CHAPTER TWO

Lecturer:
Elias A. MSc (Engineering geologist)

Dynamic
Analysis of Structures
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 Force and stress

 A force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or

of uniform motion of a body.
 The force that acts upon a body is applied from some external
agency that either makes or tends to make the body move from its
original position or stops or tends to stop a moving body.

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3
 Fundamental Quantities & Units of Rocks
• Mass: Dimension: [M] Unit: g or kg
• Length: Dimension: [L] Unit: cm or m
• Time: Dimension: [T] Unit: s
Velocity, v = distance/time = dx/dt
– Change in distance per time)
v =[L/T] or [LT-1] units: m/s or cm/s

Acceleration (due to gravity): g = velocity/time

• Acceleration is change in velocity per time (dv/dt).
g = [LT-1 ]/[T] = LT-2, units: m s -2
Force: F = mass . acceleration
• F = mg F = [M][LT-2]
• units: Newton: N = kg m s-2

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 Newton’s 1st Law

• Law 1. An object continues in its initial state of

rest or motion with uniform velocity unless it is
acted on by an unbalanced, or net external,
force.
– The net force acting on an object, also called
the resultant force, is the vector sum of all
the forces acting on it.

• Mathematically, Law 1 is expressed as Fnet = S F

• where Fnet represents the net force, and SF
represents the vector sum of all of the forces
acting on a given object.
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 Newton’s 2nd Law
• The acceleration of an object is inversely proportional
to its mass and directly proportional to the net force
acting on it.
• Mathematically, Law 2 can be expressed as:
a = Fnet/m or Fnet = ma

where a = acceleration and m = the mass of the object upon

which the force is acting.
• A force is a vector quantity, while the mass is a scalar
quantity.

• Physicists define mass as an intrinsic property of an

object that is a measure of its resistance to acceleration
while acceleration is simply the change in velocity over
a change in time (i.e. a=Dv/Dt) 6
 Units of Force
• Two of the more common units of force are the dyne (d) and
newton (N)
• The units of a newton are kgm/s2 while those for a dyne are
gcm/s2
• A newton is the force required to impart an acceleration of
one meter per second per second to a body of one kilogram
mass
• A dyne is the force required to accelerate one gram of mass at
one centimeter per second per second
F = (mass)(acceleration) or
F = ma or F = mg
newton: N = kg m s –2
dyne: gr cm s -2 1 N = 105 dyne
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• Any part of a material experiences two types of forces:
– Body and surface forces
Body Force
Body forces act upon a body and are therefore given by the
volume or size of the body.
 Such forces act on every point of the body and are therefore
measured in three dimensions.
 Thus, the bigger a body is, the larger its body force is such
as the planetary bodies.
 Common examples of body forces include gravity and
magnetic force.
 Effect of gravity produces weight to a body.

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 Surface Forces
• Act on a specific surface area in a body
– Are proportional to the magnitude of the area
– Reflect pull or push of the atoms on one side of a
surface against the atoms on the other side

• e.g., force of a cue stick that hits a pool ball

• force of the jaws of a vice

• Body forces give rise to spatial variations or gradients

on surface forces

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 Types of Force
The common types of forces are briefly described below.
 Confining pressure (fig. a) at a point is one that is exerted equally from all sides.
 In the earth’s crust, the confining pressure is the lithostatic pressure developed due
to the load of the overlying rocks.
 Since this pressure is equal on all sides of a body, it can be compared with the
hydrostatic pressure produced by fluids.
 Shear (fig. b) can be compared to the effect produced when the cards in a pack are
displaced past each other.
 Bending (Fig. c) involves deformation of a beam when a load is applied across it.
The beam deforms plastically.
 Torsion (Fig. d) involves deformation of a body when it is twisted by applying a
stress in one direction at one end while the other end remains either motionless or
twisted in opposite direction.
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 A torque (Fig. e) is a force that tends to rotate a body.
Common types of forces.
(a) Confining pressure.
(b) Shear. (c) Bending.
(d) Torsion. (e) Torque.

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 Effects of Stress
• Forces applied on a body do either or both of
the following:
– Change the velocity of the body
– Result in a shape change of the body

• A given force applied by a sharp object (e.g.,

needle) has a different effect than a similar force
applied by a dull object (e.g., peg).

• We need another measure called stress which

reflects these effects
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 Stress
Force acting upon a body or a rock develops stress within it. The body is then
said to be under stress due to the applied force. If F is the amount of force acting
upon a unit area A of a body, then the stress (σ) developed in the body due to
this force is given by
s = lim dF/dA when dA → 0

• A force acting on a small area such as the tip of a sharp nail or base of high
heel shoe, has a greater intensity than a flat-headed nail or a snow shoe!

• In the mks system of the SI system:

s = kg m-1 s-2 pascal (Pa) = newton/m2
• 1 bar (non-SI) = 105 Pa ~ 1 atmosphere
• 1 kb = 1000 bar = 108 Pa = 100 Mpa
• 1Gpa = 109 Pa = 1000 Mpa = 10 kb
• P at core-mantle boundary is ~ 136 Gpa (at 2900 km)
• P at the center of Earth (6371 km) is 364 Gpa

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Ten common units geologists use to describe stress
equivalent to 1 megapascal (MPa)

Units MPa Equivalent

megapascal (Mpa) 1
gigapascal (Gpa) 0.001
pascal (Pa) = N/m2 1,000,000
kg/cm2 10.197
d/cm2 100,000,000.000
bar (b) 10
kilobar (kb) 0.010
pounds per square inch (psi) 145.030

atmosphere (atm) ~ bar 9.869

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 Stress
• The forces that cause deformation of rock are referred
to as stresses (Force/unit area).

• Differential Stress – Unequal in different directions.

• A uniform stress is a stress wherein the forces act

equally from all directions.
• 3 major types of differential stress
– Compressional stress
– Tensional stress
– Shear stress 15
 Types of Stress

• Tension: Stress acts _|_ to and away from a plane

– pulls the rock apart
– forms special fractures called joint
– may lead to increase in volume

• Compression: stress acts _|_ to and toward a

plane
– squeezes rocks
– may decrease volume

• Shear: acts parallel to a surface

– leads to change in shape 16
 Stress as a vector
• Force has variable magnitudes in different directions (i.e., it’s a
vector)
• Area has constant magnitude with direction (a scalar):
–  Stress acting on a plane is a vector
s = F/A or s = F . 1/A

• Like traction, a force is a vector quantity and can be

manipulated following the same mathematical principals

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 Normal and Shear Force
• Many planes can pass through a point in a rock body
• Force (F) across any of these planes can be resolved into two components:
Shear force: Fs , & normal force: Fn, where:
Fs = F sinθ Fn = F cosθ
tanθ = Fs/Fn
• Smaller θ means smaller Fs
• Note that if θ =0, Fs=0 and all force is Fn

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 Normal and Shear Stress
• Stress on an arbitrarily-oriented plane through a point, is
not necessarily perpendicular to the that plane

• The stress (s) acting on a plane can be resolved into two

components:
• Normal stress (sn)
– Component of stress perpendicular to the plane,
i.e., parallel to the normal to the plane
• Shear stress (ss) or 
– Components of stress parallel to the plane

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Normal and Shear Stress

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 Stress is the intensity of force
– Stress is Force per unit area
s = lim dF/dA when dA →0

• A given force produces a large stress when applied

on a small area!

– The same force produces a small stress when applied on

a larger area

– The state of stress at a point is anisotropic:

• Stress varies on different planes with different orientation

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 Geopressure Gradient dP/dz
• The average overburden pressure (i.e., lithostatic P) at the base
of a 1 km thick rock column (i.e., z = 1 km), with density (r) of
2.5 gr/cm3 is 25 to 30 MPa

P = rgz [ML -1T-2]

P = (2670 kg m-3)(9.81 m s-2)(103 m)
= 26192700 kg m-1s-2 (pascal)
= 26 MPa
•  The geopressure gradient:
dP/dz  30 MPa/km  0.3 kb/km (kb = 100 MPa)
• i.e. P is  3 kb at a depth of 10 km

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 Stress at a Point - Tensor
• To discuss stress on a randomly oriented
plane we must consider the three-
dimensional case of stress

• The magnitudes of the sn and ss vary as a

function of the orientation of the plane

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Stress Ellipse

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 State of Stress
Isotropic stress (Pressure)
• The 3D stresses are equal in magnitude in all directions; like the
radii of a sphere

• The magnitude of pressure is equal to the mean of the principal

stresses
A state of hydrostatic stress develops when all the principal stresses are
equal, i.e. σ1 = σ2 = σ3. In this case, all the principal stresses are
compressive

• The mean stress or hydrostatic component of stress:

P = (s1 + s2 + s3 ) / 3
• Pressure is positive when it is compressive, and negative when it
is tensile 25
 Isotropic Pressure contd.
• Fluids (liquids/gases) such as magma or water, are stressed equally in all
directions

• Examples of isotropic pressure:

– hydrostatic, lithostatic, atmospheric

• All of these are pressures (P) due to the column of water, rock, or air, with
thickness z and density r; g is the acceleration due to gravity:
P = rgz
Lithostatic Stress/pressure
• Rocks in the earth’s crust are always under stress caused by the weight of
the overlying burden that gives rise to lithostatic stress.
• Since these rocks are in equilibrium, i.e. physically stable, we can assume
that at each point the stress is acting uniformly from all sides.
• In other words, the principal stresses are equal, all the principal stresses are
compressive and there is no shear stress. 26
27
 Pressure Leads to Dilation and distortion
• Dilation (+ev & -ev)
– Volume change; no shape change involved
– We will discuss dilation when we define
strain

ev=(v´-vo)/vo = dv/vo [no dimension]

– Where v´ & vo are final & original

volumes, respectively

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 Mohr Circle
• Mohr circle. It is also known as Mohr stress diagram.
• A circle is drawn passing through the values of the greatest
principal stress (σ1) and the least principal stress (σ3)
along the x-axis.
• The difference between the greatest and the least principal
stresses, i.e. (σ1 – σ3), is called differential stress and is
represented by the diameter of the circle.
• In 2D space, the normal stress (sn) and the shear stress
(ss), could be given by equations (1) and (2) in the next
slides

• Note: The equations are given here in the s1,s3 plane,

where s1 is greater than s3. 29
 Normal Stress

The normal stress, sn:

sn= (s1+s3)/2 + (s1-s3)/2 cos2q (1)

• (s1+ s3)/2 is the center, which lies on the

normal stress axis (x-axis)
• r = (s1-s3)/2 is the radius

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 Sign Conventions
sn is compressive when it is “+”, i.e., when sn>0
sn is tensile when it is “-”, i.e., when sn< 0

sn= (s1+s3)/2+(s1-s3)/2 cos2q

sn = s1 at q = 0o (a maximum)
sn = s3 at q = 90o (a minimum )

• There is no shear stress on the three principal planes

(perpendicular to the principal stresses)

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 Resolved Normal and Shear Stress
 The traction's on the planes that intersect at the origin can be
subdivided into perpendicular and parallel components to each plane.
 The component perpendicular to each plane is termed normal stress
(sn) and the component parallel to each plane is termed shear stress
().
 Figure 4 illustrates the relationship between the traction (s) and the
normal (sn) and shear stress () components acting on a single plane
whose trace in two dimensions the line segment AB.

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 The normal and shear stresses can be calculated on a
plane of any orientation if the magnitude and direction of
two of the three principal stresses (s1, s2, and s3) are
known. In Figure 4 the normal stress, sn, and shear
stress, , are acting on the trace of a plane defined by the
line segment shown as AB in Figure 3. In Figure 4, the
principal stresses, s1 and s3 are oriented perpendicular to
Figure 3 The two-dimensional the legs AC and BC, respectively of the right
trace of a right triangular prism triangle ABC.
with normal (sn) and shear ()
stresses acting on the plane
defined by line segment AB. The
normal and shear stresses are the
components of the traction, s.

Figure 4. The graphical relationship between

the normal, sn, and shear stress, , and the
two principal stresses, s1 and s3.
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The equations for normal and shear stress are commonly referred to as
the fundamental stress equations. Assuming static equilibrium and using
the relationships illustrated in Figure 4, derivation of the fundamental
equation for normal stress begins with the balancing of forces where:

Canceling similar terms and simplifying:

Substituting the trigonometric identities

and into Equation above yields

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Further simplification reveals the standard form of the equation for normal stress:

Again, assuming static equilibrium and using the relationships illustrated in Figure 4,
derivation of the fundamental equation for shear stress begins with the balancing of
forces where:

Canceling similar terms and simplifying:

rearranging terms:

substituting the trigonometric identity

into the above Equation yields the fundamental stress equation for shear stress:

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Resolved Normal and Shear Stress by
Mohr circle

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Mohr Circle for Stress

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 Shear Stress
The shear stress
ss = (s1-s3)/2 sin2q (2)
• In parametric form the equation becomes:
ss = r sin 2q

ss > 0 represents left-lateral shear

ss < 0 represents right-lateral shear
ss = 0 at q = 0o or 90o or 180o (a min)
ss = (s1-s3)/2 at q = + 45o (maximum shear
stress)
• The maximum ss is 1/2 the differential stress
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Construction of the Mohr Circle in 2D
• Plot the normal stress, sn, vs. shear stress, ss, on a
graph paper using arbitrary scale (e.g., mm scale!)

• Calculate:
– Center c = (s1+s3)/2
– Radius r = (s1-s3)/2

• Note: Diameter is the differential stress (s1-s2)

• The circle intersects the sn (x-axis) at the two

principal stresses (s1 and s3)
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 Construction of the Mohr Circle
• Multiply the physical angle q by 2
• The angle 2q is from the s1 line to any point on the circle
• +2q (CCW) angles are read above the x-axis
• -2q (CW) angles below the x-axis, from the s1 axis

• The sn and ss of a point on the circle represent the

normal and shear stresses on the plane with the given
2q angle

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 Maximum & Minimum Normal Stresses
The normal stress:
sn= (s1+s3)/2 + (s1-s3)/2 cos2q

NOTE: q (in physical space)

When q = 0o then cos2q = 1 and sn=(s1+s3)/2 + (s1-s3)/2
which reduces to a maximum value:
sn= (s1+s3 + s1-s3)/2  sn= 2s1/2  sn= s1

When q = 90o then cos2q = -1 and sn= (s1+s3)/2 - (s1-

s3)/2
which reduces to a minimum
sn= (s1+s3 - s1+s3)/2  sn= 2s3/2  sn= s3

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 Special States of Stress - Uniaxial Stress
• Uniaxial Stress (compression or tension)
– One principal stress (s1 or s3) is non-zero, and the
other two are equal to zero

– Uniaxial compression
Compressive stress in one direction: s1 > s2=s3 = 0
|a 0 0|
|0 0 0|
|0 0 0|
• The Mohr circle is tangent to the ordinate at the origin
(i.e., s2=s3= 0) on the + (compressive) side
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 Uniaxial tension

Tension in one direction:

0 = s1 = s2 > s3

|0 0 0|
|0 0 0|
|0 0-a|

• The Mohr circle is tangent to the

ordinate at the origin on the - (i.e.,
tensile) side
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 Special States of Stress - Axial Stress
• Axial (confined) compression: s1 > s2 = s3 > 0
|a 0 0|
|0 b 0|
|0 0 b|

• Axial extension (extension): s1 = s2 > s3 > 0

|a 0 0|
|0 a 0|
|0 0 b|

• The Mohr circle for both of these cases are to the

right of the origin (non-tangent)
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Special States of Stress - Biaxial Stress
• Biaxial Stress:
– Two of the principal stresses are non-zero and the other
is zero
• Pure Shear:
s1 = -s3 and is non-zero (equal in magnitude but opposite
in sign)
s2 = 0 (i.e., it is a biaxial state)
– The normal stress on planes of maximum shear is zero
(pure shear!)
|a 0 0 |
|0 0 0 |
|0 0 -a|
• The Mohr circle is symmetric w.r.t. the ordinate (center is
at the origin)
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 Special States of Stress - Triaxial Stress

• Triaxial Stress:
 s1, s2, and s3 have non-zero values
 s1 > s2 > s3 and can be tensile or
compressive

• Is the most general state in nature

|a 0 0 |
|0 b 0 |
|0 0 c |

• The Mohr circle has three distinct circles

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 Two-dimensional cases: General Stress

• General Compression
– Both principal stresses are compressive
• is common in earth)

• General Tension
• Both principal stresses are tensile
– Possible at shallow depths in the earth

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Hydrostatic Pressure- Hydrostatic Tension
• Hydrostatic Pressure: s1 = s2 = s3 = P
|P 0 0|
|0 P 0|
|0 0 P|
• All principal stresses are compressive and equal (P)
• No shear stress exists on any plane
• All orthogonal coordinate systems are principal
coordinates
• Mohr circle reduces to a point on the sn axis

• Hydrostatic Tension
– The stress across all planes is tensile and equal
– There are no shearing stresses
– Is an unlikely case of stress in the earth
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 Deviatoric Stress
• A total stress sT can be divided into its components:
• Isotropic (Pressure) or mean stress sm
(sm)=s1 +s2 + s3 /3
– Isotropic Pressure is the mean of the principal stresses (may
be neglected in most problems). Only causes volume
change.
• Deviatoric (sd) stress measures how much the normal stress
deviates from the mean, or hydrostatic stress. It is
responsible for distortional deformations.
– Deviatoric components are calculated by subtracting the
mean stress (pressure) from each of the normal stresses of
the general stress tensor (not the shear stresses).
– Causes shape change and that it the part which we are most
interested in.
sT=sm+sd or sd=sT-sm
• The stress field’s ability to cause deformation is determined by
the differential stress [s1-s3] 49
 Confining pressure
• In experimental rock deformation, pressure
is called confining pressure, and is taken to
be equal to the s2 and s3 (uniaxial loading)

• This is the pressure that is hydraulically

applied around the rock specimen

• In the Earth, at any point z, the confining

pressure is lithostatic pressure:
P = rgz
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 Differential Stress
• The difference between the maximum and
the minimum principal stresses (s1-s3)
• Is always positive
• Its value is:
– twice the radius of the largest Mohr circle
– It is twice the maximum shear stresses
Note: ss = (s1-s3)/2 sin2q
ss = (s1-s3)/2 at q = + 45o (a maximum)

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 Effective Stress
• Its components are calculated by subtracting the
internal pore fluid pressure (Pf) from each of the
normal stresses of the external stress tensor

• This means that the pore fluid pressures

opposes the external stress, decreasing the
effective confining pressure

• The pore fluid pressure shifts the Mohr circle

toward lower normal stresses. This changes the
applied stress into an effective stress
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Pore Fluid Pressure

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 Causes of Stress Inside the Earth

I. Overburden. (The weight of the overlying rocks and soils is broadly called
overburden at any point inside the earth).
II. Pore Fluid Pressure (Presence of water or any fluid or gas has great effect on the
physical-mechanical properties of rocks located inside the earth).
III. Thermal Stresses (Rocks are susceptible to changes in temperature in several
ways).
IV. Plate Motion (The state of stress in a plate depends much on the type of relative
plate motion, i.e. whether the boundary of two plates is convergent, divergent or
transform.)
V. Burial (Below sea level, burial of sediments is a common process that generates a
good deal of stress (burial stress) below the surface.)

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 Significance of Stress
 Academic Significance; Our knowledge of stress in rocks is
necessary because it helps in giving an idea of directions in which the
stresses had acted upon the rocks and also the amount of
deformation, i.e. strain in rocks.

 Engineering and Economic Significance

• In the construction of dams, knowledge of the state of stress is
helpful in ensuring that the weight of the superstructure should be
much below the affordable stress of the earth at that point.
• In mining, information on stress is necessary for the construction of
tunnels, pits and related engineering work.
• During drilling for petroleum, artificial fractures are created at depth
to increase the permeability of the petroleum bearing horizon; this
enhances the production of petroleum.
• In civic construction work, knowledge of in situ stress of the
foundation ensures longer safety of the structures and buildings55to be
constructed. CH 3. Kinematic Analysis of Structures.ppt