance the surface tension, in which case the force
s = ∫ dz ( P 0 – P tr ( z ) ), (1) acting on the external charges tends to push them away
from the sheath (as is shown in Fig. 1). Sometimes,
0
however, additional changes reduce the surface tension,
which has a quite simple physical meaning. Imagine which indicates that the force acts in the opposite direc-
that the entire plasma volume is cut into two parts by, tion. In this respect, the charged dust behaves as a sur-
e.g., the x = x0 plane (Fig. 1). As may be seen, the force face-active substance. There is no need to remind the
pushing these parts away from one another is roughly reader of the enormous variety of phenomena occurring
equal to P0S0, where S0 is the cross-sectional area. Since in interactions between surface-active substances and

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

230 IGNATOV

water. It may be hoped that, with cleverly prepared where z0 is an integration constant. The electric field in
experiments, the relevant dusty plasma physics will be the quasineutral plasma region is expressed from for-
equally rich. mulas (5) and (6) with the help of Eq. (3). These expres-
In [11], it was assumed that each grain carries a con- sions are assumed to be valid for z > L0. The integration
stant charge but the height at which it is in equilibrium constant in expression (6) is chosen so that the ion
above the electrode can change. In the hydrodynamic (b)
velocity at z = L0 takes on a certain value, v i (L0) =
model developed here, the somewhat unrealistic
assumption of a constant grain charge is removed. A vi0. The boundary conditions for Eqs. (2)–(4) are spec-
description of the model is given in Section 2. Section ified by the formulas
3 presents the method for solving the model equations (b)
numerically and shows how the equilibrium charge of a n i ( L 0 ) = n i ( L 0 ), v i ( L 0 ) = v i0 ,
dust layer, the height at which it is in equilibrium, and (b)
the plasma surface tension depend on the dust density. T ni ( L0 )
φ ( L 0 ) = -----e ln ------------------
-,
In the conclusion, it is inferred that a charged dust layer e n0 (7)
may be structurally unstable. (b) ( b )2
dφ 1 dm i n i ( z ) v i (z)
------ = – ------------------
(b)
- --------------------------------------------- .
2. MODEL dz z = L0 en ( z ) i
dz z = L0

This section presents the hydrodynamic model pro- In the problem as formulated, the distance L0
posed to describe an electrode plasma sheath. All the
remains unknown. It can be determined by imposing an
quantities are assumed to depend only on the z coordi-
additional condition at the electrode. This may be done,
nate. The ions are described by the continuity equation
e.g., by specifying the potential at z = 0. In what fol-
dn i ( z ) v i ( z ) lows, we assume that the electrode is at the floating
- = ν ion n e ( z )
--------------------------- (2) potential, i.e., that the total current at z = 0 is zero,
dz
(where νion is the electron-impact ionization rate) and Te
the momentum balance equation n i ( 0 ) v i ( 0 ) + n e ( 0 ) ------------
- = 0. (8)
2πm e
dm i n i ( z ) v i ( z )
2
dφ ( z )
- + en i ( z ) ------------- = 0.
---------------------------------- (3) The model proposed here is, in essence, a slightly
dz dz modified version of the Langmuir–Tonks model [13].
The ionization rate in Eq. (2) is assumed to be suffi-
The electrons are assumed to obey a Boltzmann dis- ciently low, νion Ⰶ cs /L0. In other words, the model
tribution, ne(z) = n0 exp(eφ(z)/Te), where n0 is the equi-
under discussion is in fact a collisionless one: the ion-
librium electron density in the plasma volume, and the ization rate merely determines the spatial scale in the
electron temperature is assumed to be constant. The set quasineutral plasma region [see expression (6)] and
of model equations is closed by Poisson’s equation enters only into boundary conditions (7). Of course,
d φ(z)
2 under actual conditions, the frequency of collisions
- = 4πe ( n e ( z ) – n i ( z ) ) – 4πρ d ( z ),
---------------
2
(4) with neutrals can appreciably exceed the ionization
dz rate. If we assume that the mean free path is much
where ρd(z) is the charge density of dust. greater than the electrode sheath thickness, then we can
see that Eqs. (2)–(4) remain valid and that taking into
At sufficiently great heights above the electrode (z ≈ account collisions with neutrals leads to a modification
L0), the plasma is quasineutral. Under the assumption of solution (6) (see, e.g., [12, 14]) and, accordingly,
that there is no dust at such heights, namely, ρd(z) = 0 boundary conditions (7). As a result, the plasma density
and ne(z) = ni (z), Eqs. (2) and (3) are easy to solve (see, in the volume changes considerably, while the pressure
e.g., [12]). For the ion density distribution, we have distribution over the electrode sheath changes insignif-
2
icantly. This is why the model developed here on the
(b) n0 cs basis of Eqs. (2)–(4) is the simplest possible one: the
ni ( z ) = -----------------------------
(b)
-. (5) presence of collisions with neutrals is not necessary for
cs + v i ( z )
2 2
the existence of a discharge, but ionization is. In this
model, there is no need to solve the well-known prob-
Here, cs = T e /m i is the ion-acoustic velocity, the lem of matching the equations for the plasma wall
superscript (b) denotes the values of the quantities in the sheath with those for the plasma volume. Recall that, in
plasma volume, and the dependence of the ion velocity accordance with the Bohm criterion, they are usually
on z is defined implicitly by matched at the surface where |vi | = cs, and the boundary
velocity |vi0 | is chosen far below the ion-acoustic veloc-
v i(z) cs v i(z)
z – z 0 = ------------ – 2 -------
- arctan ------------, (6) ity. Numerical solutions of Eqs. (2)–(4) showed that the
ν ion ν ion cs final results are weakly sensitive to the value of the

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 SURFACE ACTIVITY OF DUST WITH VARIABLE CHARGE 231

boundary velocity |vi0 |, provided that it is chosen to be motion limited (OML) approach, in which the grain is
|vi0 | < 0.1cs. treated as an absorbing center with a certain effective
It is also important to point out the following cir- absorption cross section. The condition for the total
cumstance. In what follows, the normalizing density n0 electric current onto the surface of an individual grain
is assumed to be constant. Although this assumption to be zero is written as [3]
appears at first glance to be quite realistic, it neverthe- eφ ( z l ) eQ 
exp  --------------
8T e
less requires justification. The equilibrium density is Jd = ---------n – --------
πm e 0  Te aT e
determined by the balance between ionization and (11)
losses and is thus an eigenvalue of the equations
– n i ( z l ) v i ( z l )  1 + -----------------------
2eQ 
- = 0,
describing the plasma as a whole. In principle, even a  am v ( z )
2
small amount of dust in the electrode sheath changes i i l
the electric field distribution and thereby may affect the where a is the grain radius, which is much smaller than
equilibrium density n0. This can happen, in particular, the electron Debye radius.
if charged particles are lost by diffusion toward the Numerical solution of Eqs. (2)–(4) with boundary
walls. Under actual conditions, plasma density varia- conditions (7) and (8) and with additional relationships
tions δn0 in an electrode sheath with dust seem to be (9)–(11) makes it possible to self-consistently deter-
negligible. However, variations in the plasma surface mine the dependence of the plasma parameters on z, as
tension, which are estimated to be δn0Teλn, may be sub- well as the equilibrium grain charge Q and the height zl
stantial. On the whole, this problem requires further at which the dust layer is in equilibrium above the elec-
investigation and will not be considered in this paper. trode, provided that the surface charge density σ is
For simplicity, we assume that the equilibrium density specified in advance.
n0 is governed by internal plasma processes (such as
Having found the solution, we can calculate the
recombination or detachment) and is thus independent
pressure tensor elements. In the model in question, they
of the dust density.
are equal to
In the model to be constructed, dust is regarded as a
thin monolayer at a certain height zl above the electrode 1
P l ( z ) = m i n i ( z ) v i ( z ) + n e ( z )T e – ------E ( z ) ,
2 2
(12)
surface. The dust charge density is written as ρd(z) = 8π
−Qσδ(z – zl ), where Q > 0 is the absolute value of the
1
charge of an individual grain and σ is the surface den- P tr ( z ) = n e ( z )T e + ------E ( z ) ,
2
(13)
sity of the dust grains. Simple estimates show that, even 8π
when the surface charge density σ is fairly high (e.g., is where E(z) = –φ'(z) is the electric field. In the absence
at a level corresponding to dust plasma crystals), the of dust, longitudinal pressure (12) is an integral of
dust grains absorb only a small amount of plasma. Con- Eqs. (2)–(4). Since the ions move only along the z axis
sequently, for z ≠ zl, the plasma is described by and their temperature is assumed to be negligibly low,
Eqs. (2)–(4) with ρd = 0, and the effect of dust is they do not contribute to transverse pressure (13). The
described by the additional boundary condition most important point is, however, that the electric field
pressure, which is described by the Maxwell stress ten-
φ' ( z l + 0 ) – φ' ( z l – 0 ) = 4πQσ, (9) sor, is always anisotropic. As a consequence, the
the remaining parameters, namely, ni (z), vi (z), and φ(z), squares of the electric field enter into the expressions
being continuous at z = zl. for the longitudinal and transverse pressure compo-
nents with opposite signs.
The force balance equation for a charged dust layer
in the Earth’s gravity field (in Fig. 1, the gravity force
points downward) has the form 3. CALCULATED RESULTS
1 Problem (2)–(4) and (7)–(11) is a set of differential
--- Qσ ( φ' ( z l + 0 ) + φ' ( z l – 0 ) ) – σMg = 0, (10) equations with nonlinear boundary conditions. There
2
are no standard numerical methods for solving this and
where M is the mass of an individual grain. In Eq. (10), similar problems. The numerical results presented
the first term is the electric force per unit area of the below were obtained by means of the following algo-
layer and the second term is the weight of dust per unit rithm: A certain charge Q is specified in advance, and
area of the layer. It should be noted that total force bal- the electric field below and above the charged dust layer
ance equation (10) does not contain the ion drag force is calculated as a function of the charge and mass of a
because simple estimates show that it is much less than grain by using relationships (9) and (10): φ'(zl ± 0) =
the weight of a grain. Mg/Q ± 2πQσ. Equations (2)–(4) are solved by the
Up to this point, the charge of a grain has not been standard Runge–Kutta method with initial conditions (7),
determined. In order to see how the grain charge is in which case the initial value of z is chosen arbitrarily
related to the plasma parameters, we turn to the sim- (e.g., it can be set equal to zero). The initial values of
plest possible approximation—the so-called orbit the ion velocity are chosen sufficiently low. The results

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

232 IGNATOV

q All simulations were carried out in terms of dimen-

sionless quantities. In the figures, the length is
4.0 expressed in units of the electron Debye radius λDe =
2
3.5 T e /4πe n 0 , the electric field is in units of Te /eλDe , the
pressure is normalized to n0Te, and the surface tension
3.0 is in units of n0TeλDe. The dimensionless charge is q =
eQ/aTe, the dust density is characterized by the dimen-
2.5 sionless quantity α = 2πaλDeσ, and the dimensionless
weight of a grain is characterized by β = Mge2λDe / aT e .
2

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 Under actual conditions, we have α Ⰶ 1 and the quan-
α tity β may amount to unity. In simulations, the ioniza-
tion rate was chosen sufficiently low (νionλDe /cs = 10–3)
Fig. 4. Dependence of the charge on the dust density. The and the electron-to-ion mass ratio in formulas (8) and
solid curve is for β = 1, the dashed curve is for β = 0.5, and
the dashed-and-dotted curve is for β = 0.1. (11) corresponded to argon. For these parameter values,
the length of the computation region is about L0 ≈ 570.
A representative profile of the electric field is dis-
presented below were computed for vi0 = −0.01cs. The played in Fig. 2, in which the dashed curve shows the
solution to Eqs. (2)–(4) is constructed by integrating dependence of the electric field on z in the absence of
them in the direction of decreasing z until the derivative dust and the solid curve shows the same dependence in
of the potential becomes equal to the value φ'(z) = the presence of a dust layer with the dimensionless den-
Mg/Q + 2πQσ calculated earlier. The z coordinate at sity α = 0.05 and dimensionless weight β = 1. The solid
which this value is reached is equal to zl – L0. curve is discontinuous at the equilibrium height, which,
Next, Eqs. (2)–(4) are again integrated in the direc- in the case at hand, is equal to zl = 5.9, the dimension-
tion of decreasing z, in which case the values of the less charge of the grains being q = 3.58. The position of
potential, density, and velocity do not change but the the electrode sheath boundary zs determined from the
derivative of the potential at z = zl – L0 is equal to φ'(zl – Bohm criterion (i.e., the position of the surface at which
L0) = Mg/Q – 2πQσ. The process of constructing the |vi (zs)| = cs) depends on the dust density: in the absence
solution is continued until the total current (8) at the of dust, we have zs ≈ 15.38, while the Bohm boundary
electrode vanishes (in this way, it is also possible to of a sheath with a dust layer is displaced to the surface
impose some other condition, e.g., to fix the potential). zs ≈ 17.13. Hence, the dust layer plays the role of a vir-
The calculated value of the z coordinate is equal to –L0. tual wall that serves to reduce the entire plasma volume.
The constant displacement L0 is then added to each of Figure 3 shows the pressure profiles calculated for
the z coordinates of the entire set of solutions. the same parameters as in Fig. 2. In the absence of dust,
Hence, for a given charge Q, the algorithm calcu- longitudinal pressure (12) is equal to unity. In Fig. 3,
lates the distributions of all the quantities and the height straight line 1 shows the longitudinal pressure in the
zl at which the dust layer is in equilibrium above the presence of a dust layer of nonzero density. The jump
electrode. In particular, the total electric current Jd onto in pressure at a height at which the layer is located bal-
ances the layer’s weight. Dashed curve 3 in Fig. 3
the surface of an individual grain [see expression (11)]
shows the transverse pressure in a dust-free electrode
is calculated as a function of Q. The zeros of the func-
sheath. We can see that the transverse pressure is appre-
tion Jd(Q) are sought by standard methods, whereby it
ciably lower than the longitudinal pressure. For the
becomes possible to determine the equilibrium charge given ionization rate, the pressures become equal at
and equilibrium height, as well as the corresponding approximately z ≈ 200—this is apparently a specific
spatial distributions of all the quantities. feature of the collisionless model under discussion.
The surface tension is calculated from formula (1). Finally, the point of greatest interest is the change in the
In the algorithm described here, the length L0 of the transverse pressure due to the presence of dust. It is
computation region depends on the dust density. important that, in an electrode sheath with the above
Although the difference in the length L0 between the parameters, the dust significantly (by a factor of almost
examples given below is small (only fractions of one 2) reduces the transverse pressure in the space between
percent), it may nonetheless play a role in taking the the layer and the electrode. This effect is associated
integral in formula (1). This is why, in calculating the largely with a decrease in the absolute value of the elec-
surface tension as a function of the dust density, the tric field (Fig. 2).
upper integration limit in Eq. (1) was chosen to be the Figure 4 shows how the equilibrium charge depends
same for all density values. The relative difference on the density of a dust layer for grains of different
between the longitudinal and transverse pressures at z ≈ masses. For sufficiently heavy grains, the charge
L0 is on the order of 10–4. decreases as the density increases. For lighter grains, an

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 SURFACE ACTIVITY OF DUST WITH VARIABLE CHARGE 233

z1 ∆s
14 4
12
10 3
8 2
6
4 1
2
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
α
Fig. 5. Dependence of the equilibrium height on the dust Fig. 6. Dependence of the plasma surface tension on the
density. The solid curve is for β = 1, the dashed curve is for dust density. The solid curve is for β = 1, the dashed curve
β = 0.5, and the dashed-and-dotted curve is for β = 0.1. is for β = 0.5, and the dashed-and-dotted curve is for β = 0.1.

increase in the density can lead to an insignificant 2.6 µm and a dust layer with a surface charge density of
increase in the charge. The equilibrium height also about σ ≈ 280 cm–2, in which case the layer is in equi-
decreases as the density increases (Fig. 5). librium at a height of about 5 mm above the electrode.
For a dust layer of heavy grains with β = 1, a solu- The dimensionless charge of the grains q = 3.5 corre-
tion exists only when the dust density is not too high. sponds to the dimensional electric charge Q = 1.2 ×
For α ≥ 0.26, the equation Jd(q) = 0 has no solutions, 104e. The value of the ionization rate used in computa-
which indicates that such a dense and heavy layer can- tions, νion ≈ 2 × 103 s–1, corresponds to a neutral argon
not be in equilibrium at any height above the electrode. density on the order of 1014 cm–3.
Along with the solutions illustrated by the profiles in
Figs. 4 and 5 at β ≥ 0.7, there exists another steady state
corresponding to far smaller charges (q ≈ 1) and far 4. CONCLUSIONS
lesser heights (zl ≤ 1). Presumably, this second steady In the present paper, the charged dust layer is treated
state, which has already been discussed in the literature as being infinitely thin and perfectly rigid. In reality,
(see, e.g., [3]), is unstable again vertical oscillations, as however, the grains are interacting and, at sufficiently
in the case of a single grain. small distances, repulse one an other. The elastic prop-
Figure 6 illustrates the dependence of variations in erties of the layer are characterized by the dependence
surface tension, ∆s(α) = s(α) – s(0), on the density α for of the surface pressure ps(σ) on density [15]. When the
grains of different masses. The curves shown in the fig- interaction force between the grain is repulsive, the sur-
ure are smoothed because, although the accuracy of the face pressure is always positive.
solution to Eqs. (2)–(4) is high, the errors in taking the The surface tension that has been discussed above
integral in formula (1) numerically are fairly large (of originates from the self-consistent response of the elec-
about several percent). For all the parameter values trode sheath to external charges. The fact that the sur-
used in computations, the surface tension of an elec- face tension turns out to be positive indicates an effi-
trode sheath with a dust layer was found to be higher cient long-range attraction between grains. In a certain
than that in the absence of dust. This is the main differ- approximation, the total equation of state for the dust
ence from the case of a fixed charge that was investi- layer that describes the balance of horizontal forces can
gated in [11] and in which the surface tension in the be written as ps(σ) – s(σ) = f, where f is the density of
presence of dust was found to be lower. the external forces acting on the layer. It thus appears
It has already been mentioned that, in the model that the equilibrium density of a dust layer and the pos-
under discussion, the plasma density far above the elec- sibility of forming different dust structures are gov-
trode remains unknown—it must be determined by erned by the competition between two different pro-
solving the problem for the entire discharge volume cesses. Postponing the discussion of these problems to
rather than for the electrode sheath alone. For the the future, note only that, if the grains interact through
parameter values that are characteristic of many exper- the Yukawa potential, then, as σ 0, the surface pres-
iments (namely, an equilibrium electron density of n0 = sure ps(σ) behaves as exp(–1/λDeσ1/2), while the depen-
108 cm–3 and an electron temperature of Te = 2 eV, the dence of the surface tension on density is linear. This
specific weight of the grain material being 1.5 g/cm3), indicates that the compressibility of a dust layer of suf-
the above values of the dimensionless parameters α = ficiently low density is negative and that the layer itself
0.05 and β = 1 correspond to dust grains of radius a = is unstable against density variations.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

234 IGNATOV

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 6. You-Nian Wang, Lu-Jing Hou, and Xiaogang Wang,

Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 155001 (2002).
This work was supported in part by the Russian 7. V. N. Tsytovich, S. V. Vladimirov, and S. Benkadda,
Foundation for Basic Research, project no. 02-02- Phys. Plasmas 6, 2972 (1999).
16439. 8. V. N. Tsytovich, G. E. Morfill, and H. Thomas, Fiz.
Plazmy 29 (2004) (in press).
9. C. Arnas, M. Mikikian, G. Bachet, and F. Doveil, Phys.
REFERENCES Plasmas 7, 4418 (2000).
1. Yu. P. Raizer, Gas Discharge Physics (Nauka, Moscow, 10. A. M. Ignatov, P. P. J. M. Schram, and S. A. Trigger, New
1987; Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991). J. Phys. 5, 43.1 (2003).
2. H. Thomas, G. E. Morfill, and V. N. Tsytovich, Fiz. 11. A. M. Ignatov, P. P. J. M. Schram, and S. A. Trigger,
Plazmy 29, 963 (2003) [Plasma Phys. Rep. 29, 895 J. Phys. D 36, L83 (2003).
(2003)]. 12. K.-U. Riemann, J. Phys. D 24, 493 (1991).
3. S. V. Vladimirov and N. F. Cramer, Phys. Rev. E 62, 2754 13. L. Tonks and I. Langmuir, Phys. Rev. 34, 876 (1929).
(2000). 14. R. N. Franklin and J. Snell, Phys. Plasmas 8, 643 (2001).
4. S. V. Vladimirov, N. F. Cramer, and P. V. Shevchenko, 15. G. A. Hebner, M. E. Riley, and K. E. Greenberg, Phys.
Phys. Rev. E 60, 7369 (1999). Rev. E 66, 046407 (2002).
5. A. V. Ivlev, U. Konopka, and G. Morfill, Phys. Rev. E 62,
2739 (2000). Translated by I.A. Kalabalyk

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 235–240. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 263–268.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Kishinets, Korobkin, Romanov, Rupasov, Shikanov, Moorti, Naik, Gupta.

PLASMA
DIAGNOSTICS

Feasibility of Stabilizing a Vacuum-Diode X-ray Source

with a Laser-Plasma Cathode
A. S. Kishinets*, Yu. V. Korobkin*, I. V. Romanov*, A. A. Rupasov*, A. S. Shikanov*,
A. Moorti**, P. A. Naik**, and P. D. Gupta**
* Lebedev Physical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiœ pr. 53, Moscow, 119991 Russia
** Center of Advanced Technology, Indore 452013, India
Received July 24, 2003

Abstract—Results are presented from experimental studies of discharge instabilities and the energy and tem-
poral characteristics of a vacuum-diode X-ray source with a laser plasma cathode over a wide range of energies,
intensities, and durations of the plasma-forming laser pulse. It is experimentally shown that the vacuum-dis-
charge dynamics and radiation processes in different discharge stages substantially depend on the parameters
of the laser radiation. The shortest recorded pulse duration (10 ns) of Ti K-line radiation (4.5 keV) with a total
photon number of 1011 is achieved when the laser plasma cathode is produced by a laser pulse with a duration
of 27 ps and an intensity of 1013 W/cm2. It is found that the contrast of characteristic emission against the
bremsstrahlung background is maximum when discharge instabilities are suppressed and the accelerating volt-
age is three to four times higher than the threshold voltage for line excitation. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interpe-
riodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION istic emission against the bremsstrahlung background.

An acceptable constancy of the anode voltage in the ini-
It is well known that pulsed X-ray tubes with explo- tial stage of the discharge was produced by the fact that
sive cathodes mainly emit X-ray bremsstrahlung and do the amount of the total charge carried by an electron
not provide high contrast of the characteristic line emis- beam emitted from a laser plasma created at the cathode
sion. This is related to the high threshold voltage (no was low compared to the charge accumulated in the
lower than 50 kV) and the design features of these storage capacitor. A further discharge of the capacitor
tubes. Generally, commercial X-ray tubes operate in a through the interelectrode gap filled with the laser
regime in which the discharge time of the storage plasma and the anode plasma plume led to the erosion
capacitor is shorter than the time during which the cath- of the conical Ti anode: after 500 discharge cycles, the
ode plasma bridges the interelectrode gap. Otherwise, diameter of the anode tip increased from 200 to
the energy remaining in the storage capacitor after 300 µm. We note, however, that such an increase is
bridging the gap turns out to be sufficient for igniting a quite admissible for laboratory experiments.
vacuum arc, which leads to a strong erosion of the elec- In the wavelength range 0.24–0.30 nm, the mea-
trodes. Thus, X-ray generation occurs at the trailing sured contrast of Ti K-lines was higher than 100. How-
edge of an anode voltage pulse; as a result, bremsstrahl- ever, the contrast decreased substantially when the laser
ung is smeared out over spectrum, thereby substantially plasma cathode was produced by a laser pulse with an
reducing the contrast of the characteristic lines. There- energy of ≤5 mJ. Spectroscopic studies performed by
fore, in experiments in which high contrast of the the filter method revealed the presence of a hard X-ray
pulsed characteristic X-ray emission is required, it is component with photon energies higher than the energy
reasonable to use vacuum-diode X-ray sources with of bremsstrahlung photons corresponding to the
laser plasma cathodes. A compact quasi-point (with an applied voltage. At a discharge voltage of 20 kV, we
emission zone of ~250 µm in size) source of character- observed X-ray photons that were emitted from the
istic Ti K-line (~4.5 keV) radiation with a spectral radi- anode with energies exceeding 25 keV. The probable
ance of ~1021 photon/(cm2 s sr keV), pulse duration of reasons for the emergence of such high-energy photons
20 ns, and a total number of photons of 1011 was are (i) instabilities of a low-pressure (p ~ 10−4–
described in [1, 2]. The source was controlled by laser 10−6 torr) discharge, accompanied by partial current
pulses with a duration of ~10–30 ns and an energy of breaks and jumps in the discharge voltage [3–5], and
≤1 J. The feasibility of the source operation at any (ii) the micropinching of the plasma channels [6–8]. In
required voltage U made it possible to satisfy the con- this context, we investigated the conditions for current
dition U = (3–4)U0 (where U0 is the threshold voltage flow through the discharge gap and the conditions for
for the excitation of the characteristic emission series), the onset of discharge instabilities in a vacuum-diode
which enabled the maximum contrast of the character- X-ray source with a laser plasma cathode.

1063-780X/04/3003-0235$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

236 KISHINETS et al.

100 mΩ

+20 kV
Laser beam,
λ = 1.06 µm Ti anode
5 nF

e–
85 mΩ

Ti cathode

Fig. 1. Schematic of the vacuum diode with the laser plasma cathode.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP behavior in the early stage of the discharge and during
the onset of instabilities.
A schematic of the experiment is shown in Fig. 1.
The discharge circuit of the vacuum diode consisted of
a 5-nF capacitor, a massive grounded Ti target (cath- 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
ode), and a conical Ti anode with a tip diameter of AND DISCUSSION
~250 µm. The capacitor was charged by a dc power
supply to a voltage of 3–20 kV. The interelectrode dis- Figure 2 shows typical waveforms of the discharge
tance could be varied from 1 to 20 mm. The pressure in voltage and X-ray intensity for different energies of a
the vacuum-diode chamber was ~4 × 10–5 torr. The 27-ps laser pulse. The maximum contrast of Ti K-lines
inductance of the discharge circuit was generally deter- was achieved at an initial discharge voltage of 20 kV.
mined by the stray inductance of the storage capacitor The interelectrode distance was 4 mm, the electric cir-
and varied from 0.2 to 0.8 µH, depending on the elec- cuit inductance was 0.2 µH, and the discharge current
trode configuration. The cathode plasma was produced was no higher than 3 kA. In the early stage of the dis-
by a Nd laser (λ = 1.06 µm) beam focused on the target charge, the anode voltage decreases slowly and the cur-
surface into a 200-µm-diameter spot. The electrons rent obeys the 3/2 law. The increase in the current is
emitted from the cathode plasma were accelerated by related to a decrease in the gap length and an increase
the electric field toward the Ti anode and gave rise to in the emissive area of the laser plasma. The generation
X-ray emission in the characteristic Ti K- and L-lines, of an electron beam carrying the discharge current is
as well as to X-ray bremsstrahlung with maximum accompanied by an X-ray burst. In this stage, the dis-
intensity at λ [nm] = 1.86/U [kV]. To widen the range charge voltage decreases by no more than 15% of its
of the available laser beam intensities on the cathode initial value. Such a decrease only slightly affects the
and to study the effect of the laser pulse duration on the contrast of the X-ray characteristic lines. In the next
process of X-ray generation, we used a Q-switched discharge phase, the voltage decreases at a gradually
laser with a pulse duration of τ = 20 ns and an energy increasing rate; this is related to the effect of ion accu-
of E ≤ 120 mJ and a passive-mode-locking laser with mulation in the discharge gap and the emergence of a
τ = 27 ps and E ≤ 2 J (both located at the Centre for region with a potential exceeding the applied voltage (a
Advanced Technology, Indore, India). The discharge “potential hump” [5]). This region acts as an electro-
current and voltage were measured with a frequency- static trap of electrons. Inside this region, the residual
balanced coaxial shunt (with a resistance of 85 mΩ) gas and the vapor of the electrode material are effi-
and a resistive divider, respectively. The X-ray intensity ciently ionized, which leads to the rapid expansion of
was measured with Quantrad 100-PIN-250 silicon pin the plasma and an increase in the discharge current. It
diodes with a response of 0.2 C/J. The signals were can be seen in Fig. 2 that the higher the laser pulse
recorded with a Lecroy 9350A oscilloscope with a energy, the faster the decrease in the discharge voltage.
500-MHz bandwidth. In these experiments, the Fara- In our case, an important role is also played by the
day cup technique, which is commonly used to measure anode plasma plume because, in view of the small elec-
the anode current in vacuum discharges [3], was not trode area, the electron beam power per unit area of the
employed because of the complicated diode configura- anode surface can exceed 109 W/cm2, thus providing
tion. Instead, we monitored the time evolution of the conditions for intense plasma generation. A specific
X-ray intensity, which closely reproduced the current feature of the waveforms obtained at an energy of the

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 FEASIBILITY OF STABILIZING A VACUUM-DIODE X-RAY SOURCE 237

U, kV

20
(a)

I, arb. units
10

U, kV

20 (b)

I, arb. units
2

0 200 400 600 800 t, ns

Fig. 2. Waveforms of the discharge voltage U and X-ray intensity I for an interelectrode gap length of d = 4 mm, a laser pulse dura-
tion of τ = 27 ps, and laser energy of E = 2 (a) and 100 (b) mJ.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

238 KISHINETS et al.

U, kV

6.7

0
J, A
200

200

400

0 200 400 600 800 t, ns

Fig. 3. Waveforms of the discharge current J and voltage U. The laser pulse duration and energy are τ = 27 ps and E = 2 mJ, respec-
tively; the laser intensity on the cathode is ~2 × 1011 W/cm2; and the interelectrode gap length is d = 2 mm.

plasma-forming laser pulse of E = 2 mJ is the genera- with energies higher than those corresponding to the
tion of X-ray bursts and jumps in the anode potential in initial discharge voltage. The experimental studies of
the second stage of the discharge. This indicates the the dynamics of X-ray emission from the discharge
onset of instability. A decrease in the contrast of the plasma in the photon energy range ≤1 keV, as well as
X-ray characteristic lines emitted by the source in this the spectral measurements of the anode emission in the
stage of the discharge is explained by the unsteady photon energy range >20 keV, will be described in a
behavior of the anode potential and the generation of separate paper.
electron beams in a wide energy range. The presence of The studies of various operating regimes showed
X-ray photons with energies exceeding that corre- that two types of time-separated instabilities may occur
sponding to the initial discharge voltage is related to the in the source. The first of them occurs in the initial stage
onset of instabilities (see [3, 6–11] for details). At of the discharge (Fig. 2a). The second one develops in
present, the most developed hypotheses of the anoma- the stage of intense electron emission. This type of
lous particle acceleration in a vacuum discharge are instability is accompanied by sharp breaks of the dis-
(i) the formation of a deep nonsteady potential near the charge current and jumps in the discharge voltage. In
front of the cathode plume, due to delivering the cath- our experiments, the second type of instability was
ode material into the discharge gap via the ecton mech- clearly observed at an initial discharge voltage of
anism [3, 9], and (ii) the pinching of the plasma jet at 6.7 kV. The waveforms of the discharge current and
high growth rates of the discharge current [8]. In [12], voltage for this case are shown in Fig. 3. The interelec-
we studied the spatial distribution of the X-ray inten- trode distance was 2 mm, the electric circuit inductance
sity. It was shown that there are no extra sources of X- was 0.8 µH, and the current at the instant of the break
rays with photon energies higher than 1 keV in the was 410 A. We did not measure the X-ray yield
interelectrode gap. This fact indicates that, under our because, according to [1], it is low at voltages of
experimental conditions, the discharge plasma is not <10 kV. It can be seen from the waveforms that the first
pinched as a whole, but it splits into filaments whose type of instability hardly occurs at low initial voltages.
temperature can be as high as several hundred electron- In our opinion, the onset of the second kind of instabil-
volts. These filaments can act as sources of electrons ity is related to plasma breaking, which leads to the

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 FEASIBILITY OF STABILIZING A VACUUM-DIODE X-RAY SOURCE 239

I, arb. units an increase in the pulse duration stabilizes the dis-

80 charge.
In [1], the intensity, duration, and contrast of X-ray
characteristic emission were optimized by varying the
60 interelectrode distance d, the laser intensity P on the
cathode, and the initial discharge voltage U. The results
of the above measurements show that the set of the
parameters P, d, and U should be supplemented with
40
the laser pulse energy. At a given initial discharge volt-
age, the intensity of the X-ray pulse is determined by
50 ns/division
the nonlinear dependences Id = const = f(P) and IP = const =
20 f(d), which have pronounced maxima. Hence, in choos-
ing the source operation regime, one should keep in
mind that an increase in the laser pulse energy (with the
0 aim of suppressing discharge instabilities) should be
320 360 400 440 accompanied by an increase in the interelectrode dis-
E, mJ tance. Figure 4 shows the X-ray intensity as a function
of the energy of a picosecond laser pulse at d = 10 mm.
Fig. 4. X-ray intensity as a function of the energy of a 27-ps In this energy range, the duration of the X-ray pulse is
laser pulse for U = 20 kV and d = 10 mm. The inset shows
the waveform of the X-ray pulse at a laser pulse energy of 10 ns (see inset in Fig. 4) and the spectral radiance at
370 mJ. E = 390 mJ is ≤1021 photon/(cm2 s sr keV).

emergence of a double electric layer [13–15] near the 4. CONCLUSIONS

anode and the generation of an additional e.m.f. accel- Based on the experimental data obtained, we can
erating the electron flow. make the following recommendations for the operating
As was mentioned above, discharge instabilities regime of a vacuum-diode X-ray source with a laser
arise when the cathode plasma is produced by nanosec- plasma cathode: In order to achieve the characteristic
ond laser pulses. In connection with this, we studied the X-ray emission consisting of contrast K-lines of the
source operation at different intensities of the laser anode material in pulses with a duration of τ ~ 10 ns and
beam at the cathode. At a fixed interelectrode distance a total photon number of N ~ 1011, it is necessary
of d = 4 mm and an initial discharge voltage of U = (i) to ensure a constant anode voltage in the initial
20 kV, the vacuum discharge was triggered by a 100-mJ phase of the discharge by keeping the total charge of the
laser pulse of either picosecond or nanosecond duration electron beam emitted from the laser plasma much
with a focal spot intensity of P = 1013 or 1.6 × lower than the charge accumulated in the storage capac-
1010 W/cm2, respectively. In both cases, the increase in itor,
the laser pulse energy was not accompanied by the (ii) to suppress discharge instabilities by creating a
onset of discharge instabilities. This indicates that it is plasma emitter of electrons with the help of a picosec-
the energy deposited by laser radiation that determines ond laser pulse with an intensity on the cathode of P ≥
the stability of the diode discharge. As for the X-ray 1013 W/cm2 and energy of E ≥ 100 mJ, and
pulse duration, it depended on the laser intensity on the (iii) to choose an optimum interelectrode distance
cathode. In the first case, the X-ray pulse duration was (in the regime with suppressed instabilities) corre-
18 ns; in the second case, it was 27 ns. Thus, an increase sponding to the maximum intensity of the X-ray
in the rate of laser plasma expansion decreases the source.
duration of the generated X-ray pulse. At reduced ener-
gies of the nanosecond laser pulse, the first type of dis-
charge instability was observed. However, it was not so ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
pronounced as in Fig. 2a. An interesting feature in the This study was supported in part by the Russian
time evolution of the X-ray intensity in the laser energy Foundation for Basic Research (project nos. 03-02-
range 10–50 mJ is its fine structure, which could be due 16366, 01-02-17589, and 02-02-16966), the Russian
to the instability of the sharp boundary of the cathode Federal Program Integratsiya (contract no. I-0651), and
plasma. Theoretical studies [16, 17] showed that, in this the Indian–Russian ILTP Collaboration Program.
case, the plasma emitter can split into jets; this is related
to the onset of perturbations propagating along the
emitter surface and decaying on both sides from it. On REFERENCES
the whole, the results obtained in the case of a nanosec- 1. Yu. V. Korobkin, I. V. Romanov, A. A. Rupasov, et al.,
ond plasma-forming laser pulse allow us to suggest that Phys. Scr. 60, 76 (1999).

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

240 KISHINETS et al.

2. A. A. Erokhin, Yu. V. Korobkin, I. V. Romanov, et al., 11. E. D. Korop and A. A. Plyutto, Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 40, 2534
Kratk. Soobshch. Fiz., No. 1, 30 (2000). (1970) [Sov. Phys. Tech. Phys. 15, 1986 (1970)].
3. G. A. Mesyats, Ectons in Vacuum Discharge (Nauka, 12. A. A. Erokhin, A. A. Kishinets, Yu. V. Korobkin, et al.,
Moscow, 2000), p. 206. Zh. Éksp. Teor. Fiz. 119, 1151 (2001) [JETP 92, 998
4. N. N. Koval’, Yu. D. Korolev, V. B. Ponomarev, et al., (2001)].
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(1989)]. Plazmy 10, 151 (1984) [Sov. J. Plasma Phys. 10, 87
5. A. V. Bolotov, A. V. Kozyrev, A. V. Kolesnikov, et al., Zh. (1984)].
Tekh. Fiz. 61 (1), 40 (1991) [Sov. Phys. Tech. Phys. 36, 14. K. V. Suladze, B. A. Tskhadaya, and A. A. Plyutto,
23 (1991)]. Pis’ma Zh. Éksp. Teor. Fiz. 10, 282 (1969) [JETP Lett.
6. N. Vogel, Pis’ma Zh. Éksp. Teor. Fiz. 67, 622 (1998) 10, 180 (1969)].
[JETP Lett. 67, 647 (1998)]. 15. N. V. Filippov, Fiz. Plazmy 9, 25 (1983) [Sov. J. Plasma
Phys. 9, 14 (1983)].
7. N. Vogel and V. A. Skvortsov, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci.
25, 557 (1997). 16. O. V. Batishchev and Yu. S. Sigov, Preprint No. 87 (Insti-
tute of Applied Mathematics, USSR Acad. Sci., Mos-
8. S. P. Gorbunov, V. I. Krasov, and V. L. Paperny, J. Phys. cow, 1987).
D 30, 122 (1997).
17. V. P. Sidorov, S. Yu. Udovichenko, and P. E. Belensov,
9. S. A. Barengol’ts, G. A. Mesyats, and É. A. Perel’shteœn, Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 61 (7), 37 (1991) [Sov. Phys. Tech. Phys.
Zh. Éksp. Teor. Fiz. 118, 1358 (2000) [JETP 91, 1176 36, 741 (1991)].
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10. K. V. Suladze and A. A. Plyutto, Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 37, 72
(1967) [Sov. Phys. Tech. Phys. 12, 48 (1967)]. Translated by N.N. Ustinovskiœ

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 241–248. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 269–276.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Zvonkov, Skovoroda.

PLASMA
INSTABILITY

Stability of a Quasi-Flute Mode under the Bernstein–Kadomtsev

Condition in a Toroidal Confinement System
A. V. Zvonkov and A. A. Skovoroda
Institute of Nuclear Fusion, Russian Research Centre Kurchatov Institute, pl. Kurchatova 1, Moscow, 123182 Russia
Received February 5, 2003; in final form, September 17, 2003

Abstract—It is shown that the growth rate of the MHD instability in toroidal configurations is slower in a sit-
uation in which the Bernstein–Kadomtsev condition is satisfied while the Mercier stability criterion is not.
Under the Bernstein–Kadomtsev condition, Alfvénic Mercier modes are not excited, but quasi-flute acoustic
Mercier modes develop instead. In confinement systems with closed magnetic field lines, the Bernstein–
Kadomtsev condition ensures MHD stability; however, a small rotational transform produced by magnetic per-
turbations can give rise to a quasi-flute acoustic instability whose growth rate is proportional to the perturbation
amplitude, in which case the fastest growing oscillations are those with the shortest wavelengths. © 2004 MAIK
“Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION field, and, in a confinement system in which the mag-

netic field lines are closed toroidally [6], they are made
For flute oscillations (those with a zero longitudinal unclosed by the vertical magnetic field. On the other
wavenumber, k|| = 0) to be stable in toroidal confine- hand, the poloidal drift motion of charged particles
ment systems with closed magnetic field lines and with ensures that the surfaces of constant plasma pressure
a zero rotational transform, it is necessary and sufficient are topologically stable. That is why, at a finite plasma
to satisfy the following condition [1, 2], which will be pressure, the topological stability of a magnetic config-
referred below to as the Bernstein–Kadomtsev (BK) uration with a vertical perturbation of the magnetic
condition: field can be provided by the plasma currents that pro-
duce a small rotational transform. That this is so is con-
γ 0 p ( ∇U )
2
( ∇U )
2

°∫
– ( B dl ) --------------- < ∇p ⋅ ∇U < ------------------------
- -. (1) firmed by experiments [7].
2 U
U In analyzing the stability of confinement systems
Here, p is the equilibrium plasma pressure, γ0 is the adi- with closed magnetic field lines, it is logical to consider
how it is affected by a small perturbation that makes the
dl
°∫
abatic index, and U = – ---- = const is the label of the lines slightly unclosed. For toroidal systems with a non-
B zero rotational transform, the Mercier criterion is
equilibrium magnetic surface. For configurations with a known to serve as a necessary condition for the stability
magnetic well (∇U > 0), the right-hand inequality in of local ideal modes (those having k|| = 0 at rational
BK condition (1) holds for a decreasing plasma pres- magnetic surfaces). Since the Mercier criterion does
sure profile (∇p < 0), so that the problem is to satisfy not contain any compressibility term, it predicts that a
the left-hand inequality. Otherwise, for systems with a system with a small shear of the magnetic field lines
magnetic hill (∇U < 0), the left-hand inequality holds, and without a magnetic well is unstable. Mikhaœlovskiœ
so that the problem is to satisfy the right-hand inequal- and Skovoroda [8] showed that taking plasma com-
ity. There exists a neutrally stable decreasing pressure pressibility into account can substantially change the
–γ 0 growth rate of the MHD instability that develops when
profile, p ~ U , which reduces the right-hand inequal-
the Mercier criterion is violated. Under an inequality
ity in condition (1) to an identity. It is this possibility of similar to the right-hand inequality in condition (1) (see
achieving MHD stabilization by means of plasma com- the Appendix), the instability grows not at the rate of
pressibility that is utilized in some advanced systems development of Alfvén modes (γ ~ cA /Ls) but at the rate
[3–6] and is the main subject of our study.
of development of acoustic modes (γ ~ cs /Ls), which is
The assumption that the magnetic field lines are substantially slower at low plasma pressures (at low β).
closed over the entire volume of a confinement system
is a theoretical idealization. In a real situation, the field Here, cA = B/ ρ is the Alfvén speed, cs = γ 0 p/ρ is
lines are unclosed because of the possible magnetic the acoustic speed, Ls is the shear length, and ρ is the
field perturbations. Thus, in a confinement system in mass density. It is in this sense that Mikhaœlovskiœ and
which the magnetic field lines are closed poloidally [3– Skovoroda [9] spoke of “the suppression of flute Alfvén
5], they are made unclosed by the toroidal magnetic perturbations and the growth of quasi-flute acoustic

1063-780X/04/3003-0241$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

242 ZVONKOV, SKOVORODA
2 2
perturbations.” Note that similar conditions were con- c A /r , and m Ⰷ 1, in which we have C12 ~ –m2 and
sidered by Kadomtsev [10] and Solov’ev [11]. χr2 Ⰶ 1 and Eq. (2) reduces to
Since it is possible that, in the confinement systems
1 3
--- ( r ρ ( γ + k || c A )ξ' )'
2 2 2
under discussion (namely, those in which MHD stabil-
ity is provided by plasma compressibility), a small rota- r
tional transform can be produced, there are two ques- (3)
tion that have to be answered: whether “acoustic” oscil-  4rk z γ 0 pγ 
2 2
– ξ  ρ ( γ + k || c A )m + 2rk z p' + ------------------------------
2 2 2 2 2
- = 0,
lations are stable under small perturbations that make  R ( γ + k || c s )
2 2 2
the magnetic field lines slightly unclosed and what is
their expected growth rate. Note that, when the degree where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to r
to which the Mercier criterion is violated is small, the and the term with the derivative of the density is omit-
growth rate is exponentially slow [8, 12, 13]. ted for simplicity.
To illustrate the effect of small perturbations that 2 2
make toroidally closed magnetic field lines unclosed, We multiply Eq. (3) by rξ(γ2 + k || c s ) and integrate
we will consider a straight cylinder with identified the resulting equation over the radius with allowance
ends, Bϕ Ⰶ Bz. The effect of the perturbations that make for the boundary condition ξ(a) = 0 to obtain the fol-
poloidally closed field lines unclosed will be consid- lowing quadratic equation for γ 2:
ered using a cylinder with Bz Ⰶ Bϕ as an example. In the
Sγ + T γ + P = 0,
4 2
Appendix, it is shown that the results obtained are also (4)
valid in toroidal geometry. where
a

∫ ρ ( r ξ'
2
+ m ξ )r dr,
2 2 2
2. QUASI-FLUTE ACOUSTIC INSTABILITY S =
The familiar exact equation for small radial dis- 0
placements in cylinder geometry [12, 14, 15] can be a
written in the form
∫ (k
2 2 2 2
|| B ( r ξ' +m ξ )
2 2
T =
C 12 d  r ρ ( γ + k || c A ) dξ
3 2 2 2
- ----- ------------------------------------ ------ – Wξ = 0,
------- 0
r dr  C 12 dr 
2rk z ( p' + 2γ 0 p/R )ξ )rdr,
2 2
+
W = ρ ( γ + k || c A ) ( m – 1 + k z r – χr )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a

∫ (rk c ( k
2 2 2 2
|| B ( r ξ' + m ξ ) + 2ξ rk z p' )
2 2 2 2 2 2
4rk z ρc s
2 2 P = || s
γ
2
2 dp 2 dρ
+ 2rk z ------ + -------------------- --------------------------------------- – γ r ------ 0
dr R γ (1 + β) + k c
2 2 2 dr
|| s
1 2 3 2 2 2 2
d ( rB ϕ χ ) – --- ξ ( r k || B ( k || c s )' )' )dr.
r dC 12 2
- ( ρ ( γ + k || c A ) – C 11 ), (2)
2 2 2
- + -------- ----------
– 2B ϕ --------------------
dr C 12 dr To determine the growth rate, we must know the eigen-
function ξ. At this point, however, some qualitative
+ r χ,
2 2 2 2
C 12 = – m – kz r knowledge on the subject can be acquired from Eq. (4).
Since the ratio β = c s /c A is small, the two roots of this
2 2
mB
C 11 = 2  ----------ϕ- k || B – B ϕ χ ,
2
 r  equation differ greatly in magnitude, in which case the
larger (“Alfvénic”) root is determined by the equality
γ
4
c
2
1 B
2
γ 2 = –T/S, while the smaller (“acoustic”) root is given
χ = – -------------------------------------------------
-, β = ----2s-, --- = -------ϕ-,
by γ 2 = –P/T. For large values of k || , all coefficients in
2
c A ( γ ( 1 + β ) + k || c s )
2 2 2 2 R 2
cA rB
Eq. (4) are positive and both roots are negative, which
where R–1 is the magnetic field line curvature, kz is the indicates that the plasma is stable. For small values of
wavenumber along the cylinder axis, m is the azimuthal 2
mode number, and Bz, ϕ are the magnetic field compo- k || , the coefficient P can become negative, which indi-
nents. In this representation, the plasma compressibility cates that one of the roots is unstable. Which of the two
is explicitly accounted for by the third term in the roots (Alfvénic or acoustic) will be unstable is deter-
expression for W. mined by BK condition (1). If this condition is satisfied,
then it is the smaller root that corresponds to the insta-
As an example of a simple model of a confinement bility growing at the rate of acoustic perturbations.
system with toroidally closed magnetic field lines, we
consider a straight cylinder with identified ends, Bϕ Ⰶ In a shearless configuration with closed magnetic
field lines, perturbations with k||(r) ≡ 0 (a flute mode)
Bz. We are interested in the case β Ⰶ 1, k z r Ⰶ m2, γ2 Ⰶ
2 2
can exist, in which case one of the roots of Eq. (4)

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 STABILITY OF A QUASI-FLUTE MODE 243

equals zero and the other is stable under BK condition (1). 0 is satisfied, then the configuration is stable. If U0 +
Since solution (3) should be periodic along closed field 1/4 < 0 and if the BK condition is satisfied, then a quasi-
lines, the longitudinal wavenumber k|| can take on only flute acoustic instability is excited and grows at a rate
discrete values. Then, for a sufficiently low pressure, that is proportional to the acoustic speed rather than to
β < k ||min m a/k z r = k ||min aR (where k||min is the mini-
2 2 2 2 the Alfvén speed.
mum nonzero value of k||), the coefficient P is positive Here, we give merely a qualitative explanation of
and the plasma is stable. At pressures above a certain why local unstable quasi-flute modes are excited near
limiting pressure, modes can develop that grow at the the rational magnetic surfaces. At this point, we con-
sider localized perturbations with m Ⰷ 1 without mak-
rate γ ~ βc s / aR , which is slower than the growth ing any assumptions about the dependence k|| = k||(x).
rate of the conventional flute instability because it con- We introduce the effective wavenumbers through the
tains the factor β . For actual confinement systems, in relationships k A = γ /c A , k s = γ /c s , k W =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

which the magnetic field is nonuniform and the mag-

−2p'/Rρ c A , and k C = 4c s /R c A and also the parame-
2 2 2 2 2
netic field lines are curved, the limiting stable pressure
is defined as the minimum pressure for which the equa- 2 2
ter Q = k C /k W – 1, which characterizes the range where
tion for ballooning modes with k|| ≠ 0 can have a solu-
the BK condition is satisfied (Q ≥ 0). We nondimen-
tion [1]; i.e., we can say that it is again determined by sionalize the wavenumbers by dividing by kW to reduce
the value k||min.
Eq. (3) to
Hence, if the stability of the flute modes (k|| = 0) is
ensured by the plasma compressibility, then, at suffi- d 2 2 dξ  2 Qk s – k || 
2 2
------ ( k || + βk s ) ------ –  k || + βk s + -------------------- ξ = 0, (6)
2
ciently low pressures, the plasma will be stable against dx  k +k 
dx 2 2
the modes with k|| ≠ 0 because of the discreteness of the s ||
allowed k|| values; this is a consequence of the field-line
where x = m(r – r0)/r0. By making the replacement ζ =
closure. In a configuration with a sheared magnetic
( k || + βk s )1/2ξ, we further simplify this equation to
2 2
field with unclosed lines, the situation is radically dif-
ferent: in a plasma, there are rational magnetic surfaces
d ζ
2
k z B z + mB ϕ /r 0 --------2 – f ( x )ζ = 0, (7)
at which k||(r0) = ---------------------------------
- = 0 and near which,
B dx
generally speaking, local modes with small longitudi-
2 2
nal wavenumbers k|| can be excited. To analyze the pos- Qk s – k ||
sible instability of the local modes, it is necessary to f ( k || ( x ) ) = 1 + ----------------------------------------------
-
( k s + k || ) ( βk s + k || )
2 2 2 2
solve a problem that takes into account the radial struc-
ture of the mode. 2
(8)
1 d k
In order to consider the local modes in a sheared + ------------------------ ---------2-|| .
βk s + k || d x
2 2
magnetic field, we use the following local approxima-
tion of the longitudinal wavenumber near the rational
surface: k|| = –x/Ls, where x = m(r – r0)/r and the shear For k|| 0, the absolute value of function (8) is large
–1 and the sign of the function is the same as the sign of
length Ls is given by the relationship L s = Q
2 the parameter Q: f(0) ~ --------2 . As k|| ∞, the function
[( B ϕ /rBB z )(rBz /Bϕ)' ] r = r0 . With this approximation, βk s
we arrive at the equation approaches unity. In addition, if we ignore the last term
in expression (8), we then find that, for Q > 0, the func-
2d ξ
2
------  x ------ – x ξ + x A --------2
d 2 dξ 2 2 2
  tion is equal to unity, f = 1, at k ||1 = Qk s and has a min-
dx dx dx
( β + Q ) ( Q + 1 ) ).
2 2
(5) imum at k ||2 = k s (Q +
–  U 0 + ---------------------
-2 + x A ξ = 0,
Uc 2
 2  Figure 1 shows the dependence of the function
1 + x /x
( f − 1) k s on k || /k s for β = 0.05 and for three different
s 2 2 2

2 2
where U0 = 2L s p'/Rρc A , Uc = 4L s c s /R c A , xA =
2 2 2 2 values of the parameter Q: 0.1, 0, and –0.1. We can see
that, for Q < 0 and for a sufficiently low plasma pres-
γLs /cA, and xs = γLs /cs. This equation was analyzed in sure, there is a deep potential well at k|| = 0, which indi-
detail in [8]. Note that, with the corresponding redefini- cates that there may be quasi-flute Alfvénic Mercier
tions, Eq. (5) is also valid in toroidal geometry (see [8– 2
10] and the Appendix). The results of the analysis of modes. As k s approaches zero, the condition that there
Eq. (5) that was carried out in [8] may be briefly sum- be no solutions localized near a zero value of the longi-
marized as follows: If the Mercier criterion U0 + 1/4 > tudinal wavenumber coincides with the Suydam stabil-

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

244 ZVONKOV, SKOVORODA

(f–1)ks2 From the side of a zero value of the longitudinal wave-

1.5 number (k|| = 0), the height of the barrier is U0 =

-----2  -------------------------------------------------2 + ----  , and, at k||

1 1 Q
∞, the

k ( 1 + Q + β + Q) β
s
1.0
1
height of the barrier is U1 = -----------------------------------------------------
-2 .
ks ( 1 + Q + β + Q )
2

0.5 The width of the well can be estimated to be

2 2
Q = 0.1 2 k ||2 – k ||1 . Assuming now a linear dependence k|| =
0 k ||' x , we obtain the following formula for the spatial
width of the potential well:
–0.5 k
∆x = 2 ----s ( ( β + Q ) ( Q + 1 ) ) .
1/4

k ||'
–1.0 Q = –0.1 It is well known [16] that, in order for an asymmet-
ric potential well (at small β values, the left potential
barrier is much higher than the right barrier, U0 Ⰷ U1)
–1.5 to have no discrete energy levels, it is necessary to sat-
isfy the condition ∆x U 1 < 1, or, equivalently,
–2.0 2 β+Q 1+Q
0 2 4 6 8 10 k ||' /4 > -------------------------------------------------2 .
2 2
k || /k s ( 1 + Q + β + Q)
For Q ~ 1, the right-hand side of this condition coin-
2 2 2
Fig. 1. Dependence of ( f – 1) k s on k || /k s for Q = –0.1 (the cides in order of magnitude with the right-hand side of
Bernstein–Kadomtsev condition is violated), Q = 0, and Suydam criterion (9). Under the opposite condition, the
Q = 0.1 (the Bernstein–Kadomtsev condition is satisfied). well may have positive-energy levels, E > 0, which
imposes an upper limit on the growth rate of the quasi-
flute acoustic instability:
ity criterion. In the notation adopted here, this criterion
has the form cs k W
γ < -----------------------------------------
-. (10)
2 1+Q+ β+Q
k ||' /4 > 1. (9)
For Q > 0, the potential has a minimum at k|| ≠ 0, This growth rate is 1/ β times slower than the charac-
which indicates that there may be quasi-flute acoustic teristic growth rate of the quasi-flute Alfvén instability.
Mercier modes [8]. In order to show that these modes Note that relationship (10) does not contain shear, so
can actually be excited, we convert Eq. (7) to the form that the question arises of how the instability growth
of the Schrödinger equation: rate behaves when the shear approaches zero.
d ζ
2 To answer this question, we first consider numerical
--------2 + ( E – U ( x ) )ζ = 0, solutions to the equations presented in our study. Figure 2
dx shows the characteristic eigenfunctions of the equation
where the “energy” E = –f(k||2) and the “potential” U = obtained in the Appendix under conditions correspond-
ing to Mercier instability. As may be seen, the calcula-
f(k||) – f(k||2) are given by the formulas tions confirm the qualitative pattern of the instability
1 described above. When the BK condition is not satis-
E = -----------------------------------------------------
-2 – 1, fied, the eigenfunction has a maximum at the point
ks ( 1 + Q + β + Q )
2
x = 0 (k|| = 0) and the solution is seen to be highly local-
2 2 ized in space (x ~ 1). Under the BK condition, the eigen-
1 Qk s – k || function has a maximum at a point other than the point
U = -----------------------------------------------------
- + ----------------------------------------------
-.
k s ( 1 + Q + β + Q ) ( k s + k || ) ( βk s + k || )
2 2 2 2 2 2 x = 0 (i.e., at k|| ≠ 0). Figure 3 shows the eigenfunction
for a very small shear. We can see that, as the shear
The potential energy so defined is everywhere positive decreases, the eigenfunction describing acoustic modes
except at the bottom of the well, where it is equal to becomes wider (x ≥ 1) and the region where the pertur-
zero. The walls of the well are of different heights. bations are localized becomes increasingly broader.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 STABILITY OF A QUASI-FLUTE MODE 245

ξ ξ
1.2 350

1.0 300

0.8 250

0.6 200

0.4 150

0.2 100

50
0 1 2 3 4 x
0 5 10 x
Fig. 2. Eigenfunctions of Eq. (A.1) for H = 0.1, K = 1, and
U0 = –1. The dashed curve is for Uc = 0.5 (the Bernstein– Fig. 3. Eigenfunction of Eq. (A.1) for H = 0, K = 0.1, U0 =
Kadomtsev condition is violated), while the solid curve is −40, and Uc = 80 (the Bernstein–Kadomtsev condition is
for Uc = 1.5 (the Bernstein–Kadomtsev condition is satis- satisfied). The eigenvalue is xs = 2.06, which corresponds to
fied). ξ(x = 0) = 1.

3. GROWTH RATE OF THE QUASI-FLUTE For γ = 0, this equation concides with Eq. (8.6) in [17].
ACOUSTIC INSTABILITY IN THE LIMIT Equation (12) yields the well-known result: at a suffi-
OF VANISHING SHEAR ciently strong field Bz, the mode in question is stabi-
lized. However, we are interested here in a configura-
As a model of a confinement system with poloidally tion with a very weak field Bz (that for which instability
closed magnetic field lines, we use a straight cylinder in
which the magnetic field has the only nonzero compo- is possible). Introducing the new variable ζ = rξ , we
nent Bϕ. In this case, the effect of perturbations that reduce Eq. (12) to the standard form
make the field lines unclosed is modeled by a weak uni-
B z ζ'' – Fζ = 0,
2
form magnetic field Bz Ⰶ Bϕ. We consider a low-pres-
sure plasma, β Ⰶ 1, and a mode with a zero azimuthal
number, m = 0 (at Bz = 0, the longitudinal wavenumber 2 2γ 0 pγ 
2 2 2
2 k z r + 3/4
may equal zero, k|| = 0, only for m = 0), and assume that where F = ---  p' + ----------------------------
-  + B z -----------------------
- . If the
the BK condition p' + 2γ0p/r > 0 is satisfied. Since the r r ( γ + k || c s )
2 2 2
r
2

growth rate of the acoustic instability is estimated to be quantity F vanishes at a surface of radius r0 inside the
γ2 ~ k || c s Ⰶ k || c A , we can assume that k z Ⰷ χ to obtain
2 2 2 2 2
plasma, then, for a weak field Bz, this equation has a
2 2 solution with zero boundary conditions (specifically,
C12 ~ – k z r and C11 ~ 0. This allows us to rewrite the solution that oscillates rapidly on one side away
Eq. (2) as from the surface of radius r0 and decreases exponen-
tially on the other side away from the surface). From
r ( rk || B ξ' )'
2 2
the condition F(r0) = 0 we obtain the relationship

 2 2 4k z γ 0 pγ 
2 2 (11)
2r 0 p' + B z  k z r 0 + ---
2 2 2 3
– ξ  k || B ( 1 + k z r ) + 2rk z p' + ----------------------
2 2 2
-  = 0. 2
 4
2 2B
 γ + k || c s 
2 2 2
γ =
2
– k z c s -----z2- --------------------------------------------------------------------- .
B 2r p' + 4γ p + B 2  k 2 r 2 + 3 ---
0 0 z z 0 
Since k || = k z B z /B and kz ≠ 0, we divide Eq. (11) by
2 2 2 2 4
2
k z and arrive at the equation Under the BK condition, the denominator is positive, so
that the condition F(r0) = 0 can be satisfied for unstable
B z r ( rξ' )'
2 oscillations (γ2 > 0), provided that the numerator is neg-
ative,
 2 4γ 0 pγ 
2 (12)
– ξ  B z ( 1 + k z r ) + 2r p' + ---------------------
2 2
- = 0. 2r 0 p' + B z  k z r 0 + --- < 0.
2 2 2 3
(13)
 γ + k || c s   4
2 2 2

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

246 ZVONKOV, SKOVORODA

Such a surface always exists for a sufficiently weak a

∫  k rξ k c  --r- p' + k
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
field Bz, although, at Bz = 0, the growth rate equals zero. P = z || s || B 
The upper limit on the growth rate can be estimated 0
by multiplying Eq. (12) by ξ(γ2 + k || c s )/r and integrat-
2 2

+ rk || B c s ξ' – --- ξ ( rk || B ( k || c s )' )'  dr.

4 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2
ing over the entire plasma radius. Using the expression 2 
for the growth rate
For modes with k|| = 0 near the surface of radius r = r0,
P
γ = – ---,
2
(14) k
T we can use the representation k|| ~ -----z (r – r0), where the
Ls
where
1
shear length is equal to L s = ----- [ r ( B ϕ /r )' ] r = r0 . As a
a –1
 2  2 1 + k z2 r 2 2 γ 0 p 
∫ - ξ  + 2ξ  p' + 2 --------
 rB z  ξ' + ------------------
Bz
2
T =
  dr,
  r
2
 r  result, we arrive at the following estimate of the upper
0
limit on the characteristic growth rate of these modes
a 2 2
1 + k z r 2 with a fixed wavenumber kz:
 ξ 2 k 2 c 2  2 p' + ------------------
P = ∫  || s  r
- Bz
 c s0
γ ∼ ------ k ∆r,
0
Ls z
+ rB z k || c s ξ' – --- ξ B z ( r ( k || c s )' )'  dr,
2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
where cs0 is the maximum acoustic speed and ∆r is the
2  size of the region in which the solution is localized. As
we arrive at the following estimate for the upper limit at in the case m = 0, we see that the growth rate
a fixed wavenumber kz: approaches zero as Bz approaches zero and that the
a a growth rate increases with kz. However, an increase in
γ 0 p
2
2 cs kz ∆r/Ls is restricted by the stabilization condition
γ ∼ ∫ ξ ------2 p' dr/ ξ  p'
∫
2 2 2 2
–k z Bz + 2 -------- dr.
 r  k z ∆r /L s ~ –p'/aB2, which again leads to the maximum
2 2 2
0
B 0

We can see that the growth rate approaches zero as Bz possible growth rate (10).
approaches zero and that the growth rate increases with The case m Ⰷ 1, in which Bz Ⰷ Bϕ, is analyzed in an
2 2
kz. However, an increase in kzBz is restricted by the sta- analogous manner. For m2 Ⰷ k z r , Eq. (2) reduces to
2 2
bilization condition ~ –p'/r [see condition (13)],
k z Bz 1 3 2 2
which leads to the maximum possible growth rate (10). --- ( r k || B ξ' )'
r
For m ≠ 0 and Bz = 0, oscillations with large longitu- (16)
dinal wavenumbers k|| = m/r are stabilized at low β val- 2 2 2 γ 
2
2 4γ 0 p
ues. This conclusion, which also remains valid for a – m  k || B --- -----------
+ p' + 2 2 - 2 2
---------------------
- ξ = 0.
 R R γ +k c  ||
weak field Bz satisfying the condition kzBz /Bϕ Ⰶ m/r, s

fails to hold only for large kz values such that kzBz /Bϕ ~ 2 2
2 2
Multiplying Eq. (16) by rξ(γ2 + k || c s ) and integrating
m/r, i.e., k|| ~ 0. In this case, using the inequality kz r Ⰷ over the entire plasma radius, we obtain growth rate
m2, we convert Eq. (2) to the form (14) with the coefficients
a
( rk || B ξ' )'
2 2

∫  k
2 2 2 2
|| B ( r ξ' +m ξ )-
2 2
T =
2  2 2 
2 4γ 0 p γ
2 (15) 0
– k z r  k || B + --- p' + -----------
- -2 ξ = 0.
---------------------
 r r γ + k || c s 
2 2 2
2m ξ
2 2
γ 0 p 
+ ---------------  p' + 2 -------- rdr,
R  R 
In order to estimate the maximum growth rate, we mul-
a
tiply Eq. (15) by ξ(γ2 + k || c s ) and integrate over the
2 2

∫  m rξ k c  ---R p' + k
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
P = || s || B 
entire plasma radius. As a result, we arrive at growth rate
(14) in which the coefficients are given by the formulas 0

+ r k || B c s ξ' – --- ξ ( r k || B ( k || c s )' )'  dr.

a 3 4 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 2
 rk 2 B 2 ( ξ' 2 + k 2 ξ 2 ) --- 
T = ∫  || z
2
For modes with k|| = 0 near the surface of radius r = r0,
0

γ 0 p  we can use the representation k|| ~ k ||' (r – r0), where

+ 2k z ξ  p' + 2 --------
2 2
dr,
 r  k ||' = m/r0Ls and the shear length approaches infinity,

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 STABILITY OF A QUASI-FLUTE MODE 247

Ls ∞, as Bϕ 0. As a result, we arrive at the fol- 〈 B / —V 〉

2 2
lowing estimate of the upper limit on the characteristic F = --------------------------
-
Λ
2
growth rate of these modes with a fixed number m:
c s0 ∆r  2 2 〈 σB / —V 〉
2 2 2
2 1 
γ ∼ m -----
- ------ . ×  〈 σ B / —V 〉 – --------------------------------
2
- + p' ------2  ,
Ls r0  〈 B / —V 〉
2 2
B 
As in the cases considered above, we again see that the
〈B 〉
2
growth rate approaches zero as the perturbation ampli-
tude approaches zero and that the growth rate increases G = -------------- ,
Mγ 0 p
with m. Since an increase in m∆r/Lsr0 is restricted by
the stabilization condition (m∆r/Lsr0)2 ~ –p'/RB2, we 〈 B / —V 〉 〈 σB / —V 〉 〈 σB 〉 
2 2 2 2 2
H = ---------------------------  ------------------------------
- – --------------
- ,
again arrive at the maximum possible growth rate (10). Λ  〈 B 2 / —V 2〉 〈B 〉 
2

Hence, in a magnetic configuration with a small

rotational transform (small shear), the quasi-flute Λ
2
〈B 〉
2
acoustic instability is excited and grows at a rate pro- K = ------------2 --------------------------
-,
M p' 〈 B / —V 〉
2 2
portional to the amplitude of the magnetic perturbation,
in which case the fastest growing modes are those with
M = 〈 B / —V 〉
2 2
the shortest wavelengths.

1  2 2 〈 σB 〉 
2 2
× 〈 —V /B 〉 + ------2  〈 σ B 〉 – ----------------
2 2
4. CONCLUSIONS - ,
p'  〈B 〉 
2

We have shown that the growth rate of the MHD

instability in toroidal configurations is reduced in a sit-
σ = j ⋅ B/B , Λ = Φ'ψ'' – ψ'Φ''.
2
uation in which the Bernstein–Kadomtsev condition is
satisfied while the Mercier stability criterion is not. Here, the prime denotes the derivative with respect to
This reduction is due to the excitation of slow quasi- the volume V enclosed by a magnetic surface; ψ and I
flute acoustic Mercier modes instead of fast flute are the external poloidal magnetic flux and the external
Alfvénic Mercier modes. In configurations with closed poloidal current; Φ and J are the toroidal magnetic flux
magnetic field lines, the Bernstein–Kadomtsev condi- and the toroidal current; Λ is the shear; and α = 2πn/Φ' =
tion ensures MHD stability. If a small rotational trans- 2πm/ψ', with n and m being the toroidal and poloidal
form is produced by a magnetic perturbation, there may mode numbers. The averaging over magnetic surfaces
be a quasi-flute acoustic instability that grows at a rate dl dl
proportional to the perturbation amplitude. The slow
growth rate of the quasi-flute acoustic instability can be
is performed in a standard fashion, 〈A〉 ≡ ---- A/ ---- =
B B °∫ °∫
°∫ dθA/°∫ dθ .
influenced by kinetic effects, resistivity, and other fac-
tors not accounted for in our study.
In sheared magnetic configurations, local ideal per-
turbations are described by the equation for the radial
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS displacements ξ that was obtained in [8]:
We are grateful to A.B. Mikhaœlovskiœ and V.P. Pas-
d   2 dξ 2d ξ
2 2
tukhov for their valuable remarks and fruitful discus- KH 1
-2 – x ξ
2
------  1 + ------------------ ---------------------
-  x -----
- + x A -------
sions. This work was supported in part by the Depart- dx  G + KF 1 + x /x  dx 2 2
dx
s
ment of Atomic Science and Technology of the Minis-
try of Atomic Industry of the Russian Federation, the K(E + F + H) 1
Russian Federal Program for State Support of Leading + ( E + F + H ) 1 – ---------------------------------- ---------------------
- (A.1)
G + KF 1 + x 2 /x 2
Scientific Schools (project no. NSh-2024.2003.2), and s
the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project no.
+ ------------------ ------  ---------------------
- ξ = 0,
KH d x
03-02-16768).
G + KF dx 1 + x 2 /x 2 
s

APPENDIX 1 where x = (r – r0)ky , r0 is the radial coordinate of the

rational surface, x s = γ2(G + KF)ρM/(α2Λ2), x A =
2 2
In arbitrary geometry, the local modes are described
by the Glasser parameters [18]: γ2ρM/(α2Λ2), γ is the growth rate, and ρ is the mass den-
sity. In this case, the Mercier stability criterion for local
〈 B / —V 〉  〈 σB 〉 
2 2 2
modes has the form
- – I'Φ'' + J'ψ'' + Λ --------------
E = -------------------------- - ,
Λ
2  〈B 〉 
2
E + F + H – 1/4 < 0.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

248 ZVONKOV, SKOVORODA

When the Mercier criterion is violated but the condition REFERENCES

1 ( G – KE ) ( E + F + H ) 1. A. B. Bernstein, E. A. Friemen, M. D. Kruskal, and
->0
--- – ---------------------------------------------------- R. M. Kulsrud, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 244, 17
G + K(F + H )
4 2
(1958); Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions (Atomiz-
is satisfied, the instability grows at the rate of acoustic dat, Moscow, 1960), p. 226.
perturbations rather than at the rate of Alfvén perturba- 2. B. B. Kadomtsev, in Plasma Physics and the Problem of
tions [8]. Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions, Ed. by
In the limit of a small shear, the factors in the numer- M. A. Leontovich (Izd. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Moscow,
ator in the last condition become 1958; Pergamon, London, 1959), Vol. 4.
I'Φ'' 1 3. P. N. Vabishevich, L. M. Degtyarev, V. V. Drozdov, et al.,
G – KE ∼ ---------- + --------, Fiz. Plazmy 7, 981 (1981) [Sov. J. Plasma Phys. 7, 536
p'
2 γ 0p (1981)].
〈 B / —V 〉 4. A. I. Morozov, V. P. Pastukhov, and A. Yu. Sokolov, in
2 2
E + F + H ∼ --------------------------
- Proceedings of the Workshop on D-3He Based Reactor
Λ
2
Studies, Moscow, 1991, p. 1C1.
5. A. Hasegava, L. Chen, and M. E. Mauel, Nucl. Fusion
 2 1 〈σB / —V 〉 
2 2 2
30, 2405 (1990).
×  –I'Φ'' + p' ------2 + 〈σ B / —V 〉 – -------------------------------
2 2 2
- .
 〈 B / —V 〉 
2 2
B 6. V. V. Arsenin, E. D. Dlougach, V. M. Kulygin, et al.,
Nucl. Fusion 41, 945 (2001).
Taking into account the fact that the denominator in the
last condition is positive, we can see that, for small 7. S. Ma and J. M. Dawson, Phys. Plasmas 1, 1251 (1994).
shear, this condition is satisfied when the first of these 8. A. B. Mikhailovskii and A. A. Skovoroda, Plasma Phys.
two expressions is negative and the second is positive. Controlled Fusion 44, 2033 (2002).
In this case, we arrive at inequalities analogous to BK 9. A. B. Mikhaœlovskiœ and A. A. Skovoroda, Dokl. Akad.
condition (1).1 Note that, for confinement systems with Nauk 383, 758 (2002) [Dokl. Phys. 47, 294 (2002)].
a magnetic well and with closed magnetic field lines, 10. B. B. Kadomtsev, Zh. Éksp. Teor. Fiz. 37, 1646 (1959)
these inequalities were first derived by Spies [19]. [Sov. Phys. JETP 10, 1167 (1960)].
The field-line closure is, as a rule, provided by the 11. L. S. Solov’ev, Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 48, 21 (1978) [Sov. Phys.
mirror-image symmetry of the magnetic configuration. Tech. Phys. 23, 12 (1978)].
This indicates that there exists a plane that is perpendic-
12. A. B. Mikhaœlovskiœ, Plasma Instabilities in Magnetic
ular to the magnetic axis of the configuration and with Confinement Systems (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1978).
respect to which the magnetic field lines are in a mirror-
image arrangement. For such configurations, the 13. S. Gupta, J. D. Callen, and C. C. Hegna, Phys. Plasmas
Glasser parameter H is zero, and the equation for radial 9, 3395 (2002).
displacements can be reduced to a form typical of cylin- 14. L. S. Solov’ev, in Reviews of Plasma Physics, Ed. by
drical geometry: M. A. Leontovich (Gosatomizdat, Moscow, 1972; Con-
sultants Bureau, New York, 1975), Vol. 6.
2d ξ
2
------  x ------ – x ξ + x A --------2
d 2 dξ 2
15. G. Bateman, MHD Instabilities (MIT Press, Cambridge,
dx dx   dx 1978; Énergoizdat, Moscow, 1982).
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–  U 0 + ---------------------
-2 + x A ξ = 0,
Uc 2
Non-Relativistic Theory (Nauka, Moscow, 1989; Perga-
 1 + x /x s
2  mon, New York, 1977).
where 17. B. B. Kadomtsev, in Reviews of Plasma Physics, Ed. by
M. A. Leontovich (Gosatomizdat, Moscow, 1963; Con-
K ( E + F)( E + F) sultants Bureau, New York, 1966), Vol. 2.
U c = ------------------------------------------ ,
G + KF 18. A. H. Glasser, J. M. Greene, and J. L. Johnson, Phys.
Fluids 18, 875 (1975).
U 0 = – ( E + F ).
19. G. O. Spies, Phys. Fluids 17, 400 (1974).
1 An unimportant deviation concerns only the left-hand inequality
in condition (1). A possible reason for this is that the perturba-
tions under analysis are of different types. Translated by I.A. Kalabalyk

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 249–254. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 277–282.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Nazarenko, Antsiferov, Dorokhin, Koshelev.

LOW-TEMPERATURE
PLASMA

Evolution of a Capillary Discharge Induced

by a Semiconductor Current Generator
A. V. Nazarenko, P. S. Antsiferov, L. A. Dorokhin, and K. N. Koshelev
Institute of Spectroscopy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Troitsk, Moscow oblast, 142190 Russia
Received June 30, 2003; in final form, September 2, 2003

Abstract—Results are presented from the intermediate stage of work on creating a current generator in a circuit
with an inductive energy storage and a semiconductor opening switch made of 40 SDL-800 diodes. A six-diode
generator prototype has been created with a current pulse amplitude of ~4.5 kA and a leading edge duration of
~10–20 ns at an inductive load of 30–35 nH. The generator was used to study discharges in capillaries filled
with argon or hydrogen. It is shown that, in a 2-mm-diameter capillary, the initial azimuthal asymmetry of a
structure arising during the breakdown ceases as the discharge evolves, whereas in a 0.8-mm-diameter capillary,
it is retained. Time-resolved spectroscopic studies of the plasma reveal the presence of line emission of highly
ionized argon (ArVII and ArVIII) in the hottest phase of the discharge, which indicates that a temperature of
20–40 eV has been achieved. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION with a recorder based on a microchannel plate (MCP)

makes it possible to gain information about the spatial
At present, capillary discharges are taken to mean and spectral structure of a capillary discharge with a
high-current electric discharges initiated in a dielectric time resolution of 10 ns.
tube with a large length-to-diameter ratio. Great inter-
est in such discharges stems from their application in
the production of inverse media emitting in the XUV 2. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
range [1, 2], as well as in the creation of optical plasma
waveguides based on such discharges [3, 4]. In the The main problem in operating with inductive stor-
former case, the capillary diameter is typically 2–5 mm age is the necessity of breaking the current circuit in a
and the discharge current is 20–50 kA. In the latter case, time of several units to tens of nanoseconds when a cur-
the diameter is 0.1–0.5 mm and the current is 200– rent of several tens of kiloamperes is switched to the
500 A. Although the processes occurring in such dis- load [8]. This problem imposes rigid requirements on
charges have been thoroughly investigated [5], it seems the choice of the opening switch. In our study, a semi-
worthwhile to carry out experiments in the intermediate conductor opening switch was chosen as a current
range of discharge parameters (a diameter of 1–2 mm driver in a circuit with inductive energy storage because
and a current of 1–10 kA) in order to gain better insight of the stable and reproducible operation of this switch
into the physics of these processes. In the last few years, as compared to the plasma opening switch used previ-
experiments on capillary discharges with the use of an ously in [9]. The semiconductor opening switch is
inductive-storage current source have been carried out based on the experimentally observed effect that, after
at the Laboratory of Plasma Spectroscopy of the Insti- a high-current pulse has passed through a diode in the
tute of Spectroscopy of the Russian Academy of Sci- forward direction, the diode recovers its blocking prop-
ences [6, 7]. In these experiments, we used a semicon- erties with some delay, so that, for a certain time, it can
ductor opening switch based on SDL diodes. At conduct current in the reverse direction. In more detail,
present, we are designing a device with 40 such diodes the mechanism for current breaking in a diode is
connected in parallel. The driver will be able to provide described in [10]. A circuit diagram of the current-pulse
current pulses through a 30-nH inductive load (a typical former used in our experiments is described in [11]. A
capillary inductance) with an amplitude up to 30 kA schematic of the current driver is shown in Fig. 1. The
and a current rise time as short as 10–20 ns. These main capacitor bank C1 consists of K-15-10 ceramic
parameters will be sufficient to obtain stimulated emis- capacitors with a capacitance of 4700 pF and an oper-
sion of radiation at the 3s–3p transition of neon-like ating voltage of up to 50 kV. Six SDL-0.4-800 diodes
argon [2]. To date, a six-diode prototype generator has connected in parallel are used as an opening switch.
been created. The device provides a reproducible fast After bridging controlled spark gap G1, the current I0
increase in the current through a 30-nH inductive load begins to flow in the forward direction through the
(up to 4–4.5 kA in a time of 10–20 ns), so it can be used diodes and a return conductor B (in Fig. 1, this current
to study capillary discharges in the above intermediate direction is shown on bottom). The total inductance of
parameter range. The use of an XUV diagnostic system the capacitors, feed circuit, spark gaps, and return cir-

1063-780X/04/3003-0249$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

250 NAZARENKO et al.

Z1

B
D Capillary
G1

Radiation
C1 D

Z2
L G2

Fig. 1. A schematic of the current driver for a capillary discharge: (C1) main capacitor bank, (G1,G2) spark gaps, (B) return con-
ductor, (D) diodes, and (Z1, Z2) magnetic probes.

cuit is labeled in Fig. 1 by the letter L; in fact, it is this constant of the load–diode circuit L/R (where L is the
inductance in which energy is stored. After the polarity load inductance and R is the effective diode resistance
has changed, the current begins to flow in the reverse at the instant of current break) is much shorter than the
direction and, near the maximum of the second half- characteristic time of diode blocking. This circum-
period, the diodes become blocked. The overvoltage stance is of crucial importance for the formation of the
arising across the diodes breaks the sharpening spark leading edge of the current pulse. Hopefully, the dura-
gap G2, and the current I1 is switched to a capillary (in tion of the leading edge will remain the same and, con-
Fig. 1, this current direction is shown on top). The cur- sequently, the current growth rate dI/dt will increase
rents in the main and capillary circuits are measured by with increasing number of parallel-connected diodes.
magnetic probes Z1 and Z2, respectively. The main Characteristic waveforms of the current in the main and
load (capillary) circuits are shown in Fig. 2.
improvement compared to [11] is that the number of
parallel-connected diodes is increased from two to six, We carried out a series of experiments with 2-mm-
which has made it possible to increase the switched cur- diameter and 15-mm-long capillaries filled with argon
rent from 1.5 to 4.5 kA. At the same time, the duration or hydrogen at a pressure of 500 mtorr and 0.8-mm-
of the leading edge of the current pulse has remained diameter and 15-mm-long capillaries filled with argon
within the range 10–20 ns. This means that the time at the same pressure. In the experiments, we recorded
plasma emission spectra and photographed discharges
with the help of a pinhole camera. A 100-µm-diameter
pinhole was located at the capillary axis at a distance of
4 20 mm from the capillary end. In the case of a 2-mm-
diameter capillary, the distance from the pinhole to the
I1, kA

2 image plane was about 150 mm, which corresponded to

a 7.5-fold magnification. Pinhole images of a 0.8-mm-
0 diameter capillary were produced at a longer distance
10 between the pinhole and the image plane; in this case,
the magnification was about 15. The plasma emission
5 spectra were recorded with the help of a 600-grove/mm
I0, kA

0 grazing-incidence grating with an incidence angle of 5°

and a Rowland circle diameter of 1 m. The spec-
–5 trograph measured spectra in the wavelength range of
λ = 3–40 nm with a relative resolution of δλ/ λ ~ 1/500,
–10 which was determined primarily by the width of the
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t, µs entrance slit. The pinhole images, as well as the emis-
sion spectra, were recorded on a film with the help of an
MCP image intensifier with a high sensitivity in the
Fig. 2. Waveforms of the current I0 in the main circuit and wavelength range of λ < 1000 Å. The time resolution
the current I1 through a 2-mm-diameter capillary (the was determined by the duration of the MCP gate signal
inductive load is ~30 nH). and was equal to 10 ns. Since emission lines of oxygen

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 EVOLUTION OF A CAPILLARY DISCHARGE 251

adsorbed on the capillary wall are usually dominant in

the spectra of capillary discharges, the capillary wall
was cleaned by a 200-µA dc glow discharge. This
allowed us to eliminate oxygen lines in the emission 1 mm
spectra from 2-mm-diameter capillaries; however, we
failed to completely eliminate these lines in 0.8-mm-
diameter capillaries. This may be explained by the fact 0–10 ns
that, as the capillary diameter decreases, the ratio of the
wall area to the volume increases, so that the discharge
is more strongly affected by the wall processes (pinhole
images show, in 0.8-mm-diameter capillaries, the
plasma was not detached from the wall; see below).
Nevertheless, in this case, argon lines could be reliably
distinguished in the discharge spectra.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 20–30 ns

Figure 3 presents a series of pinhole images of dis-
charges in a 2-mm-diameter capillary filled with argon
at a pressure of 0.5 torr. The images were obtained in a
series of discharges with different time delays from the
beginning of the discharge, so they illustrate the dis-
charge evolution. In the first image, corresponding to
the instant of breakdown (a delay time of 0–10 ns), the
discharge glow is highly asymmetric, which may be
attributed to the breakdown inhomogeneity. Bright
spots in the image may be interpreted as projections of
streamers developing along the capillary wall. Then, 56–66 ns
the plasma detaches from the wall and shrinks to a
diameter of 0.7–0.8 mm (the second and third images,
corresponding to delay times of 20–30 ns and 56–66 ns,
respectively). In contrast to a 0.8-mm-diameter capil-
lary, the initial azimuthal asymmetry disappears and the
glowing region looks like an axially symmetric column.
Later (the fourth image, 92–102 ns), a characteristic
annular structure similar to that observed in [6] forms.
We note that the lifetime of this structure amounts to
several tens of nanoseconds, which is on the order of
the characteristic hydrodynamic time equal to the 92–102 ns
plasma diameter divided by the ion-acoustic velocity:
τMHD = d/[(kTe + γkTi )/Mi ]1/2
~ (0.06 cm)/(1.2 × 106 cm/s) = 50 ns,
where d is the diameter of the plasma column; k is the
Boltzmann constant; Te, Ti, and Mi are the electron and
ion temperatures and the ion mass, respectively; and γ
is the specific heat ratio Cp /Cv .
Then, 250–270 ns after the beginning of the dis-
charge, the glow intensity gradually decreases with 220–230 ns
decreasing the discharge current.
In the case of a 0.8-mm-diameter capillary, the dis-
charge evolution is quite different (Fig. 4). Azimuthal
asymmetry arising in the initial stage of the discharge is
observed in this case too (the first image, 0–10 ns);
however, this asymmetry is retained over the entire dis-
charge phase. The glow region 0.4–0.5 mm in diameter Fig. 3. Pinhole images illustrating the evolution of a dis-
does not detach from the capillary wall, and the glow charge in a 2-mm-diameter capillary filled with argon at a
ceases after 50–60 ns, i.e., much sooner than in the case pressure of 500 mtorr.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

252 NAZARENKO et al.

0–10 ns 0–10 ns

1 mm

4–14 ns

26–36 ns

1 mm

20–30 ns

70–80 ns

50–60 ns

Fig. 5. Pinhole images illustrating the evolution of a dis-

charge in a 2-mm-diameter capillary filled with hydrogen at
a pressure of 500 mtorr.

Fig. 4. Pinhole images illustrating the evolution of a dis-

charge in a 0.8-mm-diameter capillary filled with argon at a quenched 70–80 ns after the beginning of the discharge,
pressure of 500 mtorr. i.e., long before a substantial decrease in the discharge
current. In the first image, along with a streamer break-
down along the wall, one can see a low-intensity annu-
of a 2-mm-diameter capillary, which may be attributed lar region corresponding to the far end of the capillary.
to a more efficient cooling of the plasma due to its con-
tact with the wall. Along with studying pinhole images, we also exam-
ined plasma emission spectra. Figure 6 shows a series
A similar picture is observed in a 2-mm-diameter of spectra corresponding to different phases of a dis-
capillary filled with hydrogen (Fig. 5). In this case too, a charge in a 2-mm-diameter capillary filled with argon
single streamer forms (seen in the first image, 0–10 ns), (under conditions similar to those in Fig. 3). It can be
which then evolves into an azimuthally asymmetric seen that the spectra correspond to a relatively cold
glow region adjacent to the capillary wall. The glow is plasma with a maximum degree of ionization of 5 to 6

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 EVOLUTION OF A CAPILLARY DISCHARGE 253

Ar VI Ar VIII
Ar VII 120
80 8 ns
100 40
22 ns
50 80

P, arb. units
40 18 ns
P, arb. units

100
0
62 ns 80 36 ns
50
40
100
120
50 104 ns 80 82 ns
40
0 0
100 150 200 250 300 350
150 200 250 300 350 400 O VI
λ, Å Ar V Ar III
λ, Å

Fig. 7. Emission spectra from a discharge in a 0.8-mm-

Fig. 6. Emission spectra from a discharge in a 2-mm-diam- diameter capillary filled with argon at a pressure of
eter capillary filled with argon at a pressure of 500 mtorr for 500 mtorr at different instances from the beginning of the
different instances from the beginning of the discharge. discharge.

(ArVI–ArVII). The absence of ArVIII lines indicates capillary discharge (in particular, in the initial stage of
that the plasma temperature is below 20 eV. In the the discharge) is substantially higher than in other
course of discharge evolution, the amount of ArVI and experiments with capillary discharges (see [1, 3, 4]).
ArVII ions rapidly decreases, so that, at 104 ns, a single This is probably related to the fact that those experi-
intense ArII line (the 3p4–3p4d transition, 383 Å) is ments were carried out at different current amplitudes
present in the spectrum. Emission spectra from a thin- and different current growth rates.
ner capillary (Fig. 7) indicate a substantially stronger Let us estimate the plasma electron density for a
plasma heating. In this case, ArVIII and OVI lines are 2-mm-diameter capillary filled with argon. Assuming
clearly observed and the intensity ratio between them that all the plasma is accumulated in the central col-
varies with time in favor of the latter, which may be umn, the degree of ionization is equal to 5, and the vol-
attributed to a continuous influx of atoms of the wall umetric compression ratio N is equal to 8, the electron
material. The presence of the lines of these ions in the density can be estimated at ne ~ ZNn0 ~ 5 × 1017 cm–3.
spectra indicates that the temperature is no lower than Estimates also show that, with allowance for possible
20–30 eV. We note that, the last spectrum, recorded at errors, the thermal and magnetic pressures in this
82 ns, contains a high-intensity Rydberg series of OVI plasma are of the same order of magnitude; i.e., the
lines with wavelengths in the range 100–110 Å (the plasma column can be under the Bennet equilibrium
spectra are recorded in the second order, and the lines conditions, which is confirmed by its fairly long stable
are marked by heavy arrows). This fact can be inter- existence.
preted as a result of intense recombination population
of the upper levels of OVI ions during the fast cooling
of the plasma due to its contact with the cold capillary 4. CONCLUSIONS
wall.
The experiments have shown that the smaller the
Hence, we can conclude that, in a 2-mm-diameter capillary diameter, the stronger the influence of the cap-
capillary, a current pulse with an amplitude of 4.5 kA is illary wall on the discharge evolution. The most effi-
sufficient to separate the plasma from the capillary wall cient way of decreasing this influence is to increase the
and somewhat compress it, although plasma heating is current growth rate dI/dt at the leading edge of the cur-
insignificant and the temperature does not exceed rent pulse [1, 2]. This can lead to the formation of a
20 eV. Equilibrium that is then established is probably shock wave and, thus, to a more rapid separation of the
related to the Bennet equilibrium in a magnetic field current-carrying layer from the capillary wall and a
produced by the discharge current. In contrast, in a thin- stronger compression of the central region of the
ner capillary, the plasma is heated to a significantly plasma column. This is partially confirmed by the
higher temperature (due to a higher energy deposition results of [12], in which the plasma pinching and heat-
per one particle). In this case, the plasma continues to ing were observed in a 1-mm-diameter capillary at
interact with the wall over the entire discharge phase, close current values but at a significantly higher current
which results in its faster cooling. It should be noted growth rate: dI/dt ~ 1012 A/s. In contrast, when studying
that, in our experiments, the degree of asymmetry of a the interaction of a hot plasma with a cold wall (e.g.,

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

254 NAZARENKO et al.

when investigating inversion schemes for the genera- REFERENCES

tion of enhanced spontaneous radiation via recombina- 1. J. J. Rocca, D. C. Beethe, and D. Voorhees, Opt. Lett. 13,
tion or resonant charge exchange), it is expedient to 565 (1988).
operate at lower values of dI/dt. The above annular 2. B. R. Benware, C. H. Moreno, D. J. Burd, et al., Opt.
structure, also observed in [6], can be of interest from Lett. 22, 796 (1997).
the standpoint of developing plasma waveguides [3, 4]; 3. Y. Ehrlich, A. Zigler, C. Cohen, et al., Phys. Rev. Lett.
however, this requires additional interferometric stud- 77, 4186 (1996).
ies of the radial profile of the electron density. 4. D. J. Spence and S. M. Hooker, Phys. Rev. E 63, 015401
(2001).
All the results presented in this paper were obtained
5. A. Esaulov, P. Sasorov, L. Soto, et al., Plasma Phys. Con-
with the use the multipurpose XUV diagnostic system trolled Fusion 43, 571 (2001).
that was developed over the last few years at the Labo-
6. P. S. Antsiferov, L. A. Dorokhin, E. Yu. Khautiev, et al.,
ratory of Plasma Spectroscopy of the Institute of Spec- J. Phys. D 31, 2013 (1998).
troscopy of the Russian Academy of Sciences. This sys- 7. P. S. Antsiferov, S. S. Churilov, L. A. Dorokhin, et al.,
tem combines the following advantages: high spectral Phys. Scr. 62, 127 (2000).
and spatial resolution, high sensitivity (up to single 8. K. H. Schoenbach, M. Kristiansen, and G. Shaffe, Proc.
photon counting), high reliability, and ease of use. IEEE 72, 28 (1984).
Owing to these properties, the device could find wide 9. P. S. Antsiferov, L. A. Dorokhin, A. V. Nazarenko, et al.,
application in experiments on studying the spectral and in Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on
spatial characteristics of various plasma objects [9, 12]. X-ray Lasers, Saint-Malo, 2000, p. 120.
It should be noted that a theoretical description of 10. S. A. Darznek, G. A. Mesyats, and S. N. Rukin, Zh. Tekh.
Fiz. 67 (10), 64 (1997) [Tech. Phys. 42, 1170 (1997)].
the evolution of an electric discharge along a solid sur-
face, as well as investigation of the mechanisms under- 11. A. V. Nazarenko, P. S. Antsiferov, L. A. Dorokhin, et al.,
Prib. Tekh. Éksp., No. 1, 60 (2003).
lying this evolution, still remains a very challenging
12. L. Soto, A. Esaulov, J. Moreno, et al., Phys. Plasmas 8,
problem. Therefore, study of the influence of the capil- 2572 (2001).
lary diameter and the type of filling gas on the break-
down dynamics could become a starting point for fur-
ther theoretical research. Translated by N.F. Larionova

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 255–262. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 283–291.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Gritsinin, Knyazev, Kossyœ, Malykh, Misakyan.

LOW-TEMPERATURE
PLASMA

A Pulse-Periodic Torch in a Coaxial Waveguide:

Formation Dynamics and Spatial Structure
S. I. Gritsinin, V. Yu. Knyazev, I. A. Kossyœ, N. I. Malykh, and M. A. Misakyan
Prokhorov Institute of General Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Vavilova 38, Moscow, 119991 Russia
Received May 28, 2003

Abstract—Results are presented from experimental studies of the formation dynamics, spatial structure, and
parameters of a pulse-periodic microwave discharge excited in a coaxial waveguide. The experimental setup
allows the stable generation of a plasma jet in molecular and atomic gas flows at pressures close to atmospheric
pressure without applying additional initiators. The complicated sequence of processes leading to torch forma-
tion cannot be adequately described with conventional models of a discharge sustained by a surface electromag-
netic wave. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION electrode is longer than the inner electrode. Such a

design radically changes the mechanisms for discharge
Microwave torches are widely used as plasma
initiation and maintenance. Due to such a shortened
sources in various technologies and as an efficient
inner electrode, an electromagnetic wave with λ = c/ f ≅
experimental tool in physical studies (see, e.g., [1–4]).
12.24 cm that propagates along a coaxial line with an
Active research on the parameters and features of
outer electrode diameter of dext ≅ (2–5) cm undergoes a
microwave torches began about 20 years ago, and the
literature on this subject remains impressive. jumplike transition when passing from the coaxial line
to a circular below-cutoff waveguide (i.e., the region
In this paper, we describe the main characteristics of where the outer electrode diameter is dext < dcr ≡
microwave torches (microwave plasmatrons), whose 1.84c/π f ≅ 7.17 cm). We note that, according to [8],
design and operating regimes, first described in [5–7], electromagnetic waves with a wavelength of λ =
differ from those used in [1–4]. The main difference is 12.24 cm cannot propagate in this circular waveguide
that the torch is generated and sustained in a coaxial at all.
waveguide; this allows one to utilize the microwave
generator energy in the most efficient way. Moreover, In order to provide access to the torch, which is sit-
the torch operates in a pulse-periodic mode, rather than uated inside the outer electrode of the coaxial line, this
in a continuous one, which may be of particular interest electrode is made of a set of thin metal rods 2–3 mm in
for plasmochemical applications. diameter that are placed at a distance of 0.5–1 cm from
one another (Fig. 1b). Since a running coaxial mode
induces longitudinal currents in the outer electrode
2. MICROWAVE-TORCH DESIGN wall, these rods serve as a solid electrode for this mode.
AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP At the same time, this design provides free access to the
A schematic of the microwave plasmatron is shown torch for diagnostic and technological purposes.
in Fig. 1. The plasmatron is powered with a rod antenna The microwave energy reflected from the circular
connected to a commercial magnetron operating at a waveguide propagates backward along the coaxial line
frequency of f ≅ 2.45 GHz. Microwave energy is first and is accumulated in a set of resonators formed by the
introduced into a rectangular resonator in the form of rectangular waveguide, the coaxial line, and the magne-
microwave pulses with a duration of τi ≅ 8 ms, the time tron cavity. The length of the inner electrode of the
interval between the pulses being τd ≅ 12 ms. The aver- coaxial line is chosen such that the nozzle end is situ-
age microwave power is P ≅ 1 kW. From the rectangu- ated in an antinode of the standing wave formed due to
lar resonator, microwave energy is transferred to a the reflection of the running wave from the circular
coaxial line with the help of a current loop, whose below-cutoff waveguide. As the energy is accumulated
extension is the inner electrode of the coaxial line. The in the standing wave, the electric field at the sharp edge
loop and its extension are made of a hollow tube, which of the nozzle progressively increases and, eventually,
is used to supply the torch with the working gas. The reaches the value required for gas breakdown. Thus, in
inner electrode of the coaxial line ends with a nozzle spite of a rather low microwave power, it is possible to
made of a refractory metal and has a sharp edge to facil- achieve breakdown (with the subsequent formation of a
itate gas breakdown. A distinctive feature of this line torch) in various gases (argon, nitrogen, air, carbonic
from conventional coaxial lines is that the outer coaxial acid, hydrogen, methane, propane, CFC-12, and others)

1063-780X/04/3003-0255$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

256 GRITSININ et al.

1
2 (‡)

3
4

6 5

8
7
(b)
9

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of a coaxial microwave plasmatron with the usual design of a coaxial line, and (b) an outer coaxial electrode
that ends with a set of rods: (1) magnetron, (2) loop, (3) outer coaxial electrode, (4) nozzle, (5) plasma jet, (6) inner electrode,
(7) working gas, (8) rectangular resonator, and (9) copper rods.

over a wide pressure range, including atmospheric 3. MEASUREMENT RESULTS

pressure. In our experiments, the plasma jet (the torch)
was ejected into atmospheric air. The working-gas flow The microwave generator operated in the pulse-peri-
rate through the central electrode was 4–100 l/min. odic regime. In every pulse, the torch passed through
the stages of initiation, inflammation, and growth along
The plasma produced by gas breakdown near the the waveguide axis to a certain finite length. The exper-
nozzle is entrained by the working-gas flow, and the iments demonstrate a rather complicated behavior of
plasma jet produced in this way serves as an extension the torch glow and the medium parameters.
the inner electrode of the coaxial line, through which When the working gas is argon (or some other noble
microwaves can propagate to the torch end. After fall- gas), time-integrated photographs show a bright cylin-
ing into the circular below-cutoff waveguide, the drical region (“core”) near the nozzle (see Fig. 3). The
microwave is reflected backward; as a result, the micro- core is 1–2 mm in diameter and 1–2 cm long. Down-
wave energy is primarily absorbed in the torch plasma. stream from the core, there is an extended, less bright
Below, we present the results of studies of the for- region with curved boundaries. The volume of this
mation and propagation of the torch and the data from region is 2–3 orders of magnitude greater than the core
measurements of the parameters of the plasma jet. volume.
Figure 2 shows a schematic of the experimental When operating with molecular gases (nitrogen or
setup and diagnostics employed. The torch plasma air), a well-defined bright core is absent.
emission was measured by photomultipliers and photo- Figure 4 shows the time dependence of the torch
diodes. An FER-7 streak camera allowed us to photo- length measured with the help of a collimated photo-
graph the torch in a scanning regime with a high tem- diode. One can see that, over the time interval 0.5 ≤ t ≤
poral resolution. The electron density in the torch was 4 ms, the front of the glow propagates from the nozzle
measured with the help of laser and microwave interfer- with an almost constant velocity of vz ≅ 23–24 m/s and
ometers. The spectrum of the visible torch emission travels a distance that is close to the maximum torch
was recorded with an S 2000 (Ocean Optics) spectrom-
length ( L z ≅ 11 cm for the particular experimental
max
eter.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 A PULSE-PERIODIC TORCH IN A COAXIAL WAVEGUIDE 257

4
6

2 3
9

8
3
2 7

Fig. 2. Experimental setup: (1) microwave plasmatron, (2) diagnostic microwave horn antennas and lenses, (3) microwave detector,
(4) HCN laser, (5) additional gas injector, (6) diagnostic microwave oscillator, (7) photomultiplier, (8) FER-7 streak camera, and
(9) collimated photodiode.

conditions). Near the nozzle, the glow propagates with sured with the help of the streak camera is close to the
a velocity close to the gas flow velocity. velocity measured with the help of the collimated pho-
todiode (Fig. 4). It is worth noting that, after the pri-
The axial propagation of the glow was also studied mary glow front has detached from the core, secondary
with the help of an FER-7 streak camera whose slit was waves accompanied by periodic bursts of the core glow
oriented along the axis of the coaxial line. Figure 5 are generated. The secondary glow waves catch up with
shows streak images of the torch propagation in argon the primary front, thus forming the resulting glow
and nitrogen. A streak image taken with a relatively low wave.
sweep speed (Fig. 5b) shows that, in the initial stage of
the discharge, which lasts about 0.5 ms from the begin- At a higher sweep speed (Figs. 5c and 5d), high-fre-
ning of the microwave pulse, the argon torch exists only quency modulation of the core glow is observed in the
in the core region, which spreads out over a distance of initial stage of the discharge, before the appearance of
1–2 cm from the nozzle. Then, a less bright glow wave the glow wave. It can be seen that the core glow inten-
detaches from the core and propagates along the system sity rapidly increases and then decays almost to zero
axis. The propagation velocity of the glow front mea- with a characteristic time of 5–10 µs. The modulation

z, cm
12
10

4
2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t, ms

Fig. 3. Time-integrated photograph of a microwave torch. Fig. 4. Evolution of the torch length during a microwave
The working gas is argon. pulse.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

258 GRITSININ et al.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 5. Streak images of a microwave torch illustrating the torch evolution during a microwave pulse (time and the distance from
the nozzle are plotted on the horizontal and vertical axes, respectively): (a) the working gas is N2 (the full horizontal/vertical size
of the image is 3 ms/8 cm) and (b)–(d) the working gas is Ar (the horizontal/vertical size is (b) 3 ms/8 cm, (c) 750 µs/2 cm,
(d) 250 µs/2 cm).

of the core glow is accompanied by the generation of a intensity measured with the help of a collimated photo-
sequence of short high-power (up to 10–20 kW) micro- multiplier with different sweep speeds and signals of
wave pulses. Figure 6 shows signals of the torch glow the microwave radiation power measured by a half-

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 A PULSE-PERIODIC TORCH IN A COAXIAL WAVEGUIDE 259

(a) (b)

1 1

2 2

(c) (d)

1 1

Fig. 6. Typical signals from the (1) microwave antenna (the voltage scales are (a) 200, (b)100, (c) 100, and (d) 50 mV/division), and
(2) photomultiplier (50 mV/division). The time scales are (a) 2500, (b) 100, (c) 25, and (d) 10 µs/division.

wave antenna located near the torch. It follows from eration, as well as the pulse repetition rate in this stage,
these signals that the magnetron initially generates depends on the magnetron load. The latter is a compli-
short pulses with a repetition rate of 100–200 kHz. The cated nonsteady electrodynamic load that depends on
repetition rate gradually increases over several hundred the torch parameters. In the case of a completely
microseconds, after which the core emerges. Then, the matched load (free generation), the quasi-continuous
core bursts occur synchronously with the microwave mode is established after generating five to ten micro-
pulses. The pulse repetition rate gradually increases, wave pulses (Fig. 6a). In contrast, when the end of the
and the generation goes over to a quasi-continuous coaxial line is short circuited, the generation is eventu-
mode, which lasts ≈8 ms. The glow intensity in the ally suppressed, not reaching a quasi-continuous stage.
stage of quasi-continuous generation is several times The plasma density in the torch was measured using
lower than that in the stage of periodical short-pulse a cw probing microwave radiation with a frequency of
generation. The duration of periodical short-pulse gen- ωd ≅ 8.2 × 1011 s–1 (λd ≅ 2.3 mm). In the torch core,

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

260 GRITSININ et al.

where the plasma density was higher, we used submil-

limeter (λd ≅ 337 µm) radiation of an HCN laser.
A schematic of the microwave diagnostics is shown
in Fig. 2. Probing radiation generated by a horn antenna
was focused by a lens onto the torch axis and was
z = 10 mm,
received by another antenna with the help of the second
lens having the same caustic surface as the first one.
The diameter of the probing beam in the waist (about
1.5 cm long) was no larger than 0.4 cm. Most of the
experiments were performed with argon or nitrogen at
flow rates of 5–20 l/min. The probing of the torch was
performed at different distances z from the nozzle. Fig-
z = 20 ure 7 shows typical signals from the detector measuring
the transmitted radiation. One can see that, at distances
0 ≤ z ≤ 20 mm from the nozzle, a significant (up to 80%)
attenuation of probing radiation is observed throughout
almost the entire pulse. These distances correspond to
the axial length of the core. We note that the core diam-
eter is less than the probing-beam diameter, so that only
z = 30 the central part of the probing beam is apparently cut
off inside the core, while the peripheral part of the beam
undergoes strong refraction. At 20 ≤ z ≤ 60 mm, strong
modulation (from 20 to 100%) of the transmitted signal
is observed. The modulation frequency is about 1 kHz.
At z > 60 mm (i.e., near the torch end), the modulation
depth decreases, while the transmission coefficient
z = 40 increases. The modulation of the transmitted signal
(and, hence, of the plasma density) correlates with the
low-frequency modulation of the torch glow, i.e., the
generation of secondary glow waves in the torch (see
Fig. 5). The generation of bright dense plasma bunches
moving in the direction of the gas flow is observed
throughout the entire pulse (about 8 ms).
z = 50
The significant attenuation of the probing micro-
wave beam passed through the torch means that the
electron density in the torch is close to or even higher
than the critical density necr (see [9]); i.e., the following
inequality is satisfied:
n e ≥ n ecr , (1)
z = 60
where
necr = me( ω d + ν em )/4πe2,
2 2
(2)
and νem is the frequency of electron collisions with neu-
trals (atoms and molecules). In an argon plasma at
atmospheric pressure, a gas temperature of T0 = 300 K,
z = 70
and an electron temperature of Te ≅ 1.5–2.5 eV, the
(0)
electron–neutral collision frequency is ν em ≅ (6.8–
16.1) × 1011 s–1 (see [9]); i.e., according to [10, 11], we
(0)
have ν em ~ ωd. Taking the gas heating into account
obviously leads to the inequality ν em Ⰶ ω d , which
z = 80 2 2

means that the torch plasma can be considered colli-

Fig. 7. Typical signals from the detectors of probing micro- sionless. In view of this fact, the electron density is
wave radiation (f ≅ 130 GHz) at different distances from the
nozzle: (1) scattered and (2) transmitted probing radiation.
ne ≥ necr = me ω d /4πe2 ≅ 2.1 × 1014 cm–3.
2
The time scale is 2.5 ms/division. (3)

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 A PULSE-PERIODIC TORCH IN A COAXIAL WAVEGUIDE 261

Figure 2 also shows the arrangement of submillime- near the end of the coaxial waveguide also testify to the
ter diagnostics. The diameter of the HCN laser beam high efficiency of microwave energy absorption in a
was lower than 3–4 mm. The critical density for the device with a shortened central electrode. At distances
probing laser radiation was necr ≈ 1016 cm–3. A signifi- shorter than 0.5–1.0 m, the measured microwave inten-
cant (up to 60%) attenuation of the laser beam in an sity was no higher than 6 µW/m2.
argon plasma was observed only near the nozzle. At a We suppose that, in our plasmatron, the boundary
distance of 1 cm from the nozzle, the attenuation of between the bright core and the bulk of the torch (z ≅
submillimeter laser radiation passed through the torch 1.0–1.5 cm) lies at the depth to which the surrounding
did not exceed 20%, while at z ≥ 2 cm, the probing radi- air penetrates into the argon torch. Presumably, it is this
ation was attenuated only slightly. region in which argon electronically exited in the core
Thus, the results of microwave and submillimeter is quenched in reactions with nitrogen and oxygen mol-
probing of the microwave torch allow us to conclude ecules.
that the torch consists of a core with an electron density The experimental results show the rather compli-
on the order of or higher than 1016 cm–3 and a fluctuat- cated character of the formation and maintenance of a
ing plasma jet with a density of ne ≅ (1–3) × 1014 cm–3 microwave torch in every microwave pulse. The peak
downstream from the core. radiation power in repetitive discharges is higher than
the average power by a factor of κ (the off-duty factor).
At an average power of 1 kW, the peak power in the
4. DISCUSSION OF MEASUREMENT RESULTS plasmatron under study is about 2 kW. This facilitates
The design and the operating regimes of the micro- gas breakdown near the sharp edge of the nozzle. How-
wave plasmatron described in this paper determine the ever, an even more important factor facilitating the
specific features of the generated plasma jet (the plasma breakdown of a gas jet is the scenario by which the
torch). First of all, this concerns the structure and electrodynamic system gets into the generation mode.
parameters of the plasma jet that is produced in a coax- It was found that, in the initial stage of a microwave
ial waveguide when the working gas is pumped through pulse, the magnetron generates a sequence of high-
the central electrode. The torch observed in these power (Pi ≅ 10–20 kW) spikes. After a relatively short
experiments differs from that produced in conventional time, the microwave spikes are accompanied by plasma
devices in which the lengths of the outer and inner elec- bursts near the central-electrode nozzle. The transition
trodes are approximately equal to each other [1–4]. to a pulse-periodic mode and the unusual generation
Thus, when operating with argon, the torch consists of behavior with a relatively low average power (P ≤
a bright core adjacent to the nozzle and stretched along 1 kW) that is observed in the initial stage is typical of a
the z axis over a distance of 1–1.5 cm and an extended system consisting of three coupled resonators (the mag-
plasma jet (the torch itself). The volume occupied by netron cavity, the rectangular waveguide, and the coax-
the plasma jet is much larger than the core volume. In ial line). This explains why a discharge can be excited
conventional devices (known in the literature as coaxial in different gases at a pressure close to atmospheric
TIA plasmatrons [1–4]), the torch structure is quite dif- pressure without applying additional initiators.
ferent: downstream from the centimeter-long plasma jet The sequence of short bursts is accompanied by the
that is adjacent to the nozzle and goes beyond the end generation of an ionization wave that propagates along
of the coaxial line, there is a recombination region in the z axis, thus forming the bulk of the torch. The first
which the plasma density (and, hence, the energy dep- ionization wave in argon is followed by a sequence of
osition) decreases sharply because of a decrease in the waves that leave the nozzle and catch up with the first
ionization rate. In this case, the torch only partially wave front.
absorbs the pump wave energy. The unabsorbed micro-
wave power is emitted into space by the torch acting as We suppose that the bulk of the plasma jet extending
a rod antenna. Hence, in TIA plasmatrons operating along the z axis is formed by an internal surface wave,
with argon, there is no specific spatial structure as is described in [12]. The surface electromagnetic
observed in a coaxial waveguide with a shortened inner wave produces a rod plasma electrode, which, in turn,
electrode and the torch consists of a core alone. In our promotes the wave propagation along the coaxial line.
device, the microwave power that was not absorbed by These self-consistent ionization and electrodynamic
the core produces a plasma jet adjacent to the core and processes underlie the well-known surfatron mecha-
propagates along the waveguide as if it were a coaxial nism for the excitation of microwave discharges [13].
line, because the plasma jet plays the role of the central The use of surface waves for the excitation of dis-
electrode. The presence of a substantially longer (up to charges assumes that the plasma electron density ne in
10 cm) torch inside the coaxial line provides indirect the torch should exceed the critical electron density necr
evidence that, in this case, the efficiency with which for microwaves propagating along the torch. Measure-
microwave energy is absorbed by the plasma jet (and is ments of ne performed with the help of microwave and
eventually spent on gas heating) is higher than in TIA laser interferometers confirm that this is indeed the case
plasmatrons. Measurements of microwave radiation in our plasmatron.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

262 GRITSININ et al.

To conclude, we note that steady TIA coaxial ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

torches are described by theory in close detail (see, e.g., We thank V.P. Silakov for fruitful discussions and
[12, 13]), whereas rather complicated pulse-periodic A.A. Letunov and V.P. Logvinenko for their help in car-
torches excited in coaxial lines require thorough theo- rying out the experiments. This work was supported in
retical analysis based on an adequate physical model. part by ISTC (project no. 908) and NWO (Netherlands)
(project no. [Link]).
5. CONCLUSIONS
The formation dynamics, spatial structure, and REFERENCES
parameters of pulse-periodic microwave discharges ini- 1. M. Moisan, J. Margot, Z. Zakrewski, and A. Popov,
tiated inside a coaxial waveguide have been investi- High-Density Plasma Sources (Noyes, New Jersey,
gated. 1995).
The microwave plasmatron under study allows the 2. E. Rauchle, J. Phys. IV (France) 8, Pr7-99 (1998).
stable generation of a plasma jet (torch) in molecular 3. M. Moisan, G. Sauve, Z. Zakrzewski, and J. Hubert,
and atomic gas flows and gaseous mixtures at gas flow Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 3, 584 (1994).
rates of ≤ 100 l/min, pressures close to atmospheric 4. Y. Mitsuda, T. Yoshida, and K. Akashi, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
pressure, and an average microwave power lower than 60, 249 (1989).
1 kW without applying additional initiators. 5. S. I. Gritsinin, I. A. Kossyi, N. I. Malykh, et al., in Pro-
The special design of the outer coaxial electrode ceedings of the 14th International Symposium on
makes it possible to carefully examine the torch Plasma Chemistry, Prague, 1999, Vol. 2, p. 675.
dynamics and structure. 6. S. I. Gritsinin, I. A. Kossyi, and M. A. Misakyan, in Pro-
The torch length is on the order of 10 cm. When ceedings of the 11th European Sectional Conference on
Atomic and Molecular Physics of Ionized Gases, Mis-
working with argon, a specific structure has been kolc-Lillafured, 2000; ECA 24F, 216 (2000).
observed: the torch itself, which is stretched along the
system axis, and a relatively small bright core (with a 7. S. I. Gritsinin, I. A. Kossyi, A. A. Letunov, et al., in Pro-
ceedings of the 15th International Symposium on
length less than 1–2 cm) adjacent to the nozzle. The Plasma Chemistry, Orleans, 2001, Vol. 4, p. 1479.
torch volume is two to three orders of magnitude
greater than the core volume. The electron density in 8. N. N. Fedorov, Fundamentals of Electrodynamics
(Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow, 1980).
the core is as high as ~1016 cm–3), while the electron
9. Yu. P. Raizer, Gas Discharge Physics (Nauka, Moscow,
density in the bulk of the torch is lower than (2–3) × 1987; Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991).
1014 cm–3.
10. M. Hayashi, Preprint No. IPPJ-AM-19 (Nagoya Institute
The formation dynamics of the core and the torch of Technology, Nagoya, 1981).
itself have been examined. The occurrence of the core 11. S. K. Srivastava, H. Tanaka, A. Chutjian, and S. W. Tra-
is apparently related to the specific operating regime of jmar, Phys. Rev. A 23, 2156 (1981).
the electrodynamic system, which moves to a quasi- 12. H. Nowakowska, Z. Zakrzewski, and M. Moisan,
continuous microwave generation mode through a J. Phys. D 34, 1474 (2001).
sequence of short (≤5 µs) and relatively high-power (up 13. Yu. M. Aliev, I. Ghanashev, H. Schluter, et al., Plasma
to 10–20 kW) microwave pulses. The bulk of the torch Sources Sci. Technol. 3, 216 (1994).
is formed by a sequence of ionization waves that origi-
nate at the nozzle due to the excitation and propagation
of surface electromagnetic waves. Translated by E.L. Satunina

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 263–268. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 292–297.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Isaev, Chmil’, Shustin.

LOW-TEMPERATURE
PLASMA

Ion Flows from a Beam–Plasma Discharge

N. V. Isaev, A. I. Chmil’, and E. G. Shustin
Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics (Fryazino Branch), Russian Academy of Sciences,
pl. Vvedenskogo 1, Fryazino, Moscow oblast, 141190 Russia
e-mail: shustin@[Link]
Received April 1, 2003

Abstract—The results of measurements of the energy distribution function of ions escaping from a beam–
plasma discharge are compared with the data from probe measurements in the discharge region. It is shown that,
on the discharge axis, there is a region with a higher degree of ionization, whose position depends on the exter-
nal parameters, in particular, on the gas pressure. The mean energy of the ions that leave the plasma from the
outside of this region is determined by the potential of the plasma column. Inside the region with a higher degree
of ionization, there is an additional mechanism for ion acceleration; as a result, the energy of the ions that leave
the plasma from this region is higher than the energy of the electrostatically accelerated ions by a factor of 1.5
to 5. The results obtained show promise for creating a plasma-processing reactor with controlled ion parameters
for the purposes of treating materials for microelectronics. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”.

1. INTRODUCTION and offers the possibility of generating ion flows with

more diverse spatial structures.
In order to optimize the treatment of materials in
plasma-processing reactors operating at low gas pres- In this paper, we compare the results of measure-
sures, it is very important to control the parameters of ments of the IEDF at the discharge periphery with the
the ions bombarding the processed material. Thus, in data from probe diagnostics of a BPD plasma, namely,
devices for the ion etching of semiconductor materials with the electron density profile Ne(R, L), the electron
in an rf discharge plasma, the ion energy distribution temperature profile Te(R, L), and the plasma potential
function (IEDF) and the angular distribution of the ions profile Up(R, L). We will show that the energy of the
bombarding the material’s surface critically affect the ions that drift from the discharge region toward the side
rate of etching and the degree of its anisotropy [1]. In wall of the chamber can substantially exceed the energy
order for the structure of films deposited on microelec- acquired by the ions in the electrostatic field between
tronics materials to be highly uniform, it is very impor- the discharge plasma column and the chamber wall.
tant to control the energy of the bombarding particles.
Control over the parameters of the IEDF (e.g., the mean
ion energy and the IEDF width) allows one to selec- 2. EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT
tively affect the physical and chemical processes at a A schematic of the experimental device is shown in
material surface; this is especially important for appli- Fig. 1. The plasma is created in a cylindrical vacuum
cations associated with the modification of surfaces [2]. chamber with a diameter of 2R0 = 0.5 m and length of
Methods for controlling the shape of the IEDF have 0.5 m. The chamber is filled with argon at a pressure of
been mainly studied for plasma-processing reactors 0.006–0.2 Pa. The longitudinal magnetic field with an
based on rf discharges. It has been shown that it can be induction of B0 = 1–5 mT in the chamber is produced
controlled, e.g., by applying an rf bias voltage directly by Helmholtz coils. An axial electron beam is gener-
to the substrate [3] or by using an auxiliary electron ated by a Pierce-type diode gun with a planar cathode
source (either an additional discharge [4–6] or a ther- that is placed in a separate chamber connected to the
mal-cathode gun [7]) to inject electrons into the dis- main chamber by a pressure-drop tube. In the electron
charge. gun and in the drift region ahead of the plasma cham-
It was shown in [8] that a beam–plasma discharge ber, the beam moves in a longitudinal magnetic field
(BPD) in a low-pressure gas can serve as a source of with Hd = 10 mT (this value was adjusted experimen-
ions with energies of 10 to 100 eV. In essence, a BPD is tally in such a way that the beam current in a high vac-
a microwave discharge induced by the fields generated uum was maximum). The parameters of an electron
in a plasma as a result of the development of a beam beam at the entrance to the plasma chamber are as fol-
instability, so that the BPD parameters are close to lows: the energy is Eb = 2 keV, the current is Ib =
those of microwave electron-cyclotron-resonance 150 mA, and the characteristic diameter is 1–1.5 cm,
(ECR) discharges. However, in contrast to an ECR dis- the duration of the electron-gun supply voltage pulse
charge, the BPD does not require high magnetic fields being τb = 150 ms. The electron collector (a graphite

1063-780X/04/3003-0263$26.00 © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”

264 ISAEV et al.

4 7 4

10

2
6 9

8 5 2

4 4

Fig. 1. Experimental layout: (1) Pierce gun, (2) beam-focusing coils, (3) plasma chamber, (4) Helmholtz coils, (5) ion energy ana-
lyzer, (6) probe, (7) block for recording the probe characteristic, (8) collector, (9) microwave modulator, and (10) microwave oscil-
lator.

disk 10 cm in diameter) is placed at the opposite wall of The current to the analyzer’s collector is equal to
the plasma chamber and is held at the wall potential. ∞

The plasma diagnostics include a planar Langmuir

probe in the form of a 3-mm-diameter tantalum disk, ∫
I a = S ( ∆θ/Θ 0 )J 0 f i ( W ) A ( W ) dW
(1)
0
whose plane is oriented parallel to the chamber axis.
The probe is mounted on a movable rod in order to pro- ≈ SJ 0 f i ( W )∆W∆θ/Θ 0 = 0.12SW J 0 f i ( W )∆θ/Θ 0 ,
vide measurements along the discharge axis and in the where J0 is the total ion current density in the plane of
radial direction. The shape and orientation of the probe the input window, S is the area of the receiving window
are chosen to minimize the effect of the electron beam of the analyzer, fi (W) is the IEDF (according to the
on the probe characteristic. The electron temperature
Te(r, L), plasma potential Up(r, L), and electron plasma measurement results of [8], this function can be
assumed to be isotropic), A(W) is the spread function,
density Ne(r, L) are calculated by processing the probe and ∆θ/Θ0 is the ratio of the solid angle of the input col-
characteristic in a standard way [9], namely, from the limator to the total solid angle of the ion flow arriving
slope of the curve ln(Ip – Ii ) = f (U) and from the poten- at the collimator.
tial and current of the probe at the inflection point of
this curve (here, Ip is the probe current, U is the probe Hence, from the experimental data, we obtain
potential, and Ii is the ion current obtained from a linear f i ( W ) = const U ( W )/R l W,
approximation of the ion part of the probe characteris-
tic). It is well known that, in the presence of an electron where U is the measured voltage and Rl is the load resis-
beam and oscillations of the plasma potential, the accu- tance of the analyzer’s collector.
racy of determining the plasma parameters from the The synchronization of the temporal processes is
probe characteristic is rather low; however, it is high performed with the help of an automatic control sys-
enough for our purposes here, because, with the exper- tem, which is also used to record the time dependences
imentally obtained qualitative dependences, the con- of the current to the analyzer’s collector, the probe volt-
clusions drawn in this study are quite justified. age and current, and other experimental parameters
(such as the beam current and voltage, the gas pressure,
The ion flows are detected by an electrostatic ana- and the magnetic field in the chamber). The system is
lyzer with a plane deflecting mirror [10]. The analyzer is based on a Labcard LC-1250 interface and consists of
placed near the side wall of the plasma chamber and can (i) a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter with a 16-chan-
be moved along the chamber axis. The ion collimator is nel multiplex and (ii) a digital output channel, which is
oriented along the normal to the chamber axis. The ana- used to generate the necessary locking signals. The
lyzer is capable of recording energies in the range of 0– software package developed for the system ensures the
100 eV with a sensitivity of ~0.5 × 10–9 A/cm2 and a res- synchronous recording of three “fast” temporal pro-
olution of ∆W/W0 = 0.12. As an analyzing voltage cesses, the storage of information on the experimental
pulse, we use a 50-ms triangular pulse whose peak regime, processing of the data from the energy analyzer
coincides with the center of the beam current pulse. (the averaging over the given number of data samples,

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 ION FLOWS FROM A BEAM–PLASMA DISCHARGE 265

fi(W), arb. units Ne, ×109 cm–3

250 15
L = 2 cm
200 L = 2 cm L = 7 cm
L = 12 cm
L = 7 cm 10 L = 17 cm
150 L = 12 cm
L = 17 cm
100
5
50

0 0
10 20 30 40 50 R, cm
W, eV
Up, V
Te, eV
10 L = 2 cm
L = 7 cm
8 4 L = 12 cm
L = 17 cm
6

4 L = 2 cm 2
L = 7 cm
L = 12 cm
2 L = 17 cm

0 0
–12 –8 –4 0 4 8 12 –12 –8 –4 0 4 8 12
R, cm R, cm

Fig. 2. Energy distribution functions fi (W) of the ions escaping from the BPD region, measured by the analyzer at different positions
L along the discharge axis, and the corresponding radial profiles of the electron density Ne, electron temperature Te, and plasma
potential Up. The discharge parameters are as follows: the electron beam voltage is 2 kV, the electron beam current is 150 mA, the
magnetic field in the chamber is 3.8 mT, and the argon pressure is 0.05 Pa.

the smoothing and filtering of the curve I(t), and the 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
recalculation of this curve into the curve I(W)), the Figures 2 and 3 show the IEDF measured by the
recovery of the probe characteristic I(U) from the para- analyzer at different positions L along the discharge
metric time evolutions I(t) and U(t), and its processing axis. The radial profiles of the electron density Ne(r, L),
by the algorithm described above. electron temperature Te(r, L), and plasma potential
In order to investigate the effect of the parameters of Up(r, L), obtained at the same magnetic field but at dif-
high-frequency instability excited in a BPD on the ferent gas pressures are also shown. (A change in the
parameters of the ion flow, experiments were carried beam current above a certain threshold results in the
out with premodulated electron beams. In these experi- same qualitative changes of the measured profiles as
ments, the electron beam velocity was modulated by a does the change in the pressure.)
capacitive modulator that was installed at the exit from An analysis of the radial profiles of Ne(r, L) and Te(r,
the pressure-drop tube and had the form of a capacitive L) shows that, over a certain region along the chamber
gap between two planar grids to which a microwave axis, ionization is more intense than in other discharge
voltage in the 400- to 1200-MHz frequency band was regions. In this region, the radial profile Ne is wider (it
supplied from a master oscillator through a coaxial may even be double humped), the linear plasma density
cable. In order to provide circuit matching, the gap was
shunted by a high-frequency resistor with a resistance ∫ N e ( r )r dr is higher, and the radial profile Te(r) is
of 50 Ω, equal to the wave impedance of the cable (at broader. It was shown in [11, 12] that, at weak magnetic
fields, the gas in the BPD is mainly ionized in the region
the working frequencies of the master oscillator, the near the maximum of the high-frequency field, which
capacitive susceptance of the gap is low compared to increases along the discharge axis away from the injec-
the shunt conductance). As a result, the modulating tion plane of the electron beam (below, this region will
voltage was about 2 V = 10–3Ub. The spectrum of the be referred to as the microwave discharge region). The
generated oscillations was estimated by means of a plasma diffuses from this region both along and across
dipole antenna placed inside the chamber. the beam path. The double-humped top of the radial

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

266 ISAEV et al.

fi(W), arb. units Ne, ×109 cm–3

250 50 L = 7 cm
L = 2 cm L = 12 cm
L = 7 cm L = 17 cm
200 L = 12 cm 40 L = 22 cm
L = 17 cm
150 30

100 20

50 10

0 0
10 20 30 R, cm
W, eV
Up, V Te, eV
14 6
12 L = 7 cm
10 L = 12 cm
4 L = 17 cm
8 L = 22 cm
L = 7 cm
6 L = 12 cm
4 L = 17 cm 2
L = 22 cm
2
0 0
–12 –8 –4 0 4 8 12 –12 –8 –4 0 4 8 12
R, cm R, cm

Fig. 3. The same as in Fig. 2, but for an argon pressure of 0.08 Pa.

profile of the electron density is presumably attribut- at which the maximum ion energy is two to five times
able to the ponderomotive force, which pushes the higher than the energy eUp. However, at higher pres-
plasma away from the microwave discharge region. At sures, the ion flow is also observed to be “hotter”: the
pressures close to the threshold pressure for initiating a IEDF is enriched with higher energy ions.
BPD, this region is located near the collector. As the
pressure increases, this region shifts toward the electron Preliminary results from our investigation of the
gun. effect of the dynamic premodulation of an electron
beam on the IEDF can be summarized as follows. Pre-
The plasma potential changes insignificantly along modulation of the electron beam at frequencies in the
the discharge region: it increases from the collector spectral band corresponding to spontaneous emission
toward the electron injector, remaining everywhere no of the highest spectral density from the plasma either
higher than 12–13 V. A distinctive feature of the trans- causes high-frequency oscillations to become mono-
verse profiles of the plasma potential is that the poten- chromatic or leads to the suppression of these oscilla-
tial changes abruptly in the central region of the micro- tions. In both cases, the mean energy of the ion flow
wave discharge, which indicates the charge separation detected by the analyzer is observed to decrease; as a
in this region. rule, this is also true for the effective temperature of the
The energy distributions of the ions escaping from flow and for its intensity (see Fig. 4). This allows us to
the discharge to the side wall of the chamber are mark- suggest that the mechanism responsible for the above
edly different within the microwave discharge region properties of the ion flow is associated with a nonlinear
and at the periphery. At the discharge periphery, the conversion of the waves excited during the develop-
IEDF is peaked at an energy approximately equal to ment of a BPD. Of course, this suggestion requires a
eUp. Consequently, the most probable ion velocity is further study.
determined by the acceleration of the ions in the elec- In experiments with premodulated electron beams,
trostatic field between the plasma column and the we did not observe any correlation between the changes
chamber wall. The mean energy of the ions that leave in the parameters of the ion flow and in the spectral
the plasma column from the microwave discharge characteristics of the low-frequency oscillations of the
region is considerably higher than the energy corre- plasma density (these characteristics were investigated
sponding to the plasma potential. This effect is espe- with the help of a microwave probe in the form of a
cially pronounced at low gas pressures (p < 0.5 mtorr), helix immersed in the plasma [13]). Thus, the sugges-

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 ION FLOWS FROM A BEAM–PLASMA DISCHARGE 267

(‡) (b)
S, arb. units fi (W)
1.0 1.5
0.8
1
0.6 1.0
1
0.4
0.5
0.2

0.5 1.5
0.4
0.3 1.0
2
2
0.2
0.5
0.1

0.5 1.5
0.4
1.0
0.3 3
0.2 3
0.5
0.1

1.0 1.5
0.8 4 4
5 1.0 5
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2

0 500 1000 1500 0 10 20 30 40 50

F, MHz W, eV

Fig. 4. (a) Emission spectra from a BPD for different electron beam modulation frequencies and (b) the corresponding energy dis-
tribution functions of the ions escaping from the discharge region. Curves 1 and 4 are for an unmodulated electron beam, while
curves 2, 3, and 5 are for an electron beam modulated at frequencies of Fm = 950, 1000, and 800 MHz, respectively. Curves 1–3
refer to the conditions of Fig. 2, and curves 4 and 5 refer to the conditions of Fig. 3.

tion made in [8] that the ions are accelerated at the etching) of materials for semiconductor electronics and
expense of intense ion oscillations in a BPD was not acoustoelectronics.
confirmed by our experiment.
Hence, we have shown that, by changing the exter- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
nal parameters of a beam–plasma discharge in the equi- We are grateful to A.A. Rukhadze and I.M. Kote-
potential interaction chamber and by using electron lyansky for fruitful discussions of the results obtained.
beams premodulated in velocity, the energy of the ions
bombarding the surface of a sample placed near the side
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(1997)]. Translated by G.V. Shepekina

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Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 269–271. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 298–300.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Naumov.

BRIEF
COMMUNICATIONS

Pulsations of a Bunch of Charged Particles

in a Penning Trap
N. D. Naumov
Central Institute of Physics and Technology, Defense Ministry of the Russian Federation,
Sergiev Posad, Moscow oblast, 141300 Russia
Received April 16, 2003

Abstract—A method has been developed for calculating the gas-dynamic parameters of the initial stage of
pulsations of a nonuniform bunch of charged particles in a Penning trap. An analysis is made of the argu-
ments given by V.A. Syrovoy in his comments [Plasma Phys. Rep. 29, 92 (2003)] on the interpretation of the
solution in the form of a uniform bunch that was derived earlier by the author. © 2004 MAIK “Nauka/Inter-
periodica”.

An important approach to the study of the properties which the velocity vector components in spherical
of nonlinear systems is the construction of analytic coordinates are denoted by ur, uθ, and uϕ:
solutions to equations [1]. A particle bunch in a Pen-
ning trap is a particular example of an object that is ∂u r 1 2 e
-------- – --- ( u θ + u ϕ )] = ---- [ E – 2 Ar ( 1 – 3 cos θ ) ]
2 2
characterized by a spatially bounded distribution of ∂t r m
charged particles and whose equation of motion admits
a self-consistent solution. An exact solution to the gas- + 2Ωu ϕ sin θ,
dynamic equations for a uniform spherical bunch in a
∂u 1
-------θ- + --- ( u r u θ – u ϕ cot θ )
2
Penning trap was obtained in my earlier paper [2]. In a
recent paper [3], Syrovoy doubted the correctness of ∂t r
the interpretation that was developed in [2] in order to e
explain the solution. The goal of the present paper is = 2Ωu ϕ cos θ – 3 ---- Ar sin 2θ,
m
twofold: (i) to show that, under certain conditions, the
problem of a self-consistent description of the initial ∂u 1
stage of pulsations of a nonuniform bunch of charged --------ϕ + --- ( u r u ϕ + u θ u ϕ cot θ )
particles in a Penning trap reduces to that of solving ∂t r
two ordinary differential equations and (ii) to analyze = – 2 Ω ( u r sin θ + u θ cos θ ),
the arguments given by Syrovoy in his paper [3].
where Ω = eB/2mc and E is the strength of the collective
The external field in a Penning trap is a superposi- electric field.
tion of a uniform magnetic field B = Bez and a nonuni-
form electric field whose potential in cylindrical coor- It is easy to verify that, for A = –mΩ2/6e, possible
dinates has the form solutions to the last two equations have the form uθ = 0
and uϕ = – Ωr sin θ, in which case the first equation can
Φ = A(ρ2 – 2z2). be substantially simplified to become
This electric field can be produced by a system of three ∂u e 2 2
--------r = ---- E – --- Ω r. (1)
hyperbolically shaped electrodes: two electrodes hav- ∂t m 3
ing hyperbolic surfaces 2z2 = ρ2 + 2d2, each held at a
negative electric potential –U, and one electrode having Hence, under the above conditions, an element of
a hyperbolic surface ρ2 = 2z2 + 2d2, held at a positive the gas rotates with the Larmor frequency and simulta-
electric potential U, in which case the coefficient in the neously oscillates in the radial direction. If the gas ele-
expression for the electric-field potential is equal to A = ments that are at the same distance from the bunch cen-
U/2d2. ter have equal initial velocities, then they move in the
same manner. Consequently, for spherically symmetric
Let us consider whether it is possible to construct a initial conditions, it is sufficient to consider only the
solution in the form of a spherically symmetric bunch pulsations of spherical layers of the gas in a bunch
that satisfies the equations of motion of a cold gas of rotating as a single entity. In this case, the Lagrangian
charged particles in a Penning trap. We start with the variable r is the radius of the layer: it depends on the
following Lagrange equations for the gas motion, in time t and on the initial layer radius r0, r = r(t, r0).

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270 NAUMOV

n/n0 This equation should be supplemented with the obvious

1.0
1
initial conditions R(0, r0) = 1 and Ṙ (0, r0) = dv (r0)/dr0.
Unfortunately, it is only up to a certain time tk that
0.8 the solutions to Eqs. (3) and (4) allow us to follow the
2 change in the gas-dynamic parameters of a nonuniform
bunch. The applicability range of the results obtained is
0.6 restricted to a finite time interval because the basic con-
dition for the particle layers to move without overtaking
3
one another can be violated. The condition for a layer
0.4 to begin overtaking another layer at the time t = tk has
4 the form R(tk, r0) = 0, which indicates that, at this time,
the particle density approaches infinity (this effect was
0.2 called the gradient catastrophe [1, 4]).
The formation of a peak in the radial profile of the
plasma density in the bunch is illustrated in the figure,
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 which shows the particle density calculated from for-
r/a0 mula (2) and Eqs. (3) and (4) at the dimensionless times
τ = 0.5 (curve 2), τ = 1 (curve 3), and τ = 1.12 (curve 4).
Formation of a peak in the particle density profile. The dimensionless time is defined as τ = Ωt. Curve 1 in
the figure gives the initial particle density profile

 1 – ( r/a 0 ) , r ≤ a0
2
The condition for the mass of a layer in a moving
gas to be conserved has the form 4πn(t, r0)r2dr = w(r) = 
2  0, r > a 0 ,
4πn0w(r0) r 0 dr0. This yields the following expression
for the particle density: where a0 is the initial radius of the bunch. The calcula-
tions were carried for v (r) = 0 and for the condition
r0 w ( r0 )
2
∂r ( t, r 0 ) ω2 = 5Ω2, which, in view of Eq. (3), reflects a balance
n ( t, r 0 ) = n 0 ----------------------
-, R ( t, r 0 ) = -------------------
-. (2) of forces between the space charge and external field
r R ( t, r 0 )
2 ∂r 0
for the surface gas layer.
Under the condition that the particle layers move For a uniform bunch, we have w(r) = H(1 – r/a0),
radially without overtaking one another, the strength of where H(x) is the Heaviside step function. In this case,
the collective electric field acting on each gas layer is Eqs. (3) and (4) take the form
determined by both its initial radial position r0 and the 3
prescribed initial particle density in it, n(r, 0) = n0w(r): 1 2r 2 2
ṙ˙ = --- ω ----02 – --- Ω r, (5)
r0
3 r 3
e
E = 4πn 0 ----2 W ( r 0 ), W ( r0 ) = ∫ w ( x )x dx.
2
2 2 2r 
2 3
2r
r 0 Ṙ˙ = ω ----02 – ---  Ω + ω ----03 R. (6)
r 3 r
According to Eq. (1), the radial velocity of a layer of
a cold gas changes under the action of the external and According to Eqs. (5) and (6), the function f = R –
collective fields (for the sake of brevity, the time deriv- r/r0 should satisfy the equation
ative will be denoted by the superior dot):
2 2 2r 
3

ω
2
2 2 f˙˙+ ---  Ω + ω ----03 f = 0. (7)
ṙ˙ = -----2- W ( r 0 ) – --- Ω r, (3) 3 r
r 3
If the initial velocity is proportional to the distance
where ω2 = 4πn0e2/m. The initial conditions for Eq. (3) from the center of symmetry of the bunch, v (r) = kr
have the form r(0, r0) = r0 and ṙ (0, r0) = v (r0), where (where k is a constant), then the initial conditions for
v (r) is the prescribed initial profile of the radial gas this function have the form f0 = 0 and f˙0 = 0.
velocity.
Equation (7) can be regarded as the equation of
In order to obtain the equation for the function R(t,
motion of an oscillator with a varying frequency. As is
r0), we differentiate Eq. (3) with respect to r0:
known [5], the dynamical parameters of such an oscil-
r
2
1 2 ω
2 lator depend linearly on their initial values. Since, in
Ṙ˙ = ω w ( r 0 ) ----02 – 2 --- Ω + W ( r 0 ) -----3- R.
2
(4) the case in question, the dynamical parameters are ini-
r 3 r tially equal to zero, the function f will remain zero at

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

 PULSATIONS OF A BUNCH OF CHARGED PARTICLES 271

any time t: f ≡ 0; i.e., we have ∂r/∂r0 ≡ r/r0, which yields to expressions (9) for the gas-dynamic parameters of a
r(t, r0) = r0R(t). uniform bunch, have the form
Hence, the problem of calculating the pulsations of α = ν = RcosΩt, β = –µ = RsinΩt, κ = R,
a uniform bunch reduces to that of solving an ordinary in which case conditions (10) become identities. Set-
differential equation for the function R, ting r0 = a0, we see that the function R characterizes the
time dependence of the bunch radius: a(t) = a0R(t).
ω
2
2
3Ṙ˙ + 2Ω R – -----2- = 0 (8) Hence, the problems considered in [2] and in [6] are
R physically different. It can be said that the solution
obtained in [2] is a new solution to the gas-dynamic
with the initial conditions R0 = 1 and Ṙ 0 = k. For the equations for a spatially bounded configuration of a gas
gas-dynamic parameters of a uniform bunch, we obtain of charged particles.
Syrovoy [3] also doubted whether the use of the
n0 term “self-similar motion” in [2] is justified. In this
n = -----,
3
u r = r 0 Ṙ, u θ = 0,
R (9) connection, it is instructive to recall the definition of
this term given in a familiar book by Ya.B. Zel’dovich
u ϕ = – Ωr 0 R sin θ. and Yu.P. Raizer [7]: “… the motion during which the
Let us now analyze the arguments given by Syrovoy profiles of the gas-dynamic quantities remain similar to
[3] in his interpretation of the solution derived in my themselves and change only at the expense of changes
earlier paper [2], in which the problem of pulsations of in the scales of the quantities is called self-similar or
a uniform bunch of charged particles in a Penning trap automodel.” In the Eulerian approach, the gas-dynamic
was considered by means of the Eulerian approach to parameters of a uniform bunch of charged particle in a
describing gas motions. In Cartesian coordinates, the Penning trap can be represented as
motion of a gas element in a uniform bunch can be n
described by the following equations (which are written n = -----03 H ( 1 – ξ ), V r = ξṘH ( 1 – ξ ),
in the notation of [3] for clarity): R
x = αx0 + βy0, y = µx0 + νy0, z = κz0. V θ = 0, V ϕ = – ΩRξ sin θH ( 1 – ξ ),

In order for the spherical surface at which a gas ele- where ξ = r/R. As is seen, the pulsations of the bunch
ment occurs at the initial time to keep its spherical satisfy Zel’dovich and Raizer’s definition of the self-
shape during the gas motion, the five functions α(t), similar motion. In [2], an analogous representation was
β(t), µ(t), ν(t), and κ(t) should also satisfy the condi- obtained for the gas-dynamic parameters of a bunch in
tions Cartesian coordinates.

αµ + βν = 0,
REFERENCES
1 (10)
α + β = µ + ν = -----2 ( αν – βµ ) .
2 2 2 2 2 1. A. A. Samarskii and A. P. Mikhailov, Principles of Math-
κ ematical Modeling: Ideas, Methods, Examples (Nauka,
Moscow, 1997; Taylor & Francis, London, 2002).
Since these functions are uniquely determined by 2. N. D. Naumov, Fiz. Plazmy 19, 1406 (1993) [Plasma
the equations of motion, it seems that three additional Phys. Rep. 19, 738 (1993)].
conditions (10) are impossible to satisfy. Syrovoy [3] 3. V. A. Syrovoy, Fiz. Plazmy 29, 101 (2003) [Plasma Phys.
decided that this was a contradiction and concluded that Rep. 29, 92 (2003)].
the solution to the gas-dynamic equations that was 4. V. P. Bykov, A. V. Gerasimov, and V. O. Turin, Usp. Fiz.
obtained in [2] can be regarded as true but should be Nauk, No. 8, 955 (1995) [Phys. Usp. 38, 911 (1995)].
interpreted in a manner different from that given in [2]. 5. A. I. Baz’, Ya. B. Zel’dovich, and A. M. Perelomov, Scat-
Specifically, he proposed to understand the solution as tering, Reactions, and Decays in Nonrelativistic Quan-
describing oscillations of the density of an electron tum Mechanics (Nauka, Moscow, 1971).
flow (or, in his terminology, of an “infinite uniform 6. V. A. Syrovoy, Radiotekh. Élektron. (Moscow) 29, 2430
beam”). The solution to the gas-dynamic equation for (1984).
the distribution of charged particles that corresponds to 7. Ya. B. Zel’dovich and Yu. P. Raizer, Physics of Shock
such a beam was considered by Syrovoy in his earlier Waves and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenom-
paper [6]. ena (Nauka, Moscow, 1963; Academic Press, New York,
1967).
However, the solution obtained in [2] does not actu-
ally lead to a contradiction. The above five functions are
determined by the equations of motion and, according Translated by O.E. Khadin

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 272–273. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 301–302.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Baranov, Muromkin, Shafranov.

In Memory of Aleksandr Ivanovich Karchevskiœ

(April 26, 1931–August 31, 2003)
headed by I.K. Kikoin (a colleague of I.V. Kurchatov in
the field of nuclear research), where he engaged in stud-
ies on solid-state physics. In 1957, Karchevskiœ joined
the investigations on magnetic confinement of high-
temperature plasma in a relatively small ZETA-type
toroidal device. Later, he carried out a series of experi-
ments on the auxiliary heating of a toroidal plasma by
compressing it by an external magnetic field. The
results of these experiments were reported at the First
IAEA Conference on Controlled Nuclear Fusion
(Salzburg, 1961).
At the same time, Karchevskiœ continued his partic-
ipation in Kikoin’s seminar on solid-state physics.
There, he chose the subject for his candidate’s thesis:
measurements of the isotopic shift of the Curie point in
passing from uranium hydride to uranium deuteride. He
worked on his thesis in the evening hours and on Sun-
days (at that time, Saturday was not yet a day off),
while his daytime hours were occupied by studies on
fusion research problems. The difference between the
Curie temperatures was determined very precisely:
Karchevskiœ succeeded in measuring the magnetoca-
loric effect in both compounds. This is still the most
reliable method for determining the Curie point in fer-
romagnetics. In the autumn of 1961, Karchevskiœ
defended this candidate’s thesis on this subject.
Kikoin held the scientific activity of Karchevskiœ in
high esteem. In 1962, he became the youngest division
head at the Institute of Molecular Physics and held this
position for more than ten years. Under his leadership,
Aleksandr Ivanovich Karchevskiœ, a remarkable a large-scale magnetic mirror device was created. Since
experimental physicist, professor, and the head of the 1965, he concentrated mainly on the study of current
Laboratory of New Methods of Isotope Separation at instability in plasmas. His experiments in this field con-
the Institute of Molecular Physics of the Russian tinued up to the beginning of 1970s. During this period,
Research Centre Kurchatov Institute, died tragically on he performed a comprehensive study of the conditions
August 31, 2003, in Siberia as the result of an accident for the formation of pulsed electron beams in gas dis-
during his vacation. charges. In 1971, Karchevskiœ defended his doctoral
Aleksandr Ivanovich Karchevskiœ was born April thesis on the problem of “Experimental Investigations
26, 1931 in the village of Emilovka, Odessa oblast. In of High-Current Toroidal Discharges and Current Insta-
1945, his family moved to Lvov. In 1948, he graduated bility.”
from school with honors and enrolled at the Physicote- At the beginning of 1970s, Kikoin invited Karchev-
chnical Faculty of Moscow State University. In 1951, skiœ to investigate the basic subject of the Institute of
part of the faculty (including Karchevskiœ) was Molecular Physics: the development of new methods
attached, by government decree, to the Moscow Insti- for isotope separation, including plasma methods.
tute for Physics and Technology (MIPT; at that time, Karchevskiœ accepted his offer and devoted more than
the Moscow Mechanical Institute). After graduating thirty years to this subject.
from MIPT in 1954, he began work at the Atomic His first success in the field of plasma methods of
Energy Institute, in the Department of Heat Control isotope separation was the observation of isotope
Apparatus (the future Institute of Molecular Physics) enrichment of xenon in two types of discharge: a stead-

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 IN MEMORY OF ALEKSANDR IVANOVICH KARCHEVSKIΠ273

state RF discharge in a running magnetic field and a many friends among European and American scien-
pulsed discharge in crossed electric and magnetic fields tists. By invitation of his American colleagues, he pre-
(pulsed plasma centrifuge). sented a report at the Oak-Ridge National Laboratory
Although these methods for isotope separation have on the method of ICR isotope separation.
not found application in the isotope industry because of For his long and productive work, Karchevskiœ was
their high energy expenditure, Karchevskiœ, being a tal- rewarded diplomas, premiums, and other awards. He
ented researcher, discovered many new effects related was a man of great authority among his colleagues and
to the diffusion and magnetohydrodynamic processes friends. Everyone admired his love of life. He knew lit-
occurring in gas discharges. Observations of isotope erature, history, and art very well. He never missed any
separation effects became a new method of plasma worthwhile event held at the Recreation Center of the
diagnostics. Kurchatov Institute. He recorded the performances
Simultaneously, Karchevskiœ carried out experi- with a tape recorder and distributed these recordings
ments on the selective dissociation of uranium hexaflu- among his friends and acquaintances. He always came
oride under the action of infrared laser radiation. For to the aid of the people around him in their hours of
the rest of his life, he continued experiments on the need. It turned out, however, that in the last, tragic
selective dissociation of various molecules. moments of his life, Karchevskiœ was alone.
Karchevskiœ devoted the last ten years of his life to He loved nature and, for many years, spent his vaca-
experiments on isotopically selective ion-cyclotron res- tions floating on a boat down the Bakhta river (a tribu-
onant (ICR) plasma heating. He considered ICR sepa- tary of the Yenisei) together with his friends. This is a
ration to be the only method (of all the other new ones) difficult and breathtaking route: the riverbed is broken
that can be implemented in the isotope separation by rapids and gorges. Many times, Karchevskiœ braved
industry in the near future. Despite his ironic treatment these rapids together with his wife and, once, with his
of inventors, he himself introduced substantial favorite granddaughter, who was only eleven that time.
improvements in this method. It was the problem of This year, he had to go alone because at the last
creating a pilot device for ICR isotope separation in moment, his partner could not joint him. Karchevskiœ
which Karchevskiœ was actively engaged before his believed that he was sufficiently prepared for such a trip
fatal trip to Siberia. and did not care to abandon it in changed circum-
Karchevskiœ always aspired to transmit his experi- stances. At the end of the second day of his trip, having
ence and knowledge to his colleagues. Many candi- landed safely on the shore, he, as usual, decided to
date’s and doctoral theses were prepared under his spend the night in a hunting lodge. He knew well the
supervision. For some time, Karchevskiœ successfully locations of such lodges along the river. At the entrance
taught at MIPT; he left this work only at the request of to the one he chose, someone had installed a samos-
Kikoin, who insisted that nothing should distract him trel.1 The wound turned out to be fatal.
from experiments. For several decades, Karchevskiœ
edited the section on plasma physics in the abstract The memory of Aleksandr Ivanovich Karchevskiœ
journal Fizika. will always remain in the hearts of all those who were
lucky enough to know this vigorous, cheerful, and hard-
Karchevskiœ possessed amazing energy. Many peo- working man.
ple remember his work as a scientific secretary of the
seminar on the problem of controlled nuclear fusion
headed by M.A. Leontovich (before Leontovich, this On behalf of all the friends and colleagues
seminar was headed by Kikoin). No one will ever know of A.I. Karchevskiœ,
how many telephone calls were made by Karchevskiœ to [Link]. Baranov, Yu.A. Muromkin, and V.D. Shafranov
the different regions of the Soviet Union.
1A
Karchevskiœ spent a great deal of time and energy on fixed, large-caliber gun aimed at the entrance. Such a gun is
the development of international collaboration. His lab- used to keep bears from entering a lodge, with a mandatory note
posted at the door to warn people. The inquiry has shown that
oratory carried on experiments in cooperation with lab- there was no such note. For many years, Karchevskiœ had spent
oratories of the Research Center at Saclay and the his vacations on the Bakhta river, but had never encountered a
Tokyo Institute of Technology for several years. He had samostrel in a hunting lodge before.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004

Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 274–275. Translated from Fizika Plazmy, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2004, pp. 303–304.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Shafranov.

In Memory of Marshall Nicholas Rosenbluth

(February 5, 1927–September 28, 2003)
Japan. After demobilization, he continued studying at
the University of Chicago. Among his teachers were
those who had recently helped to invent the atomic
bomb. Thus, he defended his doctoral thesis before
Enrico Fermi and Edward Teller in 1949. In 1950,
Teller recruited Dr. Rosenbluth to join the Los Alamos
National Laboratory, where he took part in creating the
hydrogen bomb. Dr. Rosenbluth also participated in the
first tests of the H-bomb. In 1952, the night before the
scheduled explosion, he realized that the scientists had
made a serious mistake that could have resulted in a
dud. The problem was soon fixed with a new explosive
core. In 1954, again in the South Pacific, Dr. Rosen-
bluth was aboard a U.S. Navy destroyer when a hydro-
gen bomb test turned out to be unexpectedly strong and
showered his ship with radioactive fallout. Soon after
this sobering test, he reflected on using nuclear fusion
for peaceful ends. His first idea was to use a pinch dis-
charge in which deuterium-tritium plasma was to be
compressed by a magnetic field. The magnetic flux,
detaching along with the plasma from a conductive
cylindrical wall, was also to stabilize the plasma col-
umn (it turned out, however, that this was insufficient to
completely stabilize the plasma).
In 1956, Dr. Rosenbluth joined General Atomics in
San Diego, where he began to work on the problem of
controlled nuclear fusion. Dr. Rosenbluth became
widely known as a theorist after the Third International
Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases (Venice,
1957), where he presented a report on a stabilized
Marshall Nicholas Rosenbluth, an eminent physicist pinch—a subject of controlled fusion research, which
who made an invaluable contribution to the develop- was top secret that time. An extended version of this
ment of high-temperature plasma physics and con- report was presented at the Second International Con-
trolled magnetic fusion research, died on September ference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy
28, 2003 in San Diego. (Geneva, 1958); by that time, all studies on controlled
Marshall Rosenbluth was born February 5, 1927 in fusion research had already been declassified.
Albany, N. Y., into a middle-class family. His grandfa- The problem of creating an electrical energy gener-
ther had emigrated to America from Odessa at the end ator based on controlled fusion reactions turned out to
of the 19th century. Marshall’s father was a friend of be even more complicated than was thought by the
New York Governor Franklin Roosevelt, the future most skeptical critics of the idea. Very soon, it became
president of the United States. There is even a chil- evident that the physics of the magnetic confinement of
dren’s photo of Marshall with Eleanor Roosevelt in rarified high-temperature plasma needed to be exam-
Rosenbluth’s family archive. ined in more detail, which would require many more
Marshall was a very talented student. When he was years of intensive developmental work.
fifteen years old, he was enrolled at Harvard University. His subsequent theoretical works on the physics of
At the age of eighteen, he took an associate bachelor high-temperature plasma brought him to the forefront
degree and went on to study physics at the University of of plasma physics theory. At the First International
Chicago. He served for a year as a radio operator on a Conference on Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear
warship participating in military operations against Fusion (Salzburg, 1961), Dr. Rosenbluth was given the

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 IN MEMORY OF MARSHALL NICHOLAS ROSENBLUTH 275

honor of surveying the theoretical studies presented at still serve as the classical basis for present-day plasma
this conference (the review of the experimental works physicists.
was made by Lev Artsimovich).
Dr. Rosenbluth had a unique ability to generate new
The later works by Dr. Rosenbluth on the theory of ideas, as well to grasp the ideas of his colleagues and
magnetic plasma confinement gained wide recognition. present them in an extremely clear and perfect form. He
In particular, he investigated the flute plasma instability trained a school of remarkable theorists in plasma phys-
in open systems (with Conrad Longmire), the suppres- ics. Under his leadership as the chief US expert on the
sion of instabilities by an “average magnetic well” in ITER project, practical recommendations were elabo-
periodic magnetic mirror devices (with Harold Furth), rated on how to prevent undesirable effects during the
the stabilization of flute perturbations by the finite-Lar- operation of a tokamak reactor. For example, the escape
mor-radius effect (with Nicholas Krall and Norman of runaway electrons onto a tokamak wall can have
Rostoker), oscillations of a rotating plasma (with Albert disastrous results. Dr. Rosenbluth and his colleagues
Simon), cone instability (with Richard Post), and the proposed an elegant mathematical model describing the
trapped particle-driven instability in open systems propagation of a liquid hydrogen jet injected into a hot
(with Herbert Berk et al.). As a rule, he concentrated on plasma in order to prevent the runaway effect. The
the instabilities that were most important for the phys- model was also capable of describing the phenomena
ics of plasma confinement, rather than merely wander- accompanying this propagation (the instability of jet
ing the length and breadth of the boundless field of evaporation, cavitation, decay of the jet into drops,
plasma instabilities. He proposed an original method of etc.). Recommendations were also given on how to use
integrating along the trajectories of the collisionless this method in existing tokamaks and the future ITER
kinetic equation. This method, which found broad reactor.
application in the physics of rarified high-temperature
plasmas and is now widely used to analyze plasma Marshall Rosenbluth was a very kind and sympa-
instabilities, has been recognized as classical. The thetic man. During his infrequent visits to Russia, he
Rosenbluth potential technique is widely applied to very much took our problems to heart; thus, he was
evaluate the collision integral in the plasma kinetic deeply concerned for the fate of Andrei Sakharov.
theory. Once, while staying in Moscow, he organized a letter of
In 1960, Dr. Rosenbluth became a professor at the support to a seriously ill American physicist from his
University of California at San Diego. In 1967, he Russian colleagues.
joined the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton. It is difficult to believe that Marshall is no longer
From 1980 to 1987, he directed the Institute for Fusion with us.
Studies at the University of Texas. In 1987, he returned
to San Diego, where retired in 1993 as an emeritus pro-
fessor of physics. He had been the chief US expert on V.D. Shafranov1
the ITER project since 1992.
1 In
The range of Dr. Rosenbluth’s scientific interests preparing this obituary, I used the article by William J. Broad
was very wide. He made many important discoveries M.N. Rosenbluth, 76, an H-Bomb Developer Who Sought Peace-
ful Uses for Fusion, is Dead (The New York Times, September
concerning the physics of essentially all types of mag- 30, 2003). I am grateful to V.V. Arsenin, A.V. Timofeev, V.P. Pas-
netic confinement systems, such as mirror devices, tukhov, and S.V. Putvinskiœ for their help in preparing the obitu-
cusps, bumpy tori, and tokamaks. These discoveries ary.

PLASMA PHYSICS REPORTS Vol. 30 No. 3 2004