MECHANICS

MECHANICS
w. CHESTER
University of Bristol

London
GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN
Boston Sydney
First published in 1979

This book is copyright under the Berne Convention. All

rights are reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the
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at the undermentioned address:

GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD

40 Museum Street, London WC1A 1LU

© W. Chester, 1979
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1979

British library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Chester, W.
Mechanics.
1. Mechanics
1. Title
531 QC125.2 78-41320

ISBN-13: 978-0-412-43940-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-010-9502-0

DOl: 10.1007/978-94-010-9502-0

Typeset in 10 on 12 point Press Roman by Preface Ltd

Reproduced,
Fakenham Press Limited, Fakenham, Norfolk
CONTENTS

Preface page xi
Notation xiv
Units xv

CHAPTER 1. VECTORS
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definitions 2
1.3 The Rules of Vector Algebra 5
1.4 The Resolution of a Vector 10
1.5 The Products of Vectors 14
1.6 The Derivative of a Vector 24
1.7 The Integral of a Vector 30
1.8 Scalar and Vector Fields 32
1.9 Line Integrals 36
1.10 The Gradient Operator 42
1.11 Equipotentials and Field Lines 48
Exercises 48

CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
2.1 Introduction 57
2.2 Velocity and Acceleration 58
2.3 Constant Acceleration 63
2.4 Projectiles 64
2.5 Dimensions 71
Exercises 73

CHAPTER 3. DYNAMICS
3.1 Newton's Laws 80
3.2 Units 83
3.3 Applications 83
Exercises 89

CHAPTER 4. RESISTING FORCES

4.1 Solid Friction 93
4.2 Motion through a Fluid 99
Exercises 110
viii Contents

CHAPTER 5. IMPULSE, MOMENTUM, WORK AND ENERGY

5.1 Impulse and Momentum page 119
5.2 Work and Energy 121
5.3 Potential Energy 123
5.4 Power 128
Exercises 129

CHAPTER 6. OSCILLATIONS
6.1 Simple Harmonic Oscillations 136
6.2 Damped Oscillations 140
6.3 Forced Oscillations '142
6.4 Coupled Oscillations 146
6.5 Non-Linear Oscillations 154
Exercises 161

CHAPTER7. CENTRAL FORCES

7.1 Basic Equations 174
7.2 Conservative Forces 176
7.3 Circular Orbits and Stability 179
7.4 Elliptic Harmonic Motion 183
7.5 The Inverse Square Law 185
7.6 Kepler's Laws 199
7.7 The Effect of Resistance 202
Exercises 207

CHAPTER 8. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES

8.1 Mass Centre 215
8.2 Equations of Motion 216
8.3 Collision Problems 219
8.4 Variable Mass Problems 229
Exercises 233

CHAPTER 9. ANGULAR VECTORS

9.1 Existence 242
9.2 Angular Velocity 248
9.3 Relative Angular Velocity 252
9.4 Rotating Axes 254
9.5 Axes on the Earth's Surface 259
Exercises 265
 Contents ix

CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS

10.1 First Moment page 271
10.2 Second Moment 275
10.3 Vector Moment 283
10.4 Parallel Vectors 285
10.5 Reduction of a System of Line Vectors 287
10.6 Work of a System of Line Vectors 288
Exercises 289

CHAPTER 11. RIGID BODIES

11.1 Equations of Motion 294
11.2 Impulse and Momentum 308
11.3 Work and Energy 314
11.4 Oscillations 318
11.5 Three-Dimensional Problems 321
11.6 Gyroscopic Problems 331
Exercises 341

CHAPTER 12. VIRTUAL WORK AND LAGRANGE'S

EQUATIONS
12.1 Virtual Work 355
12.2 Generalised Coordinates 360
12.3 Lagrange's Equations 363
12.4 The Lagrangian and Hamiltonian 375
Exercises 378

CHAPTER 13. NON-LINEAR PROBLEMS

13.1 Conservative Forces 389
13.2 Autonomous Forces 397
13.3 The Method of Averaging 406
13.4 Forced Non-Linear Oscillations 415
Exercises 421

Index 429

TABLES
4.1.1 Values of I1s for some common substances page 95
7.6.1 Planetary data 201
PREFACE

When I began to write this book, I originally had in mind the needs of university
students in their first year. May aim was to keep the mathematics simple. No
advanced techniques are used and there are no complicated applications. The
emphasis is on an understanding of the basic ideas and problems which require
expertise but do not contribute to this understanding are not discussed. How-
ever, the presentation is more sophisticated than might be considered appropri-
ate for someone with no previous knowledge of the subject so that, although it is
developed from the beginning, some previous acquaintance with the elements of
the subject would be an advantage. In addition, some familiarity with element-
ary calculus is assumed but not with the elementary theory of differential
equations, although knowledge of the latter would again be an advantage.
It is my opinion that mechanics is best introduced through the motion of a
particle, with rigid body problems left until the subject is more fully developed.
However, some experienced mathematicians consider that no introduction is
complete without a discussion of rigid body mechanics. Conventional accounts
of the subject invariably include such a discussion, but with the problems
restricted to two-dimensional ones in the books which claim to be elementary.
The mechanics of rigid bodies is therefore included but there is no separate
discussion of the theory in two dimensions. The argument for a preliminary
treatment of two-dimensional mechanics is that it avoids the introduction of
angular vectors. It is true that the student finds this notion difficult to grasp. But
if he is to understand rigid body mechanics in any real sense, an understanding
of angular vectors is a prerequisite and it is as well to accept this rather than
delay the inevitable. In any case most of the interesting applications are three
dime nsional.
As already stated, the original aim was to produce an elementary text, but the
decision to include three-dimensional rigid body mechanics promotes it to the
intermediate category. Tensor calculus has, however, been omitted. This is not
because I underestimate its importance, but because its inclusion would not be
consistent with the aim to keep the mathematics simple. Furthermore, it is not
usually taught at this level primarily with an eye on its application to mechanics.
It is far more important for the student of mechanics to gain experience in the
application of the theory to specific problems, and to learn from that experience
how to choose by inspection the most appropriate set of axes for a given
problem. On the other hand the book would now be incomplete without some
introduction to Lagrange's equations. Again it seemed inappropriate to give a
full discussion of the theory of analytical mechanics, which requires a knowledge
of variational calculus and which, since it is now taught primarily as a pre-
requisite for quantum mechanics and field theory, requires a different develop-
ment and point of view.
xii Preface

Chapter 1 deals with the elementary theory of vectors. The rather full
treatment is in keeping with the present-day status in most universities, where it
is taught in its own right and for application over a wider field than classical
mechanics. The mechanics of a particle is introduced in Chapters 2-8 inclusive,
which are genuinely elementary in the sense discussed above and which in my
view form a satisfactory introduction to the subject.
Chapter 9 is exclusively devoted to a full discussion of angular vectors,
including the theory of rotating axes, and Chapter 10 deals with the second
prerequisite for an understanding of rigid body mechanics, namely the theory of
moments. Although these preliminaries take some time, the subsequent deri-
vation of the equations of motion is readily achieved and is discussed in Chapter
11. Whereas the derivation of the equations is relatively straightforward, their
application to the many and varied problems can be confusing, and it takes
further time and effort before the student becomes competent at solving such
problems. For this reason the bulk of Chapter 11 is devoted to worked ex-
amples, beginning with simple two-dimensional problems and ending with the
more sophisticated three-dimensional applications.
Virtual work and Lagrange's equations are introduced in Chapter 12 and
finally Chapter 13, which is unconventional for a mechanics text, describes some
important techniques used in non-linear mechanics and elsewhere. My own view
is that these techniques are more useful at the elementary level than the
conventional two-dimensional rigid body mechanics.
lllustrative examples are provided throughout each chapter, and a substantial
number of exercises is given at the end of each chapter. I know of no subject
where the working of examples is more important as an aid to understanding,
and it should occupy the major part of a student's effort.
All practising mathematicians would agree that understanding is helped by a
good notation and hampered by a bad one. I have tried to bear this in mind and
the student is well advised to do likewise. It is a mistake to have a hard and fast
rule, but generally speaking alliterative notation is to be preferred. Thus rn for
mass, rnp for the mass of a particle P, rno and rn 1 for the masses of particles Po
and PI are superior aids to identification than, say, m, Jl, M, M'. This also allows
the symbols Jl and M to be reserved for the coefficient of friction and the
moment of a force respectively. Since it is also desirable to use a notation which
is widely accepted and therefore easily recognised, I have used the recommend-
ations of the British Standards Institution (BS 1991, Part 1, 1967). The notation
is also compatible with that recommended in the report of the symbols commit-
tee of the Royal Society of London (Quantities, Units and Symbols, second
edition, 1975). For similar reasons of wide acceptance, the MKS system of units
is used exclusively.
I am indebted to those authors, too numerous to mention, who have written
on this subject before me and thereby helped to crystallise my own views. It is
also a pleasure to acknowledge the helpful suggestions and advice from W. H. H.
Banks, C. Illingworth, D. W. Moore and M. B. Zaturska. lowe a special debt of
 Preface xiii

gratitude to Nancy Thorp for her indispensable help in the typing of the
manuscript and for her tolerant acceptance of my seemingly endless revisions.
Any suggestions for improvement will be welcomed.

W.CHESTER
NOTATION

The following list shows the most common usage of the various symbols.

a acceleration N normal component of force

a 1a I, radius, amplitude of n frequency
oscillation P power
b breadth p linear momentum
c constant, speed of sound p 1p I, generalised momentum
d distance, diameter Q generalised force
E total energy q generalised coordinate
e eccentricity, coefficient of R resultant force
restitution r variable vector, especially
F force position vector
F 1F I, frictional component of r, e, rp spherical polar coordinates
force s arc length
F impulse T kinetic energy, tension,
G gravitational constant periodic time
g gravitational acceleration t time
H Hamiltonian u,v,w velocities
h height V potential energy
I moment of inertia W work
i,j, k unit vectors X,Y,Z rectangular cartesian coord-
k radius of gyration, coefficient inates
of resistance 'to.. modulus of elasticity
L angular momentum JJ. coefficient of friction
L 1L I, Lagrangian v kinematic viscosity
1 length p density
1\1 moment w angular velocity
m mass
UNITS

length metre m
time second s
mass kilogram kg
force newton N
work joule J
power watt W
angle radian rad
1 Vectors

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Physical quantities in elementary mechanics are usefully classified as vectors or

scalars according as they do or do not involve the notion of direction. Scalar
quantities, such as mass, length, time, energy, density, pressure are completely
specified by a number, measured according to some appropriate scale. When
associated with the same scale of measurement, these numbers are manipulated
according to the rules of elementary algebra. Indeed the motivation for these
rules arises originally from the way in which scalar quantities combine. In
particular we have the relations

a+b=b+a, ab =ba, (1.1.1)

(a + b) + e =a + (b + e), (ab)c =a(be), (1.1.2)

a(b + e) = ab + ae. (1.1.3)

The first pair of relations are the commutative rules of addition and multi-
plication. The second pair are the associative rules and the third is the distribu-
tive rule. *
A vector requires a direction, as well as a magnitude, for its complete
specification. We also require certain rules of procedure which have a formal
resemb lance to (1.1.1)-( 1.1.3). This is because it is convenient to adapt the
familiar notation of scalar algebra in order to explain and manipulate the rules
appropriate to vector algebra. In doing so, it is important to avoid the assump-
tion that the relations which hold in scalar algebra are automatically valid in
vector algebra simply because of the similarity of notation. While it is true that
the basic rules are a matter of definition when regarded as the basis of a branch
of mathematics, we are particularly concerned in mechanics with the behaviour
and manipulation of physical quantities. Typical examples of vectors in mechan-
ics are velocity, acceleration and force. It is the behaviour of physical quantities
such as these which provides the motivation for vector algebra, and the rules are
formulated with this in mind.
* It is worth noting that the theorems of elementary algebra need not be confined to the
system of real numbers. They can be interpreted to apply to any set of entities which
combine in a way that can be described by the rules of elementary algebra. Conversely
algebras in which the basic rules are different can be, and are, studied.
2 Vectors [1.2

1.2 DEFINITIONS

Free Vector
Let A, B be two points in three-dimensional space. Let C, D be two other points
such that

(i) the length CD is equal to the length AB,

(ii) CD is parallel to AB and in the same sense.

The class of all such pairs of points (C, D) is defined as the free vector AB. A
particular pair of points such as (A, B) or (C, D) is called a representation of the
vector. Any particular representation is sufficient to determine the vector.
However the vector itself is the class of all its representations and defines a
magnitude and direction, but no particular position in space. In Figure 1.2.1,
(A, B), (C, D) and (E, F) are all representations of the same vector AB or, more
briefly, a.
We say that two vectors a, b are equal if they refer to the same class and we
then write a = b. Thus in Figure 1.2.1 we have*

AB = CD = EF = a.

Note that if two vectors are unequal they will have no representation in
common. Hence if a representation of a vector a has the same magnitude and
direction as a representation of a vector b, one can infer that a = b. This should
be borne in mind in the subsequent development of the theory, for in the actual
manipulation of vectors we are constantly dealing with their representations as

Figure 1. 2.1 Representations of the free vector a.

* There are occasions when it is convenient to restrict a vector to a given line; it is then
called a line vector. In Figure 1.2.1, for example, (A, B) and (E, F) are representations of
the same line vector AB or EF, which is to be distinguished from the line vector CD. This
distinction will not, however, be used here.
1.2] Definitions 3

directed line segments. Where no confusion is likely to arise, the distinction

between a vector and its representation will not always be stressed.
The magnitude of the vector AB is denoted by I AB I or AB; the magnitude of
the vector a is denoted by I a I or a. It is a non-negative number obeying the laws
of scalar algebra.
Note that I AB I = I BA I, but that AB and BA are different vectors since their
directions are opposite in sense. We write

BA=-AB,

so that the negative sign reverses the direction of a vector without changing its
magnitude.
If A is a scalar, then Aa defines a vector of magnitude I A II a I. Its direction is
the direction of a if f... >0 and the direction of -a if f... <0. If eitherf... = 0 or
I a I = 0, it is a null vector.

Null Vector
The class of all pairs of coincident points (A, A) is called a null vector or zero
vector. It has zero magnitude and no specific direction associated with it. It is
comparable to the zero of scalar algebra although they are not identical con-
cepts. If a is a null vector we write a = o.

Position Vector
If the point 0 is fixed, OA is called the position vector of the point A relative to
O. Once the point 0 is chosen, the representation of any position vector relative
to 0 is fixed, and other representations cease to be appropriate. If two points
have the same position vector, then the points coincide.
The position vector will be used in the subsequent analysis as a useful way of
specifying a point relative to a chosen origin, that is as an alternative to its
specification by means of its coordinates relative to a chosen set of axes.
No special notation is used to distinguish a position vector and a correspond-
ing free vector. It should be clear from the context which is intended, and where
no restriction is imposed it is the free vector which is being discussed. In
particular, the actual algebra of vectors, with which we are concerned in this
chapter, refers to free vectors.

The Angle between two Vectors

Let (0, A), (0, B) be representations of the vectors OA, OB respectively. The
angle between OA and OB is defined as AOB, with 0 < AOB < 11'.
This definition requires a choice of representations having a common point.
This is always possible for free vectors, even if initially they are determined by
4 Vectors [1.2

A'
Figure 1.2.2 The angle between vectors.

representations which do not satisfy this condition. The angle is clearly inde-
pendent of the particular representations chosen to define it.
We note the follOwing properties:

(i) The angle between two vectors depends on their directions and not on their
magnitudes.
(ii) The angle between AO and BO is the same as the angle between OA' and
OB', where OA' = AO, OB' = BO. Thus it is A'OB' = AOB and so is the
same as the angle between OA and OB (see Fig. 1.2.2).
(iii) The angle between OA and BO is the same as the angle between OA and
OB' and so is AOB' = 1T - AOB.

Coplanar Vectors
If the directions of several vectors are all parallel to a plane, the vectors are said
to be coplanar. The plane of the vectors is any plane parallel to their directions.

Vector Addition
The sum, or resultant, of two vectors AB and BC is defined to be the vector AC,
as in Figure 1.2.3. We write

AB +BC =AC. (1.2.1 )

In particular
- ~ -
AB + BA = AA = O. (1.2.2.)

Again the representations of the two vectors must be appropriately chosen in

order to apply this rule. The resultant, however, is independent of the particular
representations chosen.
Note that the two vectors and their resultant are coplanar.
We also write

a + (-b) = a - b,
1.3] The Rules of Vector Algebra 5

a+b

A a
Figure 1.2.3 The sum of two vectors 3 and b.

and this serves to define the difference of two vectors. Thus, from Figure 1.2.3,
we have

(1.2.3)

Comparison of (1.2.1) and (1.2.3) shows that, as in scalar algebra, vectors can
be transferred from one side of an equation to the other with a change of sign.
An immediate consequence of the rule of addition is the inequality

1a + b 1< 1a 1+ 1b I, (l.2.4)

since the shortest distance between two points is a straight line.

We conclude this section by pointing out that the notions of length, parallel-
ism and direction, as used in the preceding definitions, are basic concepts as
used in Euclidean geometry. It is assumed that we can always tell when two
given lengths are equal, say by the use of a rigid measuring rod, and when two
lines are parallel. The notion of direction can be introduced in various ways,
but they all depend on the assumption of an underlying frame of reference
relative to which the direction can be defined. The justification for these
assumptions is based on their usefulness in practical applications. It is worth
noting, however, that assumptions are being made and that they are not always
applicable, for example in relativity and quantum mechanics, but for the
purposes of Newtonian mechanics they are amply justified by the correspon-
dence between theory and observation.

1.3 THE RULES OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

We are now in a position to deduce the following rules, which are a consequence
of the above definitions.

(i) a +b =b +a. (1.3.1 )

This is made clear in Figure 1.3.1. Let (A, B) and (D, C) be two representations
of a. Let (A, D) and (B, C) be two representations of b. Then ABCD is a
6 Vectors [1.3

k?7
A
Figure 1.3.1
a B
C

Illustration of the relation a + b = b + a.

parallelogram and

a + b = AB + BC = AC = AD + DC = b + a.

(ii) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). (1.3.2)

In Figure 1.3.2 let (A, B), (B, C), (C, D) be representations of a, band c
respectively. By successive application of the rule for addition we have

(a +b) +c=(AB + BC)+ CD = AC +CD= AD,

a + (b + c) = AB + (BC + CD) = AB + BD = AD.

Hence there is no confusion if we write a + b + c for this vector sum.

(iii) A(a + b) = Aa + Ab. (1.3.3)

This rule follows from the fact that if a, b, (a + b) are represented by the sides of
a triangle, then Aa, Ab, A(a + b) can be represented by the sides of a similar
triangle, which can then be used to define the sum of Aa and Ab.

(iv) (A + JL) a = Aa + JLa. (1.3.4)

a
b

Figure 1.3.2 The sum of three vectors a, band c.

1.3 ] The Rules of Vector Algebra 7

Both sides of this relation represent a vector of magnitude I A + Il I a in the

direction of a if (A. + Il) > 0 and of -a if (A + Il) < O.

(v) A(p.a) = (Ap)a. (1.3.5)

Both sides of this relation represent a vector of magnitude I A I I Il I a in the

direction of a if Ap > 0 and of -a if Ap < O.

(vi) a + 0= a. (1.3.6)

(vii) 1a = a. (1.3.7)

(viii) a + (-a) = O. (1.3.8)

The last three relations are merely statements of the properties of the null
vector, the unit scalar, and the vector -a. They are included in order to display
the relations which are used as the basis of the theory of linear vector spaces. In
this more general theory the quantities a, b, c ... are not further defined beyond
the requirement that they satisfy relations (1.3.1)-(1.3.8) above. The con-
sequences of such a theory are quite versatile in that they can be applied to any
set of quantities which obey the above rules. An elementary example is the set
of real numbers; a less obvious example is the set of all polynomials with real
coefficients. It is therefore worth bearing in mind that although we are con-
cerned here with the development of a theory for geometric vectors as defined in
§ 1.2, many results are capable of a more general interpretation in so far as they
depend simply on a manipulation of relations (1.3.1)-(1.3.8). It should not,
however, be assumed that vector algebra is appropriate in all applications where
a physical concept is described by a magnitude and direction. One exception is
the finite rotation of a rigid body; this has a magnitude, the angular displace-
ment, and a direction defined by the axis of rotation. It does not, however,
satisfy the rules of addition for vector algebra.*
Whenever a branch of mathematics is applied to a physical problem, there is
an assumption that the physical quantities involved obey the rules of the
mathematics used in their manipulation. The only justification for this assump-
tion depends on the extent to which it leads to profitable conclusions, which can
be satisfactorily confirmed by observation.

Example 1.3.1
Let r be the position vector of a point P relative to an origin O. Let a and b be
constant vectors, and let A be a variable scalar. We consider the locus of P when r
* For example let us define two perpendicular axes OX and OY and consider the
displacement of a rod lying originally along Ox. If it is given first a rotation through an
angle 11/2 about OY, so that it is perpendicular to both OX and OY, and then a rotation 11/2
about Ox, its fmal position will be along OY. If, however, the rotations are carried out in
the reverse order, that is first a rotation 11/2 about OX leaving the rod along OX, and then a
rotation 11/2 about OY, the final position of the rod will be perpendicular to OX and OY.
Thus the commutative law of addition is violated.
8 Vectors [1.3

o __------~r------~p
Ab

(i) (ii)

Figure 1.3.3 Illustration for Example 1.3.1: (i) r = a + Ab; (ii) I r - a 1= b.

varies in such a way that

(i) r=a+Ab, (ii) Ir-al=b,

(see Fig. 1.3.3).

(i) Here r - a = Ab, which is a variable vector parallel to b. If a is the position

vector of the point A, it follows that P lies on a line parallel to b and passing
throughA.
(li) If a is the position vector of A, then r - a = AP and the given condition is
equivalent to AP = b. Since b is constant this allows P to describe a sphere,
centre A and radius b.

Example 1.3.2
Let the points A, G, B in Figure 1.3.4 lie on a straight line, in that order, and
such that

mAG=nGB,

Figure 1.3.4 Illustration for Example 1.3.2.

1.3] The Rules of Vector Algebra 9

where min> O. Given that 0 is any other point, show that

mOA + nOB =(m +n)OG. (1.3.9)

The information given is equivalent to the relation

mAG=nGB,
since mAG and nGB have the same magnitude and the same direction. Hence
m(AO + OG) = n(GO + OB),
or, by rearrangement,

mOA + nOB =(m + n)OG.

This result is not restricted to points G which lie between A and B. 'The
essential condition is that mAG =nGB should be satisfied. This can include
points G on the extensions of AB provided negative values of min are allowed.

Example 1.3.3
Vector algebra is particularly useful in the derivation of certain results in
Euclidean geometry. The following example proves, among other things, that the
medians of a triangle (that is the lines joining the vertices to the mid-points of
the opposite sides) intersect at a single point, which is called the centroid of the
triangle.
In Figure 1.3.5. let G be a point on the median AD of a triangle ABC such
that

3AG=2AD. (1.3.10)

Show that

(i) (1.3.11)

c
B

Figure 1.3.5 Illustration for Example 1.3.3.

10 Vectors [1.4

(li) if 0 is any other point (not necessarily in the plane of ABC)

30G :::: (OA + OB + OC), (1.3.12)

(iii) G lies on the other medians.

(i) To prove the first result, we have

AG::::AB+ BG::::AC+CG, by (1.2.1),

2AG :::: AB + AC + BG + CG, by addition,
:::: 2AD + BG + CG, by (1.3.9),
:::: 3AG + BG + CG, by (1.3.10).

Hence

(li) Next we write

OA + OB + OC:::: (OG + GA) + (OG + GB) + (OG + GC), by (1.2.1),

:::: 30G, by (1.3.11).

(iii) By a cyclic interchange ofletters A, B, C in (1.3.12) we can infer that

OG':::: HOB + OC + OA):::: OG,

where G' is the point of trisection of the median BE that corresponds to G on

AB. Hence G and G' have the same position vector with respect to 0 and
therefore coincide. A similar argument applies to the third median.

1.4 THE RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR

It has already been shown that a single resultant of several given vectors can be
dermed, and we now consider the converse process of resolving a given vector
into several constituent vectors. We first introduce another definition.
If there is a linear combination of three vectors which is zero, the vectors are
said to be linearly dependent. In other words a, band c are linearly dependent
if there are suitable scalars X, p., v, not all zero, such that

Xa + p.b + vc:::: o.
Conversely, if the relation is satisfied only when X:::: p.:::: v:::: 0, the vectors are
said to be linearly independent.
Physically speaking the distinction is one between coplanar and non-coplanar
1.4 ] The Resolution of a Vector 11

vectors, apart from certain degenerate cases which are not exceptional if we
accept the convention that any two vectors and a null vector are coplanar. The
relation Aa + Ilb + vc = 0 implies that Aa, Ilb, vc are coplanar since -Xa is the
resultant of Ilb and vc. If a, b and c are not coplanar there is a contradiction
unless A =Il =v =O. For if, say, A:;6 0 we have -a = A-Illb + A-I vc which
implies that a is coplanar with band c.

Theorem
Any vector in three dimensions is equal to a linear combination of any three
given linearly independent vectors.
Let (0, P) be a representation of r, and let Ox, Oy, Oz define the directions
of the three given vectors (see Fig. 1.4.1).* It is possible to construct a
parallelepiped whose adjacent edges OX, OY, OZ are in the given directions and
whose diagonal is OP. First construct QP parallel to Oz so that Q lies in the plane
of Ox, Oy. Then construct XQ parallel to Oy so that X lies on Ox. The vectors
OX, XQ, QP define the parallelepiped and

r = OX + XQ + QP = OX + OY + OZ. (1.4.1)

This construction is always possible provided that the directions Ox, Oy, Oz are
not coplanar.
We say that OX, OY, OZ are the resolutes of r in the three given directions.
If a, b, c are the three given vectors whose directions are defined by Ox, Oy,
Oz respectively, it is possible to choose scalars A, Il, v such that

Aa = OX, Ilb = OY, vc = OZ. (I.4.2)

Hence r = Aa + Ilb + vc. (I.4.3)

.,----------:;;iII p

°
Figure 1.4.1 The resolutes of r parallel to Ox, Oy, Oz.

* In spite of the notation, the results of this section are not confIrmed to the position
vector. They apply to the free vector r, of which (0, P) is a representation based on 0.
12 Vectors [ 1.4

Since a, b, c are given to be linearly independent, it also follows that A = P =: v=:O

if r = O. This implies uniqueness of the resolutes. For if

(1.4.4)

we have (1.4.5)

and so (1.4.6)

It follows that if two vectors are equal their resolutes are equal. This result can
be useful in demonstrating vector identities.
Consider now the vector

(1.4.7)

where (1.4.8)

It is clear that, by addition,

f =: .f fi = (.1:. Ai) a + (.f Pi) b + (.f Vi)

Fl 1=1 1=1 1=1
C, (1.4.9)

and this dermes, uniquely, the resolutes of the resultant f of several vectors fi. It
shows that the sum of the resolutes in a given direction is the resolute of the
resultant.
A most important application of the above results is to the situation in which
Ox, Oy, Oz form a mutually orthogonal right-handed set of coordinate axes.*
Let OP = f and let P have coordinates (x, y, z) relative to such axes. Let i,j, k be
vectors of unit magnitude in the directions Ox, Oy, Oz respectively. Then

r = xi +yj + zk, (1.4.1O)

We call x,y, z the components of f in the directions Ox, Oy, Oz. More generally
the component of f in any direction is the projection of its representation on to
a line in that direction, associated with the appropriate sign.
In Figure 1.4.2 let

I = cos POX, m = cos pe)Y, n = cos poz. (1.4.11)

* A right-handed orthogonal set of axes Oxyz is such that the rotation of a right-handed
screw through an angle nl2 from Oy to Oz, or Oz to Ox, or Ox to Oy propels it along the
positive direction of the third axis. A left-handed set is obtained if the direction of one of
the axes is reversed. It is conventional to choose a right-handed set. Such axes are also
described as cartesian or rectangular.
1.4] The Resolution of a Vector 13

_-------....p (x,y, z)

Z f----+----;/---{

o x
Figure 1.4.2 Cartesian components of r.

We then have, by projection

x = rl, Y = rrn, Z =rn (1.4.12)

and so
r = rli + rrnj + rnk = rCli + mj + nk). (1.4.13)

Since r is the magnitude of r, it follows that Ii + mj + nk represents a vector of

unit magnitude in the direction of r. In other words (I, m, n) are the coordinates
of a point on op at unit distance from 0, and

(1.4.14)

We call (I, m, n) the direction cosines of the line OP, relative to the given axes.
As a special case of (1.4.9) we note that the sum of the components, in a
given direction, of a set of vectors is equal to the component of their resultant.
That is

( .i:;Xi)i+(.fYi)j+(.fzi)k=.fri=r=Xi+yj+Zk (1.4.15)
1=1 1=1 1=1 1=1

and this implies that

s s
LXi =x, L Yi =y,
i= 1 i=1

Henceforth the symbols i, j, k will denote vectors of unit magnitude parallel

to the three coordinate axes of a right-handed orthogonal set. They will be
referred to as unit vectors.

Example 1.4.1
Find the vector AB, where A has coordinates (1, 2, 3) and B has coordinates
(4,5,6).
14 Vectors [1.5

Here OA = i + 2j + 3k,
OB = 4i + 5j + 6k,

and AB=OB-OA
= 3i + 3j + 3k.
Note that the radius vector to the point with coordinates (3,3,3) has the
same magnitude as AB and is parallel (but not identical) to the line segment AB.
It is the representation of AB that starts at the origin of coordinates.

1.5 THE PRODUCTS OF VECTORS

There is no definition of the reciprocal of a vector, so that in no circumstances

should one attempt to divide by a vector. The concept of multiplication is,
however, part of vector algebra and, as in the case of addition, it needs to be
defined. Apart from the multiplication of a vector by a scalar, already intro-
duced in § 1.2, there are two products which are used and which will now be
discussed.

Scalar Product
The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitudes of
the vectors and the cosine of the angle 0(0';;; 0 .;;; 1T) between the vectors (see
Fig. 1.5.1). It is written

a. b = ab cos 0 (1.5.1 )

We note the following properties:

(i) a . b = ab cos 0 = ba cos 0 = b . a. (1.5 .2)

(ii) (Aa) . b = a. (Ab) = Aa. b. (1.5.3)

Figure 1.5.1 The angle 0 between a and h.

1.5] The Products of Vectors 15

This follows at once when X;;" O. It is also true when X< 0 for then

(Xa) . b = I X I ab COS(7T - 8) = - I X I ab cos 8 = Xa . b.

(iii) If 8 =0, then a . b =abo In particular

and Li=j.j=k.k=1. (1.5.4)

(iv) If a . b = 0 then one (or more) of a, b and cos 8 is zero. In particular

j.k=k.i=Lj=O. (1.5.5)

(v) Since a . b is the magnitude of b multiplied by the projection of a in the

direction of b, it follows that a . i is the component of a in the direction of i
and so

a = (a . i)i + (a. j)j + (a . k)k. (1.5.6)

(vi) a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c. (1.5.7)

For

a . (b + c) = a (component of (b + c) parallel to a).

By (1.4.9) this is equal to

a (sum of components ofb and c parallel to a).

But scalar quantities satisfy the distributive law (1.1.3). Hence

a. (b + c)= a (component ofb parallel to a)

+ a (component of c parallel to a)
=a. b + a. c.
(vii) The repeated application of (1.5.7) allows the expansion of the scalar
product when the vectors are expressed in terms of their components.
Thus if

it follows, with the help of (1.5.4), (1.5.5) and (1.5.7), that

a. b = (axi + ayj + azk) . (bxi + byj + bzk)

= axb x + ayby + azbz· (1.5.8)
16 Vectors [1.5

Note, however, that in general (a. b)c * a(b . c) and that a. b. c is not
defined.

Vector Product
The second kind of product is a vector whose magnitude is defined as the
product of the magnitudes of the vectors and the sine of the angle e(O ~ e ~ Tr)
between them. The direction is perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors in
the sense of the translation of a right-handed screw rotated from the first to the
second vector. Note that the order ofthe vectors is now relevant. The notation is

a x b =ab sin en

where, in Figure 1.5.1, n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the figure
and into (rather than out of) this plane. We note the follOWing properties:

(i) Ifax b = 0 then one (or more) of a, b and sin e is zero and vice versa.
Thus a x a = 0 and in particular

i xi =j xj =k x k = O. (1.5.9)

(ii) If a and b are perpendicular then I a x b I = ab.

More specifically, for the unit vectors i, j, k we have

i = j x k, j = k x i, k = i x j. (1.5.10)

(iii) Some care is necessary in the handling of this product since the commuta-
tive and associative laws are not satisfied. In fact, one can see from the
defmition that
a x b = - b x a.
Also by counter example it can be seen that, in general,

(a x b) x c * a x (b x c).
For example (i x i) xj = 0 but i x (i xj) = i x k = - j.

(iv) The distributive laws, namely,

(Nt) x b = a x CAb) = Aa x b, (1.5.11)

ax(b+c)=axb+axc, (1.5.12)

are, however, satisfied. The first relation (1.5.11) follows from the defini-
tion, with a little care necessary if A is negative.
As a preliminary to the proof of (1.5.12) we note that if a =0 the
*
relation is clearly satisfied. When a 0 it is sufficient to prove the result for
a = 1, since for other values each side of the equation can be reduced by the
factor a-I.
1.5] The Products of Vectors 17

In Figure 1.5.2 let the sides of the triangle PQR be representations of

b, c and b + c as shown. Let the triangle P'Q'R' be the projection of PQR
on to a plane perpendicular to a. From the definition of the vector product
it is clear that 1a x b 1is equal to the product of the magnitude of a and the
component of b perpendicular to a. Since a = 1 here, it follows that
1a x b 1= P'Q'. The direction of a x b is perpendicular to a and b, it can
therefore be obtained from P'Q' by rotation through an angle 1T12 about a
in a dir~ction appropriate to the right-handed screw rule. Similarly a x c
and a x (b + c) can be constructed from Q'R' and P'R' by rotation through
an angle 1T12. Thus a x b, a x c and a x (b + c) can be represented by P'Q",
Q"R" and P'R" respectively, where the triangle P'Q"R" is obtained by the
rotation of triangle P'Q'R' about a through an angle 1T12. It follows
immediately, from the law of addition, that

or
a x b + a x c = a x (b + c).

(v) By repeated application of (1.5.12), we can expand the vector product

when the constituent vectors are defined in terms of their components.
Thus, with the help of (1.5.9) and (1.5.10), we have

a x b = (axi + ayj + azk) x (bxi + byj + bzk)

= (ayb z - azby)i + (azb x - axbz)j + (axby - aybx)k. (1.5.13)

a b+c

P lL~--"tb----ll Q 1
1 1
1----------1 I---~

!~ ------t-1~
p'
Q'

Figure 1. 5. 2 Projections of b, c and b + c on to a plane perpendicular to a.

18 Vectors [1.5

Triple Scalar Product

The expression a . (b x c) is called a triple scalar product. The equivalence ofthe
expressions below follows at once from the properties of the scalar and vector
products,

a. (b x c) = (b x c). a = - a. (c x b).

The following relations are also valid:

a . (b x c) = b. (c x a) = c. (a x b). (1.5.14)

These relations are easily demonstrated by expressing the vectors in their

component form. Thus

It merely requires a judicious rearrangement of the various terms to demonstrate

that (1.5.15) is invariant under a cyclic change of a, b, c, that is a change from
a, b, c to b, c, a or c, a, b in the order indicated.
If a, b, c are linearly dependent, that is coplanar, then a. (b x c) = 0 since a
and b x c are perpendicular. Conversely if a . (b x c) =1= 0 then a, b, c are linearly
independent. This is a useful test for linear independence.

Triple Vector Product

The expression a x (b x c) is called a triple vector product. It satisfies the relation

a x (b x c) = (a. c)b - (a. b)c. (1.5 .16)

A direct verification can be obtained by considering the components of the two

sides ofthe relation, as follows.
The x component of the right-hand side is

(axc x + aycy + azcz)b x - (axb x + ayby + azbz)cx

= ay(bxcy - bycx ) - az(bzc x - bxcz )
= ay(b x c)z - az(b x c)y
= {a x (b x c)}x'

which is the x component of the left-hand side. The other components are dealt
with in similar fashion.
1.5] The Products of Vectors 19

Example 1.5.1
We use the scalar product to establish the cosine rule for a triangle, that is, if
BC =a, CA = b, AB = c, then

(1.5.17)

Since

we have BC . BC ::: (BA + AC) . (BA + AC),

= AC . AC + BA . BA + 2AC . BA.

Hence a2 = b 2 + c2 + 2bc cos (1T - BA.C),

= b2 + c2 - 2bc cos BAC.

Note that BAC is the angle between AB and AC; the angle between BA and AC
is 1T - BAC (see Fig. 1.5.3).

,/
,/
/
,/

A,/ n-BAC

c b

B~---------+----------~C
a

Figure 1.5.3 Illustration for EXample 1.5.1.

Example 1.5.2
We prove that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
Let the altitudes through B and C, of the triangle ABC, meet in H (see Fig.
1.5.4). Then

BH .CA=O or (BA + AH) . CA = 0,

CH.AB=O or (CA + AH) . AB = O.

The addition of these two relations gives

AH . CA + AH . AB = 0 or AH. CB=O

since BA . CA + CA . AB = O.
20 Vectors [1.5

B C
Figure 1.5.4 Illustration for Example 1.5.2.

The relation AH. CB = 0 implies that AH is perpendicular to CB, that is the

altitude through A passes through H.

Example 1.5.3
We use the vector product to prove the sine rule for a triangle, namely that in
any triangle ABC with sides a, b, c

sin A sin B sin C

--=--=-- (1.5.18)
a b c

In the triangle ABC, let

BC=a, CA=b, AB=c.

Then - c=a+b,

and hence (a +b) x c = O.

This is equivalent to

b x c = c x a,

and similarly we can show that

b x c = c x a = a x b.

Thus we have, since sin (rr - A) = sin A etc.,

be sin A = ea sin B = ab sin C,

sin A sin B sin C

or --=--=--
a b e
1.5] The Products of Vectors 21

Example 1.5.4
Let (J" (J2, (J3 be the angles between the vectors r2 and r3, r3 and r" r, and r2
respectively. We consider the problem of finding the angle between r3 and
r, x r2' Geometrically this is the angle between r3 and the perpendicular to the
plane of r, and r2' If this angle is cp, we have that

An alternative expression may be derived from the relation

from which we can obtain the relation

1r3 x (rl x r2) 12 = (r3 . r2)2ri + (r3 . rlir~ - 2(r3 . r2)(r3 . rl)(rl . r2)
= rir~r~(cos2 (Jl + cos 2 (J2 - 2 cos (Jl cos (J2 cos (J3)'

It follows that

Example 1.5.5
We have already seen, in § 1.4, that

r=Xa +JLb+vc

for linearly independent vectors a, b, c and SUitably chosen scalars A, JL, v. It is

clear that A, JL, v must be some functions of the four vectors a, b, c and r. We are
now in a position to derive explicit expressions for A, JL, v.

Since (b x c) is perpendicular to band c, we have

r. (b x c) = Aa . (b x c).

Similarly

r. (c x a) = JLb . (c x a) = JLa . (b x c),

r. (a x b) = vc. (a x b) = va. (b x c).

It follows that

{a. (b x c)}r= {r. (b x c)}a + {r. (c x a)}b + {r. (a x b)}c. (1.5.19)

This gives r as a linear combination of a, b, c if they are linearly independent.

But if a, b, c are linearly dependent, the factor a . (b x c) on the left-hand side is
22 Vectors [1.5

zero. In this case, for any vector r, we have

0= {r. (b x c)}a + {r. (c x a)}b + {r. (a x b)}c.

When a, band c are linearly independent, it is convenient to introduce the

notation

A= bxc cxa axb

B=--- C=--- (1.5.20)
a. (b x c)' a.(bxc)' a.(bxc)'

so that r = (r . A)a + (r . B)b + (r . C)c. (1.5.21 )

There are certain reciprocal relations satisfied between the two sets of vectors
a, b, c and A, B, C. It follows from their defmition that

a.A=b.B=c.C=I,
(1.5.22)
a . B = a . C =: b . C = b . A = c . A = c . B = 0,
(cxa)x(axb) {(cxa).b}a a
BxC= = =--- (1.5.23)
{a. (b x C)}2 {a. (b x C)}2 a. (b x c)'
1
A . (B x C) = (b ). (1.5.24)
a. xc

Hence
BxC b= CxA AxB
a= c= . (1.5.25)
A. (B x C)' A. (B x C)' A. (B x C)

From (1.5.24), it follows that A . (B x C) =1= 0 if a . (b x c) =1= O. Hence A, Band

C are linearly independent whenever a, band c are linearly independent, and an
alternative expression for r can be given as a linear combination of A, Band C.
Reference to (1.5.19) shows that the appropriate representation is

{A. (B x CHr = {r . (B x C)}A + {r . (C x AHB + {r . (A x B)}C

which, with the help of (I .5.25), can be written in the form

r = (r . a)A + (r . b)B + (r . c)C. (1.5.26)

This last relation shows that any vector r is specified by its scalar products with
three linearly independent vectors. A corollary of this result is that if the scalar
products of r with three linearly independent vectors are zero, then r is a null
vector.
A useful expression for the magnitude of r can be deduced from the use of
1.5] The Products of Vectors 23

relations (1.5.22), since

r2 = {(r. A)a + (r. B)b + (r. C)c} . {(r. a)A + (r. b)B + (r . c)C}
= (r. A)(r. a) + (r. B)(r. b) + (r. C)(r . c).

Example 1.5.6
Sometimes a vector is defmed only through a vector equation. We take as an
example the equation

ax +x xa=b, (1.5.27)

from which an explicit expression for x is required.

We consider first the case a =1= o. We take the vector product of (1.5.27) with a
to get

~(a xx) +a x (x xa)=a x b.

With the help of (1.5.16) and (1.5.27) this becomes

(1.5.28)

This would be sufficient to determine x if we knew the value of a . x. To fmd

this we take the scalar product of (1.5 .27) with a to get

aa. x =a. b.

Substitution in (1.5.28) then gives

which gives x as a linear combination of a, b and a x b provided that a =1= O.

Now consider the case a = 0, so that

x x a=b.

There is clearly no solution unless a and b are perpendicular. If this condition is

satisfied and Xo is a particular solution, then so is Xo + A.a for all A.. The solution
is therefore not unique. Suppose Xo is chosen to satisfy Xo • a = O. Then

The general solution is therefore

x = a -2 (a x b) + A.a.
24 Vectors [1.6

1.6 THE DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR

We now introduce the notion of a vector which varies as a function of some

scalar variable t, and we write r = r(t). Many of its properties can be discussed by
analogy with the notion of a scalar function, of which it is a generalisation.
However, it is important to realise that the variation of a vector is not absolute
but relative to an implied frame of reference, and a change of frame will be
accompanied by a change in the relative variation. For example, if Irl is constant
then r itself is a constant vector relative to a frame of reference in which one of
the axes is always parallel to r. In particular the unit vectors i, j, k are constant
vectors relative to the frame which defmes them, although they may vary
relative to some other frame. In any application of vector analysis, a suitable
frame of reference must always be defined. In the development of the theory
it is assumed that this has already been done.
We define the derivative of a vector function with a definition based on a
generalisation of the one used in elementary calculus, namely

dr = lim r(t + ot) - r(t)

(1.6.1)
dt ot-+ 0 5t

provided such a limit exists. Let us choose a representation of ret) based on some
origin 0, so that ret) is the position vector of some point P relative to O. This is
not essential to the above defmition, but it does allow us to give it a geometrical
interpretation. In Figure 1.6.1 we have

ret + 5t) - r(t) = ppl, (1.6.2)

and so we can write

dr r pp' . pp'
-d=lm I , 0.6.3)
t ot-+O pp .5t

Figure 1.6.1 The locus of a point P whose position vector r(t) varies con-
tinuously with t.
1.6] The Derivative of a Vector 25

where pp' refers to the length of the chord PP'. We note that PP' /PP represents a
I

unit vector and that, as Dt ~ 0, the direction of this unit vector tends to coincide
with that of the tangent at P. Also

lim pp' = ds
(1.6.4)
6t-O ot dt'
where s is the arc length. This is so because
PP' = os(1 + e), (1.6.5)
where os is the arc length from P to pi, and e ~ 0 as os ~ O. In fact one can
introduce the notion of arc length along a curve as the function whose derivative
is defined by (1.6.4), the arc length itself then being obtained by integration of
the resulting function. For future reference we derive the following result from
this definition. Let
ret) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k
so that x(t), yet), z(t) are the coordinates of P, and

(PP')2 = {x(t + ot) - X(t)}2 + {yet + ot) - y(t)}2 + {z(t + ot) - z(tW.
(1.6.6)
When substituted in (1.6.4) this gives

ds = lim {(X(t + ot) - X(t))2 + (y(t + ot) - y(t))2 + (z(t + Or) - z(t) )2}1/2
dt 6t-0 ot ot ot

(1.6.7)

We have seen that the geometrical interpretation of the derivative of the

position vector ret) of a point P is a vector of magnitude ds/dt parallel to the
tangent to the locus of P. Two immediate consequences are that dr/ds is a vector
of unit magnitude, and that if r is a constant vector (that is constant in
magnitude and direction) then dr/dt = O. Furthermore the rules for differ-
entiation are generalisations of the rules used in elementary calculus. In par-
ticular, we have
d drl dr2
dt (rl + r2) = Tt+ Tt ' (1.6.8)

d dr dA
dt (Ar) = A dt + dt r, (1.6.9)

d dr2 drl
dt (rl . r2) = rl ' Tt + dt' r2, (1.6.10)

d dr2 drl
- (rl x r2) = rl x - + - x r2' (1.6.11 )
dt dt dt
26 Vectors [1.6

The proofs of these results are straightforward generalisations of the proofs used
for differentiation involving ordinary functions. For example,

Now rl(t + 6t) -+ rl(t) as 6t -+0,

1 dr2
;- {r2(t + 6t) - r2(t)} - + - as 6t -+ 0,
ut dt

and so

In the final relation (1.6.11) it should be noted that the terms in the vector
products are not commutative.
One important application of the rules allows us to express the derivative of a
vector in terms of its components relative to three fIXed directions. Thus if

r =A(t)a + tL(t)b + v(t)c, (1.6.12)

where a, b and c are constant vectors, we have

dr dA dtL dv
- =- a + - b + - c. (1.6.13)
dt dt dt dt

In particular, if

r =x(t)i +y(t)j + z(t)k, (1.6.14)

where i, j, k are fixed, mutually orthogonal unit vectors, we have

dr dx. dy. dz
-=-l+-J+-k. (1.6.15)
dt dt dt dt

It is important to note that the validity of (1.6.13) depends on the vectors

a, band c being fIXed both in magnitude and direction. When only the magni-
tude of the vector is constant, the derivative will not in general be zero.
Let P describe a circle of unit radius, so that its position vector is a unit
vector a, say (see Fig. 1.6.2). According to the interpretation given earlier, the
rate of change of a is a vector of magnitude ds/dt parallel to the tangent to the
1.6] The Derivative of a Vector 27

Q ""'.,.-------.... ...........
/ / ' ,,
I
/
/
,,
\
P
\
\
\
\
~---'-_ _ _----II_'x
I
I
Figure 1.6.2 Perpendicular unit vectors a and b.

unit circle at P. Since the arc length here is just the angular distance 0, measured
in radians from some initial line, we have the result that

(1.6.16)

where b is a unit vector perpendicular to a in the sense of increasing 0 . Since b is

also the position vector of some point Q on the unit circle at an angular distance
(0 + rr/2) from the initial line, a similar argument applied to b gives the result

db d dO
- =-(0 + rr/2)(-a) =- -a. (1.6.17)
dt dt dt

Alternatively one can choose fIxed unit vectors i and j along and perpendicular
to the initial line, so that

a = cos Oi + sin Oj~ (1.6.18)

b = -sin Oi + cos OJ. (1.6.19)

The rules for differentiation then give immediately

da . dO . dO. dO
dt = - sm 0 dt 1 + cos 0 dt J = dt b, (1.6.20)

db dO.. dO. dO
- = - cos 0 - 1 - sm 0 - J = - - a (1.6.21)
dt dt dt dt'

as before.
The above results can be used to calculate the derivative dr/dt of a vector ret)
which always remains parallel to a fIxed plane. Let a, b be unit vectors along and
28 Vectors [1.6

Figure 1.6.3 Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, 0).

perpendicular to r and let the direction of r make an angle 0 with a fIxed axis, as
shown in Figure 1.6.3. We have

r = ra, (1.6.22)
dr dr da dr dO
-=-a+r-=-a+r-b. (1.6.23)
dt dt dt dt dt

Also d2 r = d2 r a + dr da + dr dO b + r d2 0 b + r dO db
dt 2 dt 2 dt dt dt dt dt 2 dt dt
d2 r dr dO dr dO d20 (dO )2
=-a+--b+--b+r-b-r - a
dr dt dt dt dt dt 2 dt

(1.6.24)

Equations (1.6.23) and (1.6.24) give the components of dr/dt and d2 r/dt 2
along and perpendicular to r. In some applications these components can be
more useful than the expressions obtained using cartesian components, namely,

When r is used as the position vector of a point P in a plane, as in Figure

1.6.3, the variables (r,0) are called the polar coordinates of P. In some appli-
cations, the geometry is such that polar coordinates are a preferable alternative
to cartesian coordinates for specifying the position of P. If 0 is measured relative
to the x-axis of a system of cartesian coordinates, the relations between the two
systems are
x=rcosO, y=rsinO,
r = (x 2 +y2)1I2, 0= tan -I (y/x).
1.6] The Derivative of a Vector 29

Example 1.6.1
If rand r' are two parallel vectors, the following relation holds:

,dr ,dr
r .-=r-.
dt dt

For if r and r' are parallel vectors we can write r' = A(t)r for some scalar variable
A(t). It is then sufficient to prove that

dr dr
r.-=r-.
dt dt

This result follows at once by differentiating the relation

dr dr dr dr
to get r . - + - . r = 2r . - = 2r - .
dt dt dt dt

Example 1.6.2
If a, b, C are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors, their derivatives da/dt,
db/dt, dc/dt are linearly dependent. To demonstrate this, it is sufficient to show
that

da . (db x dC) = o.
dt dt dt

If a, band C form a right-handed triad, we have a = b x c. Hence

da . (db x dC) = (b x dc + db x c) . (db x dC)

dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

= dc . {(db x dC) x b} + db . { C x (db x dC)}

dt dt dt dt dt dt
= _ (db. dC)(b . dC) _ (db. dC) (C. db)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
=_(db. dC)i.(b.C)=O
dt dt dt

since b . C= O. Use has also been made of the relations

db dc
b .-=c.-=O.
dt dt
30 Vectors [1.7

1. 7 THE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR

A vector function of a scalar variable t can also be integrated. We interpret this

as the reverse of differentiation. Let
dr or
v(t)=-= lim - , (1.7.1)
dt ot ..... ofit

and write Or = (v(t*) + €)ljt, (1.7.2)

where t* is any value of t satisfying t ~ t* ~ t + ot so that t* -+ t as fit -+ O. If

(1.7.2) is divided by fit and compared with (1.7.1), we see that e-+ 0 as fit -+0.
Now lett
(1.7.3)
where rj = r(tj), and let
(1.7.4)

It follows, by reference to Figure 1.7.1 and equation (1.7.2), that

n n
rn - ro = 1: Ofi = 1: (v(tn + €j)ljtj, (1.7.5)
j= 1 j= 1

Po
Figure 1.7.1 A typical increment Orj = fi - rj-l of a continuously varying
vector r.

t There is a possible confusion of notation here in that or is used conventionally to

denote the increment r(t + Of) - r(t) in the scalar function r(t), that is OP' - OP in Figure
1.6.1. On the other hand or is used to denote r(t + ot) - r(t), or the vector JiP' of Figure
1.6.1. Accordingly or is not the same as lor I and the former should not be used as an
alternative for the latter.
1. 7] The Integral oj a Vector 31

where €; -+ 0 as ot; -+ 0 for all i such that 1 < i < n. Now with the help of a
generalisation of (1.2.4), namely

I al + a2 + ... + an I < I all + I a2 I + ... + I an I,

we have (1.7.6)

where €m is the maximum value of €i for 1 < i < n. Hence, as all the Of i -+ 0, so
does €m(tn - to) and therefore
n
rn - ro = lim ~ v;(tnot;. (1.7.7)
ot;-O;=1

When this limit exists, and is independent of the way of proceeding to the limit,
it is called the Riemann integral of v and we write

= Jt
n n
rn - ro = lim ~ v;(tnot; vet) dt. (1.7.8)
6t;-0 ;= 1 to

The indefinite integral is written

Jv(t) dt =r + c (1. 7.9)

where c is a constant vector of integration. In summary, if a vector r can be

found such that dr / dt = v, then the integral of v is defined by (1.7.9).

Example 1. 7.1
If d is a constant vector we have

Jd :/(t) dt = J:t (df) dt = df(t) + c,

where c is a constant vector of integration. In particular

r('dt
J i -dr + j ::::..r
x dr + k -dr
dt dt
z)
dt = ~dr
- dt = r + c.
dt

Thus if a = i cos wt + j sin wt, b = - i sin wt + j cos wt,

where w is a constant, we have that

r 1
Ja dt =- (i sin wt - j cos wt) + c =- - b + c,
1
w w

r 1
Jb dt = - (i cos wt + j sin wt) + c' = - a + c'.
1
w w
32 Vectors [1.8

Example 1. 7.3
r x -d22r dt
Jr = Jr-d ( r x -dr) dt =r x -dr + C.
dt dt dt dt

1.8 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS

We may also consider a vector r as an independent variable and introduce the

idea of a scalar funtion, <p(r), or a vector function, F(r), of r. These functions
represent mappings of r into associated scalar or vector quantities according to a
prescribed rule. If an origin ° is chosen, r can be considered as the position
vector of some point P in the space of r, and then </>(r) and F(r) can be associateci
with the appropriate point P. When these functions are known at all points of
the space of r, they are called scalar and vector fields respectively. In some
applications the space of r may be restricted, such as a bounded region or a
two-dimensional space. It may also be convenient in applications to define a set
of cartesian axes based on 0, and then </> and F can be regarded as functions of
the components (x,y,z) of r or, equivalently, the coordinates of P. We then
write </>(x,Y,z) or F(x,y,z). Note, however, that the values of </> or F are not
dependent on the particular choice of axes, in the same way that r is not so
dependent.
A useful way to display a scalar field, and one that is often used, is by means
of the family of surfaces </> = constant. In a two-dimensional space these surfaces
become curves, a well-known and common example being the contours shown
on the two-dimensional space represented by a map. These contours represent
the curves of equal height above sea level, and with a little experience the
topography of the area can be deduced from such contours. The curves of
constant pressure, called isobars, found on meteorological maps are another
example. It is clear that the height (or pressure) at a particular location is not
dependent on any coordinates that might be used to define that location,
although it is often useful in practice to defme coordinates, such as those based
on the grid reference system of ordnance survey maps.
As a simple mathematical example, consider the scalar field </>(1 r I), which is
constant when the magnitude of r is constant. This is displayed as a family of
concentric circles in two dimensions, or concentric spheres in three dimensions.
A second example is </> =a . r , where a is a constant vector. Here </> = constant is
equivalent to the condition that the component of r in the direction of a is
constant, and the corresponding surfaces are the family of planes perpendicular
to a. Note that if axes are chosen for which r and a have the components (x, y, z)
1.8] Scalar and Vector Fields 33

and (ax, ay, az ) respectively, then the relation IjJ = constant can be written

IjJ = ax" + ayY + azz = constant,

and this is the usual equation for a plane in coordinate geometry. In particular, if
the axes are chosen so that ay = az = 0, then a is parallel to the x-axis and the
surfaces IjJ = constant are equivalent to the surfaces x = constant. These are
clearly planes perpendicular to the x-axis.
With a vector function F(r) we are interested in the direction of F as well as
the magnitude. In many applications the direction is of particular interest and is
displayed by a family of lines for which the tangent at each point is in the
direction of F. Such lines are called field lines. Note that the vector function
ljJ(r)F(r) has the same field lines as F(r) for any scalar function ljJ(r) which is not
zero, since IjJ affects only the magnitude of the vector. For example, the vector
function ljJ(r)r is always in the direction of the radius vector, and any straight
line through the origin is a field line.
If F = FAx,y)i + Fy(x,y)j, then the inclination of F at any point is Fy/Fx
and so the field lines in two dimensions are represented by the integral of the
equation

(1.8.1)

For the vector field F = yi + x 2 j, for example, this gives

dy =x 2
dx y

which integrates to

The family of field lines is obtained by plotting these curves for different values
of the constant (see Fig. 1.8.1).
The extension to three dimensions is straightforward and is most con-
veniently described parametrically. We suppose that the position vector r is itself
defined by a parameter t so that, as t varies, ret) defines a point P which moves
along a prescribed path. At all points on this path dr/dt is parallel to the tangent
(see § 1.6). Now the tangent to the field lines of F(r) is everywhere parallel to
F(r), and this is satisfied by the locus of P if

dr
-= F(r). (1.8.2)
dt
34 Vectors [1.8

Figure 1.8.1 The family of curves if> = h 2 - ix 3 = constant for the scalar field
if>. The curves also represent the field lines of the vector. field F = yi + x 2 j. The
arrows indicate the direction of F.

When F(r) is known as a function of r, equation (1.8.2) defines the slope of the
field lines at each point. In principle, this is sufficient information to enable the
field lines to be constructed. In practice it entails the integration of the set of
equations

dx dz
dt = Fx(x,y, z), - = Fz(x,y, z) (1.8.3)
dt

in order to obtain x, y, z as functions of the parameter t. Even in two dimen-

sions this is not always possible in terms of elementary functions and numerical
integration is sometimes required to obtain a detailed picture.
Since if>(r)F(r) has the same direction as F(r), it can sometimes be convenient
to replace equation (1.8.2) by

dr
dt = if>(r)F(r),

with an appropriate choice for if>(r), for the purpose of calculating the field lines.
1.8] Scalar and Vector Fields 35

Example 1.8.1
For the vector function a Xl, where a is a constant vector, the field lines are
everywhere perpendicular to a and l. Hence they are circles in planes perpen-
dicular to a and with a as the common axis.
To derive the result formally, the analysis is simplified if the x axis is chosen
to coincide with the direction of a, so that a = ai. Then a x r has the components
a(O, -z,y) and the field lines are given by

dx dy
-=0 -=-az
dt ' dt '

Since the last two equations imply that

dy
Y -+z=O
dz '

or y2 + Z2 = constant,
the field lines are the circles

x = constant, y2 + Z2 = constant.

Example 1.8.2
For the vector function

F = yzi + zxj - xyk,

the field lines are obtained from the equations

dx dy dz
dt = yz, -=zx dt = -xy.
dt '

These equations are not immediately integrable, but sometimes it is possible to

fmd simple integrals by suitable rearrangement. Here, for example, we can infer
that

dy dz dz dx
Y -+z ·--=0, z-+x-=O.
dt dt dt dt

These equations integrate immediately to give

where ci and d are constants of integration. Since y2 + Z2 =ci generates a

circular cylinder of radius Cl whose axis coincides with the x axis, it follows that
36 Vectors [1.9

the field lines are given by the lines of intersection of two families of circular
cylinders, whose axes coincide with the x-axis and the y-axis respectively.

1.9 UNE INTEGRALS

When the scalar field 4>(r) is defined as a function of the vector r, and r is itself
defmed as a function of the scalar variable t, cp is given implicitly as a function of
t and we can operate on it as such. If ret) is interpreted as the position vector of
a point P which describes a curve as t varies, we are in effect defining cp(r) at
points ofthis curve. For this reason the integral

Jcp(r(t)) dt (1.9.1)

is called a line integral. Indeed the parameter t may, in some applications, be just
the arc length along this curve from a given origin. In practice it is evaluated in
the usual way by expressing cp explicitly as a function of t. When r is defined in
terms of its components, we can also express (1.9.1) in the equivalent form

Jcp(x(t) , yet), z(t)) dt. (1.9.2)

If, as a simple example,

cp =xyz and x=t3 , y=t2 , z=t, (1.9.3)

rI
then J cp dt =
o
J xyz dt =)
0
I

0
I
t 6 dt =~ . (1.9.4)

A particular form of (1.9.2), which is often met in applications, is the integral

(1.9.5)

where the parameter is one of the variables defining the coordinates. This
integral can be evaluated either by expressing y and z as functions of x to get

)CP(x, y(x), z(x)) dx, (1.9.6)

or by using the usual formula for a change of variable from x to a more

convenient parameter t, so that

fcp dx = ) cp(x(t),y(t), z(t)) : dt. (1.9.7)

1.9] Line Integrals 37

In the example defined by (1.9.3) we have

Y =X 2/3 , z =X l/3
1 1 1
and so ~
o
t/> dx = ~
0
xyz dx = J0 X2 dx =l. (1.9.8)

Alternatively, since dx/dt = 3t2 , it can be evaluated as

1 1 dx 1
i t/> dx = i xyz - dt = i 3t 8 dt = ! . (1.9.9)
)0 )0 dt )0

It is important to appreciate that the line integral

~t/> (x, y, z) dx (1.9.10)

is not in general to be interpreted as the integral of t/> as a function of x withy

and z regarded as constant parameters. Such an interpretation corresponds to the
special case when the line of integration is a straight line parallel to the x-axis,
along which y and z are constant. In fact integrals of the type (1.9.1 0) cannot in
general be integrated until the line of integration is specified. To emphasise this
fact the notation

L t/>(x,y, z) dx (1.9.11)

is often used, where C denotes the curve involved along which the integration is
taken. Only when t/> is given as a function of x alone, independent of y and z,
can (1.9.11) be integrated without further information.
The generalisation to the line integral of a vector

IF(r(t)) dt (1.9.12)

is dealt with in similar fashion. When F is expressed as a function of t, ((9.12)

becomes the integral of a vector with respect to a parameter, as discussed in
§ 1.7. In applications where F is defined in terms of its components, say,

F = Xi + Yj + Zk, (1.9.13)

(1.9.12) can be expressed in the form

~ F dt = 1X dti + ~ Y dtj + ~ Z dtk. (1.9.14)

Each component of (1.9.14) can be evaluated in accordance with the discussion

of scalar line integrals.
38 Vectors [1.9

We shall be particularly concerned with the line integral

r dr
l(r). dt dt, (1.9.15)

which is often written in the more concise form

~ F. dr. (1.9.16)

When r is given as a function of t there is a vector F(r(t» associated with each

point.p on the curve r = ret) (see Fig. 1.9.1). The integrand of (1.9.15) is
therefore a scalar function of t to be integrated in the usual way. If, for example,
the parameter t is taken to be the arc length s, we have from § 1.6 that dr/ds is a
unit vector along the tangent to the locus of P, and so

where Fs is the tangential component of F.

We call the line integral (1.9.15), or (1.9.16), the work of the vector F
associated with the appropriate displacement along the curve. Here again, when
appropriate, the integrand of (1.9.15) can be expressed in terms of the com-
ponents of F and dr/dt. Since

dr dx. dy. dz
-=-I+-j+-k (1.9.17)
dt dt dt dt

r(1)

Figure 1.9.1 The vector F(r) associated with the point P whose position vector
is r.
1.9] Line Integrals 39

we have, with F given by (1.9.13),

~F.:;dt= HX(X,y,z):+Y(X,y,z): +Z(X,y,Z):)dt. (1.9.18)

In (1.9.18), if the parameter t is chosen to be x, y and z respectively in each of

the three terms, we get

~IF . dr =! ~{X(x, y, z) dx + Y(x, y, z) dy + Z(x, y, z) dz}, (1.9.19)

which is suggested by the shorthand form of (1.9.16) used here on the left-hand
side of (1.9.19). Whether or not the different contributions are actually evaluated
with the above choices for t, (1.9.19) is the usual expression used for the work
in terms of the components of F.
We repeat the warning here that, in general, expressions of the type (1.9.19)
cannot be integrated until the curve of integration is specified. One obvious
exception is the integral

}{X(x) dx + Y(y) dy + Z(z) dz},

which can be evaluated as three straightforward integrals whose values depend

only on the initial and fmal values of x, y and z respectively and not on any
particular path of integration. As we shall see, there are less obvious expressions
which do not require a knowledge of the path of integration for their evaluation.
Although they are mathematkally exceptional, they are of particular significance
in many branches of applied mathematics, including mechanics.

Example 1. 9.1
Evaluate the line integral

} xy2 dy,
e

where C is the circle x 2 + y2 = 1 traversed once anticlockwise.

Note that in this example the path of integration is closed, but it should not
be assumed that the integral is therefore zero.
It is possible in such an example to use y as the variable of integration, but
care must be taken to ensure that the correct sign is used for x = ±(1 - y2 )112. If
the two halves of the circle for which -1 ";;y ..;; 1 are considered, then x is
positive over one half and negative over the other. Hence
40 Vectors [1.9

The <integral can now be evaluated with the substitutiony = sin 8. But it is more
direct to make the transformation
x=cos8, y=sin8
in the original integral, and integrate directly with respect to the parameter 8 .
Then

Jc 2
xy2 dy = cos 8 sin 8 d(sin 8) = J
e O
r 21T 2 2
cos 8 sin 8 d8

21T
= i) o (1 - cos 48) d8 = 1T/4.

Example 1.9.2
Evaluate the line integral

(n ~O)

along the path defined by x = t,y = 2 -1/2 t 2 , Z = h 3 from t = 0 to t = tl.

In this integral s refers to the arc length along the path, so that

~={(:r +(:r +(~rr/2 =(1 +2t2 +t4 )1/2

= t 2 + 1.

The integral is therefore

J xn ds
- dt =
) t, n t7.+ 3 t n+1
t (t2 + 1) dt = _ _ + _1- .
c dt 0 n +3 n +1

When n = 0 this represents the arc length along the path.

Example 1.9.3
We consider the work of F = y2 i + x 2j along the following (two-dimensional)
curves between the points (0, 0) and (1,2) in Figure 1.9.2, namely:
(i) The two straight lines between (0,0) and (1,0) and between (1,0) and
(1,2).
We evaluate the integral in two parts. Along Ox we can take the
parameter to be x itself and write

since bothy and dy/dx are zero along Ox.

1.9] Line Integrals 41

o x

Figure 1.9.2 The various paths of integration in Example 1.9.3.

For the second contribution we take y as the parameter and write

since dx/dy =0 and x = 1 along this path. Thus for the integral from (0, 0)
to (1,2) we have

JF. dr = 0 + 2 = 2.

(ii) The straight line joining the points (0, 0) and (1, 2). On this line y = 2x and
so, with x as the parameter, we get

JF .dr= ~(y2 dx+x~ dy)= ~ I (4x 2 dx+2x2 dx)=2.

o
(iii) The parabola y = 2x 2 • On this curve

~·F.dr=J (y2 dx+x 2 dy)= t

, I
(4X4 dx+x 2 .4xdx)=9/5.

Example 1.9.4
Evaluate
~ F. dr dt
,c dt
42 Vectors [1.10

,where F = 2xyi+ (X 2 + Z)j + (y + z2)k

and C is the curve dermed by

r = a cos t i + b sin t j + et k.

Since -dr = -a sm
. t °
1 + b cos t J0+ e k
dt

we have

Hence

JF . :; dt = j{a b(1 - 3 sin

2 2 t)cos t + beet cos t + sin t) + e3 t 2 } dt

= (a 2 cos2 t + et)b sin t + !e 3t 3 + constant.

Note, however, that in this example

d dx dy dz
_{(X2 + z)y + !Z3} = 2xy - + (x 2 + z) - + (y + Z2)-
dt dt dt dt
dr
=F . -dt·

Hence

r dr (d
JF . - dt = J - {(x 2 + z)y + !z3} dt =(x 2 + z)y + !Z3 + constant.
dt dt

This agrees with the previous calculation, but this alternative way of proceeding
does not use any information concerning the particular path of integration, and
the result is true whatever path of integration is chosen. We shall see eventually
under what conditions this alternative procedure is possible.

1.10 THE GRADIENT OPERATOR

We have seen that the work of a vector mayor may not depend on the path of
integration. When it does not, the vector field is called conservative, and such
fields play an important role in applied mathematics. It is useful to consider the
conditions which a vector field must satisfy in order that it should be conserva-
1.10] The Gradient Operator 43

tive. As a preliminary to this investigation we introduce the gradient of a scalar

function.
If tf>(x,y,z) is a function of the coordinate variables (x,y,z), and if C is
a curve defined by specifying x, y and z as functions of a parameter t, then cp
can be regarded as a function of t on C and we can form the derivative
1
-dcp = lim - {cp(x(t + 6t),y(t + St), z(t + 6t» - cp(x(t),y(t), z(t»)}.
dt 6t ..... O St (1.10.1)

If we write x(t + St) = x(t) + Sx,

and Similarly for the other variables, the above relation for dcp/dt can be
expressed in the form

dcp " cp(x + Sx,y + Sy, z + Sz) - cp(x,y + Sy, z + Sz) Sx

-=~ -
dt 6t ..... O Sx St
" cp(x,y + Sy, z + Sz) - cp(x,y, z + Sz) Sy
+ I1m
6t ..... o Sy St

" cp(x,y,z+Sz)-cp(x,y,z)5z
+ I~ -.
6t ..... O Sz St

Since Sx, Sy, Sz ~ 0 as St ~ 0, it will be seen that

dcp acp dx acp dy acp dz
-=--+--+-- (1.10.2)
dt ax dt ay dt az dt'

where acp/ax, acp/ay and acp/az are the partial derivatives of cp with respect to
X,Y and z respectively. Integration of equation (1.10.2) gives the indefinite
integral expression for cp,

i(acp dx acp dy acp

cp(x,y,z)= j - - + - - + - - dt,
dz) (LlO.3)
ax dt ay dt az dt

where the integrand is a known function of t on the curve C. By analogy with

previous integrals of this type we write equation (1.10.3) in the more compact
form

cp = 1(. -acpax acp

dx + - dy + -
ay az
dz
aCP)
(1.10.4)

on the understanding that, in practice, it may be conveniently evaluated in the

form (1.1 0.3)
The importance of the above relations lies in the fact that although the value
of the integrands in (1.10.3) or (1.10.4) depends on the choice of the curve of
44 Vectors [1.10

integration C, the value of the integral between two points of C depends only on
the end points, and not on the curve joining them. This must clearly be so since
the integral represents the change in cp between the two end points, and cp is a
function only of position. *
A comparison of (1.10.4) with the expression (1.9.19) for the work of a
vector F shows that if F is of the form

(LlO.5)

for some scalar function cp, then the work of F depends only on the end points
and not on the path. Hence F is a conservative vector field.
The converse statement is also true, that if

f (X dx + Y dy +Z dz) (1.10.6)

depends only on the end points and not on the path of integration, then a
function cp exists for which
x=acp/ax, Y=acp/ay, z=acp/az.
For if we choose an origin and consider all line integrals starting at the origin,
the integral (1.1 0.6) depends only on the end point (x, y, z) and so defines a
function

cp(x,y, z) = f (X dx + Y dy + Z dz) = fo
t (dx dy dz)
X dt + Y dt + Z dt dt
(1.10.7)

say, when the integral is taken along some path r = ret). From (1.10.2) and
(Ll 0.7) we have

dcp acp dx acp dy acp dz dx dy dz

- = - - + - - + - - = X - + Y-+Z-. (1.10.8)
dt ax dt ay dt 3z dt dt dt dt

But this must hold for all paths of integration and so the relation is true
whatever the dependence of x, y, anc! z on t. This is only possible if

X = acp/ax, Y= acp/ay, Z = acp/az. (1.10.9)

For example, the first relation follows from (1.10.8) with dy/dt = dz/dt = 0 and
dx/dt =t= O.
The scalar function cp is called the potential of the vector field F. The vector

* More correctly", must be a single valued function of position. We shall consider only
such functions here.
1.10] The Gradient Operator 45

represented by (1.10.5) is called the gradient of cp, or briefly grad cp, and is
written

(1.10.10)

The operator a .a
V'=i-+J-+k-
a (1.10.11)
ax ay az
has many of the properties of vectors. It can also occur in expressions of the type
ax ay az
V'.F=-+-+-, (1.10.12)
ax ay az
called the divergence of F, or div F. The vector product

V' x F = (az _ aY)i + (ax _ aZ)j + (ay _ aX)k (LlO.13)

ay az az ax ax ay
is called curl F. The last expression provides a useful test for a conservative
vector field. For if F =V' cp, or

Y= acp/oy, z = ocp/oz,
it follows by direct substitution that
oY ax a2cp a2¢
---=-----=0
ax oy oxay oyax
and similarly for the other components of curl F. Thus for a conservative vector
field we must have

v x F = O. (1.10.14)

The converse statement is also true, namely that V x F = 0 implies that

F = V cp for some scalar function cp(x,y, z). In order to prove this, we choose a
suitable origin and cartesian axes, and define a function cp(x, y, z) by the relation

r
cp(x,y,z) = 1o X(~,O,O)d~+}
x Y

0
Y(x, 11,0) dl1 + J
0
Z
Z(x,y,nd~,
(LlO.15)

where X, Y, Z are the components of F. Note that I/J is defined as a line integral
of F with the path of integration chosen as the three straight lines joining the
points (0,0,0), (x,O,O), (x,y,O) and (x,y,z). Hence the path of the line
integral is specially chosen, but nevertheless clearly defmes a function of x, y, z.
46 Vectors [1.10

We now wish to show that the function q, so defined is the potential of the
vector field F =(X, Y,Z) whenever V x F =O. This will also show incidentally
that, although a special path of integration has been chosen initially to define q"
the integral is in fact independent of the path of integration since F is a
conservative field.
By differentiation of (1.1 0.15), we see that

'"' aq, . aq,. aq, k

v q,=-I+-j+-

J: a~
ax ay az

= (X(X, 0, 0) + Y(x, 11,O)d11+ ~: a~Z(X,y,ndt)i

+ ( Y(x,y, 0) + J: a: Z(x,y, n dt) j + Z(x,y, z)k. (1.10.16)

Now, by assumption, V x F = 0 and so

a a
ax Y(x, 11, 0) = a11 X(x, 11,0),
a a
ax Z(x,y, n = at X(x,y, n, (1.10.17)
a
ay Z(x,y, n = ata Y(x,y, n.
Substitution of these relations into (Ll 0.16) gives

V'q, = (X(X, 0, 0) + I Y
aa X(x, 11, 0) d11 + f Z ~ X(x,y, t) d t ) i

I:
'0 11 0 at

+ (Y(X,y, 0) + :t Y(x,y, t) dt )j + Z(x,y, z)k. (1.10.18)

The integrals can now all be evaluated to give, finally,

V q, = X(x,y, z)i + Y(x,y, z)j + Z(x,y, z)k (1.10.19)

and this is the required result.

It follows that V x F = 0 is both a necessary and sufficient condition for F to
be a conservative vector field.

Example 1.10.1
Show that the vector field f(r)r/r is conservative and find the potential.
We first check that the curl of this vector field is zero. Since

fer) (.
fer) r = -r-
-r- . k) = X'I + YJ. + Z k ,
XI + YJ + z
1.10] The Gradient Operator 47

say, we have

oZ _ oY =~(zf(r)) _~(yf(r)) =z or ~.(f(r))_ or ~(f(r))

oy oz oy r oz r oy dr r y oz dr r '

Now

or or
and so r oy =y, r-=z.
oz
or or
It follows that z-=y-
oy oz

and hence that

oZ oY
oy - oz = 0,

and similarly for the two remaining components of the curl of this vector field.
There is therefore a potential function I/> such that

01/> f(r) 01/> fer) 01/> fer)

-=x- -=y- -=z-.
ox r' oy r' oz r

Since for any function F(r) of r, we have

it follows, from ot/J x

-=-f(r) = -
0 ~r
fmd~,
ox r ox
that

where gl is at most a function of y and z only.

Similarly, from

01/> fer) ot/J I/>(r)

-=y- and -=z-
oy r oz r
we have that

1/>= f f(nd~+g~(z,x)= f f(~)d~+g3(x,y).

r r

For consistency, therefore, we mu~t have

48 Vectors [1.11

say, where c is clearly at most a constant. The potential function is then

q,= r f(~) d~ +c

r
and, since the constant will have no effect on the gradient of q" we have

f~)r = V f(~) d~.

1.11 EQUIPOTENTIALS AND FIELD LINES

For a conservative vector field F =ViP, the field lines are everywhere orthogonal
to the equipotential surfaces q, =constant.
To prove this result, consider the locus of a point P whose position vector
r(t) is defined as a function of the parameter t. If this curve lies on the equi-
potential surface cp = constant, we have

cp(r(t)) =cp(x(t),y(t), z(t») =constant.

Hence dcp = aq, dx + aq, dy + aq, dz =V . dr =o. (1.11.1 )

dt ax dt ay dt az dt q, dt
Now V cp =F is in the direction of the field lines, and dr/dt is a vector along the
tangent to the locus of P and so lies in the tangent plane to q, = constant. Since
equation (1.11.1) imples that V q, and dr/dt are orthogonal, the result follows.
To take a simple example, the potential function q,(r) , where r =
(x 2 + y2 + Z2 )1/2, has equipotentials given by r =constant. These are concentric
spherical surfaces with their centres at the origin. Also, we have that
dq, dq, r
Vq,(r)=-Vr=--.
dr drr
Hence V cp is everywhere in the direction of the radius vector, and the field lines
are straight lines through the origin.

EXERCISES

1.1 Let a and b be elements of a vector field satisfying relations (1.3.0-

(1.3.8). Let f(a) be a vector function of a satisfying the following re-
lations:

(i) for any scalar A, Af(a) = f(Aa), and, in particular, -f(a) =f( -a);
(ti) f(a) + f(b) = f(a + b).

Show that f(a) is also an element of a vector field.

 Exercises 49

1.2 The vertices of a regular hexagon are A, B, C, D, E, F in that order. If

AB =band AC = c,

express AD, AE, AF in terms of band c.

(Ans.: 2c - 2b, 2c - 3b, c - 2b.)
1.3 (i) The vertices of a parallelogram are A, B, C, D and G is the mid point
of AC. Use a vector argument to show that DG = GB and hence that
the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
(ii) Show that if E, F are the mid points of BC, CD respectively,

3(AB + AC + AD) = 4(AE + AF).

1.4 Let a, b, c, d be fixed vectors, and let A, fJ., v be variable scalars. Let r be
the position vector of a point P. Show that the loci of P represented by

r =a + fJ.b, r =Aa + fJ.b

are respectively a line and a plane.
Show that if the lines

r = a + fJ.b, r = c + vd

intersect, then a - c is parallel to the plane of band d.

1.5 In the triangle ABC let BC = a, CA = b, AB = c. Let D be a point on
BC such that AD bisects the angle A. Let I be a point on AD such that

AI b +c
-=--
ID a
Show that
BD c
(i) -=-
DC b'

(ii) (b + c)OD = bOB + cOC,

(iii) (a + b + c)OI = aOA + bOB + cOC,
where 0 is some arbitrary origin.
Deduce that I also lies on the bisectors of the angles Band C (the point
I is called the incentre of the triangle ABC and is the centre of the circle
which touches all three sides).
1.6 Prove that the lines joining the vertices of a tetrahedron to the centroids of
the opposite faces concur at a point of quadrisection of each of them.
1.7 The position vectors of the ~u~oints A,~, D, are a, b, 2a + 3b and
a - 2b respectively. Express AC, DB, BC and DC in terms of a and b.
(Ans.: a + 3b, -a + 3b, 2a + 2b, a + Sb.)
50 Vectors

1.8 The three vectors OA, OB, OC are linearly independent, and the three
vectors AD, BD, CD are linearly dependent. Show that

where a: + /3 + 'Y = 1.
1.9 Find the angle between the two non-zero vectors a and b in each of the
following cases:

(i) 2a + 3b = 0,
(ii) lal=lbl=la+bl,
(iii) a. (a + b) = 0 and I b I = 2 I a I.
(iv) (a x b) x a = b x (b x a).

(Ans.: rr, 2rr/3, 2rr/3, 0 or rr.)

1.10 The three vectors a, b, c are such that a is perpendi.cular to c - a:a and b is
perpendicular to c - /3b. Find the conditions for a + 'Yb to be perpen-
dicular to c - a:a - /3b.
(Ans.: Either a . b = 0 or 'Y = -(:3/a:.)
1.11 Find two vectors a and b satisfying the following six conditions:

(i) a. k = 1,
(ii)b.k=l,
(iii) a is perpendicular to b,
(iv) a is perpendicular to i + j + k,
(v) b is perpendicular to i + j + k,
(vi) b is perpendicular to i,

where i, j, k are unit vectors parallel to the coordinate axes.

(Ans.: a = -2i + j + k, b = -j + k.)
1.12 Prove that:

(i) a x (b x c) + b x (c x a) + c x (a x b) = 0,
(ii) (a x b) . (c x d) + (b x c) . (a x d) + (c x a) . (b x d) = O.

1.13 Ifax b = a x c, show that b = c + Aa, where A is an arbitrary scalar.

1.14 Let a, b, c be a set of right-handed, mutually orthogonal, unit vectors. Let
a be along i + j + k and let b be perpendicular to k. Express a, band c in
terms of i, j and k. Conversely, express i, j, k in terms of a, band c.
(Ans.: 3- 1I2 (i + j + k), 2- 112 0 - j), 6- 112 0 + j - 2k);
3- 112 a + 2- 1I2 b + 6-1!2 C , 3- 1I2 a _ 2- 1/2 b + 6- 1I2 C, rl!2a _ 2.6- 1/2 C.)

1.15 Show that any vector r can be written in the form

a2 r = (a. r)a + (a x r) x a,

where a is a given vector.

This result gives r in terms of its components parallel and perpendicular
to a.
 Exercises 51

1.16 Find a unit vector which is at right angles to both of the vectors i - 3j + k
and 2i+j -k.
(Ans.: 62- 1 / 2 (2i +3j +7k.)
1.17 The three vectors a, b, c are non-zero and satisfy the relation

a x (b x c) =b x (a x c).

Show that one possible relation between them is that a and bare
parallel, and fmd a second possibility. Show that the magnitudes of the
vector a x (b x c) in the two cases are lallb x cl and la . bllcl respectively.
1.18 Prove that the four points with position vectors

4i + 5j + k, -3i + k, 3i + 9j + 4k, -4i + 4j + 4k

are coplanar.
1.19 The points A, B, e lie on the surface of a sphere of unit radius and centre
O. The angles BOe, e~A, AOB are denoted by a, {3, 1 respectively. Show
that

OB . oe = cos a, I OB x oe I = sin a.

Show also that the angle between the planes OAB and OAe is

cos
-1 (COS a - cos (3 cos 1) .
sin {3 sin 1

1.20 The two triplets a, b, c and i,j, k are mutually orthogonal right-handed
sets of unit vectors such that
a = 111i + 112j + 113k,
b = 121i + 122j + 123k,
c = 131i + 132j + 133k.

if a = {3,
Show that
if a:f={3.

Show also that i == 111a + 121b + 131C,

j = 112a + 122b + 132c,
k = 113a + 123b + 133c,

ih = {3,
if a:f={3.

1.21 The two triplets a, b, c and i, j, k are mutually orthogonal sets of unit
vectors such that

Ii x a + mj x b + nk x c = O.
52 Vectors

If no two of {2, m 2 ,n 2 are equal, prove that

a = ±i, b = ±j, c = ±k.

1.22 Given that x + a x (x x a) = b, show that

x={(a. b)a+b}/(l +a 2 ).

1.23 Given that x + (x. b)a = c, evaluate x when

(i) 1 + a . b =f= 0,
(ii) 1 + a . b = O.

(Ans.: x = c + Xa where: (i) (1 + a . b)X = -b . c, (ii) X is arbitrary provided

b. c = 0.)
1.24 Multiply the equation

ax + a x x + (x . b)a = a

scalarly and vectorially by a. Use the resulting relations to show that

ax + (x . b)a = a,

and use this result to find x given that a =f= 0 and a + a . b =f= O.
(Ans.: (a + a . b)x = a.)
1.25 The position vector of a moving point P with respect to a fixed origin is r,
and the unit vector in the direction of r is a. Show that

(r x i) x r = r3 a.
1.26 The position vectors of the two points A and B relative to an origin 0 are
a(t) and b(t) respectively. Given that

db da
ax-=bx-,
dt dt

d
show that -(axb)=O.
dt

Hence show that the two points A and B move in a plane and in such a
way that the area of the triangle OAB remains constant.
1.27 A moving point P has position vector r and polar coordinates (r,O).
Calculate the radial and transverse components of the vector d 3 r/dt 3 .
Given that:
(i) d 3 r/dt3 is parallel to r,
(ii) dOl dt = w, where W is constant,
(iii) r = ro, 0 = 0, drfdt = u when t = 0,
 Exercises 53

show that the locus of P is given by

Show also that

2 U2 (u. roi
w=-- 4
~ ro
Find the locus of P for large t when r~w =1= -3 1 / 2 ro. u,and show that
dr/dt ultimately makes a fixed angle with the radius vector.
1.28 The position vector of a moving point Pis r.
Show that
d • ••
- (r x r) = r x r.
dt
Given that r= Er + Hi x r/r3,
where E is a scalar function of rand t, and H is a scalar constant, show that

rxi = Hr/r + a,
where a is a constant vector which has component -H in the direction of r.
Hence show that r lies on the surface of a circular cone with vertex at the
origin and axis a.
1.29 Show that the solution of

a xr=b,

where a and b are constant vectors satisfying a. b = 0, is

where A is an arbitrary scalar function of t, and c, d are constant vectors.

1.30 Find the equations of the field lines for each of the following two-
dimensional vector fields:
(i) yi,
(ii) xyi + x 2 j,
(iii) xi + (x + y)j.

(Ans.: (i) y =c, (ii) x 2 - y2 =c, (iii) y =x(log x + c).)

1.31 Show that the slope of the plane curves cp(x, y) =constant is

Use this result to deduce that the field lines of the conservative vector field
V cp are orthogonal to the curves cp = constant.
54 Vectors

1.32 Sketch the curves ifJ = constant for the following two-dimensional scalar
fields ifJ(x, y):

(i) x+y, (in I x I + I y I, (iii) x 2 - y, (iv) x 2 + y,

(v) x 2 _ y2, (vi) x 2 + y2, (vii) x3 + y3, (viii) X4 + y4.

1.33 Evaluate the following integrals along the straight-line paths joining the
end points:

f (2,2) (1,2) (2,1)

(i) j
(0,0)
y2 dx, (in ~(2,1) y dx, (iii) ~ x dy.
(1,1)

(Ans.: 8/3, -3/2, 0.)

1.34 Evaluate the following line integrals:

(i) fe (y2 dx + x 2 dy),

where C is the semi-circle x = (1 - y2 )112 between (0, -1) and (0, l).

(ii) Ie (y dx + xdy),
where C is the parabolay = x 2 between (0, 0) and (2, 4).

(iii) I.e xdyx2 +- y2y dx

where C is the arc of the curve x = cosn t, y = sinn t (n > 0) for
o.:;;; t':;;; rr /2.
(Ans.: 4/3, 8, rr/2.)
1.35 Evaluate the following line integrals:

(i) Ie (y2 dx + xy dy),

where C is the square with vertices (1, 1), ( -1, 1), (-1, -1), (1, -1),

(ii) Ie (y dx -x dy),

where C is the circle x 2 + y2 = l,

(iii) r (x 2y2 dx -
.e
xy3 dy),

where C is the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1),

(iv)
 Exercises 55

where C is any closed curve in the plane z = constant.

(Ans.: 0, -21T,-t 0.)
1.36 Evaluate the following line integrals:

0) fc (x 2 - y2) ds,

where C is the circle x 2 + y2 = 4,

(ii) fC
x ds,

where C is the line y = x between (0,0) and (1, 1).

(iii) Jc ds,

where C is the parabola y = x 2 between (0, 0) and (1, I).

(iv) Jc ds,
where C is the curve defined by x = sin t, y = cos t, z = t for 0";;;; t";;;; 21T.
(Ans.: 0, 2- 1/2 , !{1og(2 + 5112 ) + 2.S 1l2 }, 2 3/2 1T.)
1.37 Which of the following vector fields are conservative? Give the correspond-
ing potential functions for those that are.

(i) x- 1 i+y-lj,
(in y-l i + x -lj,
(iii) yzi + zxj + xyk,
(iv) (2xy + z3)i + (x 2 + 2y)j + (3xz 2 - 2)k,
(v) e z- 2 {yz(1 +x)i+(zx+z 2e-X )j-xyk}.
X

(Ans.: (i) </> = logxy, (iii) </>= xyz, (iv) </>= x 2y + xz 3 + y2 - 2z,
(v)</>= y(1 +Z-l xeX).)
1.38 Prove that
1 df
(i) gradf(r) = ~ dr r,

where r is a position vector and r is its magnitude;

(ii)

where rl = r + a and T2 = r - a. Show that, when r. a = 0,

grad{f(rl) - f(r2)} is parallel to a. Here a is a constant vector.
1.39 A vector field F, which is well behaved near the origin of a system of
cartesian coordinates, can be approximated near the origin in the form
56 Vectors

Fx = al + bllX + bl 2Y + b 13Z,
Fy = a2 + b 2lX + bny + b23Z,
F z = a3 + b3lX + b32Y + b 33Z,

where the a;'s and the bi/S are constants. Show that such a field is locally
conservative if bij = bji for all i, j, and that the associated potential is then

I{> = (alx + alY + a3z) + hbllX2 + b22Y2 + b33Z2 + 2b 23yZ + 2b3lZX

+ 2b 12 xy).

1.40 Show that

(i) V {I{>(x, y, z)l/I(x, y, z)} = I{> V 1/1 + I/IVI{>,

(ii) V(a. r) = a,
(iii) V{(a. r)(b. r)} = (a. r)b + (b. r)a,
k x r dl{>
(iv) VI{>(O) = - 2 - - 2 dO'
x +y

where a, b are constant vectors, r = xi + yj + zk and tan 0 = y Ix.

2 Kinematics

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A physical theory is based on a set of concepts, which are descriptions of certain

relevant quantities associated with the real world, and on rules for their measure-
ment. In addition, there is a set of hypotheses, which are idealisations of how we
believe the real world behaves in terms of these concepts. When the conclusions
of such a theory are seen to agree substantially with what is actually observed,
the hypotheses become accepted as physical laws. It is important to realise,
however, that these laws are always open to modification in the light of more
sophisticated experiments, and that this is, in fact, the way in which science
progresses.
The term kinematics refers to the study of the motion of bodies in space,
without regard to the mechanisms which cause the motion to take place. Thus
we can discuss the trajectory of a projectile as a part of kinematics. But an
investigation into the mechanism which causes the projectile to move in a
prescribed fashion involves a discussion of the physical laws which govern the
attraction of one body for another, and this is regarded as a part of dynamics.
The concepts required in kinematics are those of length and time. These are
fundamental concepts and, as such, do not have a formal definition. We rely on
our everyday experience for an understanding of them. This understanding
involves certain assumptions about their properties, for example the very exis-
tence of standards by which length and time can be measured and which mean
the same thing to different observers, is a basic assumption without which
theoretical physics could not exist. Indeed the transactions of everyday life
would be difficult without agreed measures of length and time. Fortunately
there is no reason to doubt these assumptions. The correspondence between the
physical notion of measurement and the mathematical notion of addition is one
of the reasons why mathematics is so useful in application.
We do have to state how length and time are to be measured before we can
proceed further, but in the first instance the actual units used are arbitrary and
there are several units of length in existence. For obvious reasons of con-
venience, however, it is desirable to have an internationally accepted unit, and in
the 'Systerne International' (SI) which we shall use, this is the metre (m). For
practical purposes fractions and multiples of this unit are often employed, the
most common of which are the millimetre (1 mm = la- 3 m) and the kilometre
(1 km = 10 3 m).
The definition of the metre was originally referred to a material standard kept
in Paris. This was, in turn, intended to be 10- 7 times a quadrant of the earth's
meridian. The agreement, though close, is not exact by modern measurements,
the quadrant of the meridian being I ·02 x 10 7 m.
58 Kinematics [2.2

The above mentioned standard is not conveniently reproducible with the

accuracy required for present day measurements, and so the definition is now
referred to the wavelength of the radiation from krypton (1 650 763'73 wave-
lengths of radiation = 1 m).
To defme a unit of time requires a process which is generally accepted as
regular, repeatable and a suitable reference against which other motions can be
compared. Originally this was based on the rotation of the earth, more specifi-
cally on the mean solar day which is the average interval between two successive
transits of the sun across a given meridian. Nowadays the unit is referred to the
radiation from caesium, again for reasons of accuracy of reproduction
(9 192 631 770 periods of radiation = 1 s). In the SI system the unit is the
second (s), multiples/of which are the minute (min), hour (h), day (d), year (a).
In Newtonian mechanics it is further assumed that the geometry of space is
Euclidean, that we can always recognise when two lengths are equal and when
two events are simultaneous and that, in principle, there is no limit to the
accuracy of our measurements. In the theories of relativity and quantum
mechanics these assumptions are all modified, but for a large class of everyday
problems there is ample evidence that the assumptions of Newtonian mechanics
form the basis of a useful theory.
In Newtonian mechanics we do not assert that a body can be in the same
position at two different times. We refer to motion relative to a chosen frame of
reference without implying that the frame is at rest in an absolute sense. There is
indeed no kinematical criterion to distinguish one frame as preferable to an-
other, and the choice is one of convenience. For example the motion of a
projectile is conveniently described with reference to axes fixed relative to the
observer, which will usually mean fixed on the earth's surface. However, we shall
see in the next chapter that dynamical considerations are properly discussed
with reference to a particular choice of axes.
In addition to the basic concepts we introduce further derived concepts, and
these are defined with reference to the idealised notion of a particle. This is a
body whose kinematical behaviour is completely described by the specification
of its position vector. When the theory is applied to a practical situation, the
results for a particle might be expected to be good approximations where the
size of the body is small compared with the other linear dimensions of
the problem. Typical examples are the trajectory of a missile or the motion of the
earth round the sun, where the size of the body is small compared with the
radius of curvature of the path. Where the size of the body is important, as in
the motion of a gyroscope, the theory is a generalisation of that for a particle, so
that particle dynamics is in any case fundamental to the subject as a whole.

2.2 VELOCITY AND ACCELERAnON

Let a particle P have position vector r relative to a chosen frame of reference.

2.2] Velocity and Acceleration 59

Then its velocity v and its acceleration a are defined by the relations

dr .
v=-=r (2.2.1)
dt '

dv d 2 r ..
a=-=-=r (2.2.2)
dt dt2 '

where t is the time.

In particular, when the motion of the particle is in a straight line, both the
velocity and acceleration are in the direction of motion and their magnitudes are
respectively equal to the first and second derivatives of distance travelled with
respect to the time. When the motion is not one dimensional, the velocity and
acceleration can be determined from their components. In two dimensions, for
example, the velocity components are (x,y) if P has cartesian coordinates
(x, y), or (y, rO) along and transverse to the radius vector if P has polar
coordinates (r,8); see equation (1.6.23). Similarly the corresponding com-
ponents of acceleration are (x,y) or (7- r02 ,rO + 2fO); see equation (1.6.24).
The magnitude of the velocity is called the speed. The rate of change of angle,
(j, is called the angular speed. There is no special name for the magnitude of the
acceleration.
Let a particle P' have position vector r'. The velocity of P' relative to P is
defined to be

d - , dr' dr
-PP = - - - . (2.2.3)
dt dt dt

Similarly the acceleration of P' relative to Pis

d2 _, d2 r' d2 r
dt2 PP = dt2 - dt2 . (2.2.4)

Note that the velocity of P' is the vector sum of the velocity of P and the
velocity of P' relative to P. This can be a useful rule for the calculation of the
velocity of a particle. In the same way the acceleration of P' can be calculated
from the vector sum of the acceleration of P and the acceleration of P' relative
to P.

Example 2.2.1
An aeroplane, flying in a north-east wind,* travels a distance d due north and
returns to its original position. The time for the outward journey is to and for
the return journey t r. Find the speeds v and w of the aeroplane in still air and of
the wind, respectively.

* A north-east wind blows from the north-east to the south-west.

60 Kinematics [2.2

d
1;

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2.1 Illustration for Example 2.2.1: (a) outward journey; (b) return
journey.

The velocity of the plane relative to the wind is of magnitude v in a direction

such that the two velocities combined carry the plane due north on the outward
journey with speed dlt o and due south on the return journey with speed dlt e
(see Fig. 2.2.1).
We use the cosine rule (1.5.17) in the triangular law of addition for the
velocities to get the two relations

By subtraction, we have

or

Then a straightforward calculation for v shows that

1 1 )1/2
V = 2 -1/2 d ( - +-
t: t~
2.2] Velocity and Acceleration 61

Example 2.2.2
A plane P takes off with constant velocity u and climbs at a fIxed angle a to the
horizontal. A helicopter H is in steady horizontal flight with velocity v at a
height h, and the two flight paths are in the same vertical plane. If the horizontal
distance between the helicopter and the plane is d when the latter is about to
take off, find the distance of nearest approach.
If a velocity -v is superimposed on both H and P, then H is reduced to rest
and the direction of the combined velocities -v and u will give the flight path of
P relative to H. If this path is PN, and if HN is the perpendicular from H on to
this path, then HN is the distance of nearest approach (see Fig. 2.2.2).
Let ~ be the inclination of PN to the horizontal and let 1 be the inclination of
PH to the horizontal. We then have that the distance HN, without regard to sign,
is

HN = I PH sin W- 1) I = I PH sin ~ cos 1 - PH cos ~ sin 1 I

=ldsin~-hcos~1

and a knowledge of HN depends on the calculation of~. To fmd ~ note that the
velocities -v and u must combine so that there is no component perpendicular
to PN. This implies that

u sin (a -~) = v sin~,

or sin a cot ~ - cos a =v/u,
a cos a + v/u
cot.- = .
sin a

v -H

+------------d-------------+

Figure 2.2.2 Illustration for Example 2.2.2.

Example 2.2.3
A rabbit runs in a straight line with constant speed u. A fox chases the rabbit
with velocity v whose magnitude v(>u) is constant and is always directed
towards the rabbit. At time t =0 the fox is at a distance d from the rabbit and
62 Kinematics [2.2

Figure 2.2.3 Illustration for Example 2.2.3.

the velocities of the two animals are perpendicular. Show that the fox catches
the rabbit after a time vd/(v2 - u2 ).
The curve followed by the fox is called the curve of pursuit and can be
calculated by considering the velocity of the fox relative to the rabbit. Denote
the rabbit by R and the fox by F, and let their initial positions be Ro and F 0
(see Fig. 2.2.3). Let RF = r, and let the angle between rand u be 0 + n/2. Then

r=-v + u sin 0, (2.2.5)

re = u cos O. (2.2.6)

these are just the components of the velocity of F relative to R in polar

coordinates.
First note that (2.2.5) and (2.2.6) imply that

y(u sin 0 + v) + reu cos 0 = u2 - v2

and this equation integrates to

r(u sin 0 + v) = (u 2 - v2 )t + vd, (2.2.7)

since r =d, 0 = 0 when t = O. This is all that is required to find the time taken to
catch the rabbit, for then r = 0 and hence the time is vd/(v 2 - u 2 ).
In order to find the path, it is necessary to integrate the relation

1 dr -v + u sin 0
--=---- (2.2.8)
r dO u cos 0
2.3] Constant Acceleration 63

which is implied by the ratio of (2.2.5) and (2.2.6). The integral of (2.2.8) is

r v
log d= - ;; log (sec e + tan e) - log cos e,

r 1
or (2.2.9)
d= cos e(sec e + tan et 1u .
Equations (2.2.7) and (2.2.9) contain all the information required to fmd the
path taken by the fox. They determine, at least implicitly, rand e (and hence r)
as functions of t. Thus the position vector Ro F of F, relative to Ro, can be
determined as a function of t since

2.3 CONSTANT ACCELERATION

There are several problems of practical interest where the acceleration is con-
stant in both magnitude and direction. The relations governing such motion are
easily derived by integration of the relation

(2.3.1)

Since a is a constant vector we get

dr
v=-=u+at (2.3.2)
dt '

r =ro + ut +! at 2 , (2.3.3)

where ro and u are constant vectors of integration which will be determined by

the initial conditions. Another useful formula, which is implied by (2.3.2) and
(2.3.3), is obtained as follows. From (2.3.2) we have

v2 = u2 + a2 t 2 + 2u . at
= u2 + 2a. (ut + ~ at 2 )
=u 2 + 2a. (r- ro). (2.3.4)

The most general motion of this kind is two dimensional. For we can without
loss of generality choose the origin so that ro = o. Then the plane of the motion
is that plane of the constant vectors u and a which passes through the origin.
When u and a are parallel the motion is one dimensional and if

r = xi, ro = 0, u = ui, v = vi, a = ai, (2.3.5)

64 Kinematics [2.4

the equations (2.3.2), (2.3.3) and (2.3.4) reduce to

v=u +at, (2.3.6)

x = ut +tat 2 , (2.3.7)

(2.3.8)

2.4 PROJECTILES

The theory of the motion of projectiles is based on the following experimental

observation. All bodies in the neighbourhood of the earth's surface move when
unrestrained with a vertical acceleration g relative to the earth. Its magnitude
varies with locality, but in a local region in the vicinity of the earth's surface it is
constant to a good approximation in magnitude and direction. In England its
magnitude is

g=9'81 ms- 2 •

This result is actually a consequence of a much more general law of gravi-

tation, first postulated by Newton and now accepted as one of the most far-
reaching results of theoretical physics. According to this law, which will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 7, a spherical body (to which the earth is a
good approximation) induces an acceleration in a neighbouring particle which is
towards the centre of the sphere and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the centre. From this we can estimate the accuracy of the
approximation that g is constant. If g is the acceleration at the earth's surface
and r e is the radius of the earth, then the acceleration at a distance r from the
centre of the earth will be gr;/r2. Now re is 6378 km at the equator and
6357 km at the poles. If we round this off to 6400 km, the acceleration at a
height of 10 km above the earth's surface will be

6400)2
g (- - =0'997 g
6410 .

There would hence be a 0'3% error at this height if the variation in g were
ignored.
The fact that the acceleration is towards the centre of the earth means that
the assumption that it is constant in direction is also approximate. Two points
10 km apart on the earth's surface subtend an angle of 10/6400 radians or 0'1 0
of arc at the centre of the earth. This represents the departure from parallelism
between two such points.
The flattening of the earth towards the poles means that the earth is not a
true sphere and that consequently there is a slight variation in g along a
2.4] Projectiles 65

meridian. This variation is adequately represented by the formula

g= 9·806 (1 - 0'0027 cos 2cp) km S-2

where cp is the latitude, so that there is a total variation ing of 0'5% between the
poles and the equator.
Finally the accuracy of the result will depend on the extent to which
additional mechanisms, which influence the motion of the projectiles, can be
ignored. In practice the most important of these is the resistance of the air. The
modifications to which this gives rise will be discussed in <hapter 4. For the
moment we investigate the consequences of the assumption that the gravita-
tional acceleration is constant in magnitude and direction and is the only
operative mechanism. Then the motion is described by equations (2.3.2), (2.3.3)
and (2.3.4) with a equal to the gravitational acceleration. In particular

r=ut+!gt2 (2.4.1)

if the particle starts from the origin with velocity u at time t =O.
We take axes Ox horizontally and Oy vertically in the plane of the motion.
The gravitational acceleration then has components (0, -g) and the initial
velocity u makes an angle a with the horizontal as in Figure 2.4.1. The governing
equations can be written

x =u cos a, Y =u sin a - gt, (2.4.2)

x =ut cos a, y =ut sin a - ;gt2 , (2.4.3)

(2.4.4)

In particular, if a = 1T/2, the motion is one-dimensional with x = 0 and

y =ut _ ;gt2.

O ••__________~x___________ R----------------------+
Figure 2.4.1 The path of a projectile moving under the influence of gravity.
66 Kinematics [2.4

The maximum height, h, is attained wheny = 0 or, from (2.4.2),

u sin ex
(=-- (=! T,say).
g
Then, from (2.4.3),

u
2 sin2 ex
h-~--~· (2.4.5)
g 2 g 2g

The y coordinate of the projectile is zero when

o= u( sin ex _ !gt2 ,
2u sin ex
and so (=0 or (=T).
g
Thus T is the time of flight and the range, R, on the horizontal plane through
the origin is therefore, from (2.4.3),

R =u cos ex ~ i
2U sin ex
g
1= u 2 sin 2ex
g
. (2.4.6)

It follows that the maximum range, for a fixed value of u and varying values of
ex, is Rm = u2 /g achieved when ex = 1T/4. Any intermediate range can be achieved
with two possible values for ex since, if ex = fJgives the required range, so also
does ex = t'1T - e. These two directions lie on either side of ex = 1T /4 and are
equally inclined to it.
Equations (2.4.3) are the parametric equations of the path of the projectile,
with ( as the parameter. The cartesian equation of the path can be obtained by
the .elimination of ( . It is

gx2
Y = x tan ex - 2 2 • (2.4.7)
2u cos ex

An alternative form of this equation is

R\2 = 2u 2 cos2 ex (h -y).

(.x-- (2.4.8)
2) g

This is a parabola with its vertex at the point (R/2, h).

Example 2.4.1. The clearance of a barrier by a projectile.

We consider the problem of a projectile which is to be launched so that it passes
over the point whose coordinates are (xo ,Yo).
2.4] Projectiles 67

X R] R 2' R2 Rm
Figure 2.4.2 Illustration for Example 2.4.1: the parabola of safety.

The initial inclination a which takes the projectile through the point (xo ,Yo)
must, from (2.4.7), satisfy

gxo2 gxo2 2
Yo =xo tana- 2 =xo tana--2 (1 + tan a).
2 (2.4.9)
2u cos a 2u

This is a quadratic equation for tan a which can be solved to give

2g ( gx2)
tan a = [ I ± { 1 - u2 Yo + 2U~:
}112] gxo
u .
2
(2.4.10)

For real values of a, and hence possible trajectories, the part of the expression
within the square root must not be negative, and so we have

gx5) ,
2g ( Yo +-2
1 #2
u 2u

or (2.4.11 )

The point (xo,Yo) must therefore not lie above the curve

(2.4.12)

if there is to be a possible trajectory. This curve is called the parabola of safety

and is shown as the enveloping curve in Figure 2.4.2.
It is sufficient to discuss points for which Xo > 0, Yo # O. Then, from
(2.4.11) we must have u 2 /gxo # 1. This latter inequality, together with (2.4.10),
implies that at least one value of a is greater than or equal to 1T/4.
To reach a point on the parabola of safety, there is one value of tan a =
u2 /gxo # 1 or a # 1T/4. To reach a point within the parabola of safety there
68 Kinematics [2.4

are two possible values of a, say al > 1f/4 and a2, with al > a2. For these two
values of a, the right-hand side of (2.4.9) takes the value Yo. Hence, for
al ~ a ~ a2, the· right-hand side of (2.4.9) must have a stationary value as a
function of tan a. Two differentiations with respect to tan a shows that the
second derivative is _gx~/U2 < 0, so that the stationary value is a maximum.
Thus for al ~a~a2 the trajectory passes through the point (xo, y) where
y ~ Yo. This is the range of a for which it is possible for the projectile to pass
over the point (xo,Yo).
Corresponding to the two values al ,a2 of a are the horizontal ranges

• 2
R 1 -_u
2
SIn al
, (2.4.13)
g

with R 1 ~ R 2 • This inequality follows because the two trajectories can only
meet in one other point in addition to the origin. Since this point is (xo, Yo)
withxo ~O,Yo ~ 0, a contradiction is implied unlessR l ~R2.
If a2 > 1f/4, so that (xo ,Yo) lies between the trajectory for maximum range
and the parabola of safety, then Rl ~ R~R2 represents the interval of ranges
on the horizontal plane accessible to a projectile which has to pass over the point
(xo,Yo). Only one trajectory is possible for a given range R, for a second
trajectory would imply that a2 < 1f/4 which contradicts the assumption that
a2 >1f/4.
If a2 < 1f/4, the maximum range Rm = u2/g is attainable. Here Rl ~R ~Rm
is the interval of accessible ranges. For Rl ~R ~R2 only one trajectory is
possible, for which a> 1f/4. For R2 <R <Rm there are two trajectories
possible, one with a > 1f/4, the other with a < 1f/4.
Figure 2.4.2 shows two trajectories through the point (xo ,Yo) for which
at > a2 > 1f/4. The accessible points on the horizontal plane for a projectile
passing over (xo ,Yo) lie between R 1 and R 2 • The two trajectories through the
point (x~ ,y~) are such that al > 1f/4 > a2. In this case the accessible points lie
betweenR l andR m •

Example 2.4.2. The range of a projectile on an inclined plane.

The original equations (2.3.2), (2.3.3) and (2.3.4) are still valid, but it is now
simpler to take axes along and perpendicular to the plane, as shown in Figure
2.4.3. I.et a be the inclination of u to the plane and (3 the inclination of the
plane to the horizontal. Then u has components (u cos a, u sin a) and g has
components (-g sin (3, -g cos (3). Hence

x =u cos a - gt sin (3, y =u sin a - gt cos (3, (2.4.14)

x =ut cos a - ~gt2 sin (3, y =ut sin a - ~gt2 cos (3. (2.4.1 5)

The y coordinate of the particle is zero when

o= ut sin a - ~gt2 cos (3

2.4] Projectiles 69

Figure 2.4.3 Illustration for Example 2.4.2.

and so the time of flight is

T = 2u sin ex/(g cos (3). (2.4.16)

The value of x for this value of t gives the range, and so

R = u cos ex(2U sin(3ex) _ !g sin {3(2U sin ex)2

g cos g cos {3

2u 2 sin ex cos (ex + II)

- g cos 2 {3 (2.4.17)

_ u2 {sin (2ex + (3) - sin {3}

- g cos 2 {3

The maximum range, for varying values of ex, will occur when sin (2ex + (3) = I;
the inclination for maximum range is therefore

(2.4.18)

and the maximum range is

R = u2 (l- sin (3) = u2 (2.4.19)

m g cos (3
2 g(l + sin (3) •

Note that since this gives the maximum distance that can be attained in a
direction inclined at an angle (3 to the horizontal, only points within the curve
whose polar equation is

u2
r=---- (2.4.20)
g(l + sin 8)

can be reached by a projectile starting from the origin. Equation (2.4.20) must
therefore be an alternative expression for the equation of the parabola of safety
70 Kinematics [2.4

(equation (2.4.12». One can readily show the equivalence of the two expres-
sions. For, by (2.4.20), we have

r + r sin 8 =r + y =U 2 /g.
Hence

which, when simplified, can be arranged to give (2.4.12).

Now suppose that the projectile meets the plane again at an angle '1 as shown
in Figure 2.4.3. We shall show that

cot lX - cot '1 = 2 tan {3. (2.4.21)

Where the projectile strikes the plane we have, from (2.4.14) and (2.4.16),

2U sin lX)
x =U cos lX - g sin {3 (
g cos {3
=u cos lX - 2u sin lX tan {3,

2U sin lX)
y = u sin lX - g cos {3 (
g cos {3
= -u sin lX.

But we are given that at this point XI y = -cot '1. Hence

u cos lX - 2u sin lX tan (3 2 p.
cot '1 = . =cot lX - tan ,""
u sm lX

from which (2.4.21) follows.

Example 2.4.3
A particle is projected from a horizontal plane to pass over two objects at
heights hand k, and a slant distance d apart. Show that the least possible speed
of projection is {g(h + k + dW12.
Since, from equation (2.4.4),

u~ =u~ - 2gh,

where uo,u p are respectively the speeds at 0 and P (see Fig. 2.4.4), it follows
that when the speed of projection U o is a minimum so is up. Now up is a
minimum when the maximum range along PQ is equal to PQ, and so

2
PQ = up- or up2 = g(d + k - h) .
g(l + sin (3)

It follows that u~ = u~ + 2gh = g(h + k + d).

2.5] Dimensions 71

o
Figure 2.4.4 Illustration for Example 2.4.3.

In this problem the point of projection 0 is not fIxed, but has to be chosen to
be consistent with the solution.

2.5 DIMENSIONS

Derived quantities, such as velocity and acceleration, are measured in terms of

the fundamental units, in this case the units of length and time. For example
velocity is measured as a distance divided by a time and acceleration as a velocity
divided by a time (if necessary involving a limiting process when they are not
uniform). We say that velocity has the dimensions of (length)/(time), or briefly
LT- 1 , and that acceleration has the dimensions LT- 2 . This is a useful shorthand
description of the measure of any physical quantity in terms of the measures of
the fundamental quantities from which it is derived. It enables us to see how the
measure of a quantity will change if the fundamental units are changed. For
example, since velocity depends linearly on the unit of length, its measure will
also change linearly with the measure of length. Thus

x km = 1000x m,

and so v km S-I = 1000v m S-I . (2.5.1)

On the other hand the measure of area, which has dimensions L2 , will change in
proportion to the square of the measure of length, so that

(2.5.2)
For acceleration we have

k IOOOa
h -2 -- 1000a m h- 2 -- (3600)2 -2 (2.5.3)
a m ms .

Note the special use of the equality sign in relations such as (2.5.1), (2.5.2),
(2.5.3). The actual numbers on the two sides of the relation
72 Kinematics [2.5

are different and have to be read in conjunction with the units in order to make
sense of the statement. Only when the same units are used on both sides of the
equation, or when the quantities are dimensionless, can the units be ignored and
the equation interpreted in a strict mathematical sense.
Although a meaning is attached to the product or ratio of quantities of
different dimensions, only quantities having the same dimensions are added. This
is a consequence of another assumption of fundamental importance, which is
that the validity of all physical laws is independent of the units used to measure
the quantities involved. Consider, for example, the statement

x = ut + !at 2 ,

where x, t, u, a represent respectively distance, time, velocity and acceleration. It

is clear that if such a relation holds for one set of units of length and time, then
it will hold for all sets of units since the dimensions of the two sides of the
equation agree. On the other hand a statement such as

x=u

can have no such general validity since it will cease to hold if the unit of time is
altered.
All the relations subsequently derived will be consistent in the above sense,
and this dimensional consistency is a very useful check of the algebra, or even of
the basic assumptions, in any physical problem.
The law of dimensional consistency can even be used to find the form of a
solution, and this can be put to significant practical use where problems are too
complex to be treated in full mathematical detail. As a simple example, suppose
we consider the distance travelled from rest by a particle given a constant
acceleration a. Since the distance travelled can depend only on a and the time t,
and since it must have the dimensions of a length, it must be proportional to at 2
and we have the result, apart from a numerical factor. If we introduce further
parameters, for example if the particle is given an initial velocity u, the correct
dimensional combination at 2 is still required, but the factor of proportionality
can now be a function of any non-dimensional combination of the parameters.
Since u/at is a dimensionless combination (and there is no other independent
combination) the distance travelled must be expressible in the form at 2 F(u/at),
where F is some unknown function. Of course in this simple example the
formula can be calculated explicitly (see equation (2.3.7)). It is

and is indeed of the right form. In more complex problems arguments of this
kind can bring to light the non-dimensional parameters on which a problem
 Exercises 73

depends. From the practical point of view it is clearly useful to know that a
certain function F(u, a, t) of three parameters appearing in the problem is in fact
of the form F(u/at).

EXERCISES

2.1 Show that the hour and minute hands of a 12 hour clock coincide every
12/11 hours.
The hour, minute and second hands of the clock have a common axis
and they coincide at 12 o'clock (mid-day and mid-night). Do they coincide
at any other time?
2.2 An aeroplane flies at a constant speed v and has a range of action (out and
home) R in calm weather. Prove that in a north wind of constant speed w
its range of action is

in a direction inclined at an angle ¢ to the north. In what direction is the

range a maximum?
(Ans.: ¢ = n/2.)
2.3 On board a ship travelling due east the wind appears to blow from an angle
e
a west of north. Show that if the actual direction of the wind is west of
north,

vU sin a - j cos a) = w(i sin e - j cos e) - ui,

where i, j are unit vectors pointing east and north respectively, u and ware
the true speeds of the ship and the wind respectively, and v is the velocity
of the wind relative to the ship.
When the ship turns and travels due north (at the same speed) the wind
appears to come from a direction f3 west of north. Write down a similar
equation and hence show that

tan ex - 1
tan e= I - cot f3 •

Find the ratio of the speeds of the ship and the wind in terms of ex
and f3.
(Ans.: u/w = (tan ex cot f3 - l){(tan ex - 1)2 + (1 - cot f3)2r 1l2 .)
2.4 A torpedo, which drives itself through the water at a constant speed u, is
fired from 0 at an enemy ship P whose constant speed through the water
is v. At the moment of firing the direction of motion of the enemy ship
makes an angle ¢ with OP (when the ship is moving directly away ¢ = 0).
Prove that, in order to allow for the motion of the enemy ship, the axis of
the torpedo must be aimed ahead of the ship by an angle D, where
74 Kinematics

sin 5 = v sin rp/u. Prove that this result is unaffected by a uniform tidal
current.
Prove that relative to the sea bed the locus of positions of torpedos
fired simultaneously in all horizontal directions from a fixed point is a
circle whose radius is independent of the tidal current. Find the centre of
the circle.
2.5 A boat, which can travel at speed u in still water, makes a trip from point
A to point B and back again. Because of the tide the shortest time for the
journey is achieved with a true speed Vo for the outward journey and vr
for the return journey. Show that if w is the speed of the tide,

2.6 A river, of uniform width d, flows along a straight channel and its speed at
a distance y from the bank is u(y). A boat travels from a point 0
(x = y = 0) on one bank of the river to the opposite bank. The speed of the
boat relative to the current is v, and the boat is set at an angle 8 to the
upstream direction.
Show that the velocity w of the boat is given by

w = i(u - v cos 8) + jv sin 8

relative to a coordinate system based on 0 with Ox in the downstream

direction.
(i) Show that if the boat travels directly across the river, so that w = wj,
the time taken to reach the opposite bank is given by

If, further,

v = constant,

VYld for 0 ~y ~!d,

{
u= v(d - y)/d for !d~y~d,

show that the time is 1Td/(3v).

(il) Show that if 8 = constant (<:rr /2), v = constant, u = ay(d - y), where
a is a positive constant, when the boat has reached the opposite bank
it has travelled a distance downstream equal to

ad 3
- d cot 8.
6v sin 8

On the return journey the boat is set at a constant angle rp with the
upstream direction. Prove that it returns to the original point of
 Exercises 75

departure provided that

1 6v - ad 2 1
6v >ad2 , tan 2cf> = 6 d2 cot zO.
v+a
(iii) Show that if both u and v are constant, and if the boat is always
directed towards a point 0 1 on the opposite bank directly across from
the starting point 0, the differential equation for the path is

where a = u/v, andYI = d - y.

Solve the differential equation with the substitution x =YJ z and
deduce the condition for the boat to reach the opposite bank.
(Ans.: x + (x 2 + )112 = do<yt -0<, a < 1.)
YI
2.7 A rod PQ of length 1 moves with its ends P and Q on two straight lines OA,
OB inclined to each other at an angle a. The velocities of P and Q are of
magnitude u and v and in the directions OA, OB respectively. Show that
u cos f3 = -v cos 'Y, wn,erl: f3 and 'Yare the angles OPQ and OQP.
Show also that if the motion of a particular point R of the rod is
wholly along the rod, then

PR = 1 sin f3 cos 'Y/sin a.

2.8 Two particles P, Q describe, at constant rates, concentric circles with

centre at 0 and radii a and 2a respectively. At time t = 0, P and Q lie on
the x-axis in the order 0, P, Q. Show that, if the times taken to describe a
complete circle are rr/2w and 2rr/w for P and Q respectively, the velocity
of P relative to Q will be parallel to PQ after time t such that cos 3wt =
4/5.
2.9 A ladder AB is in contact with a horizontal floor OA and a vertical wall
OB. The foot A of the ladder is pulled away from the wall with constant
speed u, so that OA = ut at time t; Show that the mid point of the ladder
describes an arc of a circle with speed !u AB/OB.
2.10 Particles PI, P2 , ••. , P n are arranged in that order and symmetrically
placed around the circumference of a circle of radius a. For time t ;;;. 0
each particle moves in such a way that the motion of Pj is always directed
towards the adjacent particle Pj + 1 if f <: n or PI if j = n. The speed of each
particle is constant and equal to u.
What is the path of Pj and how long does it take before the particles all
collide at the centre of the circle?
(Ans.: r =a exp {-Otan(rr/n)}, a/{u sin(7T/n)}.)
2.11 In the rectilinear motion of a point the time t and position x satisfy the
equation t = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, band c are constants. Prove that:
(i) the velocity is given by (2ax + b) -I; (ii) the acceleration is inversely
proportional to the cube of the distance from the point x = -b/2a.
2.12 A particle moves in a straight line with an acceleration a - bx, where x is
76 Kinematics

the distance travelled and a and b are positive constants. Show that if it
starts from rest at the origin x =0, it next comes to rest when x =2alb
after a time Tr/b 1l2
2.13 A particle moves with constant speed u along the spiral curve r =ae - k8 ,
where a and k are positive constants. Show that if the particle starts with
8 > 0 at time t =0,

Calculate the components of the acceleration vector as functions of t

and show that this vector makes a constant angle with the radius vector.
2.14 A crank OQ revolves about a fixed point 0 with constant angular speed w,
and a connecting rod QP is hinged to it at Q, whilst P is constrained to
move along a straight line through O. Prove that if OQ = a, QP = b, and 8 is
the angle QOP, the acceleration of P is

approximately, if alb is small.

2.15 A particle describes the curve r =ae8 , where a is a positive constant and
(r,8) are polar coordinates, in such a way that the radial component of
acceleration is equal to a quarter of the transverse component. At time
t =0 the particle is at 8 =0 and moving with speed u in such a way that 8
is increasing. Show that

Hence show that, as r -+ 00, t -+ 3aj2 1 / 2 u.

2.16 A particle, initially at rest at the origin, moves in a plane with an
acceleration that is the resultant of a radial acceleration a outwards, and an
acceleration in a direction perpendicular to the velocity equal to 2w times
the speed, where a and w are positive constants.
Show that its angular speed about the origin is equal to w, and that the
polar equation of its path, taking the direction of the acceleration at the
origin as the initial line, is w2 r = a( 1 - cos 8).
2.17 A particle PI is projected from a point 0 with speed u and thereafter
moves along a straight line with a constant acceleration a. One second later
a particle P2 is projected from 0 with speed !u and it then follows P2 ,
along the same straight line, with acceleration 2a. When P2 overtakes PI
their speeds are 31 and 22 m S-I respectively. Prove that the distance
traversed is 48 m.
2.18 A particle moves with constant acceleration in a straight line. Explain what
is meant by the mean velocity with respect to: (i) distance, (ii) time, and
 Exercises 77

show that the difference between the means is equal to

(v - U)2
6(v+u)'

where u and v are the initial and final speeds.

2.19 The maximum acceleration of a train is ai, its maximum retardation is a2,
and its maximum speed is u. Show that it cannot run a distance d from
rest to rest in a time less than

or less than

2.20 The depth of a well is to be measured by dropping in a stone and observing

the time T which then elapses before the impact at the bottom is heard.
Prove that the depth of the well is given by the smaller root of the
equation

where c is the speed of sound in air. Why is the larger root not appro-
priate?
Show that the depth of the well is approximately !gr (l - gT/c), if
gT~c.
Given that T = I' 5 sand c = 330 m s -1 show that the small correction
term alters the result by 4'4%.
2.21 A projectile is fired from ground level at A with the least speed needed to
clear an obstacle of height h at a horizontal distance a from A. Show that
if it reaches the ground at B, where AB = a + b •. then

2.22 A fort and a ship are both armed with guns which give their projectiles a
muzzle velocity (2ga}1I2, and the guns in the fort are at a height h above
the guns in the ship. The greatest (horizontal) ranges at which the fort and
ship can engage are d 1 and d 2 respectively. Show that

d1 =(a+h Y12
d2 a - h)

2.23 A particle is projected at time t = 0 in a vertical plane from a given point

with given velocity (2ga)1I2. of which the upward vertical component is v.
Show that at time t = 2a/v the particle is on a fixed parabola (independent
of v). that its path touches the parabola, and that its direction of motion is
then perpendicular to its direction of projection.
78 Kinematics

2.24 A particle is projected with velocity (2ga)112 from a point at a height h

above a plane of inclination (3. Prove that the maximum ranges up and
down the plane are increased by

h cos 2 (3)1/2 }
2a sec2 (3 {(
, 1+ a - 1 .

relative to the ranges when h = O.

Find a first approximation to this result when h cos 2(3 ~ a.
2.25 Two projectiles PI, P2 moving under gravity have velocities VI, v2' At one
stage in their motion VI = kP 1 Q and V2 = kP2 Q, where k is a positive
constant. Show that they will eventually collide.
2.26 A particle is projected under gravity from a point 0 with speed u at an
inclination a to the horizontal. The polar coordinates of the particle,
relative to 0, are (r, 8), where 8 is the inclination of the radius vector r to
the horizontal. Show that the polar equation of the trajectory is

2u 2 cos a sin(a - 8)
r=--------~~---
g cos 2 8

Show that r increases monotonically if cos a > !. If cos a <! show

that r decreases as 8 decreases through the range

!a +; cos- 1(3 cos a) > 8>!a -! cos-I(3 cos a).

For the critical case

cos a =! (a = 1·23 rad), 8 = a/2

show that r is less than the horizontal range.

Show that the first stationary value of r will become equal to the
horizontal range when

tan a = rl/2(5 3 / 2 + 11)1/2, (a = 1·28 rad).

2.27 A projectile is fired from 0 with initial speed u at a target in the same
horizontal plane as O. Show that if a small error E radians is made in the
angle of elevation, and an error 2E in azimuth, the shot will strike the
plane at a distance from the mark 2U 2 E/g.
Show also that if the angle of elevation a is such that tan 2a <
2(a < 0'55 rad) an error in elevation will cause the shot to miss the target
by an amount greater than would be caused by an equal error in azimuth.
2.28 Mud is thrown off from all points of a tyre of radius a, which is rolling
along the ground with constant velocity of magnitude u. Show that, if
 Exercises 79

u 2 ~ ga, none of the mud reaches a height greater than

Discuss also the case u 2 <ago

2.29 A particle moves in a plane, its coordinates at time t referred to rec-
tal!gular axes in the plane being (x,y). The component acceleration in the
direction Oy has the constant value -g, and the component acceleration in
the direction Ox is k(y - h), where k and h are positive constants. The
particle is projected from the origin in the direction Oy with speed (3gh)1f2 .
Discuss the motion, and prove that the path of the particle is a parabola.
2.30 Given that the periodic time for the swing of a pendulum depends only on
its length 1, the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration g and the
maximum angular displacement a, use a dimensional argument to deduce
that the periodic time is given by

to(lgo )112 F(a) .

log F(ao)

Here 10 , go, ao are a particular combination of 1, g, a for which the

periodic time is to, and F is some function of a.
3 Dynamics

3.1 NEWTON'S LAWS

We now introduce the laws of motion first postulated by Newton, which form
the basis of the whole of classical mechanics. We shall first state the laws in the
form in which they are usually quoted, and then proceed to discuss them.

1. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight

line, unless it is compelled to change that state by external impressed forces.
2. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force, and
takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts.
3. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

It should be noted that the above three statements are formulated in terms of
certain concepts, namely force, momentum, action, which it is necessary to
define before the significance of the statements can be appreciated. It will
appear that their definitions depend, in turn, on the additional concept of mass,
this being the third and last fundamental concept of mechanics, after length and
time.
The first law associates the notion of force with that of acceleration, and
attaches significance to the state of zero acceleration. But before any statement
can be made about the acceleration of a particle a reference system is required,
since a particle may have zero acceleration relative to one set of axes, but not
relative to a different set. There is therefore an implication in this first law that
certain axes are preferential. This is connected with the belief that the appropri-
ate way to describe the acceleration of a particle is in terms of the influence of
other bodies, and that if a particle were isolated and free from any external
influence it would move with zero acceleration. A preferential, or inertial, set of
axes should be chosen to be consistent with such a motion. These axes, though
not arbitrary, are also not unique, for axes moving with constant velocity
relative to an inertial set also constitute an inertial set. The laws of mechanics are
in fact identical in the two frames, as will subsequently appear. This is called the
Galilean relativity principle.
As far as the idealised mathematical model is concerned, it is quite legitimate
to postulate the existence of inertial frames of reference. The theory, however,
does not explain how such a frame is to be chosen in practical applications, since
we are not able to isolate a particle from the influence of other bodies. Here we
must appeal to our experience to decide what is reasonable. Thus a system of
axes fixed on the earth's surface is adequate for many problems, in the sense that
a theory of Newtonian mechanics using these axes gives results which compare
3.11 Newton's Laws 81
satisfactorily with observation. Strictly speaking, however, a point on the earth's
surface does have an acceleration because the earth rotates about its polar axis.
At a latitude cp the acceleration is w~ r e cos cp towards the polar axis, where
re , We are respectively the radius of the earth and its angular speed of rotation.
Since, approximately, re = 6·4 x 10 6 m and We = 21T radians per day, we have

This acceleration is small compared with the gravitational acceleration of

9'81 m s -2 at the earth's surface. It can, if necessary, be allowed for in the
equations of motion. Otherwise a different set of axes must be chosen and
certainly, f01 a discussion of motion in the solar system, the simplest satisfactory
modification is to choose a system of axes with origin at the centre of the sun
and directions fIxed relative to the 'fIxed' stars. More sophisticated problems
may require a more sophisticated set of axes. In all cases the ultimate justifi-
cation is through a comparison of the resulting theory with observation.
To proceed with the theory, we envisage a region in which a single particle,
when isolated, has zero acceleration. Into this region we introduce two particles
Po and PI with position vectors fO and II, each particle being influenced by the
other, but by no other mechanism. We then assert that the vector accelerations
ro, r l are in the line Po PI and are opposite in sense, and that the ratio I fl I / I fo I
is invariant for different positions, different velocities, and different mechanisms
of influence (gravitational, electrical, connection by a spring, and so on).
Choose a number rno and associate it with the particle Po. Associate with PI
a number rn I determined by the relation

rnl =rno I fo 1/1 i't I (3.1.1)

so that (3.1.2)

In the same way, by the substitution of any other particle P2 for PI, we can
determine a number rnz associated with Pz , which is invariant for all reactions
with Po.
We further assert that the result i:; transitive, so that ifP, and P2 are chosen
as the two interacting particles, then

It follows similarly that there is associated with any particle P a number rn

which is characteristic of P in its interactions with other particles. It is called the
mass of P. The above procedure explains how it can be measured once the mass
rno of the reference particle Po has been fixed. Then for any two particles the
vectors like rnf associated with the particles are equal and opposite under all
conditions in which the particles interact. We defIne the quantity rnf associated
82 Dynamics [3.1

with P to be the force F acting on P and write

F=mr. (3.1.3)

We also define the momentum of the particle to be mt, so that (3.1.3) is

equivalent to Newton's second law. However, it has been presented here as a
definition, and not as a relation which is to be justified experimentally.
So far, the important dynamical postulate is expressed by the relation (3.1.2),
which is the equivalent of Newton's third law. A relation such as (3.1.3) does
not add to the postulates, but simply recognises the significance of the quan-
tity mf in the interactions between particles. However, before (3.1.3) can be used
to make predictions it is necessary to formulate further empirical laws, again
based on experience, which describe how F varies when a particle is subject to
the various mechanisms appearing in any given problem. In other words an
independent rule is required for the calculation of the force acting on the
particle. One example is the law of gravitation, which says that the force on a
particle Pi arising from the gravitational attraction between Pi and P2 is

Gmim2(r2 - rd
1 r2 - ri 13

where G is the gravitational constant. By Newton's third law, there is an equal

and opposite force on P2 • When this information is combined with (3.1.3) we
get the pair of differential equations

These can now be integrated to give ri and r2 as functions of the time, and
hence to predict the motion of the particles if the appropriate initial conditions
are given. There is a similar rule for the electrical force between charged
particles. For particles connected to a spring or elastic string there is a different
rule which says that the force is proportional to the extension of the spring (see
Chapter 6). Whenever a new mechanism is introduced a corresponding rule will
always be required before the calculations can proceed.
If the theory is to be generally applicable it is necessary to consider situations
more complex than the interaction between two particles. A particle may, for
example, be subjected to several forces (measured by the accelerations they
would produce if acting separately). We then assert that the resultant force,
obtained from the vector sum of the individual forces, is equivalent to the
product of the mass and the acceleration of the particle. This is the postulate of
the independence of forces. It enables us to use the empirical laws to calculate
the forces on a given particle, irrespective of the fact that there may be other
factors influencing its motion. We may also speak of an unaccelerated particle
being subject to several forces whose vector sum is zero.
3.3] Applications 83

Finally, for those who find it difficult to reconcile the idealised assertions
which have been made with their intuitive idea of what actually happens in
practice, the following quotation is the answer given by H. lamb (Dynamics
(1923) Cambridge University Press).

'The laws which are to be imposed on these ideal representations are in the
first instance largely at our choice, since we are dealing now with mental
objects. Any scheme of abstract dynamics constructed in this way, provided
it be self-consistent, is mathematically legitimate; but from the physical point
of view we require that it should help us to picture the sequence of
phenomena as they actually occur. The success or failure in this respect can
only be judged a posteriori, by comparison of the results to which it leads
with the facts. It is to be noticed, moreover, that available tests apply only to
the scheme as a whole, since, owing to the complexity of real phenomena, we
cannot subject anyone of its postulates to verification apart from the rest.'

3.2 UNITS

The unit of mass, as for all fundamental units, is a matter of choice. In the SI
system it is the kilogram (kg), which is 103 gram (g), defined in terms of a
material standard kept in Paris. In dynamics there is no particular reason for the
preference of the kilogram over the original unit of the gram, apart perhaps from
the fact that it tends to be more useful in everyday life. For the theoretical
reason for choosing the kilogram, reference must be made to the complete
system of SI units, which includes those used in electromagnetism. In this
discussion it is used simply because it is internationally acceptable.
Force is here a derived concept with the dimensions of mass times acceler-
ation, or MLT- 2 • The unit in the SI system is the newton (N), which is the force
represented by 1 kg having an acceleration of 1 m s -2.
Since it is observed that the attraction of the earth gives all bodies an
acceleration g, it follows that the associated force of attraction is mg. This will
vary from place to place because of the variation of g, but at a given place g is
constant and the mass of a body is proportional to the gravitational force, called
the weight (wt) of the body. Since the weights of two bodies can be compared
on a balance, this also gives a practical means of comparing masses. In fact the
force of magnitude mg newtons is sometimes referred to as m kilogram weight
(kg-wt), but it should always be kept in mind that it has the dimensions MLr2
and refers to the weight of a mass m kg. In problems possible confusion is best
avoided by working entirely in terms of the force mg newtons rather than
m kg-wt.

3.3 APPLICATIONS

In the following examples certain assumptions and idealisations are made, the
chief of which are discussed below.
84 Dynamics [3.3

Some bodies, which are manifestly of fmite size, can be treated as if their
equations of motion are identical with those of a particle subject to the same
forces. Strictly speaking this requires a study of rigid body dynamics, but at this
stage such treatment may be accepted, at least for one-dimensional motion or
where the size is clearly not an important parameter.
When two bodies are in contact they exert, by Newton's third law, equal and
opposite forces on each other, called contact forces. A contact force may vary
according to the dynamical situation, but when bodies are smooth this force is
always perpendicular to the plane of contact of two such bodies. This is an
idealisation which neglects the frictional force (see Chapter 4).
When two particles are connected by an inelastic string, the string transmits a
force, called the tension of the string. Consider an element os of a straight string
moving parallel to itself with acceleration a (see Fig. 3.3.1). The contact forces
between os and the rest of the string are T(s + os) and T(s), say, so that the
resultant force on os is

T(s + os) - T(s) = pos a,

where p is the mass per unit length of the string. Division by os gives, in the limit
as os -+ 0,

dT/ds = pa. (3.3.1 )

If the string passes round a smooth peg or pulley this result is not affected
since the contact force between the string and the pulley is perpendicular to the
string and hence does not affect the equation of motion along the string.
There is an extra term if the string is subject also to a gravitational force. For
example, for a string pulled vertically upwards with acceleration a, equation
(3.3.1) is modified to

dT
ds - pg= pa. (3.3.2)

A light string is an idealisation in which the mass of the string can be

neglected. With p =0 we have dT/ds =0 and the tension is constant throughout
the string in this case.
As a more general observation, we do not attempt to describe a dynamical
problem in all its detail. Certain features are deemed to be important and hence

T(s) T(s + os)

os

Figure 3.3.1 The forces on an element Os of a string.

3.3] Applications 85

to be emphasised, others are regarded as extraneous and ignored, or postponed

to be discussed at a later stage. To achieve this some idealisation is required;
indeed provided this is done with discretion, it is desirable and perhaps even
necessary in order to describe the problem in reasonably simple terms.

Example 3.3.1
A particle, of mass m!, is free to slide on the inclined face of a smooth wedge, of
mass m2 and angle G!. The wedge is itself free to slide on a smooth horizontal
plane. Find the acceleration of the particle and the wedge.
Let the acceleration of the particle relative to the wedge be al down the face
of the wedge, and let the acceleration of the wedge be a2, as shown in
Figure 3.3.2.
The forces consist of the normal reaction Nl between the particle and the
wedge, which is a mutual force perpendicular to the wedge face, the reaction N2
between the wedge and the plane, and the gravitational forces on both the wedge
and the particle.
The equations of motion, when resolved horizontally and vertically, are, for
the wedge,
NI sina=m2a2,
m2g-N2 +N I cosG!=O,

and, for the particle,

NI sina=ml(al cosa-a2),
mig - NI cos a = inial sin a.

The four equations are to be solved for the four unknowns ai, a2, NI and N 2 . In
particular
(3.3.3)

(3.3.4)

Nj \ 1mjg
~ ~~ -a2

\ lm2 g aj~
ex
Nj
N2 i
~ :0- ~
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3.2 Illustration for Example 3.3.1: (a) the forces; (b) the accel-
erations.
86 Dynamics [3.3

llJCample 3.3.2
A light inextensible string passes over a smooth pulley and particles, of mass m 1
and mz respectively, are suspended from the ends of the string. The pulley has a
constant acceleration ao vertically upwards. Find the accelerations of the masses.
The accelerations of the particles relative to the pulley are equal and opposite
since this is true of their displacements. Let these be ± a so that ml has an
acceleration ao + a and mz has an acceleration ao - a as shown in Figure 3.3.3.
The forces involved are the tension in the string, which is constant if the mass
of the string is neglected, and the gravitational forces .
The equations of motion are

Elimination of T gives

(3 .3.5)

from which the accelerations ao + a of ml and ao - a of m2 follow.

ao + a

T rao - a

m2g

Figure 3.3.3 Illustration for Example 3.3.2.

llJCample 3.3.3. The Conical Pendulum

One end of a light string, of length I, is attached to a ftxed point. To the other
end is attached a particle, of mass m, which describes a horizontal circle with
angular speed w (see Fig. 3.3.4).
Let the string make an angle a with the downward vertical and let the tension
in the string be T.
There is no vertical acceleration, and so

Tcos a= mg.
3.3] Applications 87

.
T
..-
(

'---_C2.._--/~ mg

Figure 3.3.4 Illustration for Example 3.3.3: the conical pendulum.

In the horizontal plane there is no component of force tangential to the path

of the particle, and since the radius of the path is constant this means that w is
constant.
Along the radius of the particle's path, we have

T sin ex = mw 2 [ sin ex

and so mg sec ex = mw2 [

2 g sec ex g
or w =--=- (3.3.6)
[ OC'

where OC is the depth of the particle below the fixed point. The time for one
complete revolution is

(3.3.7)

Note that w cannot be less than (g/l) 11 2 •

llxamp/e 3.3.4
A particle is slightly displaced from rest in its position of eqUilibrium at the
highest point of a smooth fixed sphere of radius a. Determine the point where
the particle leaves the sphere.
When the radius vector from the centre of the sphere to the particle makes an
angle e with the vertical as in Figure 3.3.5, the components of acceleration along
and perpendicular to the radius vector are (-a(j2, a8). If the normal reaction
88 Dynamics [3.3

I
I
I ;'
ie>;,;' ;'

L-/

Figure 3.3.5 Illustration for Example 3.3.4: particle sliding on a sphere.

between the sphere and the particle is N, the equations of motion are

mg cos 8 - N = mae 2, mg sin e = ma~ .

If the second equation is multiplied by eit can be integrated to give

g(l - cos 8) = !a0 2 (3.3.8)

since 8 = ° when 8 = 0. Then

N= mg cos 8 - 2mg(l - cos 8)

= mg(3 cos 8 - 2). (3.3.9)

Since N cannot become negative, the particle will lose contact with the sphere
when N = 0, that is when cos 8 = 2/3. It will then begin to move freely under
gravity.

Example 3.3.5
A bead is free to slide on a smooth, straight, horizontal wire which rotates with
constant angular speed w about a vertical axis through a point 0 of the wire (see
Fig. 3.3.6).

e
o
Figure 3.3.6 Illustration for Example 3.3.5: bead sliding on a rotating wire.
 Exercises 89

We discuss the displacement of the bead as a function of the time.

Since the wire is smooth and horizontal, there is no force on the bead along
the length of the wire. Hence the component of acceleration in this direction is
zero. Let (r, 8) be the polar coordinates of the particle relative to 0. Then 8 = w
and the radial acceleration is

f - rw 2 = 0. (3.3.10)

This is a second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients. The
solutions of such equations are, in general, of exponential type, possibly with
complex exponents, and so are of the form r = A eAt , where A and A are
constants. Substitution in (3.3.10) shows that

which gives the two solutions A 1 e W t, A 2 e -w t. For a linear differential equation,

such solutions can be combined linearly to give the general solution

The arbitrary constants A 1 and A 2 will be determined by appropriate initial

conditions. For example, if r =0, f =u when t =0, the displacement at time tis
given by

u u
r=-(e wt _e- wt )=- sinhwt.
2w w

EXERCISES

3.1 A particle of unit mass is subject to the force

F = Ai + Btj + Ct 2 k,

where t is the time and A, Band C are constants. Initially the particle is at
rest at the origin. Find its position vector r at any subsequent time and
show that

where the integral is taken along the path of the particle from the origin to
its position after unit time.
3.2 A particle of mass m is moving with constant velocity u relative to an
inertial frame. A second frame of reference has its axes always parallel to
those of the inertial frame but its origin has the position vector
ai + btj + ct 2 k, where a, b and c are constants and t is the time. Find the
displacement of the particle relative to the second frame and show that the
particle appears to be subject to a force -2mck.
90 Dynamics

3.3 A particle rests in equilibrium under the action of three forces. Show that
each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.
3.4 For time t < 0 a particle rests at the top of a smooth hemisphere of radius
a. The hemisphere rests with its plane face on a horizontal plane. For t;;;;' 0
the hemisphere is constrained to move with constant velocity, of magni-
tude U, along the plane. Show that for u 2 ""ga the particle leaves the
hemisphere when

3 cos () - 2 - u 2 /ga = 0,
where () is the angle between the radius vector to the particle and the
upward vertical. Deduce that if u 2 ;;;;. ga the particle will hit the horizontal
plane at a point vertically below its initial position.
3.5 A man of mass m is holding on to a light rope which passes over a smooth
fixed pulley and has a counterpoise of mass m attached to the other end.
Initially the system is at rest. Show that if the man begins to climb his
portion of the rope the man and the counterpoise move equal distances.
3.6 Over a smooth pulley A, of mass 2 kg, passes a light inelastic string having
masses 6 and 9 kg at its ends. Over a smooth fixed pulley B passes a light
inelastic string having a mass 15 kg at one end and being attached to the
axis of the pulley A at the other end. The system moves so that the parts
of the string not in contact with the pulleys move vertically. Show that the
acceleration of the 15 kg mass is 0 '44 m s -1.
3.7 Two particles, of masses m 1 , m2, are joined by a light inelastic string and
are initially close together on a smooth table. A smooth ring, of mass m 3,
is threaded by the string and hangs over the edge of the table and the
portions of the string on the table are at right angles to the edge. Find the
acceleration of the ring.
(Ans.: m3(ml +m2)g/{4mlm2 +m3(ml +m2)}')
3.8 A bead slides under gravity, on a smooth straight wire, from rest at a point
o to a point X. Show that if X lies on a prescribed circle having 0 as its
highest point, the time of descent is independent of the position of X on
the circle. Hence find the straight line of quickest descent from:
(i) a point to a straight line,
(ii) a straight line to a point,
(iii) a point to a circle.
3.9 A smooth cone of angle 2a has its axis vertical. A particle moves in a
horizontal circle on the inner surface of the cone at a height h above the
vertex. What is the speed of the particle and what is the period of the
motion?
(Ans.: (gh)1/2, 2rr(h/g)1/2 tan a.)
3.10 A light string ABC passes through a small, smooth ring B, and has its ends
fixed at two points A, C such that C is vertically below A. If the ring is
whirled round so as to describe a horizontal circle with constant angular
speed W, show that
2(a + c)bg = {(c + a) 2 _b 2 }(c - a)w2 ,

where a, b, c denote respectively the lengths of BC, CA, AB.

 Exercises 91

3.11 A bead can slide freely on a smooth straight wire OA, of length I, which is
rotated in a horizontal plane with constant angular speed w about its end
O. Initially the bead is projected along the wire with speed u from O.
When the bead leaves the wire, show that the angle between the line of the
wire and the direction of motion of the bead is tan -1 {lw/(u Z + IZ W Z )112}.
3.12 A smooth straight wire OA, of which 0 is fixed, is made to rotate in a
fixed vertical plane with constant angular speed w. A bead of mass m,
which is free to move along the wire, is initially at rest at 0 when OA
points vertically downwards. Show that if r is the distance of the bead
from 0 at time t

;: - W Zr = g cos wt

and hence that

r =g(cosh Wt - cos wt)/2w z .

Show further that the reaction of the wire on the bead is

mg(sinh wt + 2 sin wt).

3.13 A ring of mass ml is free to slide along a fixed horizontal smooth wire. An
inelastic string of length 1 has one end fastened to a fixed point of the
wire, is threaded through the ring and has a particle of mass mz fastened
to its other end. The particle is allowed to fall from an initial position in
which the string is taut and horizontal with the ring at its tnid point.
Write down the accelerations of the ring and the particle when the
portion of the string between the ring and the particle is of length r( < I)
and has turned through an angle 0«
1T/2) from the horizontal.
Hence show that:

(i) TO - cos 0) = mt",

(ii) g cos0 = r8 + 2rO + ;: sin 0, .
(iii) mzg sin 0 - T= mz,U - cos 0) - mzrO z ,

where T is the tension in the string.

To a first approximation when 0 is small show:

(i) from the first equation that r = 1/2,

(ii) from the second equation that 0 = gt Z /1,
(iii) from the third equation that T = 3mzgO.

Hence from the first equation show that, to a higher approximation,

r=-1 ( 1 +3-mz
- 04 ) •
2 56 mt

3.14 A ring, of mass ml, is free to slide along a fixed smooth wire inclined at an
angle a to the horizontal. An inelastic string has one end fastened to a
92 Dynamics

fixed point of the wire, is threaded through the ring and has a particle of
mass m2 fastened to its other end.

(i) Let the system be released from a position of rest in which the string
is taut and that portion of it between the ring and the particle inclined
at an angle a + 8 to the horizontal. Show that the initial accelerations
of the particle along and perpendicular to the string are ;: ( 1 - cos 8)
and g cos(a + 8), where

(ii) Show that a motion is possible in which the ring moves with constant
acceleration up the wire provided 8 is constant and such that

m 1 cos a cos 8 + m2 (1 - cos 8){ cos(a + 8) - cos ex} = o.

Show that this acceleration has the same sign as

3.15 A smooth circular cylinder of radius a is fixed, with its axis vertical, to a
smooth, horizontal table so that its plane base is in contact with the table.
A light inextensible string of length 21 is fastened to a point of the
circumference of the base of the cylinder and a length 1 of the string is
wrapped round the cylinder. A particle of mass m is attached to the other
end of the string and moves on the table in such a way that the string
always remains taut. Initially the particle is given a horizontal velocity u
perpendicular to the unwound part of the string in such a direction that
the string starts to unwind.
Show that the position vector of the particle relative to the axis of the
cylinder at any instant can be expressed as

r=ap+(l+a8)q,

where p and q are unit vectors along a radius of the cylinder and along the
string respectively. Hence prove that the string is completely unwound
after a time 3z2 j2au, and calculate the tension in the string as a function of
the time t «312 j2au).
(Ans.: mu 2 (12 + 2aut) -1/2.)
4 Resisting Forces

4.1 SOLID FRICTION

We have seen in the previous chapter that there are mutual reactions between
two bodies in contact and that these reactions are equal in magnitude and
opposite in sense according to Newton's third law. When the bodies are ideally
smooth the reactions are perpendicular to the plane of contact, which is the
common tangential plane for bodies of continuous curvature. It is, however, a
matter of everyday experience that when one body slides on another there is a
force which opposes the relative motion, and that a body at rest in contact with
a fixed body requires a certain minimum impressed force before it will move.
This means that, in addition to a component N normal to the plane of contact,
the reaction R has a component F in the plane of contact, called the frictional
force. Account is taken of the frictional force according to the following
idealised laws:

(i) Friction opposes relative motion between surfaces in contact.

(ii) When there is no relative motion, F can take any value up to a certain
limiting value, which depends on N and is roughly proportional to N for
specific materials. The coefficient of proportionality is called the co-
efficient of static friction J1 s , so that for equilibrium F < J1 sN.
(iii) When there is relative motion, FIN is roughly equal to a constant, called
the coefficient of kinetic friction J1k. In general it is less than J1s.

That the frictional resistance is proportional to the load and independent of

the area of the sliding surfaces was known to Leonardo da Vinci in the fifteenth
century. The explanation of this rule is, however, of more recent origin.
Accurate experimental techniques show that even carefully prepared smooth
surfaces have in fact corrugations on them which are large on a molecular scale,
and true contact between any two surfaces is confined to the highest peaks of
these irregularities. The true area of contact is consequently very small and tends
to be independent of the apparent area of contact. The local pressure at these
isolated points of contact is very high since they have to withstand the total load
and this causes a local deformation of the material until the contact area is
sufficient to support the total load. For this reason the true contact area tends
to be proportional to the load. For example the true area of contact between
two nominally flat steel surfaces is of the order of 10- 8 square metres per
kilogram of load.
With many materials, including metals, glass and plastics, the deformation and
flow which occur under the intense pressure result in a local welding of the two
94 Resisting Forces [4.l

surfaces, a process which is assisted by the heat generated when there is a relative
motion. It is this welding and subsequent shearing that is the source of the
frictional force. Since the true area of contact, where the shearing and welding
take place, tends to be proportional to the load, so does the frictional force.
There are exceptions to the rule. For very hard substances, such as diamond, the
true area of contact is not proportional to the load and f.l.s decreases as the load
increases. A substance such as mica can be molecularly smooth in some circum-
stances and then the true and apparent areas of contact are comparable. The
frictional behaviour is then quite different from that for substances like metals.
The coefficient J.l.s varies from one material to another, and even for the same
material under different conditions. The degree of roughness of the contact
surfaces is clearly a factor, and f.l.s tends to decrease to a constant value as the
surfaces become smoother. The trend can, however, be dramatically reversed for
highly polished surfaces. For example f.l.s = 1 for glass under normal conditions,
and does not vary appreciably between ground glass and plate glass surfaces. But
if the surfaces are optically flat, highly polished and free from all surface
impurities, the adhesion can be so great that the glass will fracture before sliding.
Similarly two pieces of lead with flat and highly polished surfaces weld together
over an appreciable area and seizure occurs on contact, whereas under normal
conditions J.l.s is about 1·5. Other metals also react in this way, though they may
require very careful treatment to aohieve substantial adhesion.
The law of proportionality can be violated for some metal surfaces because
under normal conditions most metals have a coating of oxide, and J.l.s is smaller
for the contact of such surfaces than it is for the uncoated metal itself. For
example J.l.s = 0·4 for copper surfaces if N < 10-3 kg and 1·6 if N> 10-2 kg.
Between these values of N there is a continuous transition. The reason is that for
light loads friction arises from the oxide coatings, but as the load becomes
heavier this coating is gradually broken through by the local high spots on the
surfaces so that actual metallic contact increases. If the thickness of the oxide
film is deliberately increased the transition is delayed but the range 0·4 ~
f.l.s ~ 1·6 is essentially unchanged. For aluminium, which is a softer metal,
f.l.s = 1·2 and does not vary appreciably over the range 10 -5 to 1 kg for N since
the surface film is easily broken. By contrast f.l.s = 0·4 for chromium over the
same range for N because both the oxide and underlying metal are hard
enough to resist deformation and remain intact.
The coefficient of kinetic friction is generally somewhat lower than f.l.s, but
the difference is not substantial. It arises because the welding of local high spots
has ample time to take place when the surfaces are not in relative motion. When
they move the welds are continually being broken before they have time to
consolidate. However, the source of the frictional force, namely the local welding
of the two surfaces, is essentially the same.
A change in the mechanism of friction can, of course, substantially affect the
sliding properties. Thus the introduction of a thin mm of lubricant can reduce
the coefficient of friction between metals by a factor of 5, and is an important
consideration in the design of the moving parts of most machines. If the relative
 [4.l Solid Friction 95

Table 4.1.1 Values of J.1.s for some common substances

Metals in contact with the same metal

flat, highly polished and free of surface contamination 102
dry and in air 1
oxidised surfaces which remain intact 0·4
lubricated 0·2
Glass on glass, clean and dry 1
Ice on ice
oOe 0·1
-50°C 0·5
Wood on wood
clean and dry 0·4
wet 0·2
Brake material on cast iron
clean and dry 0·4
wet 0·2
greasy 0·1

speed between the surfaces is sufficiently high, frictional heating can result in
lubrication by a melting of the contact surfaces themselves. This can occur at
quite low speeds for ice on ice, for which f.ls = 0·1 at 0 °c and 0·5 at -50°C,
whereas 11k = 0·1 over this range of temperature at a speed of 4 m s -1. Similar
decreases occur for metals, but the speeds required for melting are much higher.
The conclusion is that the law of proportionality between F and N is a
reasonable approximation if attention is paid to the conditions under which it is
being applied. It is not to be used indiscriminately.
Table 4.1.1 gives the values of J1s for some common substances. It should be
interpreted as a rough guide since experiment indicates that the coefficient can
vary according to the conditions. The coefficient 11k is rather less than I1s and its
variation with conditions is more marked.

Example 4.1.1
A particle is at rest on a rough horizontal plane. The plane is slowly tilted until
the particle starts to move, and is then kept fixed. If the static and kinetic
coefficients of friction are I1s and 11k «J.1.s) respectively, find the velocity of the
particle after it has travelled a distance d.
Let Q be the inclination of the plane to the horizontal (see Fig. 4.1.1). In
equilibrium we have

mgcos Q-N= 0, mg sin Q - F= O.

F
Hence tan Q= -=J.1.s
N

when equilibrium is broken.

96 Resisting Forces [ 4.1

Figure 4.1.1 Illustration for Example 4.1.1.

During the subsequent motion we have

mg cos a - N = 0, mg sin a - F = mao

mgsin a- ma
Hence =J.1k,
mg cos a

and the acceleration is therefore given by

a = (tan a - J.1k)g cos a

J.1s -J.1k
= (1 + J.1;)1/2 g.

Since the acceleration is constant and one-dimensional, the motion is

described by equations (2.4.6), (2.4.7), (2.4.8) with the above value of a and
zero initial velocity. In particular the speed will be given by

Example 4.1.2
A rough wedge, of mass m2 and angle a, is free to move on a horizontal plane. A
rough particle, of mass m 1, is free to move on the inclined face of the wedge.
The accelerations and forces are displayed in Figure 4.1.2. The horizontal and
vertical components of the equation of motion for the wedge are

NI sin a - FI cos a - F2 = m2a2, }

(4.1.1)
m2g - N2 + NI cos a + FI sin a = O.

For the particle the equations are

NI sina-Fl cosa=n: I (a l cosa-.a 2 )'}

(4.1.2)
mIg - NI cos a - FI sm a = miai sm cv.
4.1] Solid Friction 97

\;:::'
~ \ lm2g
.!!1-~
al~
-a2

Fl Nl lN2
rt F2 -
/::: '/;
(a) (b)

Figure 4.1.2 Illustration for Example 4.1.2: (a) the forces; (b) the accel-
erations.

There are only four independent relations to be obtained from the equations
of motion, although different combinations may simplify the calculations. For
example FI and NI can be eliminated by the substitution of (4.l.2) in (4.1.1) to
get

F2 = mlal cos a - (ml + ~2)a2' 1 (4.l.3)

N2 =(ml +m2)g-mlal sma. J

In addition (4.1.2) can be solved to give FI ,NI in terms of aI, a2' The resulting
equations are equivalent to resolving the equation of motion of the particle
along and perpendicular to the wedge instead of horizontally and vertically.
Thus we have

mIg sin a - FI = ml (al ~ a2 cos a), }

(4.1.4)
mIg cos a- Nl = mla2 sm a.

In the four independent relations (4.1.1), (4.1.2) or (4.1.3), (4.1.4) there are
six unknowns, namely F I , N l , F 2 , N 2 , aI, a2' Hence two supplementary
conditions are required. There are four possibilities to consider:
(i) Both the wedge and the particle are in equilibrium. The two further con-
ditions are al =a2 = O. Equations (4.l.3) and (4.1.4) then give FI ,NI , F 2 ,
N2 immediately.
(li) The particle slides on the wedge and the wedge remains at rest. Here
a2 = 0 and FI = ±J.lINI are the two further conditions, where J.lI is given
and the sign depends on the direction in which the particle slides. If, for
example, it starts from rest, then FJ = J.lJ NJ and equations (4.l.4) show
that

so that the particle slides with a uniform acceleration. With al and a2

known, equations (4.l.3) then serve to determine F2 and N 2.
98 Re$i$ting Forces [ 4.1

(iii) The wedge slides and the particle does not slide relative to the wedge. Here
iiI = 0 and F2 = ±1l2N2' Equations (4.1.3) are then sufficient to determine
F 2 ,N2 anda2. If, for example, F2 = 1l2N2 we have

Equations (4.1.4) then give

(iv) Both the particle and the wedge slide, so that

give the two further relations.

The coefficients III and 112 refer to the coefficients of kinetic friction at the
appropriate points of contact.
Note that in cases (i)-(iii) there will be conditions to be satisfied by the
coefficient of static friction arising from the fact that there is no slip. For
example in case (i) /J.s > tan a for the particle.
Example 4.1. 3
A light string is wrapped round a rough circular cylinder and is in a plane at right
angles to the generators of the cylinder. Show that when the string is on the
point of slipping the tensions at its two ends are in the ratio eMsO , where 8 is the
angle between the normals at the two ends of that part of the string in contact
with the cylinder.
We consider an element of the string of length os subtending an angle 08 at
the axis of the cylinder. Let the tensions in this element at its two ends be T and
T+oT. Let the notmal component of the reaction be Nos, where N is the

,NOS
Fos_~ _ _~

T~ ~
T+oT

Figure 4.1.3 Illustration for EXample 4.1.3.

4.21 Motion ThrouKh a Fluid 99

reaction per unit length, and let the frictional force be Fos (see Fig. 4.1.3). Since
the string is in equilibrium, the components of the equation of motion along and
perpendicular to the normal reaction give

(T+ oT) cod08 - Tcod08 - FOs = 0

(T+ oT) sin !08 + Tsin H8 - N8s = O.

These equations are now divided by os and considered in the limit a'S os -+ 0,
and hence 0 T -+ 0,00 -+ O.

oT dT sin !08
----+--
1 d8
Since --+-
os ds' os 2 ds

dT dO
we have that -=F T-=N
ds ' ds '

1 dT F
or --=-
T dO N

For limiting equilibrium, FIN = Ils' and the resulting equation integrates to

where To is the value of T for 0 = o.

4.2 MOTION THROUGH A FLUID

When a body moves through a fluid, such as air or water, the fluid is set in
motion and the body thereby experiences a force. For a particular body and a
particular fluid the force depends on the velocity, but a detailed theoretical
solution is one of the outstanding unsolved problems of fluid dynamics,
although a great deal of experimental information is available. To simplify the
analysis we resort to approximate expressions, but it should be kept in mind that
there is no adequate universal formula.
We know from the law of dimensions that the force should be represented
by a dimensionally correct combination of the parameters on which it depends.
Let us consider what these parameters might be. The speed v and the size of the
body, which we account for by a representative length t, are clearly involved. We
might also expect the density p of the fluid to be a factor. It is easily verified
that the correct dimensions of force are given by the combination pt2 v2 •
Moreover there is no non-dimensional combination, since p is the only parameter
whose measure varies with the mass of the fluid, and v is the only parameter
whose measure varies with time. Thus a practically useful representation of the
100 Resisting Forces [4.2

force is pZ2 v2 k, where k is a non-dimensional vector varying only with possible

non-dimensional factors which may influence the motion. As a matter of detail,
in aeronautical engineering which is the source of most of the experimental
information, it is written !pAv2 e, where A is some Significant area defined by
the body and the reason for the factor! need not concern us. Then e is called
the force coefficient. It can vary with the direction of flight, with the orienta-
tion of the body and with any non-dimensional shape parameter such as the
ratio of two lengths, since one representative length is not sufficient to defme a
three-dimensional body. Usually e is resolved into a component in the down-
stream direction of motion called the drag coefficient CD and a component
perpendicular to the direction of motion called the lift coefficient CL . These
components are then independent of the direction of flight. They can of course
vary substantially with the orientation of the body as is evident in the control of
the flight of aircraft.
The expression! pAv 2 e implies that the force is proportional to u2 unless e
itself varies with v, that is unless there are further non-dimensional parameters
which involve v and which can influence the value of C. There are such
parameters, and the most important arises from the viscous property of a fluid.
It is a property more marked in oily fluids than in air or water and is associated
with the resistance of the fluid to deformation, especially shear deformation.
For a particular fluid, the property is characterised by a coefficient of kinematic
viscosity v which has the dim;nsions L2 T- 1 • For example, water has a
coefficient of kinematic viscosity equal to 10 -6 m2 s -1 at a temperature of
20 o e.
It is easily verified that viZ has the dimensions LT- 1 and hence that vZlv is a
non-dimensional combination, called the Reynolds number. The variation of e
with this parameter is complicated, but limited for typical conditions. For
example a circular disc, of area A and moving broadside on, has a drag
coefficient of about one and there is little change with Reynolds number
provided the latter is not too small (by symmetry there is no lift coefficient). A
sphere with the same maximum cross-sectional area has a smaller drag
coefficient of kinematic viscosity equal to 10-6 m2 S1 at a temperature of
Reynolds number is not too small. It is even less for a streamlined body with the
same maximum cross-sectional area. Such a body is specially designed to reduce
the drag, with a rounded nose and a long tapering tail.
When the Reynolds number is small the situation is different. It is known,
both theoretically and experimentally, that I e I is inversely proportional to the
Reynolds number and hence inversely proportional to v. It follows that the force
varies in proportion to v rather than u2 • This is known as viscous damping.
Since v = 10-6 m2 S-1 for water, the small-Reynolds-number regime is
restricted to very small bodies or very small speeds, for example a sphere with
radius 1= 1 mm moving with a speed u = 1 mm 8"1 has unit Reynolds number.
For air v is between 10 and 20 times larger than its value for water (it varies with
the temperature for both fluids), but the condition for a small Reynolds number
is still very restrictive. A grain of sand of radius 1 mm falling freely under gravity
 21 Motion Through a Fluid 101

through air or water would achieve a Reynolds number of several hundred. If,
however, the fluid were olive oil the linear law of resistance would be quite
reasonable (see Exercise 4.10).
We mention one other non-dimensional factor which is velocity dependent
and which may affect the value of C. This is the Mach number, which is the ratio
of the speed of the body to the speed of sound. In the transonic regime, where
the Mach number is of order unity, this can be a significant effect. But for
speeds which are small compared with the speed of sound, which is about
330 m s -1 in air at ground level, this effect can be ignored. It is invariably
ignored in liquids. The speed of sound in water, for example, is 1· 4 x 103 m s -1 .
Apart then from certain exceptional regimes, it appears that the simplest rule
which might be generally acceptable is one in which the force varies as the
square of the speed provided, as will usually be the case, that the Reynolds
number is not small. If the Reynolds number is small then a linear law of
variation is appropriate. Unfortunately, apart from one-dimensional problems, it
is only the linear law which is amenable to simple analysis. This is because it
leads to linear differential equations which are easier to handle than non-linear
equations.
In some of the following examples the linear law of resistance is used where
the conditions do not seem to be appropriate. This is partly because a theory is
best illustrated by examples which are not too complicated. But they should not
be dismissed as completely artificial, because the effects of resisting forces of
different kinds have certain features in common. It is often useful to have a
simple solution where the gross features are qualitatively acceptable, even
though quantitatively they are not (see also Exercise 4.11).

Example 4.2.1
We consider the one-dimensional motion of a particle subject to a resistance
whose magnitude per unit mass is equal to k times the square of the speed, and a
constant force Iper unit mass.

(i) Suppose first that the constant force also opposes the motion, so that the
total force is -m(1 + ku 2 ) as shown in Figure 4.2.1. The equation of motion
is then

du _ 2
- - -I - ku . (4.2.1)
dt

mf ......- - -
mk,,2 .....t--_ _ •

Figure 4.2.1 Particle subject to constant retarding force mf and resistance

mku 2 •
102 Resisting Forces [4.2

Note that this case only arises when the particle is given an initial
velocity u in the positive x direction. Eventually the particle will come to
rest, and then begin to move in the opposite direction since the acceleration
is negative. When this happens the resisting force will change direction, since
it always opposes the motion. Equation (4.2.1) is valid only up to that
point.
It is convenient to write f= k y2 , so that

dv
-= _k(V2 + v2 ). (4.2.2)
dt

Equation (4.2.2) can be integrated to give

tan -1 (v/V) =tan -1 (u/V) - kVt, (4.2.3)

where the constant of integration has been chosen so that v = u when t = o.

Alternatively we can write

dv dx dv dv
- = - -=v-=-k(V2 +V2)
dt dtdx dx '

which can be integrated to give

V2 +u2 )
log ( 2
.V +v
2 =2kx . (4.2.4)

Equations (4.2.3) and (4.2.4) show that the body will come to rest in
a time {tan- 1 (u/V)}/kV after travelling a distance {log(I +U 2/V2)}/2k.
For example, suppose a ship reverses its engines when going full speed
ahead. Here u =V (see below) and it will travel a distance !k- 1 log 2 in time
1T/4kVbefore corning to rest.
(ii) When the particle moves in the direction of the propelling force, it is less
confusing if x is measured in the same direction, as in Figure 4.2.2, so that
the equation Cif motion is now

dv dv
- = v - =f - kv 2 = k(V 2 - v2 ). (4.2.5)
dt dx

mkt,2 .. • mf
• • x
• v

Figure 4.2.2 Particle subject to constant propelling force mf and resistance

mkv2 •
4.2] Motion Through a Fluid 103

Here V has a physical interpretation. As dv/dt -+ 0, v -+ V. If u> V the

acceleration is negative and v -+ V from above. If u < V the acceleration is
positive and v -+ V from below. This can be seen directly from the integrals
of equation (4.2.5) which give the two relations

I
'(V + v)(V - u) \
log (V _ v)(V + u) = 2kVt, (4.2.6)

log I VV22 - U2 2
1
= 2kx (4.2,7)
v

and show that v -+ Vas t -+ 00 and as x -+ 00.

Consider the case of a particle projected vertically upwards with speed u.
Here f = g and equations (4.2.4), (4.2.3) show that it will reach a height

1
x =-log (1 u2 )
+- (4.2.8)
2k V2

1 _ U
in time tl = -tan 1 -, (4.2.9)
kV V

where V= (g/k) 112 •

During the subsequent motion, with x now measured downward from the
highest point, equations (4.2.6) and (4.2.7) apply and give, for zero initial
speed,

v = V tanh kVt, (4.2.l0)

1
x == -k log 2
(V2) == -log
2
1
cosh kVt. (4.2.11)
2 V - v k

The time t2 for the subsequent descent is obtained by equating (4.2.8)

and (4.2.l1). The result is

t2 = -
1 sm
. h- 1 -.
U
(4.2.12)
kV V

Example 4.2.2
A particle, of mass m and position vector r relative to 0, is projected from
with initial velocity u at an angle a to the horizontal. It is subject to a
°
gravitational force mg and a resisting force R == -mkv, where v is its velocity (see
Figure 4.2.3).
104 Resisting Forces [4.2

~mg
"'--------'------------------.
o x
Figure 4.2.3 Projectile subject to gravitational force mg and resistance R.

The equation of motion is

f= g - lei. (4.2.l3)

It can be written in the form

and hence integrated to give

(4.2.14)

where the constant vector of integration is chosen so that i = u when t = O. One

further integration gives the equation

(4.2.l5)

where the constant vector of integration is chosen so that r = 0 when t = O.

Relative to horizontal and vertical axes Ox, Oy, equation (4.2.15) has the
components

u cos ex ( 1-e-kt)
x=--- (4.2.l6)
k '

(4.2.l7)

An explicit equation for the trajectory follows by the elimination of t. It is

y = ~ log (1 - u~
k cos ex
) + x (tan ex + g
ku cos ex
). (4.2.18)
4.2] Motion Through a Fluid 105

Figure 4.2.4 shows the effect of resistance on the trajectory of the particle.
The various trajectories shown in the figure were calculated using a non-
dimensional form of equations (4.2.16) and (4.2.17). This preliminary reorgan-
isation of the equations is an invariable procedure in all numerical work, for the
reasons discussed in §2.5. It is always an advantage in practice to use non-
dimensional variables whose magnitudes are of order unity, and this should be
one of the guides in the choice of the variables. Now in the special simple case of
no resistance we know from §2.4 that the values of t, x and y at the highest
point of the trajectory are, respectively,

U sin CI! u2 sin CI! cos CI! u 2 sin2 CI!

g g 2g

Hence the transformations

u sin CI! u2 sin CI! cos CI! ~ u2 sin 2 CI!

t=--r, x= , y= 11, (4.2.19)
g g g

omitting the factor 1 in y, will certainly yield non-dimensional variables T,~, 11

which are of order unity for all values of the parameters u,g, CI!. Furthermore the
equation ofthe trajectory, given by equation (2.4.7), transforms to

(4.2.20)

and hence to one basic shape, independent of u,g, CI!, in the plane of (~, 11). This
is another hopeful sign that (4.2.19) is a useful transformation, because another
important consideration is to seek transformations which minimise the number
of significant parameters on which the problem depends.
Substitution of relations (4.2.19) into (4.2.16), (4.2.17) and (4.2.18) gives
the follOwing equations:

(4.2.21)

11=-Kj'"lr+Kj'"2(1 +K J )(1-e- K ,T),

=Kj'"210g(1-KJ~)+(l +Kj'"l)~, (4.2.22)

where
kusinCl! usinCl!
Kl = =-- (4.2.23)
g V
and V= g/k is the terminal speed of the particle in free fall under gravity. In
these variables, then, the reduced trajectory depends on the four parameters k,
u, g, CI! only in the non-dimensional combination K 1 = kug -1 sin CI!, which we call
106 Resisting Forces [4.2

the specific resistance (the suffIx denotes that the resistance is linear). The
advantage is that calculation can now be confmed to the family of curves
depending on the single parameter K 1. In any specific problem the trajectory
will be given by that member of the family having the appropriate value of K 1 ,
and the values of k, u, g, a merely determine the appropriate scales of length and
time through the transformations (4.2.19).
When Kl ~ 1, the expression for 1/ in (4.2.22) can be expanded to give

=~_H2 - ~ !K1-2~n, (4.2.24)

n=3n

from which the parabolic trajectory (4.2.20) is recovered in the limit K 1 ~ O.

The series can be used to obtain an approximation to the range, which is the
non-zero solution of the equation

or, equivalently,

(4.2.25)

Since ~ is approximately equal to 2 when K 1 is small, it follows that the

right-hand side of (4.2.25) is equal to

and a better approximation for the range is

(4.2.26)

This process can be made systematic. If we write

(4.2.27)
 4.2] Motion Through a Fluid 107

and substitute this expression into (4.2.25), we have

a.K 1 +a2K~ + ... =-iK.(2+a I K. + ... )2 -!K1(2+ ... )3 - •••

(4.2.28)

The coefficients an can now be found by comparison of the coefficients of like

powers of K 1 on the two sides of the above equation. Thus we have

al =-8/3, a2 =-4 - 8/3al =28/9 (4.2.29)

and so on. The range is now given by

(4.2.30)

While the trajectory for K 1 ~ 1 is a small perturbation of a parabola, that for

K 1 ~ 1 is quite different. Provided (1 - K 1~) is not small, the trajectory follows
the straight line ~::; 1/ approximately. But it is clear from both (4.2.21) and
(4.2.22) that Ki 1 is an upper bound for t and as this bound is approached there
are substantial changes in 1/ for small changes in ~. This means that ultimately
the particle will be falling in a near vertical path with a total range of approx-
imately Ki 1 • Since, by (4.2.22) with 1/ =0, the range satisfies the equation

(4.2.31)

it follows that, for K 1 ~ 1, it is given by

~::; Ki 1 (1 + exponentially small terms). (4.2.32)

The proportionate error in the approximation Ki 1 is therefore very small.

For arbitrary values of K 1 there is no simple expression for the range, which
must be calculated from the implicit relation (4.2.31). In some problems,
however, simple approximate formulae can be found. Here for example the
range is given by

(4.2.33)

where € = O· 0025 for K 1 = 2· 3 and is smaller than this for all other values of
K l ' There is no a priori reason why such a simple formula should exist and no
general method of deducing such formulae, although to be successful they must
have some gross features in common with the exact result. In this case, with
€ = 0, expression (4.2.33) agrees with (4.2.30) for Kl ~ 1 and with (4.2.32) for
K 1 ~ 1. Although the exponentially small terms are not modelled correctly,
they are of no significance compared with Ki 1 when K 1 ~ 1.
108 Resisting Forces [4.2

0'4

0-2

Figure 4.2.4 Linear law of resistance: trajectories for various values of K 1 •

0-4

0'2

--------- a = 0
----a=rr/4
-a=rrl2

Figure 4.2.5 Quadratic law of resistance: trajectories for various values of K2

anda.

Example 4.2.3
When the resistance R varies with the square of the speed the projectile problem
is more complicated. Since the resistance is given, in magnitude and direction, by
an expression of the form -mkuv, the equation of motion is

r=g-kuv (4.2.34)

with components x = -kvx, ji = -g - kvy, (4.2.35)

where (4.2.36)

With the transformations defmed by (4.2.19), equations (4.2.35) become

-d2~ = -K2 -d~{ cos 2 a (d~)2.

- + sm 2 a (d1J)2}112
- (4.2.37)
dr2 dr dr dr'

d2;=_1_K2 d1J{cos2a(d~)2 +sin 2 a(d1J)2} 112 (4.2.38)

dr dr dr dr
4.2] Motion Through a Fluid 109

where (4.2.39)

and the initial conditions are that

when r=O. (4.2.40)

The problem therefore depends on the two non-dimensional parameters K z

and a. There is no simple integral, and one must use numerical analysis for a full
solution. If, however, the inclination of the trajectory to the horizontal is small,
then the equations simplify. A bullet fired from a rifle, for example, has such a
trajectory. In this approximation one should think of K z and a as independent
parameters. The fact that K2 contains a factor sin a in its definition does not
imply that K2 is to be regarded as small whenever a is regarded as small.
The approximate equations are, when terms of order a Z are neglected,

(4.2.41)

The first of these equations integrates to

(4.2.42)

and then a second integration gives

K2~ = 10g(1 + K z r). (4.2.43)

Next we use (4.2.42) to eliminate dVdr from the second of equations (4.2.41),
which then becomes

d 2 7] = -1 _ K2 d7]
dr2 1 + K2 r dr'

or

(4.2.44)

Integration of (4.2.44), together with the boundary conditions (4.2.40), gives

d7]=
-
dr
( 1+-1) 1 1
--(1+K 2 r),
2K2 1+K2 r 2K2
(4.2.45)
110 Resisting Forces

1 ( 1) 1 1
1/ = K2 1 + 2K2 10g(1 +K2T) - 4K~ (1 + K2T)2 + 4K~

= (1 + _1_)~
2K2
_ IrA (e
4A2
2K 2 ~ - 1). (4.2.46)

If the exponential term is first written as a power series, it is easily seen that
(4.2.46) agrees with (4.2.20) in the limit K2 ~ O. This means that, in addition to
being correct for finite values of K2 in the limit a ~ 0, (4.2.46) also yields the
correct trajectory in the limit K2 ~ 0 without restriction on a. The range of
validity is consequently greater than might otherwise have been expected. On
the other hand it should be borne in mind that the validity of the approximation
really depends on the inclination of the trajectory to the horizontal being small
throughout the flight of the projectile. This is clear from equations (4.2.35),
which are the dimensional form of (4.2.41) with the approximation v =x.
x
Equation (4.2.36) shows that this requires y ~ at all times. If the trajectory is
bounded by the horizontal plane this is ensured by a ~ 1. But if the proj ectile is
allowed to continue through to negative values of y, the approximation will
eventually fail.
For general values of K2 and a it is not possible to integrate equations
(4.2.37) and (4.2.38) in terms of elementary functions. However, it is a straight-
forward matter to integrate them numerically using a computer. The trajectories
shown in Figure 4.2.5 were produced from such a numerical integration and
should be compared with the equivalent Figure 4.2.4 for the linear law of
resistance. Note that the trajectories labelled a = 0 and a = n/2 are limiting
trajectories for the non-dimensional variables (~, 1/). Of course in the physical
(x, y) plane these trajectories degenerate to a point and a vertical straight line
respectively because the non-dimensionalisation by means of (4.2.19) also in-
volves a. The trajectories in the (t 1/) plane are preferred because they exhibit
information in a more revealing fashion and, as in the previous example, the
trajectory in the physical plane is readily obtained by the appropriate change of
scale, which will involve other parameters as well as a. We see in particular that
in the (t 1)) plane the variation with a is less significant than the variation with
K 2 , and that the nearly vertical descent for K 1 = 5 is not duplicated in the
trajectory for K2 = 5.

EXERCISES
4.1 A rough plane is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. A particle of mass
m is attached to a fixed point of the plane by a light string, and rests in
eqUilibrium with the string taut and making an acute angle (J with the line
of greatest slope down the plane. Show that sin (J ,;;;; J1 s cot a, where J1s is
the coefficient of static friction.
When sin (J = J1s cot a, show that the tension in the string is
 Exercises 111

4.2 Two particles, each of mass m, lie at points A and B on a rough horizontal
plane, and are connected by a taut light inelastic string AB. The particle at
B is pulled by a horizontal force T applied to a second light inelastic string
BC, where ABC = 1T - a Ca < 1T/4).
Show that the least force T which will cause both particles to be about
to move is T = 2f..Lsmg ICOS a.
Explain the significance of the restriction a < 1T/4.
4.3 Two particles of equal mass are connected by a light string. The first
particle rests on the surface of a rough circular cylinder, whose axis is
horizontal. Part of the string is in contact with the cylinder over an angular
distance a, the remainder hangs vertically with the second particle sus-
pended from its end. The two particles and the string are in equilibrium in
a vertical plane. The coefficient of friction between the particle and the
cylinder, and between the string and the cylinder, is I1s.
Write down the equations for equilibrium. Show that when the friction
is limiting,

(l1s sin a - cos a)elLsO< = 1.

Show that if I1s is small, the approximate solution is a = 1T - C2I1s1T) 11 2 •

Show that if I1s is large, the approximate solution is a = a/l1s , where

Ca - 1) ea = 1, or a = 1·2785.
4.4 The mass of a train is 5 x lOs kg, the driving wheels support a weight of
4 x 10 4 kg-wt and the coefficient of friction between the driving wheels
and the rails is O· 6. Show that at the end of lOs after starting from rest
the speed will be less than 17 km h -1 .
4.5 Two equally rough planes slope down at angles a and (3 to the horizontal
from the horizontal ridge in which they meet. A particle is projected from
the bottom of the first plane up the line of greatest slope with a speed v
just sufficient to carry it over the ridge. After descending the other face it
reaches the level from which it started with speed kv. Prove that, if
11k < tan (3,

I1kCtan a + k 2 tan (3) = C1 - k 2 )tan a tan (3,

where 11k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

4.6 A bead slides on a fixed vertical rough circular hoop of radius a. It is
projected from the lowest point of the hoop with speed awo. Let w be the
angular speed of the bead when the inclination of the radius vector to the
downward vertical is e. Show that, for a certain range of e which should
be specified,

Hence show that

112 Resisting Forces

4.7 A bead slides on a fixed horizontal rough circular hoop of radius a. If v is

e,
the speed of the bead after travelling an angular distance show that

Show that the solution of this equation is given by

e
where a is the value of for which v = o.
Show that the frictional force is of magnitude I1kmg cosh {2I1k(a - e)}.
e e
Show that the line integral of this force, between = 0 and = a, is! mV6,
e
where Vo is the value of v when = o.
4.8 Two particles, of masses ml, m2 respectively, are connected by a long
light string which passes over a rough circular cylinder whose axis is
horizontal, and lies in a plane at right angles to the axis of the cylinder.
Show that the two particles can hang in equilibrium if m2 < ml <
m2 ells1T • Show that if m I;;;' m2 ells1T the acceleration of the particles is

4.9 A particle slides on a rough plane inclined at an angle (3 to the horizontal.

It starts from the origin of a set of cartesian coordinates on the inclined
plane such that the x-axis is horizontal and the y-axis is down the line of
greatest slope. The initial velocity is of magnitUde u at an angle a «rr /2) to
the y-axis.
Write down the equations of motion. In non-dimensional variables 7, ~,
1/ such that

u cos a u 2 sin a cos a

t=---7 x= ~
gsin(3 , gsin{3 ,

show that the equations of motion become

with the initial conditions

when 7= o.
Integrate these equations, and discuss the subsequent motion of the
particle, on the basis of the simplifying assumption that tan a ~ 1.
In particular show that, if 11k cot {3 > !, the ultimate value of ~ is
(211k cot (3 - 1) -I approximately.
 Exercises 113

Show also that if Ilk cot (j> 1, the particle will finally come to rest but
that if ! < Ilk cot (j < 1, the particle will ultimately slide in the y direction
with constant acceleration.
4.10 (i) A spherical grain of sand, of radius 1= 10 -3 m, falls freely under
gravity in air. Show that its terminal speed V is 9 m S-1 and that the
corresponding Reynolds number VI/v is 600.
If the medium is water instead of air, show that V is 0'23 m S-1
and that the Reynolds number is 230.
Assume that the drag coefficient CD = 0'5 and g = 9'8 m s-2
(ii) When the medium is olive oil, it is found that V= 2 x 10-2 m S-I.
Show that the Reynolds number cannot be greater than 0'2 and
deduce an appropriate law of variation of resistance with velocity.
Verify from the equation of motion that the terminal speed will
never be achieved in finite time but that a speed of 99 V /100 will be
achieved in about 0'02 s after starting from rest.
Use the following physical constants:

Kinematic viscosity,
Specific gravity v(m 2 S-I)

sand 2
air l'3xlO- 3 1'5 X 10-5
water 1 10-6
olive oil 1 10-4

4.11 A particle is in one-dimensional motion and experiences a resistance of

magnitude [(v/V) per unit mass, where v is the speed, V is a fixed
parameter with the dimensions LT- 1 and [is a differentiable function
having the appropriate dimensions and such that [(0) = O.
Let

v/V= W + w

where W is constant and w is small. Show that there is an approximation

to the resistance per unit mass of the form a+ bv, where a and bare
constant and given by

a =[(W) - W!'CW),
b = !'(W)/V.

In particular, deduce that for small values of v/Va resistance pro-

portional to the speed is an appropriate approximation. What condition on
the function [would give a resistance proportional to the square of the
speed for small v/ V?
4.12 A hollow cylindrical pipe of radius a is fixed with its axis vertical. A
particle hangs by a string from a fixed point on the axis of the pipe. The
particle is held against the rough internal wall of the pipe, with the string
114 Resisting Forces

taut and at an angle a to the downward vertical, and projected horizon-

tally with angular speed Wo about the axis of the pipe. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the particle and the pipe is 11 and there is, in
addition, a resistance to the motion equal to k times the square of the
speed per unit mass. Given that the particle remains in contact with the
pipe during the subsequent motion, write down the equations of motion.
Show that the angular speed W satisfies the equation

dw
W"dO+ (11+ ka)(w 2 -wI)=O,

where 8 is the angular displacement of the particle about the axis and WI
is a constant which should be determined. Hence determine W as a
function of 8 .
Show that if aW5 > g tan a, the particle does not lose contact with the
pipe immediately, but that contact will cease when 8 satisfies the equation

2
exp{2(11 + ka)8} 11 w -
=-1-% 1) .
ka\wl

g tan a
11
( Ans.: wi = 11 + ka -a--' W2 =wI +(W~ -wi)eX P{-2(I1+ka)8}.)

4.13 A vehicle of mass m experiences a constant frictional resistance ma and air

resistance proportional to the square of its speed. It can exert a constant
propelling force mb and can attain a maximum speed V. Show that,
starting from rest, it can attain the speed V/2 in the time

V10g 3
2(b - a)

and that the friction and air resistance alone can then bring it to rest in a
further time

V
----:-;-;:-tan- I (b - a)1/2
--
{a(b - a)}112 4a

4.14 A particle falls from rest under gravity in a medium offering a resistance
av + bv 2 per unit mass, where a and b are positive constants and v is the
speed of the particle. Find the velocity acquired and distance fallen in
time t.

b
T
( Ans.: v =!: tanh _!:.. y = !.IOg (COSh
2b ' b cosh a
T)_!!.!..,
2b
where c =(bg + !a 2 )112 , tanh a =a/2e, T =(ct + a). )

4.15 A particle of soot is carried vertically upwards in a current of air, which

has a constant vertical velocity of magnitude u. Initially the particle has
 Exercises 115

the same velocity as the air. The force exerted on the particle by the air is
gv2 /W 2 per unit mass, where g is the gravitational acceleration, v is the
speed of the particle relative to the air, and w is a constant.
Show that the maximum height, above its initial level, attained by the
particle is

!wg- 1 {(w + u)10g(1 + u/w) + (w - u)log(l - u/w)}

provided u < w.
Show that the time taken to reach this height is wg- 1 tanh -1 (u/w).
What happens if u > w?
4.16 A particle is projected vertically upwards with initial speed u in a medium
offering a resistance whose magnitude is kv 2 , per unit mass, when
its speed is v. Prove th~t it returns to the starting point after a time
tan -1 (ku 2 /g) 11 2 + sinh -1 (ku 2 /g)1I2. Show that if ku 2 ~ g the time is
approximately

2U(1_ kU 2 ).
g 4g

4.17 A particle is projected vertically upwards with initial speed u and moves in
a medium offering a resistance kv4 , per unit mass, when its speed is v.
Prove that the greatest height reached above the point of projection is
ex/(4kg) 1 I 2 , where g tan2 ex = ku 4 • Show that if the particle has speed won
regaining the point of projection, g tanh2 ex = kW4.
4.18 A particle is projected from a fixed pOint 0 with speed u in a resisting
medium in which the force per unit mass opposing the motion at any
distance x from 0 is 2ex2 x times the speed of the particle, ex being
constant. No other forces act on the particle. Given that the maximum
distance of the particle from 0 is X, show by a dimensional argument that
X = ku 1l2 lex, where k is a numerical constant.
Calculate x explicitly as a function of time, prove that X exists, and
find k. Show that when x approaches X and is written in the form
x = (1 - €)X, where € ~ 1, the corresponding time t for the particle to
reach x is given approximately by

log(2/€)
t=
2exu 1l2

(Ans.: k = 1, X =u 1l2 lex.)

4.19 A particle of mass m can move along a straight line. The only force acting
on the particle opposes its motion and depends only on its speed. The time
T taken for the particle to come to rest after it is set in motion with speed
u is given by the formula T = k log(1 + au) for all u, where k and a are
positive constants. Find the force acting on the particle during the interval
o ~ t ~ T as a function of its speed v.
Find also the distance the particle travels in time T.
(Ans.: m(1 + aV)/ak, ku - T/a).)
116 Resisting Forces

4.20 A particle of mass m is projected horizontally with initial speed u from the
top of a tower which stands on a horizontal plane. It is subject to a
constant gravitational force mg and a resisting force equal to -mkv when
its velocity is v. What is the height of the tower if the particle hits the
plane at a distance x from the base of the tower?
Let Xg be the distance from the base of the tower at which the particle
would hit the plane if there were no resistance. Prove that, approximately,
x = Xo (1 - kxo /3u) provided that kxo <Ii; u.

( Ans.:!
k
10g(_U
u-kx
)_ u gx .)

4.21 A particle of mass m is fired with initial speed u at an inclination ex

(0 < ex < 7T/2) to the horizontal, and into a horizontal wind which has
constant speed v. The particle is subject to a constant gravitational force
mg and a resisting force equal to -mk times its velocity relative to the
wind.

(i) Show that if the angle of inclination is such that tan ex = g/kv, the
particle eventually returns to its point of projection.
(ii) Show that the particle is directly above its point of projection at the
highest point in its trajectory if the angle of inclination is such that

g) log (1 + ku sin ex )
(1 + kusinex u cos ex
= 1 +--- .
g v

Show that this condition is, approximately, tan ex = 2g/kv when

ku sin ex <Ii; g.
4.22 Consider the nearly vertical trajectory of a projectile with a quadratic law
of resistance. Show that, in non-dimensional coordinates, the equations of
motion are approximately

where

~= 11 = 0, d~/dr = dl1/dr = 1 when r= 0,

and t 11 are defined by equations (4.2.19). Hence show that

·f d17
1
~0
::r,
dr

·f d17.;;::: 0
1 """'.
dr
 Exercises 117

Deduce that the value of ~ when the maximum height is attained

(d11/dT = 0) is given by

and that the value of ~ when 11 = 0 (the non-dimensional range) is given by

4.23 The non-dimensional range t for a quadratic law of resistance, satisfies the
relations

when a = 0, and

when a = 'IT /2, where K 2 is the specific resistance.

(i) Show that the value of ~ when 11 = 0 is given by

when a= 0 and

when a = 'IT /2.

(ii) Let ~o be the value of ~ at the maximum height in the trajectory.
Show that for both a =0 and a = 'IT /2, the value of ~ when 11 = 0 is of
the form

where E(K 2 ) ~ 0 as K2 ~ 00.

4.24 A projectile experiences a resistance R(v) per unit mass, where v is the
speed.
When the trajectory is everywhere nearly horizontal, show that its
equation can be written parametrically as

f u ~d~
x = u R(~)' Y =
f
u
u ( .
Sill a-
f
1)
U gd~
~R(~)
) 11d11
R(11)'

where a is the initial angle of projection and u is the initial speed.

4.25 A projectile is in two-dimensional motion under gravity and a resistance
118 Resisting Forces

R(v) per unit mass, where v is the speed of the projectile. The velocity
vector makes an angle If; with the horizontal. Initially v = u and If; = a.
(i) Show that

1. dv =g-IR(v) + sin If;

v dlf; cos If;

(ii) For a resistance given by R(v) = kv 2 , show that

Hence show that the speed at the highest point of the trajectory is
Au cos a, where

A -2 = 1 + K 2 { I + cos a cot a log(sec a + tan a)},

K2 = kg- I u 2 sin a.

(iii) Verify that the result obtained in (ii) agrees with that obtained from
the solution derived in Example 4.2.3 when a -+ 0, K2 =1= O.
(iv) Verify that the fractional variation in A, for K2 = 0·2 and
0";; a";; nl2 is about 7%.
(v) Show that the corresponding value of A, when R(v)=kv, is
(I + K I) -I , where K 1 = kg -I u sin a.
5 Impulse, Momentum,
Work and Energy

5.1 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

In this chapter we discuss certain integrals of the equation of motion which can
sometimes be used with advantage as alternatives to the basic equation.
Let a particle of mass m be subject to a force F and thereby experience an
acceleration dv/dt, where v is its velocity. The integral with respect to the time
of the equation of motion

F =m dv/dt (5.1.1)
gives immediately
f t2

t,
Fdt=m(v2 -Yd· (5.1.2)

The time integral of the force is called the impulse of the force. The product mv
is called the momentum. Thus equation (5.1.2) states that the impulse of the
force is equal to the change in the momentum of the particle.
Suppose that F is large in magnitude but acts for a short time interval only.
We can idealise the situation by letting F ....'>-<>0 and (t2 - t d -+ 0 in such a way
that the expression

-
F= lim f t2
F dt (5.1.3)
t2~t, t,

remains finite. Then F is called an impulse. It produces an instantaneous change

in velocity without changing the position of the particle (for the velocity is finite
and the time interval is infinitesimal). Physically such an impulse never occurs,
but it is a useful idealisation to which many practical examples approximate.
Typical examples are the blow of a hammer, the impact of one billiard ball on
another and the impact of a missile on its target.
When dealing with problems involving impulses, note that any contribution to
F which does not become correspondingly large as the time interval tends to
zero will make no contribution to F.

Example 5.1.1
Consider the impact of two particles. By Newton's third law the impulses of the
forces at contact are equal and opposite and so there is no net change in
120 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy [5.1

momentum. If the particles have masses ml, m2 and velocities Ul, U2 before
impact, their velocities VI , V2 after impact must be such that

One further condition is required to give Vi and V2 separately. If, for example,
the two particles coalesce on impact, we have

Other possibilities are discussed in Example 8.3.2.

Example 5.1.2
A light inelastic string OAB has one end attached to a fixed point 0 and
particles of masses ml , m2 are attached to the string at A, B respectively. The
system rests on a horizontal table with each of the portions OA, AB of the string
straight and horizontal and inclined to each other at an angle 1T - a (a < 1T12), as

A _Uj

- m2
F B

W (~
Figure 5.1.1 Illustration for Example 5.1.2: (a) the impUlses; (b) the
velocities.

in Figure 5.1.1. The particle B is given an impulsive blow P in the plane of OAB
and in the direction perpendicular to and away from ~A. Calculate the instan-
taneous velocities acquired by m 1 and m2 .
In addiiion to the applied impulse P, there will be impulses 1\ in OA and 7'2
in AB, say, since the string is inelastic. * The velocity of m 1 will be perpendicular

* In an elastic string no such impulse is produced because the tension, being pro-
portional to the extension, cannot become large.
5.2] Work and Energy 121

to OA, of magnitude Ul say. The velocity of m2 will consist of the velocity of

m 1 and the velocity relative to m 1 , say of magnitude U2 perpendicular to AB.
The components of the impulsive equations of motion are

T2sina=mlUl, T 1 -T2 cosa=O,

F- T2 sina=m2(ul +U2 cos a), T2 cosa=m2u2 sina.

These four equations are readily solved for the four unknowns u 1, U2, TI , T2 •
The solutions for uland U2 are

5.2 WORK AND ENERGY

The next relation is obtained from the line integral of the basic equation of
motion (5.1.1); this integral is evaluated along the path actually traversed by the
particle. Let the position vector of the particle be r and let the initial and final
values of r be rl and r2' We have

(5.2.1)

The line integral of the force is called the work done by the force. The
product !mv2 is called the kinetic energy of the particle. Equation (5.2.1) states
that the work done by the force is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the
particle.
A special simple case arises when F is a constant force, say ma, so that the
particle is moving with constant acceleration a. Then

I r2

I,
F . dr = ma . (r2 - rl) (5.2.2)

and the energy equation (5.2.1) simplifies to

v~ = vi + 2a . (r2 - rd. (5.2.3)

This is simply a derivation of equation (2.3.4) by different means.

The unit of work in the SI system is called the joule (1). It is equivalent to the
work done by a constant force of 1 N moving a distance of 1 m in the direction
of the force. Its dimensions are ML2 T-2 .
122 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy [5.2

If for example a man of mass 80 kg climbs to a height of 1 m, the work done

against the gravitational attraction is 80g J or about 785 J. To rise freely to the
same height he would require an amount of initial kinetic energy equal to the
work he does in climbing in order to overcome the gravitational attraction. This
is equivalent to a speed of (2gF2 or 4·4 m S-1 • In this example the work done
by gravity is negative, because the man climbs upwards and gravity acts down-
wards. On the other hand, if the man were to fall, from rest, through a vertical
distance of 1 m, the work done by gravity would be positive and the man would
thereby acquire kinetic energy sufficient to give him a falling speed of 4'4 m S-1 •
Thus the initial energy which produced the ascent is recovered when the man
returns to his original position.

Example 5.2.1
A parti~le slides up a fIxed rough slope inclined at an angle a to the horizontal.
We consider the subsequent motion of the particle given that its initial speed is
VI and that the coefficient of friction is p..
The sum of the components of the forces perpendicular to the plane is zero,
and the net force down the slope is mg sin a + F (see Fig. 5.2.1). Since the
particle is sliding, we have F= p.N = p.mg cos a, so that the force on the particle is
mg(sin a + p. cos a) down the slope and this is constant. Hence the work done by
this force when the particle travels a distance x up the slope is -mg(sin a
+ /1 cos a)x. If the particle then has speed v, it follows from (5.2.1) that

-mg(sin a + /1 cos a)x = !m(v2 - vi). (5.2.4)

Alternatively one can use the fact that the constant force mg(sin a + J.1 cos a)
produces a constant acceleration -g(sin a + /1 cos a) in the direction of x increas-
ing. Equation (5.2.4) then follows from (2.3.8). The distance d travelled by the
particle up the slope is obtained from (5.2.4) by putting v = 0, and so

d=
v21
(5.2.5)
2g(sin a + p. cos a) .

Figure 5.2.1 Illustration for Example 5.2.1: particle sliding up a rough

inclined plane.
5.3) Potential Energy 123

Let US suppose that the frictional force is sufficiently small to allow the
particle to slide back down the plane. The magnitude of the frictional force will
remain the same, but the sign will change. The net force on the particle is now
mg(sin a - JJ. cos a) down the plane. When the particle reaches its initial position,
the work done by this force is mg(sin a - JJ. cos ex)d. Accordingly the net work
done during the whole motion is

mg(sin a - JJ. cos a)d - mg(sin a + JJ. cos a)d = -2mgp.d cos a. (5.2.6)

The net loss in kinetic energy is 2mgp.d cos a, and if V2 is the final speed, we have

~m(v~ - vn = 2mg JJ. d cos a. (5.2.7)

Note that the net work done on the particle by the gravitational force mg is
zero. This is because the sign of this force does not change, therefore the
negative work done by mg in the upward motion exactly balances the positive
work done in the downward motion. All the contribution comes from the
frictional force, which does change its sign so that it always opposes the motion,
and hence does a negative amount of work leading to a loss in kinetic energy.

5.3 POTENTIAL ENERGY

Example 5.2.1 illustrates an essential difference between two types of forces,

which it is now useful to classify. On the one hand there is the dissipative class
of forces, typical examples of which are discussed in Chapter 4. The work done
by such a force depends on the path of integration and is always negative. This is
because a resistive force always opposes the motion of a particle on which it
acts; it depends not only on the position of the particle, but also on the velocity.
On the other hand, in a force field the force is defined as a function only of
position. The work of such a field along a path from A1 to A2 is then equal and
opposite to the work evaluated from A2 to A1 along the same path. It follows
that if the work is negative when evaluated in one direction, it will be positive
when evaluated in the opposite direction along the same path. In general the
work will depend on the path of integration between A1 and A2 , but we have
seen that there exist some vector fields with the property that the work depends
only on the end points and not on the path (see § § 1.9, 1.10). For such a field it
also follows that when the work is a single valued function of the position of the
end points, the net work evaluated around a closed path is zero. Vector fields of
force which have this property are called conservative fields of force. A particle
which traverses a closed trajectory under the influence of a conservative force
returns to its original position with its kinetic energy unchanged, since the net
work done is zero. Gravitational and electrostatic force fields are typical ex-
amples of conservative fields of force. The tension in an elastic string is also a
good approximation to a conservative force.
124 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy [5.3

The two c1asses of dissipative forces and conservative forces do not exhaust
all the possibilities and there are others, in electromagnetism for example, which
do not fit into either c1ass. It is interesting to note the following implication for
a force field in which the force is a function only of position but which does not
have the property that the net work done along a closed path is zero. If the
direction of traverse is chosen appropriately, the net work done will be positive.
A particle under the influence of such a force could, by repeated traverse of such
a path, acquire unlimited kinetic energy without permanently changing its
position. If the gravitational field had this property we would have a readily
available source of unlimlted energy.
For the most part we shall be concerned with the dissipative and the
conservative types of force. The latter plays a particularly important part in
mechanics and its special propetties can be exploited with advantage.
For a conservative force field the work done in moving from Al to Az by any
path is equal and opposite to the work done in moving from Az to Al by any
path. EqUivalently the kinetic energy lost by a particle moving from AI to Az
under the influence of such a force is equal to the kinetic energy gained in
moving from Az to AI. It is convenient to introduce the idea of a potential
energy which is stored during the motion from AI to Az at the expense of the
kinetic energy. This potential energy is released if the particle returns to A I .
We define the potential energy at a point in a conservative field as the work
done by a conservative force in bringing the particle from the given point with
position vector r, to some standard point with, say, position vector ro. Thus the
potential energy V is given by

V= f ro
F. dr= -
f F. dr.
r
(5.3.1 )
r ro

Conversely if the potential energy is known, the conservative force field is

deducible, as in § 1.10, from the relation

F = -\7V.

Note the negative sign which arises from the way in which the potential energy is
defined.
If the particle moves from rl to r2, it follows that

fr,r2 F.dr=- (fror F.dr- fror, F.dr )

2
(5.3.2)

irrespective of the path between rl and r2. This is the loss in potential energy.
By (5.2.1) it is equal to the gain in kinetic energy and so we have the
conservation equation

kinetic energy + potential energy = constant,

5.3] Potential Energy 125

or !mv 2 + f
r
ro
F. dr = constant. (5.3.3)

The simplest type of conservative field is a uniform force field such as gravity.
Since mg is a constant vector, the potential energy is easily evaluated to be

f r
ro
mg. dr = mg. (ro - r) =mg(y - Yo), (5.3.4)

where y is the vertical coordinate of the particle (remember that g has the
component -g vertically upwards). If Yo is taken at the origin of coordinates,
(5.3.4) reduces to mgy and so

~mv2 + mgy = constant,

or

as in equation (2.4.4).
Example 1.1 0.1 shows that the force field f(r)r/r, called a central force field,
is conservative. The associated potential is

f ro fer)
- r . dr =
f Yo
fer) dr,
r r y

which clearly depends only on the distance from the origin. This type of force
field will be studied in more detail in Chapter 7.
It is important to note that the concept of potential energy is appropriate
only for conservative force fields, whereas equation (5.2.1), which equates the
work done by the force along the prescribed path of the particle to the increase
in kinetic energy, is quite general. Energy conservation is likewise restricted to
problems involving conservative force fields. In Example 5.2.1, which involves
dissipative frictional forces, the particle loses kinetic energy for which there is no
compensation within the framework of Newtonian mechanics. In a wider con-
text, however, energy conservation, which has been presented here as a de-
duction from the laws of motion, is regarded as a very basic law. Suitably
modified, It is retained throughout the whole of modern physics. In Example
5.2.1 the loss of kinetic energy of the particle is equated to a dissipation into
heat through the mechanism of the frictional forces. This is a form of energy not
included in the mechanics of a single particle although Example 8.3.3 shows how
it might be accounted for at a molecular level.

Example 5.3.1
A particle of mass m2 hangs vertically from a light inextensible string, which
passes over a smooth peg and is attached to a ring of mass ml (<m 2 ), free to
slide on a smooth vertical wire. The horizontal distance between the peg and the
126 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy [5.3
. d __ ·

1
YI 1
T
Y2

N_ J T
j
1
mIg

m2g
1
Figure 5.3.1 Illustration for Example 5.3.1.

wire is d. Initially that part of the string between m 1 and the peg is horizontal. If
ml is released from rest in this position find the maximum depth to which it
descends.
The configuration and the forces acting on m 1 and m2 are shown in Figure
5.3.1. The vertical distances of ml and m2 below the peg are denoted by Yl and
Yz respectively. Because the wire is smooth, the reaction Nbetween it and ml is
horizontal. Hence there is no work done by N during the motion of ml' There
is, however, a tension T in the string which does work when the calculation is
made separately for each mass. Moreover T is one of the unknown quantities in
this problem
Let us calculate the work equation for each mass separately. We have

(5.3.5)

for ml, and (5.3.6)

for m2' Here e is the inclination to the vertical of that part of the string between
the ring and the peg, and I is the total length of the string, so that Yz = I - d
initially. We also have the relations

_ Yl
cos e - (2 2 liZ' (5.3.7)
\d +yr)

(5.3.8)

and so (5.3.9)
5.3] Potential Energy 127

It follows that, whatever the magnitude of T,

fo T cos 8 dY1 = -
Yt jY2
I-d
T dY2.

We can therefore eliminate Tby the addition of (5.3.5) and (5.3.6) to get

Equation (5.3.10) amounts to an energy equation for the system as a whole in

that it equates the increase in kinetic energy of the system to the decrease of
potential energy arising solely from the conservative gravitational field. This
result is a consequence of the fact that the remaining forces Nand T do no
work during the motion of the complete system.
The maximum displacement is obtained when Y1 andY2 are zero. Equations
(5.3.8) and (5.3.10) then give

or (5.3.11)

The solution iSY1 =0, the initial position, or

(5.3.12)

One point to note here is that (5.3.12) is obtained from (5.3.11) by squaring
each side of the relation. Hence the solution of (5.3.11) satisfies (5.3.12), but
the converse is not necessarily true. In fact (5.3.12) satisfies (5.3.11) only if
m2 > mi' If m2 < m 1 there is no solution of (5.3.11) and in this case the ring,
once released, never comes to rest while the string remains suspended over the
peg.
The result that the tension in the string does no net work during the displace·
ment of the system is capable of wider application in that it depends on the
following conditions, which are satisfied for many other configurations involving
light, elastic strings:

(i) the tensions at the two ends of the string are equal in magnitude, because
the peg is smooth and the mass of the string is negligible;
(li) when the two ends of the string suffer small displacements, the components
of those displacements along the length of the string (and hence parallel
to T) are equal in magnitude. This follows immediately from the assumption
that the string is inextensible, and ensures the validity of (5.3.9).
128 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy [5.4

5.4 POWER

Since the work done by a force F is

fF . dr = f F . v dt,

the time derivative of the work done, or the rate of working, is F . v. This is
referred to as power. The unit of power in the SI system is the watt (W), or
1 J S-l, and its dimensions are ML2 T- 3 • The kilowatt hour (1 kWh =
3·6 x 106 J) is often used as a practical measure of work or energy, particularly
with reference to heat. The latter is also a form of energy although it plays no
part in Newtonian mechanics.
Power is a useful practical measure of a machine's capacity for doing work.
For example the powers of a small electric motor and a typical automobile
engine are likely to be in the rangesO·l-l kWand 10-100 kW respectively.

Example 5.4.1
Water of density p is pumped from a depth d and delivered through a pipe
of cross-section A. What is the power required to deliver a volume V per unit
time?
There are two parts to this calculation. The first part represents the work
done in raising a mass of water p V from a depth d in unit time, which is p Vgd.
In addition there is the work required to generate the requisite kinetic energy. In
unit time a volume Vof water is delivered through a pipe of cross-section A. The
speed is therefore VIA and since the mass is p V the kinetic energy is 1P V( V/A)2 .
v
The total work per unit time, which is the power required, is p Vgd + 1P 3 fA 2 •
If we substitute the particular values g = 9.81 m s -2, P = 10 3 kg m -3 ,
d = 10 m, A = 10- 2 m 2 , V= 10- 1 m 3 S-l we get (9·81 + 5)10 3 W or about
15 kW.

Example 5.4.2
A train of mass m runs on a level track at constant speed u. We assume that the
power exerted by the engine is constant and that the resistance to the motion
arises from two sources. The air resistance is modelled by a term K v2 , where v is
the speed and K is a constant, and frictional resistance is assumed to be equal
to a constant fraction {3 of the weight of the train. We investigate the change in
the speed of the train when it slips a coach of mass (X}'J'l.
Initially the total resistance is Ku 2 + {3mg and, since the speed is constant, this
must be balanced by the tractive force. The power is therefore (Ku 2 + {3mg)u
and is constant. When the coach is slipped, let the subsequent speed be v. The
tractive force is then (Ku 3 + {3mgu )fv and the resistance is Kv 2 + {3(1 - cx)mg. It
follows that the equation of motion is

dv Ku 3 + {3mgu
(1 - cx)m - = Kv 2 - {3(1 - cx)mg,
dt v
 Exercises 129

dv K ~g
or v- = - (V 3 - U3 ) + - - (u - v + 00).
dt m(1 - a) 1- a

In order to describe the details of the motion, it is necessary to integrate this

equation. The integration is routine but the final result is not of a simple form
and we shall proceed on the basis of a simplifying assumption. The equation has
the special solution v = u when a = 0, as might be expected, so that presumably
I v - u I ~ u when a ~ 1. To investigate this possibility we put v = u( 1 + 0), so
that

(1 + 0) do = - Ku {(1 + 0)3 - 1} + ( ~g ) {a - 0(1 - a)},

dt m(1 - a) 1- a u

and approximate this equation by retaining only the first order terms in o. The
result is a linear equation of the form

do=
- -T
-1
(0 - e)
dt '

where T -1 ~g ( 1 +
=- 3KU 2 )
e = - - -a- - - -
u m~g(1- a)' 1 - a + 3Ku 2 /m~g .

The solution is

and we can now see more clearly the conditions for which the approximation is
valid. As t -+ 00,0 -+ e and the terminal speed is u(1 + e). In order that 0 should
be uniformly small, it is necessary that e ~ 1, or a ~ 1 + 3Ku 2 /(m~g). The
parameter T, which has the dimensions of time, is a measure of the time interval
over which the speed changes by a significant proportion of itself.

EXERCISES

5.1 A golf ball of mass m is struck by a club, the contact lasting for a time T,
and is thereby given a speed v. Assume that, during the contact, the force
increases at a constant rate from zero to a maximum and then decreases at
a constant rate from this maximum to zero. Find: (i) the impulse of the
blow, (ii) the maximum force on the ball.
(Ans.: mv, 2mv/T.)
5.2 A light rod rests on a smooth horizontal plane and has two particles, of
masses m 1 and m2 respectively, attached to it at A and B. A horizontal
impulse F is given to A in a direction making an angle a with AB. Find the
velocities of A and B, and show that the kinetic energy imparted to the
system is equal to 1Fw, where w is the component of the velocity of A in
the direction of the impulse.
130 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy

What would be the effect on the initial motion if the plane were rough?
(Ans.: A component F cos al(m1 + m2) along AB for both particles and a
component F sin aIm 1 perpendicular to AB for A.)
5.3 A man of mass m 1 is standing in a stationary lift of mass m2, the
counterpoise being of mass m 1 + m2. Suddenly the man jumps with an
impulse which would raise him to a height h if he were jumping from the
ground.
Given that the inertial and frictional effects in the cable and pulley
which connect the lift to the counterpoise may be neglected, calculate the
velocity of the man, relative to the lift, immediately after the impulse.
Find also the subsequent acceleration of the man relative to the lift.
Deduce that the height above the floor of the lift to which the man
jumps is 2h(m 1 + m2 )/(m 1 + 2m2).
5.4 If the earth is regarded as a sphere, of radius re, the gravitational force on a
particle of mass m at a distance r (>r e ) from the centre of the earth is
mg(re/r )2.
Show that the work done in raising the particle from the earth's surface
to a height re above the earth's surface is !mgre.
5.5 A mass of 200 kg is suspended at the lower end of a light vertical rope and
is being hauled up vertically. Initially the mass is at rest and the pull on the
rope is 300 kg-wt. The pull diminishes uniformly at the rate of 6 kg-wt for
each metre through which the mass is raised.
Find the work done by the pull on the rope, and the speed of the mass
after it has been raised 20 m.
(Ans.: 4800g J, (8g)1I2 m S-l.)
5.6 The tension in a stretched elastic string is given to be "AxIl in magnitude,
where I is the natural length of the string, x is the extension beyond its
natural length, and A is a constant for a particular string.
x
Show that the work done in increasing from Xl to X2 is! A(X~ - xi)/1.
A uniform elastic string is stretched in a straight line between two
points A, B which are fixed. A point C of the string is then displaced so
that the components of the displacement are x along AB and y perpen-
dicular to AB.
Before the displacement let AC = a, CB = b and let the tension in the
string be T. Let the unstretched length be k(a + b), where 0 < k < 1.
Show that if the string remains taut during the displacement, the work
done is

T(a + b)(x 2 + y2) - -Tk- [{(a + x )2 + Y 2}1I2 - a

~---''''':'''''--''-'''':'
20,p(1 - k) 1- k

For r2 = x 2 + y2 ~ a2 + b 2 ,show that this approximates to

T(a
2ab
+ (~+
b)
1- k Y
2) .
 Exercises 131

When the tensions in AC and CB are the same after displacement, show
that the work done can be written in the form

Tk(a+b){ r2 ( }
r2 )112 +1.
- - - 1+-
1- k 2kab ab

5.7 A particle moves along the x-axis under the action of a force -11/x2
(11 > 0) per unit mass in the x direction. Initially x> O. Establish the
energy equation in the form

where E is a constant.

(i) Show that if E = -11/2a (a> 0), the particle comes to rest and then
falls into the origin. Use the substitution x = a(1 + cos 8) to obtain a
parametric relation between x and t.
(ii) Show that if E = 0, the particle moves off to infinity and

(iii) For E =11/2a (a> 0), use the substitution x = a(cosh cp - 1) to obtain
a parametric relation between x and t.
5.8 A parcel, of mass m, rests on a horizontal conveyor belt. For time t;;" 0 the
belt is constrained to move with a constant horizontal velocity of magni-
tude u. The coefficient of friction between the parcel and the belt is 11.
Find:

(i) the time that elapses before the parcel is again at rest relative to the
belt;
(ii) the distance the particle slides relative to the belt;
(iii) the energy dissipated during this sliding;
(iv) the impulse of the frictional force.

(Ans.: u/l1g, u 2 /2pg, !mu 2 , mu.)

5.9 Show that the force field

F = -Fo(xi + yj + ck)/l

where F o, c and 1 are constants, is conservative. Deduce the potential

energy.
A particle of mass m has the position vector

r = ro(i sin wt + j cos wt + kn 2 t 2 )

at time t. Show that its motion is compatible with that arising when it is
subject to the force F, with appropriate values for F 0 and c. Show that the
magnitude of the force remains constant during the motion of the particle.
132 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy

What is the work done by the force in the interval °.; ;

t .;;;; T?

5.1 ° (Ans.: 2mr~n4 T2.)

A particle of mass m moves under the influence of the force field

F = Fo(yi + xj + zk)II,

where Fa and I are constants. Show that this is a conservative field. Find
the potential energy and deduce the energy equation

where n 2 = Fa Iml, v is the speed of the particle and u is the value of v at

the origin.
Let X = x + y, Y = x - y. Show that the components of the equation
of motion for the particle are equivalent to the relations

At time t = 0, the particle is at the origin with velocity

Show that subsequently its position vector is given by

nr = H(u x + u y ) sinh nt + (u x - u y ) sin nt}i

+!{(u x + u y ) sinh nt - (u x - uy ) sin nt}j
+ U z sinh nt k.
Verify directly from this result that the energy equation is indeed
satisfied.
5.11 The potential of an electrostatic field satisfies the equation

Assume that when (x 2 + y2) ~ 1, the potential is of the form

and show that

v; + 4 VI = 0, V~' + 16 V2 = 0, ....

A particle of unit mass is subject to such a potential. Show that, when

second order terms are neglected, the equations of motion take the form

X=-2XV1' y=-2yVl' z=-V~

 Exercises 133

and, hence, that the speed v of the particle is given by the equation

approximately, where C isa constant.

Show that Vl/2 x and v1l2 y both satisfy the equation

d2 q 3v' 2
-+-q=O
dz 2 4v2 .

5.12 Two particles of masses 7 m and 3m are fastened to the ends A, B

respectively of a weightless rigid rod of length I, which is freely hinged at a
point 0 of the rod such that AO = 1/3. Prove that if the rod is just
disturbed from its position of unstable equilibrium, the velocity with
which A will pass through its position of stable equilibrium is (4gl/ 57)112.
5.13 A particle is attached to one en.d of a light inelastic string of length I, the
other end of which is tied to a fixed peg O. The particle is projected
horizontally with speed u from the point at a depth 1 vertically below O.
Show that if 2g1 < u 2 < 5gl the string will not remain taut during the
subsequent motion. Show: (i) that if u 2 = (2 + 3 112 )gl, the particle will
subsequently strike the peg; and (ii) that if u 2 = (7 /2)gl, the string will
slacken when it has turned through an angle 2rr/3, and that when it again
tightens the particle will be at the point from which it was originally
projected.
5.14 TVIQ particles, of masses ml, m2 (m2 > mil, are connected by a light
string of length rra, which is hung over a fixed, smooth, circular cylinder of
radius a with its axis horizontal. Initially the string is held at rest on the
upper half of the cylinder in a plane perpendicular to the axis. Show that
if the string is released, and if m I remains in contact with the cylinder, the
common speed of the masses when m2 has fallen a distance aO (0 < rr) is

Find the reaction between m I and the cylinder at this instant. Hence
show that m I will certainly remain in contact with the cylinder initially if
m2 < 3m l.
(Ans.: mlg{(3ml + m2)sin 0 - 2m20}/(ml + m2).)
5.15 A light string rests over two smooth pegs, which are at a distance 2a apart
and at the same horizontal level. A smooth ring, of mass m 3, slides freely
on the string and two particles, of masses ml, m2 respectively, are
attached to the ends of the string.
Initially the system is held with that part of the string between the pegs
horizontal and the ring midway between the pegs. The portions of the
string beyond the pegs are vertical with the particles hanging at rest.
The system is then released from rest. Let Yl, Y2, Y3 denote, respect-
ively, the distances whi~h m 1, m2, m3 descend below their initial levels, so
that Yl =Y2 =Y3 = 0 initially.
134 Impulse, Momentum, Work and Energy

Explain why m3 descends vertically.

Write down the equations of motion for the three masses. Hence or
otherwise show that:

(i) Yl + Y2 + 2(a 2 + y~)I/2 = 2a,

(ii) mlYI - m2Ya =(ml - ma)g,
(iii) !<mlY~ + maY~ + m3Y~) =g(mlYI + m2Y2 + m3Y3)'

FindYI andYa in terms of Y3 and t.

Show also that if m3 comes to rest in the subsequent motion it will
first do so after it has descended a distance

2ak
1 - k2'

and that this is possible only if k < 1.

5.16 Assume that the human heart works at an average rate of 3 W. Show that
this is just sufficient to allow a person of mass 70 kg to climb from the
bottom to the top of the Empire State Building, New York (380 m) in
24h.
5.17 A waterfall of height h is fed by a stream of density P. breadth band
depth d approaching the top with speed u. Show that the rate at which
work could be done by the waterfall, assuming no energy dissipation, is
bdup(u 2 + 2gh)/.2.
In particular if b = 40 m, d = 1 m, h = 30 m, u = 3 m s -1 show that the
maximum power that could be generated is 3'6 x 10' W.
5.18 The engine of a car produces a power P when the car is running on the
level at a speed v, where

Here Po and u are constants and n takes the values 3, 2, 1 respectively

for first, second and third gears.
Write down the equation for motion on a level track with all resistance
neglected. Hence show that the time taken to reach third gear on a level
track after starting from rest cannot be less than

mu 2 mu 2
(! log 3 - if; log 5 - ~ log 2) - = 0'25 -
Po Po '

where m is the mass of the car.

5.19 A car of mass m travels on level ground. Its engine can deliver any power
less than a certain constant P to the back wheels, the coefficient of friction
between those wheels and the ground is jl, and the weight supported by
them is W. Show that if all four wheels are assumed massless and their
 Exercises 135

bearings frictionless, attempts to accelerate too rapidly may result in

skidding if the speed is less than P/p.W, and find the minimum time in
which any speed greater than P/p.W can be attained from rest. If the car
were going down a hill (with p. unaltered), would the maximum speed for
skidding while accelerating be greater, less, or the same as before? Give
reasons.
(Ans.: (v 2 + p2/p.2 W2 )m/2P, greater.)
5.20 A train is drawn along a straight level track by an engine which exerts a
constant force. The initial speed is U I , and after an interval of time t the
speed is U2' All resisting forces are neglected. Show that the distance
travelled is !CUI + U2 )t.
Now consider the problem with an engine working at constant power
instead of constant force. Obtain the distance travelled assuming that UI,
U2 and t remain the same. Deduce that the distance travelled in the second
case is the greater.
Show that the engines are working at the same rate at time t/2.
6 Oscillations

6.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC OSOLLATIONS

In this chapter we shall be particularly concerned with the one-dimensional

motion of a particle which oscillates to and fro about an equilibrium position.
When the motion repeats itself after a definite time, it is called periodic. Of all
the forces which can produce periodic motion, a restoring force proportional to
the displacement of the particle is of particular interest. The resulting equation
of motion has many applications in mechanics and indeed in several other
branches of mathematical physics.
Let xi be the displacement of the particle from the origin, and let the force
acting on the particle be _n 2 xi per unit mass. The equation of motion is then

(6.1.1)

Here n > 0 is a constant and the negative sign ensures that the force is a restoring
force acting always towards the equilibrium value x = 0, which is a particular
solution of (6.1.1). Such a force is conservative and can be derived from a
potential energy !n 2 x2 per unit mass. Hence there is an energy equation of the
form

(6.1.2)
say, where the constant total energy has been written as !n 2 a2 • It is easily
verified that (6.1.1) follows from (6.1.2) by differentiation. Equation (6.1.2) is
equivalent to

dx = ±n/a2 _ X 2 )112 (6.1.3)

dt ~ ,

where the choice of sign will depend on whether x is increasing or decreasing

with time. Finally (6.1.3) can be integrated to give

nt + a = ± f (2
dx
\a - x
2 )112 = ±cos -I
x
-
a

or x = a cos(nt + a). (6.1.4)

Note that the motion is confined to 1x I';;;; a.

A more direct derivation of (6.1.4.) is obtained by assuming that (6.1.1) has.
solutions of the form x = Ae At, where A, A are constants. It follows, by substh
tution in (6.1.1), that A2 = _n 2. This gives the two solutions A 1 eint , A2 e -int .
6.1 ] Simple Harmonic Oscillations 137

which, for a linear differential equation, can be combined linearly to give the
general solution

When this solution is applied to a physical problem, we are interested in a form

which is real. Since the constants A 1 and A2 are still at our disposal we can write

so that x =a cos(nt + 0:) as in (6.1.4).

The solution (6.1.4) is determined by the values of the three parameters a, n,
0: called respectively the amplitude, frequency and phase. The motion is
periodic, and repeats itself after a time 2rr/n, called the periodic time. In the
above derivation a and 0: occur as constants of integration which will be
determined in applications by some given initial conditions. Sometimes it is
more convenient to put A =a cos 0:, B =-a sin 0: and to write the solution in the
form

x =A cos nt + B sin nt. (6.1.5)

The motion described by the basic equation (6.1.1) with the corresponding
solution (6.1.4) or (6.1.5) is called simple harmonic motion. It is a pure
sinusoidal displacement in time, with a single frequency n. Note that a displace-
ment such as

x =al cos(nt + 0:1) + a2 cos(2nt + 0:2),

which consists of two superimposed harmonics, is also periodic with period

2rr/n, but it involves the two frequencies n and 2n. It does not arise from an
equation of motion of the form (6.1.1) although, as we shall see, it may arise
when two oscillating particles are coupled.
One of the simplest applications of (6.1.1) is to the motion of a particle
suspended from an elastic string or spring, since the tension exerted by a string
or spring is proportional to the extension. This empirical law was first discovered
by Hooke and is known as Hooke's law. Note that an elastic string can only
exert a force when extended beyond its natural length, whereas a spring also
satisfies the law under compression. If the unstretched length is 1, and the
stretched length is 1 + x, the tension is given by the relation

T=ax (6.1.6)

where the constant of proportionality a, called the stiffness, depends on the

material but is independent of x. It also depends on I since a change in 1will alter
the extension x proportionately if the tension remains unaltered. Hence a is
138 Oscillations [6.1

inversely proportional to I and (6.1.6) is often written in the form

T= "Ne/I (6.1.7)

where, for a given material, A is independent of I and is called the modulus of

rigidity.
Hooke's law is also valid for a metal wire under tension provided that it is not
stretched beyond its elastic limit, beyond which it flows plastically and is
permanently deformed. The modulus of rigidity for a metal wire is independent
of I but is proportional to the cross-section of the wire. For this reason the
elasticity is usually specified by the ratio AjA, called Young's modulus, which is
a constant for a given material.

Example 6.1.1
A light spring has one end attached to a fixed point and a mass m suspended
from the free end. The equilibrium extension of the spring is c and the
equilibrium tension is T() as in Figure 6.1.1. Therefore

To = ac=mg.

If the spring is disturbed through a distance x from its equilibrium position, we

have

m5:=mg-T,

and T=a(c+x)=mg+ax.

Hence x = -ax/m = -gx/c,

and the motion is oscillatory with a solution of the type (6.1.4). The periodic

;
I
G:,.
c.o
c.o
c.o
G
<0
~ ~
fg G
G

TGr
T~tTo G
G
i~ G
xG

~ +~ .
mg
~
mg

Figure 6.1.1 Illustration for Example 6.1.1: oscillations of a particle attached

to a spring.
6.1] Simple Harmonic Oscillations 139

time is 2rr(c/g)1/2. The amplitude and phase can be determined once the initial
conditions have been prescribed.

~xample 6.1.2
A light elastic string has one end attached to a fixed point and a mass m
suspended from the free end. The equilibrium extension of the string is c. The
mass is pulled down a further distance 2c and then released. Show that the
period of the subsequent motion is 2(C/g)1I2(3 1/ 2 + 2rr/3).
Initially the motion is simple harmonic, as in the previous example, with
frequency n =(g/c) , / 2, amplitude 2c and zero phase. Hence x =2c cos nt, where
x is measured from the eqUilibrium position (see Fig. 6.1.1). This motion persists
until x = -c. This is when cos nt = -! and first arises when nt =2rr/3, so that

x = -2cn sin nt = _(3gC)1I2.

The string then becomes slack and the particle continues to rise freely for a time
(3gc )1I2/g = (3C/g)"2 . The time for a half period is therefore

-2rr + (3C)
- 112 = (C)
- 1/2 (2rr
- + 3 112 ) •
3n g g 3

It will take an equal time to return to its original position after which the
motion will repeat itself.
Note that although the motion is periodic, and although the first part of the
motion is governed by an equation of the form (6.1.1), it is not simple harmonic
motion because for part of the time the particle is moving freely under gravity.
If, however, the string is replaced by a light elastic spring of the same length and
stiffness, the relation x = 2c cos nt holds throughout the motion.

~xample 6.1. 3
A particle of mass m is connected by a light spring of natural length I to a point
o on a rough horizontal table. Let us consider the equation of motion when the
particle is at a distance 1+ x from O. Here the magnitude of the frictional force
is pmg, but the direction will depend on the direction of motion ofthe particle.
Suppose first that x is increasing. The equation of motion is
"lu:
rnX = -T - J1.mg= - T- p.mg,

or (6.1.8)

where T = "lu:/l is the tension and F = p.m.g is the frictional force (see Fig. 6.1.2).
Equation (6.1.8) is similar to (6.1.1) with n2 = A/ml and the variable changed to
(x + p.mgl/A). The motion is thus similar to a simple harmonic oscillation but
140 Oscillations [6.2

Figure 6.1.2 . Illustration for Example 6.1.3: particle subject to a restoring

force T and a frictional force F.

with symmetry about x = -pmgljA instead of x = 0, as in the unresisted case.

When x is decreasing, however, the frictional force changes sign and the
equation of motion becomes

or ~
dt 2
(x _ pmgl) = _
X
~(x
ml
_pmgl) .
X
(6.1.9)

The centre of the motion thus switches to x =pmgljA. This switch of the centre
of the motion each time the direction of motion changes decreases the effective
amplitude of oscillation until eventually the particle comes to rest within a
distance pmgljA on either side of the origin x = O. When this happens, the
restoring force -Axil is smaller in magnitude than the limiting frictional
force pmg and the particle will remain permanently at rest (see Fig. 6.1.2).
Note that the ultimate position of rest can be anywhere in the interval
-pmgllX ..;; x ..;; pmgllX depending on the initial conditions.

6.2 DAMPEDOSOLLATIONS

In practice mechanical oscillations are damped by natural or artificially induced

resistance. We consider here the effect of viscous damping proportional to the
velocity. Let this be -kXi per unit mass, so that (6.1.1) is modified to

(6.2.1 )

This is still a linear differential equation with constant coefticients, and to solve
it we look for solutions of the form

(6.2.2)
6.2] Damped Oscillations 141

When this is substituted into (6.1.1) we get

This equation has the two roots

Xl =!k + 1(k2 - 4n2)1/2 }

(6.2.3)
X2 =!k - Hk2 - 4n2)1/2

and the form of the solution will depend on the sign of k 2 - 4n 2 •

If k < 2n, the general solution can be written

x=e- kt / 2 [Al exp{-i(n2 -!k2 )1/2 t }+A 2 exp{i(n 2 _!k2 )1/2t}],

=ae- kt / 2 cos{(n 2 _!k 2 ) 1I2 t+CX}, (6.2.4)

where the arbitrary constants

have been chosen to give a real form of the solution (6.2.4). In this case the
damping is conveniently described as light. The motion is oscillatory, but the
amplitude decays according to the factor e- kt / 2 and so tends to zero as t tends
to infinity. A typical example is a pendulum oscillating in air.
For k > 2n, the solution can be written directly as

(6.2.5)

where Xl and X2 « AI) are now both real and positive. This solution represents
exponential decay, without oscillation, to x =O. If Al/A2 < -1 it will pass
through x = 0 just once, otherwise it will decay monotonically to zero. Such
heavy damping might arise from the motion of a pendulum in a very viscous
medium.
This approach fails to give two independent solutions in the critical case
k =2n, when Al and A2 are both equal to !k. We can see more clearly what
happens in this case if equation (6.2.1) is rewritten in the eqUivalent form

(6.2.6)

With xe kt / 2 as the dependent variable, (6.2.6) is of the form (6.1.1) if k < 2n, or
(3.3.10) if k > 2n. If k =2n it is easily integrated to give

or (6.2.7)
142 Oscillations [6.3

Here again the solution tends to x = 0 without oscillation as t tends to infinity.

The particle passes through the origin at most once, and then only if Al and A2
are of opposite signs.

6.3 FORCED OSOLLATIONS

In some lightly damped systems, where it is desirable to maintain an oscillation,

a compensating mechanism is required to overcome the resistance. The most
familiar example is the spring in the escapement of a clock.
We assume that the compensating mechanism is represented by a force which
is a prescribed function of the time, say f(t) per unit mass. The equation of
motion then becomes

(6.3.1)

The solution of equations such as (6.3.1) can be divided into two parts. The
complementary function, which is the solution of the equation with f(t) omit-
ted, is exactly the solution discussed above in §6.2. The second part is the
particular integral, which can be any particular solution of the full equation.
The most general solution is the sum of the complementary function and
the particular integral.
There are standard techniques for calculating particular integrals. Here we
simply verify that a solution of the following form is possible. Let

X = Jo X(i - 7)f(7) d7
t
(6.3.2)

from which, by differentiation, we have

x = X(O)f(t) + r
o
X(t - 7)f(7) d7, (6.3.3)

X =X(O)j(t) + X(O)[(t) + foX(t -

t
7)[(7) d7. (6.3.4)

If these expressions are substituted in (6.3.1), it will be seen that (6.3.2) is a

particular integral provided that X(t) is a solution of (6.2.1) which satisfies
X(O) = 0, X(O) = 1. For example if n 2 > *k2 , the appropriate solution for X(t) is

(6.3.5)

Equation (6.3.2) has been verified by a mathematical argument but it is

worthwhile to consider the physical interpretation. Let x denote the displace-
6.3] Forced Oscillations 143

ment of a particle, of mass m, whose equation of motion reduces to (6.2.1). Let

the particle suffer a blow of impulse F at t = T. Then there is a discontinuous
change in the velocity of the particle, when t = T, of amount F/m. The displace-
ment is therefore modified by a term which is zero for t ~ T, which satisfies
(6.2.1) and whose derivative is discontinuous by an amount F/m at t = T. For
t;;:' T this modification is clearly X(t - T)F/m since this satisfies all the required
conditions. A continuous force mf(t) can be regarded as a series of impulses, of
which that occurring in the interval of time DT is mf(T) DT. The contribution to
the displacement arising from mf(T) DT is thus zero for t ~ T, and X(t - T)f(T) DT
for t ;;:. T. The contribution from the continuous force can then be deduced by
summation over the several contributions to give in the limit the relation (6.3.2).
Note that the upper limit will be t because only those impulses up to the current
value of t will be operative. The lower limit is chosen so that the initial
conditions can be satisfied by appropriate choice of the complementary function.
There are two special cases of interest, both of which are more readily dealt
with directly rather than by the general formula (6.3.2). The first is whenfis a
constant fo. By inspection a particular integral is x = fo/n 2 , and the general
solution is the sum of fo/n 2 and the complementary function discussed in § 6.2.
The effect of a constant force is to shift the point of equilibrium to x = fo/n 2
and, since the complementary function always tends to zero as t --+ 00 whatever
the initial conditions, the solution always tends eventually to the value of fo/n 2 •
This is the situation which occurs in many instruments, such as speedometers,
control mechanisms and instruments used for measuring electric currents. In all
these instruments it is desirable that the reading should settle quickly to its
correct value. If damping is absent or too small, the needle will oscillate or 'hunt'
around the correct value without reaching a steady reading. Very heavy damping
is equally undesirable because, as k becomes large, A2 tends to zero and hence
one of the exponential factors in (6.2.5) tends only slowly to zero. The response
of the needle is then sluggish. In practice a value of k approximating to that for
critical damping is to be preferred (see also Exercise 6.15). Note, from Example
6.1.3, that solid friction is to be avoided as a damping mechanism because the
instrument may settle down to the wrong reading.
The second example involves a periodic forcing term for whichf= fo cos pt.
The simplest derivation of the particular integral here is from the equation

(6.3.6)
where z = x + iy is a complex function of t. Since an equation involving complex
quantities can only be satisfied if the real and imaginary parts of the two sides of
the equation are separately equal, it follows that if z is a solution of (6.3.6) then
the real part x is a solution of (6.3.1) withf= fo cos pt (and y is also a solution
of (6.3.1) withf= fo sin pt).
A particular integral of (6.3.6) is z = zoe iPt , where Zo is a constant satisfying
the equation
144 Oscillations [6.3

j; eipt
It follows that z =x + iy = -::-~o--::-_ _
n 2 _ p2 + ikp

to cos (pt - ~)
(6.3.7)
and so

kp
where tan ~ = 2 2· (6.3.8)
n -p

This is called the forced oscillation to distinguish it from the free oscillation,
represented by the complementary function, to which the particle can respond
without the help of the forcing term. As in all resisted oscillations, the free, or
transient, oscillations eventually decay and ultimately the motion is just that
represented by (6.3.7). The frequency of this forced oscillation is that of the
forcing term, but there is a change in amplitude and phase. When k is small there
is a significant increase in amplitude for a narrow band of frequencies near the
frequency n of free, umesisted oscillations, that is when (n - p) is small. Indeed
there is a singularity in the amplitude for n =p and k =o. This phenomenon is
called resonance and can be a source of potential danger in mechanical struc-
tures. In fact in many applications involving spring supports and periodic forcing
terms, it is desirable to include sufficient damping unless the frequency of natural
vibrations differs substantially from the frequencies of the forced oscillations
that might be encountered. One practical example is the vibrations of a motor
with a resilient mounting. Equation (6.3.7) shows that the amplitude of the
forced oscillation can be written

to

This is certainly a decreasing function of p provided k 2 ;;;;. 2n 2 , and if p always

exceeds a certain minimum value Pm then it is sufficient that k 2 ;;;;. 2n2 - p-:n to
ensure that the amplitude is a decreasing function of p.
When k is small the lag in phase of the forced oscillation relative to the
forcing term is nearly equal to 0 or rr according as p 'S n, so that there is a
change in phase by this amount in the transition through resonance. But the
change is continuous provided k =1= 0, so that when p = n for example, the
maximum displacement follows the maximum force with an interval of a quarter
period, since ~ = rr12.
The lag in phase is associated with the supply of energy from the forcing
term, the average energy being zero when ~ = o. Physically this means that there
is no resistance and so no work required, on average, to maintain the oscillation
when ~ = O. To see this let us consider the solution when the free oscillations are
negligible. The rate of working of the force to cos pt is, by (6.3.7),
6.3] Forced Oscillations 145

dx -prJ .)
fo cos pt dt ={(n2 _ p2)2 + k2p2 }1/2 cos pt sm(pt - (j ,

=2{(n 2 _ p:~ + k 2p2)1/2 {sin (j - sin(2pt - (j)). (6.3.9)

Hence the work done in one complete period °<; t <; 21r/p is
Jo21r/P fo cos pt dxdt dt ={(n2 _ 1rfJ sin (j 1rkpfJ
p2)2 + k2p2 }1/2 =(n2 _ p2)2 + k2p2'
(6.3.10)

where (6.3.8) has been used. For small values of k this is also small, and
approximately proportional to k, except near resonance where there is a sharp
increase in the supply of energy. When n =p this supply is actually proportional
to k- 1 , so giving rise to large amplitudes.
The case for which n = p and k = 0, namely

i + n 2 x = fo cos nt, (6.3.11)

is physically an idealisation and mathematically rather special. For the sake of

completeness we derive the particular integral, which can be evaluated using
(6.3.2). With

f(t) =fo cos nt (6.3.12)

and, from (6.3.5) with k =0,

X(t) =n- 1 sin nt, (6.3.13)

the particular integral is

x =b.
n
J sin net - r) cos
0
t nT dr

J; j" t {sin nt + sin net -

=~ 2r)} dT
2n 0

= fo tsin nt. (6.3.14)

2n

The solution is no longer periodic, but has an amplitude which grows linearly
with time. This behaviour is typical of undamped resonance. In practice, how-
ever, there will invariably be some damping present and often there will be
146 Oscillations [6.4

non-linear effects brought into playas the amplitude grows, thereby modifying
the ultimate behaviour.

6.4 COUPLED OSCILLAnONS

There are many physical applications of the mathematics relating to the inter-
action of oscillating systems. We introduce the ideas with a discussion of a pair
of equations which typify such interactions, namely

(6.4.1)

The terms involving the constants k12 and k21 are those arising from the
interaction between the two systems. When they are absent, the equations
become uncoupled and are then of a type already discussed.
There are standard techniques for the integration of equations such as (6.4.1),
but it is instructive to see how the solution can be built up in the following way.
Equations (6.4.1) can be combined linearly to give

(6.4.2)

and if the constant" is chosen to satisfy the relation

(6.4.3)

equation (6.4.2) simplifies to

(6.4.4)

This equation for the single variable Xl + KX2 is of a known form. Now equation
(6.4.3) can be written as a quadratic equation for K, namelY

(6.4.5)

which has the two solutions" 1 , "2, where

(6.4.6)
6.4] Coupled Oscillations 147

For these two values of", (6.4.4) yields a pair of equations for x I +" IX2 and
XI + "2X2, which can be used as alternatives to the original pair (6.4.1). A
discussion of these equations in the general case presents no particular difficulty.
However, we shall concentrate on the case for which the frequencies nl , n2
given by

(6.4.7)

are real, distinct and positive. We then have, from (6.4.4),

XI +"IX2 =a,cos(n,t+a d } (6.4.8)

XI + "2X2 = a cos(n2 t + a2)

say, and this pair of equations can be solved to give XI and X2 as a linear
combination of two harmonic oscillations.
Alternatively we can solve (6.4.1) by looking for solutions such that both XI
and X2 are proportional to e~t; such a procedure has more general applicability
for linear equations with constant coefficients. If the solutions are known to be
purely oscillatory, this fact can be recognised from the beginning by choosing
A= in, say, where n is real. The procedure is then equivalent to looking for
possible solutions such that

(6.4.9)

When (6.4.9) are substituted in (6.4.1) we get

(n 2 - k l1 )x, - k12X2 = 0 } (6.4.10)

-k2IXI + (n 2 - k 22 )x2 = 0

XI kl2 n 2 - k22
or, equivalently, -::: = (6.4.11)
X2 n 2 - kl1 k21

This relation yields a quadratic equation for n 2 , whose roots are given by (6.4.7)
without the intermediate calculation of ". When nl and n2 are known, the
general solution can be written as a linear combination of the corresponding
solutions of (6.4.9), say
148 Oscillations [6.4

where the relation for Xl follows with the help of (6.4.11). That equations
(6.4.12) are equivalent to (6.4.8) may be verified directly.
We note that the oscillation frequencies are the same for both the displace-
ments Xl and Xl, but the amplitUdes are different. In general the actual
oscillations represented by (6.4.12) will not be harmonic, indeed they will not
even be periodic if nl/nl is irrational. But if one of the arbitrary constants al or
al happens to be zero, the resulting oscillation is harmonic with the same
frequency for both coordinates. Such an oscillation is called a normal mode of
vibration. Here there are two possible normal modes of vibration, represented by
(6.4.12) with either al =0 or al =0, and the system can be made to vibrate in
one or other normal mode by suitable choice of the initial conditions. In general,
however, the motion will be given by a superposition of the two normal modes
of vibration.
There is one special case for which the above arguments fail, namely when

(6.4.13)

Equations (6.4.6) and (6.4.7) then yield only one value for" = (kll - kl d/
2kl I and one associated value for n ={(k2 2 + kl d/2}1/2. This will yield only one
mode of oscillation and is not sufficient information to obtain the general
solution. Although we shall not use this case, a method of solution is indicated
for mathematical completeness.
The above values of" and n give rise to one relation of the form (6.4.8), say

XI + "Xl = a cos(nt + ad. (6.4.14)

If this is substituted in the second of equations (6.4.1), we obtain a differential

equation for Xl , namely

(6.4.15)

Comparison with (6.3.11) and (6.3.14) shows that (6.4.15) is mathematically

equivalent to the equation for undamped resonance oscillations, with a solution
of the form

k 21 a . , )
X2 = - - - t sm(nt + al) + a cos(nt + a2 . (6.4.16)
2n
The associated expression for XI then follows immediately from (6.4.14).

Example 6.4.1
Two particles m 1 ,ml are connected by a light elastic string, of natural length I,
which passes over a smooth peg, as in Figure 6.4.1. The particles are released
6.4] Coupled Oscillations 149

Figure 6.4.1 Illustration for Example 6.4.1.

from a rest position in which a length 1/2 of the string is hanging vertically on
either side of the peg.
To discuss the subsequent motion, let ml, m2 be at distances Xl, X2
respectively from the peg. Then

To solve these equations, we rewrite them in the form

(6.4.18)

d2Z (Xl+ X2 - Z- 2gZm lm z )=_h(ml+m2)(Xl+X2_1_ 2gZm l m 2 ).

dt h(ml +mz) Zmlm2 h(ml +m2)
(6.4.19)

Equation (6.4.18) is readily integrated. With the boundary conditions Xl = X2 =

Z/2, Xl =X2 = 0 at t = 0, the result is

(6.4.20)

Equation (6.4.19) is just (6.1.1) with an appropriate change ofvariable and with

2 h(ml + m2)
n = .
lmlm2
150 Oscillations [6.4

The appropriate solution, which also satisfies the initial conditions, is

2g1mlm2
Xl +X2 = 1+ ) (1- cosnt). (6.4.21)
"A.(ml + m2

Equations (6.4.20) and (6.4.21) are sufficient to determine X I and X2 separately

as functions of t.

Example 6.4.2
Three light springs AB, BC, CD are joined end to end and stretched between two
fixed points A, D on a smooth horizontal plane. Masses ml, m2 are fixed to the
springs at B and C and the system is allowed to oscillate in the line AD (see Fig.
6.4.2).
Let the displacements of the particles B and C from their equilibrium
positions be XI and X2 respectively. Let the spring stiffnesses for AB, BC and CD
be aI, a and a2 respectively. In order to discuss the motions of Band C we
require only the changes in the tensions of the springs, since the equilibrium
values must cancel. For particle B, the net force is -alXl - a(xi - X2) and for
Cis -a2x2 + a(xi - X2); The equations of motion are therefore

These equations are solved by looking for solutions such that both B and C have
oscillations of the same frequency, that is solutions for which, simultaneously,

(6.4.23)

Substitution of (6.4.23) in (6.4.22) gives the pair of equations

from which X I and X2 can be eliminated to give

(6.4.25)

This is a quadratic equation for n2 which in general has two roots, say nt and
n~. For each value there is a possible solution, with the ratio Xl /X2 fixed and

Figure 6.4.2 Illustration for Example 6.4.2.

6.4 ] Coupled Oscillations 151

given by (6.4.24). These solutions are the normal modes of oscillation. The most
general solution of (6.4.22) is a linear combination of these two solutions, say

(6.4.26)

(6.4.27)

where ai, a2, al , a2 are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial
conditions. If the latter are adjusted so that al or a2 is zero then the system will
oscillate in a normal mode with a definite frequency of oscillation. In general,
however, this will not be the case, and the solution is a combination of the two
modes of oscillation.
Consider the special case ml = m2, al = a2 so that, from (6.4.25),

(6.4.28)

and (6.4.29)

(6.4.30)

Here the first normal mode is such that the two particles have the same
amplitude al and the same frequency nl but are 11" out of phase so that they
always move in opposite directions. In the second slower normal mode the
amplitude, frequency and phase are all identical. In this mode the spring BC
exerts no influence. For arbitrary initial conditions the motion is a superposition
of these two oscillations. Suppose for example that the initial conditions are

whent=O.

Then the subsequent oscillations are given by (6.4.29), (6.4.30) with al = a2 = a.

An alternative form of these equations is

(6.4.31)

X2 = 2a sin ( nl -2 n2)
t sin (nl + n2 t ) .
--2- (6.4.32)

nl - n2 _ (al + 2a)112 - a~12

Now 2 - 2m~/2

and ifa= 0, we see that the solution iSXl = 2a cos (at/ml )1/2 t, X2 = 0 as expected.
152 Oscillations [6.4

carrier wave
,r beat oscillation

--
Figure 6.4.3 Superimposed oscillations of nearly equal frequency.

If 0 ~ 01, the frequency !enl + n2) approximates to (odmd l/2 • But note that
there is still the slowly varying factor cos! (n 1 - n2 )t, and provided that
(n 1 - n2) is not zero this will eventually alter the solution for x 1 substantially.
Furthermore X2 will eventually acquire a substantial oscillation. This is an
example of a situation in which a small effect can accumulate over a sufficient
length of time to produce a Significant modification of the solution. A vibration
of the kind described by (6.4.31) or (6.4.32) is called a modulated oscillation.
The slow oscillation superimposed on the modulated oscillation is called a beat
oscillation and can be used in tuning musical instruments. The combined effect
of two notes of approximately equal frequency has an amplitude which slowly
rises and falls as shown in Figure 6.4.3. These surges in volume are easily
detected by the ear and tuning is effected by arranging that the frequency of the
beat oscillation tends to zero. This type of oscillation also has applications in the
theory of electromagnetic waves. Radio waves are transmitted at frequencies of
the order of 106 oscillations per second. These are called carrier waves. But the
actual information is transmitted by modulating the carrier wave at relatively
lower acoustic frequencies, not more than 104 oscillations per second. The
receiving apparatus then separates the acoustic oscillation from the carrier wave
for further use.

Example 6.4.3
The calculation of normal modes of oscillation can be extended to more
complex systems. We consider here the motion of r equal particles fastened at

Yk-l
+.
Figure 6.4.4 Illustration for Example 6.4.3: transverse oscillations of particles
on a stretched string.
6.4 ] Coupled Oscillations 153

equal distances to a string of length (r + 1)1. Both ends of the string are fIxed and
the only force influencing the motion of the particles is assumed to be the
tension T in the string.
We consider small lateral displacements Yl ,Yz, .. . ,Yr of the particles. Then
the change in the tension T from its equilibrium value To will be small and we
can write, correct to the fIrst order,

as the equation of motion of the kth particle. To fInd the normal modes we look
for solutions for which

Substitution in the equation of motion gives

Yk+l + (a - 2)Yk +Yk-l =0, (k = 1,2, ... ,r),

where a = mnzl/To.
We have now a set of r linear difference equations which are to be solved
subject to the boundary conditions

Yo = Yr+l = O.

If we assume a solution of the form

Yk = a sin(k~ + e)cos(nt + a),

so that

Yk+ 1 +Yk-l = {a sin(k~ +e + m+ a sin(k~ + e - ~)} cos(nt + a)

= 2a cos ~ sin(k~ + e) cos(nt + a),

it is seen that the difference equation is satisfied provided that

cos~= l-!a.

To satisfy the boundary conditions, we must have Yo = Yr+l = 0, or

asine=O, asin{(r+l)~+e}=O,

and so E=0 and siner + 1)~ = O. Hence there are r normal oscillations
154 Os cilla tip ns [6.5

corresponding to the values of ~ given by

krr
~ =r + l' (k =1,2, ... ,r).
The corresponding frequencies n can be calculated from

mn 2 1/To = a = 2(1 - cos ~).

6.5 NON-LINEAR OSCILLATIONS

We consider a particle in one-dimensional motion, with displacement x, and

subject to a conservative force having a potential Vex) per unit mass. The energy
equation can then be written

tx + vex) = E,
2 (6.5 .1)

where E is the total energy which can be determined from the initial conditions.
Note that the acceleration is given by - V'(x) and that, if the acceleration is zero
at X=Xo, then V'(xo)=O. If the initial conditions are such that, in addition,
E = V(xo), both the velocity and acceleration are zero at x = Xo and the particle
can rest in equilibrium. Otherwise the details of the motion are deducible from
the relation

2
112
t
=+
-
f(E _ V(X»112
dx
' (6.5.2)

which is a direct consequence of (6.5.1). The ambiguity of sign is resolved by the

fact that t must always increase. Hence the positive sign is appropriate when x is
increasing, the negative sign when x is decreasing.
For certain force fields it is possible for the motion of the particle to be
bounded. This possibility arises when E - V(x) is of the form

E - Vex) = (x - b)(a - x)ljJ(x), (6.5.3)

where b < a and ljJ(x) is strictly positive and single-valued in the range b ~ x ~ a.
Then the motion is confined to this range, since only values of E - Vex) which
are non-negative are appropriate. Equation (6.5.1) now becomes

tx 2 = (x - bXa - x)ljJ(x), (6.5.4)

which shows that the velocity is zero at x = b, x =a and, by differentiation, that

the acceleration is positive at x =b and negative at x =a. Accordingly the
particle oscillates between b and a and the motion is a repetition of that which
6.51 Non-Linear Oscillations 155

occurs in one complete oscillation. The periodic time T is the time for one
complete oscillation from b to a and back again. From (6.5.2), with due
attention paid to sign, T is given by

21!2T= fa dx
b (E- V(X»1/2 r (E - ~X»1I2 = s: (E _ 2~»112 .
(6.5.5)

Note that although the integrand is singular at x = b and x = a, the integral is in

fact convergent. For example if, as in equation (6.1.2), we have

(6.5 .6)

the periodic time is

(6.5.7)

This is the special case of simple harmonic oscillations as described in § 6.1,

where Tis independent of the amplitude a.
We now show that, in certain circumstances, a small perturbation about a
position of equilibrium is approximately described by (6.5.6). This is important
because in practice there are always small extraneous disturbances present and
it is useful to know their effect on a state of equilibrium.
Let x =Xo be a position of equilibrium, so that V'(xo) =o. We consider a
motion for which x = 0 when x =xo(1 + e) so that

!x 2 = E - Vex) = V(xo + xoe) - Vex),

or (6.5.8)

if x =xo(1 + n· (6.5 .9)

We assume that Vex) has an expansion in the neighbourhood of x = Xo of the

form

V(xo + xo~) = V(xo) + xo~V'(xo) + !x~e V"(xo) + ...

= V(xo) + !x~e V"(xo) + ... (6.5.10)

since V'(xo) = O. If we also assume that 0 < e ~ 1 and that I ~ I ~ 1, equation

(6.5.8) gives, approximately,

(6.5.11)
156 Oscillations [6.5

Suppose first that y"(xo) > 0 so that V has a minimum at x =xo. It is clear by
comparison with (6.5.6), which represents simple harmonic motion, that ~ is
then confined to the range I ~ I <; E and that the perturbation is a simple
harmonic oscillation given by

~ = E cos nt, n2 = V"(xo). (6.5.12)

The periodic time is

T= 21/'(V"(XO))-1I2. (6.5.13)

On the other hand, if V"(XO) is negative, I ~ I ;;;. e, the acceleration at ~ =E is

positive and the perturbation will grow according to the solution

~ = E cosh nt, n2 = - V"(xo). (6.5.14)

The perturbation is therefore unstable if V"(XO) is negative and approximates to

a simple harmonic oscillation if V"(XO) is positive. If V"(XO) =0, the above
approximate analysis is not sufficiently sensitive and needs to be refined. But it
is still true that the perturbation is oscillatory if V has a minimum, for this is
sufficient to ensure that, at least for sufficiently small E, there is a finite interval
for which the right-hand side of (6.5.8) remains positive and hence expressible in
the form (6.5.4). It will, however, not be a simple harmonic oscillation.

Example 6.5.1 The simple Pendulum

We consider the motion of a particle of mass m attached to one end of a light

rigid rod of length 1, the other end being free to rotate about a fIXed point (see
Fig. 6.5.1). It is assumed that the particle moves in a vertical plane. When the
angular displacement of the rod from the vertical position is 8, the equation of
motion of the particle has a component perpendicular to the rod which is

ml8 =-mg sin 8. (6.5.15)

Iii
/
mgSina/
Figure 6.5.1 Illustration for Example 6.5.1: the simple pendulum.
6.5) Non-Linear Oscillations 157

The configuration is known as a simple pendulum. The motion is oscillatory but

not simple harmonic. However, when the value of 0 is small, sin 0 can be
approximated by 0, and with this simplification (6.5.15) reduces to equation
(6.1.1) for simple harmonic motion in 0 with frequency n = (g1l)1/2. The
periodic time, 2rr(llg)1/2, is then independent of the amplitude within the
approximation considered which is a useful property when the pendulum is used
for time keeping. If 1= glrr2 = 0-994 m, the pendulum will make one complete
swing, or half an oscillation, in one second.
For complete accuracy, however, the full equation must be integrated. One
integration is immediate, namely

to·2 = g1cos 0 + E,
which is the energy equation. We write this in the alternative form

(6.5.16)

where n2 =gil, a2 =!O + EI/g).

One further integration along the lines suggested by (6.5.2) gives 0 as a function
of t. The result is expressible in terms of elliptic functions which are tabulated in
the literature. The following discussion is restricted to the calculation of the
periodic time for non-linear oscillations.
Two types of oscillation are possible. If 0 <a < 1, say a = sin !a, then = 0 e I

when 0 = ±a and a represents the maximum angular displacement of the pen-

dulum, which will oscillate between 0 = fa. The periodic time, T, is given by

1 fa dO
T=~ -a (sin 2 ta- sin 2 !O)1/2 .
(6.5.17)

The integral is called an elliptic integral. The standard form is obtained with the
transformation
sin !O = sin ta sin IjJ = a sin 1jJ, (6.5.18)

and if we write To = 2rr/n as the periodic time for small oscillations, equation
(6.5 .17) can be written

T _2 J. 1r / 2 dljJ 2K(a)
(6.5.19)
To - -; 0 (1 - a2 sin 2 1/»112 - rr

where K(a) is called the complete elliptic integral of the first kind. It can be
found tabulated in all the more comprehensive tables of functions. Note that

K(a)~rr/2 asa~O
158 Oscillations [6.5

and the periodic time T = To for small oscillations is recovered. A better

approximation for small a is obtained by writing

r 1f /2
= J (1 + !a 2 sin2 ef> + ... ) def> = !1I"(l + ia2 + ... ), (6.5.20)
o

so that, approximately,

(6.5.21)

When a > 1, e
never becomes zero and the pendulum swings in complete
circles rather than to and fro. Here the periodic time is the time for e to increase
by 211", and so

T
To
(6.5.22)

where the substitution e/2 = ef> has been used. Note that

T 1
asa~oo.
To 2a

1·0 I-----~======F======~--___._j 1!

a
1!12

O·SI-----------I----F----------I
1!14

()os 1 1·5
T1To
Figure 6.5.2 Variation of the periodic time with a for a simple pendulum.
6.5] Non-Linear Oscillations 159

Figure 6.5.2 shows the variation of TITo with a, produced from tables of the
function K. When Q = 7r/4(a = 0·383), for example, the periodic time is 1·04To
so that there is a 4% error in using the small amplitude approximation To. The
periodic time has increased to 1·17To at Q = 7r/2(a = 0·707) and tends to infmity
as Q -+ 7r(a -+ I). When a = 1 ()16 the periodic time is again To, and for a > 5 the
periodic time is (20) -1 with an error of less that 1%.

Example 6.5.2
A bead B, of mass m, is free to slide on a fIXed horizontal smooth wire. It is
constrained by two springs AB, CB, each of natural length I and modulus A,
which are attached to the bead and to fIXed points A and C (see Fig. 6.5 .3). The
bead can rest in equilibrium with AB =BC and ABC perpendicular to the wire.
Let us consider the possible oscillations of the bead on the wire.
We first note that there is an energy equation since the tension in a spring is
conservative. If the tension is AyII when the spring is stretched a distance y, the
potential energy is

(6.5.23)

Let AC =2b, and let x denote the displacement of the bead from AC. Then
each spring is stretched a distance (b 2 +X2)1/2 -I and the total potential
energy is, from (6.5.23),

(6.5.24)

per unit mass of the bead. The energy equation is therefore

(6.5.25)

Let us consider the equilibrium positions and their stability. From (6.5.24)

Figure 6.5.3 Illustration for Example 6.5.2.

160 Oscillations [6.5

we have that

(6.5.26)

(6.5.27)

Equilibrium is possible when V' (x) = 0, that is, when x = 0 or x 2 = (/2 - b 2 ).

The latter condition is possible only when I> b and the spring can sustain
compression. Now

V"(O) = 2A
ml
(1 ~ ~ )
b
(6.5.28)

and so a perturbation about x = 0 is oscillatory if I < b, unstable if I > b. Also

(6.5.29)

and so a perturbation about x = (P - b 2 )1/2 is oscillatory whenever equilibrium

is possible in that position.
The details of the motion can be obtained from a further integration of
(6.5.25), but for small displacements about the position 0f equilibrium the
approximate period will be, from (6.5.13),

mbl )1/2
(
21T 2A(b -I)

about x = 0 and

about x = (/2 _ b 2 )1/2.

When b =I, V"(O) =0 and the approximate analysis is not sufficiently ac-
curate. Note, however, that x = 0 is still a position of equilibrium. It is also
stable since V has a minimum at x = 0 as is clear from the expression
Ax4
V = 4~ + higher order terms (6.5.30)
ml

when x ~ I. The energy equation (6.5.25) gives approximately

 Exercises 161

(6.5.31)

provided x=0 when x =a and a ~ I. The periodic time is

(6.5.32)

where the substitution x = a cos 1> has been used. The function K(2 -1/2) is the
complete elliptic integral with argument r 1f2 (see equation (6.5.19» and has
the value 1·854. Hence the periodic time is

Unlike the simple harmonic case, the periodic time is now inversely proportional
to the amplitude.

EXERCISES

6.1 Verify that x =a sinmnt describes simple harmonic motion, about a suit-
able origin, for m = 1, 2 but not for m ;;;., 3.
6.2 A mass is suspended at the lower end of a light, perfectly elastic vertical
string whose upper end is fixed. The extension of the spring is 0'06 m
when the mass is in its equilibrium position C. The mass is pulled up
0'02 m above C and set in motion with an initial upward speed of
OA m s -}. Find the potential energy in any position and hence use
energy considerations to determine:

(i) the highest position of the mass,

(ii) the speed of the mass 0'02 m below C,
(iii) the position when the speed is a maximum.

Explain why the last two results can be deduced without detailed
calculation.
(Ans.: 0'037 m above C, 0'4 m s -} , C.)
6.3 A particle P is constrained to move along the x-axis under the several
forces krPP r , r = 1, 2, ... , n, where kr is a constant scalar and Pr is a point
on the x-axis.
162 Oscillations

Show that the motion is simple harmonic about an origin C such

that ~krCPr = 0 provided that ~kr > O. DiScuss the motion when
~kr < 0 and when ~kr = O.
6.4 A particle of mass m slides on a smooth plane, which is inclined at an
angle a to the horizontal. The particle is attached to a fixed point on the
plane by a spring of stiffness o. Show that the extension of the spring in
equilibrium is 0- 1 mg sin a and that the frequency of oscillations about the
equilibrium position is independent of a.
Assume that the particle oscillates along a line of greatest slope.
6.5 A particle executes simple harmonic oscillations with frequency n.
(i) The displacements of the particle are Xl, X2, X at times t1, t2,
!(t1 + t2) respectively. Show that

X Xl+ X2 X
2- , ---=:::-.
n X Xl +X2 X

(ii) At a given instant the displacement of the particle from the equi-
librium position 0 is x, and it is moving away from 0 with speed v.
Show that it next reaches 0 after a time

l(
;;-1T-tan- 1 nx)
-; .

(iii) At the instant that the particle is moving away from 0 with speed v, it
is given an impulse which instantaneously changes the speed from v to
v + ov, where ov ~ v. Show that the time to reach 0 alters by
ov(n2 a2 - v 2 )1/2 /a 2 n 3 approximately, where a is the amplitude.
6.6 Two light springs, of the same natural length I and of stiffnesses 01,02,
can be combined in parallel to form a combination also having the natural
length I. Show that a particle of mass m, when suspended from such a
combination, oscillates with a periodic time 21T{ m/( 0 1 + 02)} 1/2.
Show that if the springs are combined in series to form a combination
having the natural length 2/, the particle will then oscillate with a periodic
time 21T{m(oi 1 + 02"1 )}1/2.
Which is the longer period?
6.7 A particle of mass m is attached to one end of an elastic string, of natural
length I, whose other end is fixed at a point O. The particle is allowed to
fall from rest at 0 and the maximum depth of the particle below 0 is
written in the form I cot 2 !8, where 8 is a positive acute angle. Show that
the particle attains this depth in a time (21/g)1!2 { 1+ (1T - 8)cot 8}. Show
that the modulus of elasticity of the string is !mg tan2 8.
6.8 A particle is attached to the mid point of a light elastic string of natural
length I. The ends of the string are attached to fixed points A and B, A
being at a height 21 vertically above B, and in eqUilibrium the particle rests
at a depth 51/4 below A. The particle is projected vertically downwards
from this position with speed (gl)I/2.
Prove that the lower string slackens after a time 1TU/g)I/2 /12, and that
the particle comes to rest after a further time (j(l/2g)I/2 , where (j is the
acute angle defined by tan (j = (3/2)1/2.
 Exercises 163

6.9 A light spring, of stiffness 01, is fixed at one end and a smooth pulley of
negligible mass is suspended from the other. Over the pulley passes a light
elastic string of stiffness 02' One end of the string is fixed to the ground,
from the other end is suspended a particle of mass m. In equilibrium the
spring and the two portions of the string are vertical. Show that, provided
the string remains taut and vertical, the particle can perform simple
harmonic oscillations with period

Deduce the. period of oscillations in the two special cases:

(i) when the spring is replaced by a rigid support,

(ii) when the string is inextensib1e.

6.1 °
A particle, of mass m, moves along the x-axis and is subject to a restoring
force equal to -mn 2 x. It is also subject to a constant frictional resistance,
of magnitude mn 2 a, but which acts only when x is positive. The particle is
released from rest when x = -b(b > 0). Show that it next comes to rest
when x = (a 2 + b 2 )1 /2~ a and that it will then stay permanently at rest if
b < 3 1 / 2 a.
6.11 The displacement of a particle is given by

x =a e -kt/2 cos pt.

Show that in each half oscillation:

(i) the displacement is a maximum (in magnitude) when (pt + ex)/rr is an

integer, where tan ex = k/2p;
(ti) the speed is a maximum at a time 2ex/p before the displacement is
zero;
(iii) the acceleration is a maximum (in magnitude) at a time 2ex/p before
the displacement is a maximum;
(iv) the time from zero displacement to the next maximum displacement
is (n - 2ex)/2p, and the time for the return to zero displacement is
(n + 2ex)/2p;
(v) the maximum displacement is reduced in the ratio e -rrk /2p .

6.12 Show that, if x satisfies the equation

and if Xt, X2, X3 are consecutive values of x for which.x = 0, then

XIX3 - x~
Xo = ,
Xl +X3 - 2X2

112
164 Oscillations

Show that, if the resistance is small,

approximately.
6.13 A spring balance consists of a pan of mass m supported by a spring of
stiffness u. Its motion is subject to a resistance equal to K times its speed.
A particle of mass mp is gently placed on the pan, which is initially at rest.
Show that when the pan comes to rest again for the first time, its
displacement from its initial position is

mpg
- - { 1 +exp ( -
u (4u(m
K1T
+ mp) - K 2)1/2
')I} '

provided that K2 < 4u(m + m p ),

6.14 A simple pendulum, of mass m and length 1, is completely immersed in a
viscous liquid and the resistance to its motion is mk times the speed of the
bob. Show that the angular displacement () of the pendulum from the
position of stable equilibrium satisfies the equation

e+ikf} + n 2 sin () = 0,

where n2 = I 1 - s I gil, and s is the ratio of the density of the liquid to

that of the bob.
Now consider a small perturbation from the position of stable equi-
librium.
(i) Show that the motion is not oscillatory if

(ii) Show that if the motion is oscillatory and k ~ n, to the first order the
resistance affects only the amplitude and the buoyancy affects only
the frequency,
(When a body is immersed in a liquid it experiences a buoyancy force
which is equal and opposite to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
body,)

6.15 A convenient measure of the spread of the values of x(t) (0 < t < 00) about
°
the value x = is

in the sense that if the integral is small, I x(t) I must itself be small most of
the time.
 Exercises 165

The motion of a particle is governed by the equation

and initially x =a, x =u. Show that

Show that, as a function of k, this is a minimum when

(Hint. To evaluate the integral multiply the original equation by ii + kx

and integrate.)

6.16 For time t";; 0 a particle hangs in equilibrium at the lower end of a light
elastic string, which is extended a distance a beyond its natural length. For
t > 0 the upper end of the string moves vertically, its downward displace-
ment being b sin pt at time t. Show that, provided the string remains taut,
the downward displacement x of the particle satisfies the equation

where n 2 =gla.
Show that the string remains taut throughout the motion if

pb
-2--2 (n sin nt - p sin pt) <a
n - p

for all values of t. Show that this is certainly true if

pb < In - pia.

6.17 A simple pendulum consists of a light inelastic string, of length I, with a

particle, of mass m, attached to its lower end. The upper end of the string
is made to move in a horizontal straight line so that its distance from a
fixed point in the line is equal to ~(t) at time t.
Give the full equations of motion of the particle in terms of ~ and e
e
and their derivatives, where is the inclination of the string to the vertical.
Suppose that ~ = b sin pt, where b ~ I, p < n, and that the string is
vertical, with zero angular speed, when t = O. Show that, provided e
remains small in the ensuing motion,

bp2
e = nl(n 2 - 2
p )
(n sin pt - P sin nt)

approximately, where n 2 =gil.

166 Oscillations

Show that the next time the angular speed vanishes the value of t is
2rr/(n + p).
6.18 Reciprocating or rotary engines are frequently mounted on their foun-
dations with rubber supports. Let these supports be modelled as a com-
bination of a restoring force proportional to the displacement and a
damping force proportional to the velocity. Because of its vibration, the
engine is subject to a periodic force with frequency equal to that of its
periodic motion. Thus the equation of motion, for vertical oscillations
about equilibrium, may be written
x == fo cos pt - (ki + n 2 x),
where fo cos pt is the periodic force per unit mass and (ki + n 2 x) is the
force per unit mass which arises from the supports and hence, by Newton's
third law, is the force transmitted to the foundation. Show that when the
transient oscillations are negligible, the ratio of the amplitudes of these
two forces is

Hence show that the amplitude of the force transmitted to the foun-
dations is always greater than that of the exciting force if p < 21/2 n.
Show that the ratio is less than ~ if either

(i) k 2 is negligible and p > 3 1/ 2 n, or

(ii) k is equal to half the value for critical damping and p > 2.3Sn.
6.19 A particle of mass m experiences a restoring force of magnitude n 2 x per
unit mass and a resistance of magnitude ki per unit mass, where x is the
displacement. Given that x == 0, i == u when t == 0, and that k < 2n, show
that the energy dissipated by the resistance in the interval
(4n 2 _ k 2 )112 is
°,; ;
t ,;;; 2rr/

Deduce that if the kinetic energy of the particle is increased by this

amount each time x == 0, the ;notion will be periodic. If the energy is given
by a regular impulse, show that it should be of magnitude

6.20 Verify that the equation

x + n2 x == fo cos nt

has the particular integral

fo t
- sin nt.
2n
 Exercises 167

Hence obtain the solution which satisfies x =a, x=u when t = O.

Now obtain the solution of the equation

x + ki + n 2 x = fo cos nt
which satisfies the same boundary conditions. Show that the two solutions
agree in the limit k ~ O.
Sketch the solution when a = u = k = O.
(Ans.: kx =n -1 fo sin nt + e- k tl2 {ka coswt +w- 1 (ku +!k 2 a - fo)sin wt},
where w = (n 2 _ k 2/4)1/2.)
6.21 Consider forced oscillations. governed by the equation

x+kx+n2x=fo cospt,

when free oscillations are negligible. Verify from the solution that the
energy dissipated by the resisting force in one complete period is equal to
the work done by the forcing term as given by equation (6.3.10). Why
does the instantaneous rate of working of the forcing term not equal the
rate of dissipation of energy?
6.22 From the equation

show directly, without appeal to the solution, that

This result also shows that the work done by the forcing term is, on
average, equal to the dissipated energy once the motion has become
periodic, since then the right-hand side is zero if t 2 - t 1 is the periodic
time.
6.23 An oscillator satisfies the equation

Show that the solution which satisfies x = x = 0 when t = 0 is

fo (_ t sin(nt - ex»)
x=--- e q +----
n 2 + q2 sin ex '
where tan ex = n/q.
6.24 An oscillator satisfies the equation
168 Oscillations

Verify that the solution which satisfies x = x = 0 when t = 0 is

X =-
n 0
I
f. t
f(r)sin net - r)dr.

Let

t> to.
Show that the solution is then

x=
1 n
f020-cosnt),
2n

10
2
1
sin :Into sin n(t - ItO),
1
0";; t";; to,

t ~ to.

Sketch the solution for to = rr/n and for to = 2rr/n.

For to = 20/./n, where tan 0/. = n/q, show that this solution is the same as
the asymptotic solution, as t -+ 00, of Exercise 6.23. In particular note the
special case q ~ n, when to is approximately rr/n and the asymptotic
oscillation is approximately

fo cos nt
x==-

The implication of this result is that a torce which is approximately

constant and equal to fo for an interval of time of order q -1 produces the
same asymptotic oscillation as a force !fo acting over the much shorter
interval of time of order n -1 . What is the reason for this?
6.25 A light elastic string lies unstretched in a straight line on a horizontal
plane. A particle of mass m, which is initially at rest, is attached to one
end of the string and, for time t > 0, the other end moves with a velocity
V(t) away from the particle under the action of an appropriate force F(t).
The motion of the particle is resisted by a force 2mwv, where v is its speed
and w is constant. Show that if the extension of the string at time t is x,
and if the tension in the string is then 5mw 2 x,

x + 2wx + 5w 2 X == vet) + 2w V(t).

Verify that a solution can be written in the form

X == fo t
x(t - r)V(r)dr,
 Exercises 169

where XU) satisfies the equation

X+2wX+5w 2 X=0

and the initial conditions X(O) = 1, X(O) =O.

Show that the above solution also satisfies the correct boundary con-
ditions on x.
Find X(t) and hence show that, if V(t) = e- wt ,

F(t) = ~mw sin wt{sin wt+ 2 coswt}e-wt.

6.26 A particle moves in the (x, y) plane and is subject to a force w 2 (x - y)j
per unit mass. It is initially at the origin moving with velocity ui, where w
and u are constants.
Show that the path of the particle in the subsequent motion is

Show that the work done by the force field in the time interval
o ~ t ~ Tis 2u 2 sin4 (wT/2) per unit mass.
6.27 Two particles A, B, of equal mass m, rest on a smooth horizontal table and
are connected by a light spring of natural length 1 and modulus A.. Initially
AB = I, A is at rest and B is given a velocity u in the direction AB.
Let x and y be the distances moved by A and B respectively, after time
t. Write down the equations of motion and show that

x + Y = 0, x - y = -n 2 (x - y),

where n 2 = 2A./ml.
Calculate x and y as functions of t.
(Ans.: 2x = ut + un -\ sin nt, 2y = ut - un -\ sin nt.)
6.28 A light spring, of modulus A. and natural length 21, has one end fixed to a
point 0 and has particles of masses m 1, m2 suspended respectively from
its mid-point and from its other end. Show that in equilibrium the
particles are at depths

respectively, below O.
Find the equations of motion for vertical oscillations of the particles
about the equilibrium positions and show that the frequencies of the
normal modes of vibration are given by the roots of the equation
 170 Oscillations

6.29 Two simple pendulums AIBt and A 2 B 2 , each oflength I and mass m, are
suspended from two points At and A2 at the same level and at a distance a
apart. The bobs B t and B2 are connected by a light spring of modulus 'A.,
whose unstretched length is a. Show that there are particular oscillations
for which:

(i) the two pendulums are exactly in phase and oscillate with a periodic
time which is identical to that for either pendulum oscillating in-
dependently with the spring removed;
(ii) the two pendulums are exactly out of phase, so that their angular
displacements are 8 and -8 respectively, and such that the energy
equation can be written in the form
. 2g 2'A.
8 2 + - (1 - cos 8) + - sin 2 8 = w 2 ,
I ma

e
where w is the value of when 8 = O. Show that the frequency of
oscillation when 8 is small is (g/l + 2'A./ma)1/2.

The system is held at rest initially with A2 B2 vertical and At B t

displaced, in the vertical plane through At A2 , by a small angle a from the
vertical. The system is released from rest at time t = O. On a linearised
theory, show that the angular displacements 8 t and 8 2 of the two
pendulums satisfy the equations

iii = -(g/M1 + ('A/ma)(8 2 - 8 1 )

li2 = -(g/M2 - (A.jma)(8 2 - 8 d

and hence that 8 1 and 8 2 can be represented as a linear combination of

the oscillations described by (i) and (ii) above. Is this also true of the exact
non-linear oscillations?
Show that

8 I = ex. cos 01 t cos 02 t, 8 2 = a sin 01 t sin 02 t,

where 01 and 02 are constants which should be defined.

Discuss briefly the case when 'AI/mag is small.
(Ans.: 01 = (g/l + 2A./ma)1/2 + (gjl)1I2, 02 = (g/I + 2'A/ma)1/2 _ (gjl)1I2.)
6.30 Two particles, of masses m 1, m2 (m I > m2), are attached to the
ends of a string of length 21, which passes over a smooth peg at a
height I above a smooth plane. The plane is inclined at an angle a to the
vertical and the particles are held at rest on it at the point vertically
below the peg. Prove that, if the particles are released, m2 will oscillate
through a vertical distance 21m I (m 1 - m2 )(m~ sec2 a - mi) provided that
tan2 ex. > (3m1 + m2 )(ml - m2 )/m~.
6.31 A light spring is designed to exert a restoring force equal to n 2 x + vx 3
when extended a distance x. When a mass m is suspended from the spring
the equilibrium extension is a.
 Exercises 171

(i) Show that if /J > 0 any motion is oscillatory, about the equilibrium
position x = a, for all values of the total energy E. Show that if the
mass oscillates with a small amplitude, such that ~ - a I ~ a, the
oscillations are approximately simple harmonic with frequency

(ii) Show that if n 2 + 3/Ja 2 = 0, there are two positions of equilibrium, at

x = a and x = - 2a, both of which are unstable.

6.32 The one-dimensional motion of a particle is governed by the equation

where n 2 (x 2 ) is some monotonic function of x 2 which is non-zero for

x
0";; x 2 ,.;; a2 • Show that if = 0 when x = a, the motion is periodic with
periodic time

Deduce that the periodic time increases or decreases with amplitude

according as n 2 (x 2 ) decreases or increases with x 2 •
6.33 A small bead is free to slide on a smooth wire whose shape is defined by
the equation y = f(x), where y is vertically upwards and x is horizontal.
Show that there is an energy equation of the form

1 2 { 1+
~x (ddxf )2} + gf(x) = constant.
Let f(x) = II x Icx/a cx ,
where I is positive, 0: > 1 and a is the value of I x I for which x = O. Show
that the bead can perform oscillations with periodic time

81 )1/2
T = ( -; F(o:, ajl)

_ i1 (f3 2+ 0:2 eCX-2 )1/2

where F(o:, (3) - tCX d~.
o 1- <;

Deduce the following properties of F(o:, (3):

(i) F(1, (3) = 2(1 + (32 )112 ,

(ii) F(o:, 0) = 2,
 172 Oscillations

(iii) F(a, (3) = (3G(a)+ 0«(3-1) for (3 ~ 1, where G(a) decreases monotoni-
cally from 2 to 1 as a increases from 1 to 00,
(iv) F(rt;(3) ~ 2 + (3 as a ~ 00,
(v) F(2, (J) = 2yE(y-l),
where y = (1 + (32 /4)1/2 and E is the complete elliptic integral of the
second kind, namely

Verify that the empirical approximation

to F(a, (3) has the properties (i)-(iv) with G(a) approximated by (a + l)/a.
Show that the error in G(2) is less than 5% and the error in F(2, 1) is less
than 4%. (E(2/5 112 ) = 1.18.)
6.34 The one-dimensional equation of motion of a particle is

h2
X = 3+ [(x),
x

where h is a positive constant.

Show that x = a is a position of unstable equilibrium provided that

a/(a)
---=n>3.
[(a)

Show that, if n < 3, the particle can perform small oscillations about
x = a with frequency h(3 - n)1/2 la 2 .
Sketch the potential energy curve when [(x) = -1)./x 2 (I). > 0). Hence
discuss the motion of the particle qualitatively. State the condition to be
satisfied by the total energy E for oscillatory solutions to be possible, and
calculate the periodic time of these oscillations.
(Ans.: -JP 12h 2 < E < 0, 21(1)./( _2E)3/2 .)
6.35 A jet of water issues vertically upwards from a nozzle. The mass of water
issued per unit time is km and the initial speed is u. The jet strikes a ball of
mass m and the vertical velocity of the water relative to the ball is
destroyed on impact.
Show that the momentum destroyed per unit time is

km(v - X)2 lv, .

where v = (u 2 - 2gX)1/2 is the speed of the jet at a height x above the

nozzle.
 Exercises 173

Hence show that the equation for vertical motion of the ball is

Show that the ball can rest in equilibrium at a height

and that a perturbation about the equilibrium position is critically

damped.
7 Central Forces

7.1 BASIC EQUATIONS

A force field with the property that the force at every point acts along the
position vector of that point relative to an origin 0 is called a central force field.
The motion of a particle subject to a central force is of particular interest
because of its wide application to problems as diverse as the motion of the
planets and the motion of electrons. The central force most commonly found in
nature is one which varies inversely as the square of the distance from the centre
of force O. We shall begin, however, by stating the equations for an arbitrary
central force.
Let the position vector of the particle relative to 0 be r, and let the force
acting on the particle be f(r)r/r per unit mass. The equation of motion is then

.. f(r)r
r=--. (7.1.1)
r

It follows immediately that r x i = 0, from which we have

d
rxi =- (r x i) =0 (7.1.2)
dt

or r xi = hk (7.1.3 )

say, where h is a constant and k is a unit vector in a fixed direction. Because r

and r are always perpendicular to the fixed direction ofk, the motion must take
place in a fixed plane defined by the origin and the initial directions of rand i.
For a particle with position vector r and momentum mr, the vector product
r x mr is called the moment of the momentum, or the angular momentum, of
the particle. Equation (7.1.3) shows that the angular momentum mhk of a
particle subject to a central force is conserved in both magnitude and direction.
Because the direction is fixed it is not usual in this context to emphasise the
vector character, and henceforth the constant h will be referred to as the angular
momentum (per unit mass).
If the position of the particle is defined by polar coordinates (r, e) in the
plane of the motion, equation (7.1.1) has components along and perpendicular
to the radius vector given by

;: - r(P = fer), (7.1.4 )

7.1 ] Basic Equations 175

.. . 1 d -2'
r8 +2;0 =- -(,8)=0. (7.1.5)
r dt

Equation (7.1.5) implies on integration that

"'{J=h, (7.1.6)

where h is just the angular momentum as previously defined in equation (7.1.3).

Equation (7.1.6) is in fact deducible from (7.1.3) with rand r written in terms
of their components in polar coordinates, namely (r, 0) and if, ,(0).

Example 7.1.1
We show that the radius vector to the particle from the centre of force sweeps
out equal areas in equal times.
This result follows from the fact that if in time 5t 8 increases to 8 + M , the
area of the elementary triangle swept out by the radius vector is!'" 58 correct
to the first order (see Fig. 7.1.1). Accordingly, if we denote this area by 5A, we
have that

where I € I ~ 0 as lit ~ O. It follows that

dA/dt = lim fJA/fJt =!r2 d8/dt =!h, (7.1.7)

6t-+O

and so the rate of sweep of area is constant and equal to !h. This result is a
direct consequence of the conservation of angular momentum.

Figure 7.1.1 Illustration for Example 7.1.1: elementary area swept out by
radius vector.
176 Central Forces [7.2

7.2 CONSERVATNE FORCES

We have already seen in (7.1.6) that the angular momentum of a particle moving
in a central force field is constant. When the force field is conservative, the total
energy is also constant. These two conservation equations are sufficient to define
the motion completely, when combined with appropriate initial conditions. We
have also seen that a central force whose magnitude depends only on the
distance r is conservative (see Example 1.1 0.1 but note that the potential energy
is now -CPl. This covers most cases of physical interest and so we shall investigate
the motion of a particle in such a force field in more detail.
The force per unit mass can now be written as f(r)r/r, and the associated
potential energy per unit mass is

VCr) =- I r f(r)r . dr
r =-
I f(r) dr,
r
(7.2.1 )

where the lower limit of the integral can be chosen to be any convenient level of
zero potential energy and

r. dr = d(h . r) = d(!r2) = r dr

has been used. The energy equation is

!v 2 + V(r)=E, (7.2.2)

where E is the total energy per unit mass. Since the speed of the particle in polar
coordinates is such that v2 =;-2 +r2(j2 we have, with the help of (7.1.6), (7.2.1)
and (7.2.2),

y2 + U(r) =E, (7.2.3 )

where
h2
2,
h2
U(r) = --::2 + VCr) = - 2
2r
-I r
fer) dr. (7.2 .4)

It is a straightforward matter to check that differentiation of (7.2.3) with

respect to the time gives

h2
;= ? + fer), (7.2.5)

which is equivalent to (7.1.4) withf(r) replaced by fer) and with (j eliminated

with the help of (7.1.6).
Since

dr _ o· -
-- dr_ h dr
--- (7.2.6)
dt de r2 de
7.21 Conservative Forces 177

we can eliminate t in favour of 0 as the independent variable in (7.2.3), provided

that the trajectory is not one-dimensional with 0 = constant and h = O. This gives

-h
2r4
Z
(dr)2
-
dO
+ U(r)=E. (7.2.7)

In principle, equation (7.2.7) can be integrated to give directly the equation of

the trajectory in polar coordinates.
Comparison of (7.2.3), with (6.5.1) shows that it is analogous to the energy
equation for the one-dimensional motion of a particle subject to a conservative
force, with the radial coordinate r replacing the one-dimensional coordinate x,
and with an effective potential energy

h2
U(r) = 2r2 + V(r).

Note that the contribution h 2 /2r 2 to U(r) arises from an effective force h 2/r3 .
This is simply the term r8 2 , with 8 replaced by h/r2, transferred to the
right-hand side of equation (7.1.4) and treated as a contribution to the force
instead of to the acceleration, as in (7.2.5). When it is interpreted in this fashion
the term ,02 is called a centrifugal force. The motivation is that f can then be
regarded as the effective acceleration, in direct analogy with a one-dimensional
problem, and the arguments used to investigate the associated energy equation
(6.5.1) in the one-dimensional problem are also applicable to (7.2.3).
,2
The motion is restricted to values of r for which U(r) ~ E, since cannot be
negative. When U(r) = E, , (and dr/dO) is zero so that r has a stationary value and
the particle is moving perpendicular to the radius vector. A point on the
trajectory of the particle for which r has a stationary value is called an apse. The
direction of r there is called the apse line and r is the apsidal distance.
When U(r) is such that

!;2 =E - U(r) =(r - b )(a - r)l/I(r), (7.2.8)

where b < a and I/I(r) is strictly positive and single valued in the range b ~ r ~ a,
there is a solution in which r is confmed to the range b ~ r ~ a (see equation
(6.5.3)). There are just two apsidal distances, namely r = b, r = a, and r oscillates
between these two values. The trajectory of the particle is in fact deducible from
its behaviour in one of the intervals b ~ r ~ a. This is illustrated in Figure 7.2.1,
where B1 , A1 , B2 , Az , represent adjacent apses.
The situation can also be discussed using a more physical approach. Since the
force is always directed towards the origin, and is always the same at the same
distance, it follows that if at an apse the velocity of a particle were reversed, it
would retrace its previous path. It also follows that the path is symmetrical
about an apse line. Thus if adjacent apses on either side of OA 1 are B1 and B2 ,
we must have OB 1 = OB 2 . Similarly if A2 is the next apse beyond B2 , then
178 Central Forces [7.2

Figure 7.2.1 Apses and apse lines.

OAt =OA2 , and the trajectory can be built up by continual reflection about an
apse line.
The angle between two adjacent apse lines is called the apsidal angle and is
given by the expression

whi(.•• follows from (7.2.7).

By way of illustration, Figure 7.2.2 shows the variation with r of

h2 JJ.
U(r)=- - -.
2r'2 r

This is the effective potential for the inverse square law, with f(r) =-JJ./r2 . For
the energy l~vel Eo and JJ. > 0 in Figure 7.2.2, the motion is circular with radius
ro. This i~ thl3 minimum energy level for which motion is possible. For E =E t
and JJ. >- 0, tho trajectory is bounded and r lies between r =rl and r =r;. In fact
we shall !lee later that the apsidal angle is 1T and that there are just two apses. For
=
E II" the motion is restricted to r ~ r2 (JJ. ~ 0) or r ~ r; (JJ. < 0). There is only
one apse and the trajectory is unbounded.
The inverse square law is appropriate for the determination of the motion of
the planets round the sun. The apses are then called the perihelion, where r is a
minimum, and the aphelion, where r is a maximum. The corresponding points
for orbits relative to the earth as the centre of force are called the perigee and
the apogee.
7.3] Circular Orbits and Stability 179

7.3 CIRCULAR ORBITS AND STABIUTY

We continue the analogy with the one-dimensional problem with a discussion of

the possibility of circular orbits and their stability.
In the one-dimensional motion of a particle subject to a conservative force, a
point of equilibrium, where x is constant, corresponds to a stationary value of
the potential. In the present context, the constant values of r for which U(r) has
a stationary value are the radii of possible circular orbits. For example

h 2 f.1
U(r)=- - -
2r2 r

has a stationary value when r =ro =h2 /f.1. If

E = Eo = U(ro) = _f.12 /2h 2 ,
then a circular orbit is possible with radius ro (see Fig. 7.2.2).

U(r)

Figure 7.2.2 Variation of the function

h2 f.1
U(r) = 2r2 --;.
180 Central Forces [7.3

In the more general case, with U(r) given by (7.2.4), a circular orbit with
radius ro is possible if

(7.3.1 )

The result also follows directly from the original equations of motion. In the
first place equation (7.1.6) shows that

ti =h/r5 =w
say, where w is the constant angular speed with which the orbit is traversed.
Then (7.1.4), with f = 0, gives

(7.3.2)

in agreement with (7.3.1). It follows thatf(ro) must be negative so that the force
is one of attraction.
According to the general theory of §6.5, a perturbation of such a solution
will be oscillatory if U(ro) is a minimum and unstable otherwise. Thus to avoid
instability we must have

2
U /I (ro) = 3h ')
4""' -f(ro =w 2(3-n»0, (7.3.3)
ro

rof'(ro)
where n=- . (7.3 .4)
f(ro)

If n < 3, a small perturbation on the circular orbit r = ro will consist of a term

which oscillates with frequency

(7.3.5)

r
Hence, if at some particular time in the perturbed orbit = 0, it will also be zero
at a time n/{w(3 _ny/2} later. During this time the radius vector will travel
through an angle n/(3 - ny/2, since the angular speed is approximately w. This
is the apsidal angle for the perturbed orbit.
The critical case n = 3 requires a more accurate analysis, but will be oscil-
latory if U(r) has a minimum at ro.
For an inverse square law of attraction, with f(r) = -IJ./r2 ,we have n = 2 and
an apsidal angle of n. It is fortunate that this is stable, since it is the law of
attraction between the sun and the earth, whose orbit round the sun can be
regarded as a small perturbation of a circular orbit.
7.3) Circular Orbits and Stability 181

Example 7.3.1
A particle of mass ml moves on a smooth horizontal table. It is attached to a
light, inextensible string which passes through a small hole in the table and
carries a mass m2 hanging vertically.
Let r be the distance of m 1 from the hole, and let 8 be the angular
displacement of the horizontal part of the string. During the motion of the
system, there is no work done by the tension in the string (see Example 5.3.1).
The only force which does work on the system is the gravitational force acting
on m2, and this is conservative. The two conservation laws for the system as a
whole are

where mlh is the constant angular momentum of mi. Elimination of {j leads to

the equation

V 2 + U(r)=E, (7.3.6)

where (7.3.7)

/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
U(r) /
/
/
/

/
/ "
/
/
/
/

/
/ ""
ro
r
Figure 7.3.1 Illustration for Example 7.3.1: variation of the function

[]I( r)
_1
- 2
ml h2
2
+ m2
gr.
m1 + m2 r ml + m2
182 Central Forces [7.3

Figure 7.3.1 shows the variation of U(r) with r. There is one stationary value,
when r = ro, given by

It follows that for the particle ml to move in a circular orbit of a given radius ro,
it must be given an angular momentum h which satisfies the relation

(7.3.8)

which is equivalent to a constant angular speed

(7.3 .9)

Since

is essentially positive, a perturbation of this circular orbit will consist of a

superimposed oscillation with frequency

In fact it is clear from Figure 7.3.1 that all possible orbits are bounded and will
lie between the two circles whose radii are the two appropriate apsidal distances.
Suppose that ml is in a circular orbit and its velocity is increased in
magnitude by a factor k without change of direction. The effect of this on the
energy equation for the subsequent motion will be to change the angular
momentum from h to kh. When this change is made in (7.3.7) and the result
substituted in (7.3.6), the energy equation becomes

since i = 0 when r = ro. Thus r = ro is an apsidal distance for the subsequent

orbit. If there is another apsidal distance it will satisfy the equation

or (7.3.10)

where the relation (7.3.8) has been used.

7.4 ] Elliptic Harmonic Motion 183

Apart from the root r = ro, equation (7.3.1D) has one other positive solution
for r given by

and this is the second apsidal distance.

7.4 ELUPTIC HARMONIC MOTION

When Ar) = -n 2 r, where n is a positive constant, the equation of motion (7.1.1)

becomes

(7.4.1)

Each component of this equation is of the form (6.1.1) with a corresponding

solution of the form (6.1.5). When the solutions for the components are
recombined into a single vector, the result is a solution of (7 .4.1) of the form

r = a cos nt + b sin nt, (7.4.2)

where a and b are constant vectors. In terms of a and b, the energy and angular
momentum are, from (7.2.3) and (7.1.3),

(7.4.3)

r
h = 1r x 1= n 1a x b I. (7.4.4)

We proceed to show that the particle describes an elliptic orbit. Let rm be the
maximum value of r, and let the origin of time be chosen so that r = rm when
t = D. Define the cartesian axes Ox in the direction rm and Oy perpendicular to
rm in the initial direction of r. Because of the choice of axes these initial
conditions are that

r =(x, D, D), i =(D,P, D) (7.4.5)

when t = D. Thus a=(a,D,D), b=(D,b,D) (7.4.6)

and so x = a cos nt, y = b sin nt. (7.4.7)

Elimination of t from relations (7.4.7) gives the equation

(7.4.8)
184 Central Forces [7.4

which represents an ellipse with semi-axes of lengths a, b and centre at the

origin. The ellipse is traversed in the periodic time 21T In.

Example 7.4.1. The Spherical Pendulum

In Example 6.5.1 we considered the simple pendulum whose motion is
constrained to lie in a vertical plane. With a spherical pendulum, the only
constraint is that the position vector I of the bob relative to the point of
suspension has constant magnitude; in other words the bob moves on the surface
of a sphere. The equation of motion is

dr =mg- z '
d2 1 T1
m (7.4.9)

where Tis the tension (see Fig. 7.4.1).

Let I have components z vertically and r horizontally. The components of
(7.4.9) then give

(7.4.10)

(7.4.11)

If e is the inclination of the pendulum to the vertical, we have z = 1 cos e, which

is constant to first order if e is small. Thus for small oscillations (7.4.1 0) gives

I
I
I
I
z+
I
I
I
I
IL ___ • __ _
r

mg

Figure 7.4.1 Illustration for Example 7.4.1: notation for the spherical
pendulum.
7.51 The Inverse Square Law 185

T = mg and then (7.4.11) becomes

d2 r gr
dt 2 = - I

correct to first order. This represents elliptic harmonic motion with period
21T(I/g)1 /2 .

7.5 THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW

The theory of motion under a central force was originally developed by Newton
as a consequence of his law of gravitation, which states that the force on a
particle P1, of mass m1 and position vector r1, arising from the attraction
between P1 and a second particle P2 , of mass m2 and position vector r2, is

Gmlm2(r2 -r1)
1 r2 - r1 13

where

and is called the gravitational constant. There is an equal and opposite force
acting on P2 •
This is the source of the earth's gravitational attraction, but has a much wider
application including, for example, the motion of the planetary system. Since G
is small in magnitude, the force is appreciable only when large masses, such as
the stars and planets, or small distances are involved. Although the law is stated
here for the attraction between particles, it can be shown that spherically
symmetrical distributions of mass attract in the same way as particles of similar
mass at their centres. This is a good approximation for the planets.
One of Newton's earliest calculations in this connection was concerned with
the attractive force of the earth for the moon. Let re be the radius of the earth
and let d be the distance of the centre of the moon from the centre of the earth.
According to the inverse square law, the force of attraction at the moon is
g(re/d)2 per unit mass, where g is the force per unit mass at the surface of the
earth. From equation (7.3.2), with f(d) = -g(re/d)2, it can be seen that the
moon will describe a circle of radius d around the earth if

where w is the angular speed of the moon in its orbit and is equal to 21T /T, where
T is the perio die time. Hence
186 Central Forces [7.5

The quantity sin -1 (rjd) is called the moon's horizontal parallax and is known
from observation, as indeed are all the other quantities in the above relation.
This calculation provided one of the first tests of the law of gravitation.
Subsequent work in astronomy and in the dynamics of satellites has abundantly
confirmed the accuracy of the law in these fields.
The inverse square law also governs the attraction between electrically and
magnetically charged particles, and can be either an attraction or a repulsion
depending on the sign of the charges. One of the important applications here is
to the motion of an electron in an electromagnetic field, for example in its orbit
around the nucleus of an atom. Strictly speaking, the latter problem requires the
theory of quantum mechanics for its complete formulation, although Bohr's
original calculation of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom was based
substantially on the classical theory.
The polar equation of the orbit for a general law of force may be obtained
from the integral of equation (7.2.7). It so happens that there is an elementary
integral for the inverse square law. We put f(r) = -Jljr2 , so that Jl is positive for
an attractive force, and for the moment we restrict the analysis to Jl> O. It is
convenient to take the zero level for the potential energy at infmity and define

VCr) = f ""fer) dr = roo - 2rJl dr =- -Jlr .

r • r
(7.5.1)

Equation (7.2.7) then becomes, with the help of (7.2.4) and (7.5.1),

(7.5.2)

Equation (7.5.2) is simplified by the substitution u = l/r, which gives

du 1 dr
-=-
dO r2 dO

so that equation (7.5.2) can be written

or, equivalently,

(7.5.3)

Equation (7.5.3) can now be compared with the energy equation (6.1.2) for
simple harmonic motion. In fact the transformations
7.5] The Inverse Square Law 187

(7.5 .4)

change (7.5.3) into (6.1.2) with n=1 and amplitude (1 +2h2E/J1?)1/2. The
solution of (7.5.3) is therefore deducible from (6.1.4) as

h2 u h 2
-=-=1+ ( 1
J.l f.1.T
+7
2h2E)1I2
cos (0 + a). (7.5.5)

Equation (7.5.5) is the polar equation of a conic section (ellipse, para-

bola, hyperbola) with a focus as the origin of coordinates, and we proceed to
classify the various possibilities.

Elliptic Orbit (-11 2 /2h2 <E < 0, 11 > 0)

Although the kinetic energy is essentially non-negative, it follows from (7.5.1)
that the potential energy is everywhere negative for an inverse square law of
attraction. Therefore it is possible for the total energy E to be negative when
11 > O. If, however, equation (7.5.3) is to have a physical interpretation it is clear
that 1 + 2h2 E/1l2 cannot be negative. Equation (7.5 .3), or more directly (7.5 .5),
also shows that the special case E = -1l2 /2h 2 corresponds to a circular orbit with
radius r = h 2 /1l. This is the energy level denoted by Eo in Figure 7.2.2.
More generally, for an energy level such as E 1 in Figure 7.2.2, equation
(7.5.5) is usually written in the form

l/r = 1 + e cos e, (7.5.6)

where (7.5 .7)

2h2E)1I2
e= ( 1 + - - <1 (7.5.8)
112

and the polar axis is chosen so that dr/dO is a minimum there, hence a = O.
An alternative form of the equation can be obtained using cartesian co-
ordinates x = r cos e ,y = r sin 0 , so that (7.5.6) gives

When the terms in this equation are appropriately rearranged, the result is

(x + ae)2 y2
2 +2=1, (7.5.9)
a b
188 Central Forces [7.5

c x

Figure 7.5.1 Elliptic orbit: 0 is the centre of force.

where (7.5.10)

_ I _ 2 1/2 _ h
b - (1 __ e2 )1/2 - a(1 - e) - (_2EY 12 • (7.5.11)

Equation (7.5.9) is the cartesian equation for an ellipse with centre at x = -ae,
y = 0, semi-major axis a, semi-minor axis b, eccentricity e and semi-latus rectum I
(see Fig. 7.5.1).
For an ellipse, the energy equation in its original form

(7.5 .12)

simplifies to (7.5.13)

with the substitution for VCr) and E from relations (7.5.1) and (7.5.10) respec-
tively. This is a useful relation giving the speed in terms of the distance from the
centre. It shows that the speed is always less than (2IJ./r)1/2 in an elliptic orbit.
For the circular orbit r = a the result

(7.5.14)

is recovered. It is equivalent to (7.3.2) with the substitutions f(a) = -IJ./a 2 and

w = vIa.
Equation (7.1.7) offers a convenient way of calculating the time to traverse
7.5] The Inverse Square Law 189

any part of the orbit, a calculation which is of interest in astronomy. If A is the

area traversed by the radius vector, the time of traverse is 2A/h. In particular
the periodic time T of a particle in an elliptic orbit is the time taken to traverse the
area of the ellipse, which is nab, at the uniform rate ~h. Hence, with the help of
(7.s .10) and (7.5.11),

(7.5.15)

For a given central force, the periodic time in an elliptic orbit varies as the 3/2
power of the major axis. This is a result which has been checked with consider-
able accuracy for the planetary system.
At the surface of the earth P./T~ = g, where Te is the radius of the earth. It
follows that for a particle to travel in a circular orbit just above the earth's
surface requires a speed slightly less than

if resistance is neglected. With

this gives

The periodic time is

T = 2n(re/g) 1 12 =5063 s =84 min.

The periodic time of artificial satellites in orbit around the earth is larger than
this because they must be at a height greater than 105 m above the earth's
surface in order to escape the resisting effect of the earth's atmosphere. A
satellite in a circular orbit of radius a = 7 ·37 X 10 6 m for example is at a height
of l0 6 m and well beyond the atmosphere. The periodic time is

2na 3/2 211: 3/2

T =---m- =~ = 105 min.
p. g Te

Parabolic Orbit (E = 0, p. > 0)

For a parabolic orbit, p. > 0 and e = 1. Equation (7.5.5) gives, for the polar
equation of the orbit,

liT = 1 + cos e. (7.5.16)

190 Central Forces [7.5

Figure 7.5.2 Parabolic orbit: 0 is the centre of force.

In cartesian coordinates this becomes

y2 = 21(!1 - x), (7.5 .17)

which represents a parabola with latus rectum I and vertex at the point x = 1/2,
Y =0 (see Fig. 7.5.2).
Equation (7.5.12) simplifies to

v2 = 2/1/r. (7.5.18)

In this orbit a particle will eventually recede to infinity, but with its kinetic
energy and potential energy both tending to zero. Thus for a given initial value
of r, (2/1/r)I/2 represents the minimum initial value of the speed required if the
particle is to escape to infinity. This is just 21/2 times the speed required for a
circular orbit at the same radial distance.
From the surface of the earth the escape speed is

It is independent of the angle of projection. For a starting speed greater than

this, the total energy will be positive, and so the kinetic energy when the particle
reaches infinity will also be positive. The orbit in this case is a hyperbola whose
properties are described below.
7.5] The Inverse Square Law 191

Hyperbolic Orbit (E> 0, /.1. ~ 0)

When E > 0, so that e = (1 + 2h2 EI/.1.2) > 1, the equation

llr= 1 +e cosO

represents a hyperbola. We also note that when /.1. < 0, so that the force is one of
repulsion, we must have E> 0 because the kinetic energy !mv2 cannot be
negative and the potential energy V = -/.1./r is now positive. It is convenient to
treat the cases E > 0, /.1. ~ 0 together.
For p. < 0 we have an inverse square law of repulsion. We write the energy
equation (7.5.2) in the form

and the associated equation (7.5.3) becomes

-+1 )}2 + (h-+1

{ -d (h2U 2U)2 =1+--
2h 2E (7.5.19)
dO 1/.1.1 1/.1.1 p.2 ,

where u = 1Ir. If the definition of I in (7.5.7) is generalised to

(7.5.20)

the solution of (7.5.19) is

l/r = -1 + e cos 0

with a suitable choice of polar axis. The orbits are therefore given by

llr = ±1 + e cos 0 (7.5.21 )

with the positive sign for p. > 0 and the negative sign for /.1. < O.
Relations (7.5 .21) represent the two branches of the same hyperbola. In
terms of cartesian coordinates x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0, (7.5.21) becomes

(7.5.22)

I I p. I
where a=--=- (7.5.23)
2 e - 1 2E'

_ I _ 2 112 _ h
b - (e 2 _ 1)112 - aCe - 1) - (2E)1/2 . (7.5.24)
192 Central Forces [7.5

/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/'

Figure 7.5.3 Hyperbolic orbits for Jl> 0 and Jl < 0: 0 is the centre of force.

Equation (7.5.22) represents a hyperbola with its centre C at x = ae, y =0 and

asymptotesy = ±b(x - ae )/a (see Fig. 7.5.3). For the hyperbolic orbit the energy
equation (7.5 .12) gives, with the help of (7.5.23),

(7.5.25)

It is clear from Figure 7.5.3 that a particle corning in from infinity along one
asymptote and receding to infinity along the other is ultimately deflected
through an angle 2 tan -1 alb. In terms of the speed at infinity, which is

v~ = I Jl lIa (7.5.26)

from (7.5 .25), this angle of deflection is

(7.5 .27)

Relation (7.5.27) is important in the study of the scattering of interacting

atomic particles, where it is not possible to follow the trajectory of an individual
particle. What can be measured is the number of particles that are scattered
between angles X and X + dX. In such experiments an initially uniform parallel
beam of particles impinges on the scattering centre and the particles are scat-
7.S] The Inverse Square Law 193

Figure 7.5.4 Scattering of neighbouring particles in a uniform incident beam.

tered through different angles X depending on the distance b of their initial line
of approach from the scattering centre (see Fig. 7.5.4); b is called the impact
parameter. The number dN of particles scattered between angles X and X + dX
will be proportional to the flux n of particles in the incident uniform beam, that
is the number of particles crossing unit area normal to the beam in unit time.
Hence we write dN = ndo, where do has the dimensions of area and is called the
effective scattering cross-section. It is determined by the nature of the scattering
process and is an important characteristic of that process. We assume that the
scattering process is symmetrical about an axis through the scattering centre
parallel to the incoming beam, as is the case for a fixed central force field. We
also assume that the particles which are scattered through angles between X and
X + dX are those which originated with impact parameters between b and b + db
(see Fig. 7.5.4). Since the flux of particles across a ring of thickness 1 db 1 normal
to the incident beam is n2rrb 1db I, it follows that

do = 2rrbl db I,

where the modulus sign is used to ensure that do is positive even when db is
negative, as it is in Figure 7.5.4. In order to obtain the dependence of 0 on X, we
regard dX as a positive increment in X and write

do = 2rrb I:~ I dX· (7.5.28)

This is the desired relation in general terms, and is valid for any law of scatter.
The precise form of (7.5.28) depends on the details of the scattering process,
which determine the variation of b with X. For the inverse square law (both
194 Central Forces [7.5

attractive and repulsive) this is given by (7.5 .27) namely

III I
b =--coth
v~

from which (7.5.29)

The result shows that da has a rriarked variation with the scattering angle X,
and this can be checked experimentally from an observation of the flux
dN = nda. In his investigation of atomic structure, Rutherford bombarded atoms
with a-particles. On the assumption that the force between the positive charge of
an a-particle and the positive charge inside the atom varies according to an
inverse square law of repulsion, the experimental observations should agree with
(7.5.29) for the effective scattering cross-section. We expect the assumption to
be valid provided that the charges can be treated as point charges. But if positive
charge were distributed throughout the volume of the atom, a deviation' from
(7.5.29) would be expected for those a-particles which penetrated the atom.
Rutherford obtained agreement between theory and experiment provided that
the distance of closest approach was larger than 10 -14 m and so concluded that
the positive charge was concentrated within such a radius. This was the origin of
the nuclear theory of the atom.
The above calculation leading to (7.5 .29) assumes a fIxed centre of force and
so is applicable only when the nucleus of the atom is much heavier than the
~-particle. The modification required when the masses are comparable will be
discussed in Example 8.3.4. The a-particles will also be deflected by the negative
electrons, but the mass of the electron is relatively very small and the deflection
is consequently insignifIcant (see Example 8.3.4).
Finally it should be noted that the interaction of an a-particle with an atomic
nucleus is strictly a problem of quantum mechanics, where the concept of a
definite particle with a defmite trajectory is not appropriate. On the other hand,
the concept of a scattering cross-section for a scattered beam of particles is
appropriate in quantum mechanics, and (7.5 .29) does in fact remain valid.

Summary
For reference purposes we end this section with a summary of the formulae
involved in the study of orbits governed by the inverse square law. The number-
ing of the equations agrees with that used in the body of the chapter.
The eccentricity e and the semi-latus rectum 1are

2h2E)112
e= ( 1+-2- , (7.5.8)
Il

(7.5.20)
7.5] The Inverse Square Law 195

The polar equation of the orbit is

I/r= ±1 +e cos e, (7.5.21)

with the positive sign for J.1 > 0 and the negative sign for J.1 < O.

Elliptic Orbit

(7.5 .9)

!v 2 - J.1/r = E = -J.1/2a, (7.5.12)

T = 2rrab = 21TJ.1 21Ta 3/2

(7.5 .15)
h ( - 2E)3 12 - J.1112 '

(7.5.10)

(7.5.11 )

Parabolic Orbit

(7.5 .l7)

(7.5.18)

Hyperbolic Orbit

(7.5.22)

tu 2 - J.1/r =E = I J.11/2a, (7.5 .25)

I I J.1 I
a=--=- (7.5.23)
e 2 - 1 2E'

_ I _ 2 1/2 _ h
b-(e2_1)1/2-a(e -1) -(2E)1I2' (7.5.24)

Example 7.5.1
In the following example the earth is regarded as a sphere of radius re and the
196 Central Forces [7.5

rotation of the earth about its axis is neglected. The resisting effect of the
atmosphere is also neglected.

(i) A particle is projected from the surface of the earth with speed Ve at an
angle (j to the vertical. Show that the maximum range is 2rea m , where
sin am =KI(2 -K) and K = v~/gre < 1. Show that the maximum range is
attained when tan {j = (1 - K) -1/2.

(ii) If at its maximum height the speed is increased so as to put the particle into
circular orbit, what is the additional speed required?

Figure 7.5.5 Illustration for Example 7.5.1: trajectory of a particle fired

from the surface of the earth.

(i) The trajectory of the particle is an ellipse. The centre of the earth is the
centre of attraction O. The maximum height is achieved at the apse which is
furthest from 0 (the apogee, see Fig. 7.5 .5).
It is convenient to take the polar axis along the radius vector from the
centre of the earth to the apogee. The equation of the trajectory is then

I/r= 1 - e cos e.

Since the orbit is symmetrical about the apogee, the range is 2re a, where () = a
when r = re (see Fig. 7.5.5). The maximum range is 2re a m , where am is the
maximum value of a as a function of {j. The equation of the trajectory gives

lire = 1- e cos a, (7.5 .30)

and to find the maximum value of a we must determine the parameters I

and e as functions of {j.
We first determine the constants Il, h,E which characterise the motion.
Since the law of attraction is of the form Illr2 per unit mass, we have
7.51 The Inverse Square Law 197

J.l./,~ = g, the gravitational acceleration, and this serves to determine J.l. = gr~.
The angular momentum h and the total energy E are determined by the
initial conditions, which give

h =Ir x r I =reVe sin (3, E = !v~ - J.l./re = !v~ - gre'

Equations (7.5 .7) and (7.5.8) then give

These relations are now substituted in (7.5 .30). The result is

1 - K sin 2 {3
cos a = {l _ K(2 _ K)sin2 (3}/2 '

whence

K tan (3 K ~
tan a = ------'----,-
1 + {1 - K)tan 2 (3 (l_K)1/21+e'

where ~ = (1 - K)1/2 tan (3. Now the maximum value of ~/(1 + ~2) is !,
attained when ~ = 1. It follows that

K . K
tan am = 2{1-K)112 or sma =--
m 2-K

and that the maximum range is attained when (1 - K)1/2 tan {3 = 1.

The above discussion is appropriate for 0 < K < 1. If 1 < K < 2 all
points on the earth's surface are attainable, since a can take all values
between 0 and n/2. The value a = n/2 is attained when tan (3 =
±(K - 1) -1/2. The degenerate case K = 1, (3 = n /2 is the condition for a
circular orbit of radius reo If K ~ 2 the particle will not move in a bounded
trajectory but will escape from the earth's gravitational attraction, for then
v~ >J.l.'e.

(li) Now let us consider the problem of putting the particle into circular orbit
'a
upon reaching the apogee. The radial coordinate there is given by

'a =l/{1-e)
198 Central Forces [7.5

from the equation of the trajectory with (J = O. The speed Va is given by

or 2_2
Va - Ve - 2gre
( I-e)
I - K sin2 (3 •

The speed Vo required for a circular orbit of radius'a is given by

2 J1 gre(1 - e)
=-=
'a
Vo
K sin2 {3

Since e has already been found to be {I - K(2 - K)sin 2 {3} 1 /2 , both Va and
Vo can be determined in terms of the initial conditions. The difference
Vo - Va is the additional speed required to boost the particle into circular
orbit.

Example 7.5.2
Two satellites, SI and S2, are describing circular orbits in the same plane, of
radii '1and '2 (> ,d, around a fixed centre of force O. Let us consider the
manoeuvre required to effect a rendezvous by bo~sting the velocity of SI . The
most effective way to do this is to increase the velocity of SI without change of
direction so as to put SI into an elliptic orbit whose apsidal distances are'l and
'2 (see Fig. 7.5 .6).
The orbit required will have the equation

1/, = I + e cos (J
where 1/'1 = I + e, 1/'2 = I - e

or '2 -'1
e=--
'2 +'1

This defmes the orbit. The speed in the elliptic orbit at (J = 0 is given by

Hence the increase in speed for the required elliptic orbit is

V (E)lf2 = (E)lf2 {(~)lf2 -I}

e-
'1 '1 '1 + '2
The time taken to arrive at the orbit of S2 is one half of the periodic time in
7.6] Kepler's Laws 199

Figure 7.5.6 Illustration for Example 7.5.2: rendezvous of two satellites in

circular orbit.

elliptic orbit, that is

Since 82 has angular speed (p./,D 1 / 2 , in this time it will have travelled an angular
distance

~ ('1 + '2 )3/2

p.1/2 2
(E. )112 =
,~
1r (rl + '2 )312
2r2

In order to effect a rendezvous, 8 1 should be fired into orbit when 82 is in

advance of SI by an angular distance

7.6 KEPLER'S LAWS

At the beginning of the seventeenth century, and sixty years before Newton
postulated his theory of gravitation, Kepler had enunciated the following three
laws, which he deduced empirically from the extensive series of observations of
Tycho Brahe:

(i) The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet describes equal areas in
equal times.
200 Central Forces [7.6

(li) Each planet describes an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
(iii) The squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the
cubes of the major axes of their paths.

From these three laws it may be deduced that the law of attraction between
the sun and the planets is a central force of attraction inversely proportional to
the square of the distance. For the first law implies, by (7.1.7), that r2 is e
constant. By (7.1.5) this implies that the force is a central force, since the
transverse acceleration is zero.
The second law states that the path of the planet has a polar equation of the
form

llr = 1 + e cos O.

Hence, since d/dt = iJ d/dO, we have

Substitution in (7.1.4) gives

At this stage we have deduced that for each planet the force varies inversely
as the square of the distance, but so far we have only shown that 11 is a constant
for a particular planet. The third law now shows that 11 is the same constant for
all planets since, by (7.5 .15),

and, by the third law, rl/T2 is the same for all planets.
"In point of fact, accurate observation indicates a small discrepancy in
Kepler's third law. This has a simple theoretical explanation in that gravity is
both a mutual and a universal force, and the model of a planet subjected to a
single force arising from the sun as a fixed centre is oversimplified. Consider the
mutual force between the sun, of mass m s , and a planet, of mass mp. The law of
gravitation implies that the planet is subjected to an acceleration Gms/r2.
However, since the force between sun and planet is a mutual one, the sun is
subjected to an acceleration Gmp/yl . Thus the acceleration of the planet relative
to the sun is G(ms + mp)jr2. The constant of proportionality, 11, is therefore
effectively G(ms + mp) instead of Gm s, and is hence in error by a factor
(1 + mp/ms) when calculated on the assumption of a fixed centre of force. One
7_61 Kepler's Laws 201

effect of this correction is to change the periodic time to

21ra3/2
T=------
/-L 1I2 (1 + mp/ms)1I2

and the constant of proportionality is now different for different planets_ The
ratio of mp/ms is, however, very small as can be seen by reference to Table 7 _6_1,
which summarises some of the more important data concerning the planets_ Its
largest value, for Jupiter, is 10- 3 _ For the earth it is 3 X 10-6 _
Of the information summarised in Table 7 _6_1, the periods of revolution and
periods of rotation are obtained by telescopic and radar observation_ The length
of the orbital axis is then deduced from Kepler's third law, which states that

T~ /T~ = a~ /a~ _

The eccentricity of the earth's orbit can be deduced from the fact that the
distance to the sun is inversely proportional to the sun's apparent diameter_

Table 7_6_1 Planetary data_

Sidereal
Sidereal period Semi-
period ofrevolu- major
Mean of axial tion about axis of Eccen-
Mass radius rotation the sun orbit tricity

lED = 1 -$ =1 days years ED = 1

Sun 0 332 x 10 3 109-20 25-37
Mercury ~ 0-055 0-38 59 ± 5 0-241 0-387 0-206
Venus ~ 0-815 0-96 247 ± 5 0-615 0-723 0-007
Earth ED 1 1 0-997 1 1 0-017
Mars <5 0-108 0-53 1-03 1-88 1-524 0-093
Jupiter 14- 318-4 10-97 0-41 11-86 5-202 0-048
Saturn h 95-3 9-06 0-43 29-46 9-539 0-056
Uranus W 14-5 3-62 0'45 84'01 19:182 0'047
Neptune W 17'2 3-52 0·66 164·8 30·057 0·009
Pluto ~ 0'14 0·47 0·28 250·6 39·520 0-250

1024 kg km days days 106 km

Earth ED 5·976 6370 0-997 365-26 149·6 0-017
Moon <r 0·0735 1738 27·32 27-32 0·384 0·055

Notes
1. The earth is used as the unit, but note that the sidereal period of axial rotation is relative
to the fixed stars. For the earth this is 365/366 times the apparent period relative to the
sun (1 day). The difference arises from the motion of the earth around the sun_
2. The last two rows give, for comparison, data for the earth and moon in metric units_
Data for the moon refer to its orbit about the earth_
202 Central Forces [7.7

From the geometry of the ellipse (Fig. 7.5.1) the maximum and rmmmum
distances to the sun are in the ratio (1 + e)/(I - e). This is equated to the ratio
of the maximum and minimum apparent diameters of the sun. The same
principle holds for the other planets, but the calculations are more elaborate.
If a planet has a satellite, the mass of the planet relative to that of the sun can
be calculated from observations of the period of revolution of the planet round
the sun, and the satellite round the planet. For example, if the suffix m refers to
the orbit of the moon round the earth (of mass me) and the suffix e refers to the
orbit of the earth round the sun (of mass 11Is) we have, from (7.5.15) with
11= Gm,

and so

If am/a e and TmiTe are known from observation, this relation will serve to
determine the ratio me/ms'
To determine the mass of a planet in terrestrial units requires a know-
ledge of G, and this in turn is only determinable from an experiment in-
volving known masses. The most recent of such experiments gives the value
6'67 x 10- 11 m3 kg- 1 S-2.

7.7 THE EFFECT OF RESISTANCE

In the discussion so far the effect of resistance on orbits has been neglected. This
is quite legitimate in the case of a planet moving round the sun. However air
resistance will have a modifying effect near the surface of the earth, for example.
Compared with the radius of the earth, the surrounding atmosphere is only a
thin layer. At an altitude of 100 km above sea level the density of the atmos-
phere is reduced by a factor of 10-8 compared with its value at sea level.
Weather satellites, which are in circular orbits higher than this, are moving in a
vacuum for all practical purposes and resistance is negligible.
As a first example of the effect of resistance, we consider a satellite whose
elliptic orbit round the earth lies outside the earth's atmosphere except for a
small portion near the point of closest approach (the perigee) as in Figure 7.7.1.
Since the resistive effect acts over a relatively short interval, we idealise the
resistive force into an impulse, applied at the perigee along the line of flight. This
will not affect the position of the perigee, since the impulse will not alter the
radial distance rp and the velocity of the satellite will still be perpendicular to
the radius vector after the impUlse. But the speed vp at the perigee will be
changed by a small amount SVp. There will be a corresponding change Sa in a,
the semi-major axis ofthe orbit. Thus, by (7.5.13),
7.7] The Effect of Resistance 203

., ., .... -
I
/ '"
I

,
f
, allTlO!>pherc

\
\
,
" "- ,
' ....
--
Figure 7.7.1 Satellite in orbit round the earth.

(7.7.1 )

before the impulse, and

(v + OV )2 = JJ. (~ _ _
P P TPa + oa
1_) (7.7.2)

after the impulse. Subtraction of (7.7.1) from (7.7 .2) and neglect of second and
higher powers of oVp and oa gives

(7.7.3)

Since oVp is negative, so is oa and the semi-major axis of the orbit is decreased.
The periodic time, since it is proportional to a 3 / 2 , is also decreased. Also, forthe
elliptic orbit,

Tp = a(1 - e) = (a + oa)(1 - e - oe). (7.7.4)

Hence there is a small change oe in the eccentricity given, to the first order, by
the relation

oa oe
-=-- (7.7.5)
a l-e

Thus e also decreases with a and vp , and each time the satellite passes through
the earth's atmosphere the effect, according to the above model, is to leave the
minimum distance Tp unchanged, but reduce the maximum distance a(1 + e)
from the origin. The orbit will therefore tend to become circular. This model,
204 Central Forces [7.7

however, will have ceased to be valid before a circular orbit is achieved since the
assumption that most of the orbit lies outside the earth's atmosphere will
eventually fail to hold.
We therefore consider a suitable model to take account of a persistent
resistance to the motion of a satellite. We shall use an empirical law of the type
discussed in Chapter 4. Of the two more usual assumptions, that of a linear
variation with velocity, rather than a quadratic law, is more appropriate for a
highly rarefied atmosphere. Since this is also much the easier to handle we shall
proceed on this basis.
Because the resistance is not a conservative force, we must retum to the
equations of motion, which will now be augmented by a force -kf per unit mass,
where k is a positive constant, to give

.• 0'2 J1 •
r-r =--;J.-kr, (7.7.6)

1 d. .
- - (rO) = -krO. (7.7.7)
r dt

Equation (7.7.7) is easily integrated to give

(7.7.8)

where h is a positive constant. This relation shows that the angular momentum is
no longer constant but is subject to an exponential decay because of the
resistance. This decay will be slow if k is small but persistent and cumulative.
Equation (7.7.6) is not so readily integrated and to proceed further requires a
preliminary transformation, the reason for which is not immediately apparent. It
should be judged by the simplicity achieved in the final results. We first note the
following relation:

this relation is substituted in (7.7.6) and eis eliminated with the help of (7.7.8).
The result is

(7.7.10)

Next we make the transfonnation

(7.7.11)

where 1 is a constant with the dimensions of a length and serves to give the order
7.7] The Effect of Resistance 205

of magnitude of r in the orbit of the satellite. We then have a non-dimensional

variable p of order unity satisfying the equation

(7.7.12)

Finally we replace t by 0 as the independent variable, so that

dp dOdp h 3ktdp he3kt d (1)

-=--=--e -=----- (7.7.13)
dt dt dO [2 p2 dO [2 dO P ,

e-3kt~ (e-3ktdP)
dt dt
=e-3ktdO.!
dt dO
{_!:.!(!)}
dO
[2 P
h2 d (1)P .
2
= - [4 p2 do2

(7.7.14)

When (7.7.14) is substituted in (7.7.12), the resulting equation can be written

in the form

(7.7.15)

This equation would be of the simple form already discussed in § 6.1 if it were
not for the awkward term on the right-hand side. We now consider the condi-
tions under which it would be appropriate to neglect this term, and this requires
an estimate of its magnitude. For this purpose it is convenient to write h, which
from (7.7.8) is the angular momentum apart from the decay factor, as f w. Here
[, as already introduced, is a typical measure of the radius vector in the orbit.
Then w is a typical measure of the angular speed of the satellite in the orbit. The
factor k 2 [4/h 2 which appears on the right-hand side of (7.7.15) becomes, with
the suggested substitution, k 2 /w 2 • This is a non-dimensional quantity since both
w -I and k- I have the dimensions of time. But whereas w -I is a typical measure
of the time associated with the motion of the satellite in its orbit, k- I is an
.appropriate time scale with which to measure the effects of resistive decay. For
example, equation (7.7.8) shows that significant changes in the angular momen-
tum, through the factor e -kt , occur when the time changes by an amount of the
order of k -I . In a typical practical situation the ratio k/w will be very small, and
neglect of the right-hand side of equation (7.7.15) amounts to the realistic
assumption that e /w 2 will be negligibly small. With this simplification the
solution is immediate and can be written

1 JJl
- = - + € cos(O + ex), (7.7.16)
P h2 '

where € and ex are constants of integration. By analogy with (7.5 .7) we now
206 Central Forces [7.7

choose I to be h 2/p., since its precise definition is still at our disposal. Also IX = 0
if the polar axis is chosen appropriately so that fmally we have

ie- 2 kt/r = 1 +ecos8. (7.7.17)

In this equation e is used in preference to e on the right-hand side simply to

avoid confusion with the exponential factor e- 2kt on the left-hand side. With
this in mind the equation should be compared with (7.5 .6). For small resistance
it shows that the orbit is still approximately a conic, but that the latus rectum is
slowly decreasing with time. For a bounded orbit approximating to an ellipse, it
means that the orbit is not closed, but spirals slowly inward towards the centre
offorce.
Equation (7.7.17) is considerably simpler than one might have expected,
though it can be argued that it is not self-contained because of the appearance of
all three variables r, 8, t. To complete the solution satisfactorily, a relation
between 8 and t is required. This can be obtained from (7.7.8) and (7.7.17),
which combine to give

iJ =!!:
12
(1 + € cos 8)2 e3kt
'
(7.7.18)

or, on integration,
3k
e3kt = 1 + - /(8), (7.7.19)
w

where
o d8
/(8) = fo (1 + e cos 8)2 ' (7.7.20)

w = h/12 and it has been assumed that t = 0 when 8 = o. Substitution of (7.7.19)

in (7.7.17) then shows that the equation of the orbit is

3k )2/3
Ilr = (1 + e cos 8) ( 1 + -;:; /(8) . (7.7.21)

The integral /(8) is expressible in closed form* though at the cost of the
desirable simplicity which so far has given qualitative insight merely by inspec-
tion of the results. If we assume that the orbit is nearly circular, again a property
often met in applications, then the analysis simplifies, for € ~ 1 and / = 8 + O(e).
Since klw is also assumed small, the error incurred when / is replaced by 8 in
(7.7.21) is a second order term and hence negligible on a linear theory. The

*f8
, dO = 2 tan-I
{(1--- € ) 112 0 }
tan- -
€ sin 0
iff <L
o(l+€COSO)2 (l_e 2 )3/2 l+€, 2 (l-€2)(l+€cosO)
 Exercises 207

equation for the orbit is then

I
-; = (1
( 3k
+ e cos 6) 1 + w 6
)2/3 (7.7.22)

Further simplification on the grounds that k/w is small is not possible. The
required condition is strictly k6 / w ~ 1, and this depends on the magnitude of 6
as well as that of k/w.

EXERCISES

7.1 Extend Table 7.6.1 by calculating the gravitational acceleration at the

surfaces of the planets.
Because of the acceleration arising from the rotation of the planets
about their axes, there is a correction to the gravitational acceleration.
Show that on the earth's equator the correction amounts to 0'35% of the
gravitational acceleration. Show that for Saturn, where the correction is
largest, the corresponding figure is 15%.
7.2 Show that the minimum distance of Pluto from the sun is less than the
minimum distance of Neptune.
7.3 Before the discovery of Kepler's laws it was thought that a planet travelled
in a circle of radius a and centre 0, the sun S being a distance ea(~ a) from
O. In addition a point R was defined by RO = OS, and the radius vector
from R to the planet was supposed to rotate about R with constant
angular velocity w. Find the equation of this orbit in polar coordinates
with origin at S and polar line along ROS, ignoring terms of order e2 or
smaller. Show that it approximates to the polar equation of an ellipse with
semi-latus rectum a and eccentricity e. Show also that the angular momen-
tum about S is constant to this order.
7.4 The orbit of a communications satellite is to be chosen so that the satellite
appears to be stationary when viewed from the earth. Show that the
appropriate orbit is circular in the earth's equatorial plane with a radius

where re is the radius of the earth, which is assumed to be spherical, Tis

the periodic time of the earth about its own axis and g is the gravitational
acceleration at the earth's surface.
7.5 A particle describes an elliptic orbit under an inverse square law of force
directed to one focus. Show that the times taken to traverse the two parts
of the orbit separated by the minor axis are in the ratio 7r - 2e : 7r + 2e.
For the earth in its orbit round the sun, show that the difference in
these times is about four days.
7.6 A satellite is in circular orbit under an inverse square law of attraction, and
the periodic time for one revolution is T. Show that if the satellite were
suddenly stopped in its orbit, it would fall into the centre of force in a
time 2112 Tj8.
208 Central Forces

7.7 Two uniform solid metal spheres, each of diameter a and density p, are
placed at rest with their centres a distance 2a apart. Show that if they are
subject only to their own mutual attraction, they will come into contact in
a time (l + rr/2)(3/Grrp)1I2 , where G is the gravitational constant.
Show that for iron spheres, of density 7'9 x 10 3 kg m -3, the time is
about an hour.
It may be assumed that the gravitational force of attraction between
the spheres is equivalent to that between particles of the same mass
situated at their centres.
7.8 A particle describes a circle of radius a under the influence of a central
force varying inversely as the square of the distance. Show that if the
direction of motion is suddenly changed, without change of speed, the
new orbit is an ellipse with semi-major axis a and the same periodic time as
the circular orbit.
7.9 A particle describes an ellipse of semi-major axis a under the action of a
force JJ./r2 per unit mass towards a fixed focus. When the particle is at one
end of the minor axis it collides and coalesces with a second particle
which is initially at rest. Prove that the new orbit is an ellipS"e and
that, if the periodic times are Tl and T2 before and after the impact,
1 < T 1 /T2 < 2 312 •
7.10 A particle describes an ellipse under the central force -JJ.r/r 2 per unit mass.
The minimum and maximum speeds are u, U, respectively.
Show that the eccentricity of the orbit and the speed of the particle are
given by e = (U - u)/(U + u), v2 = 2JJ./r - uU.
7.11 Two satellites are travelling in the same direction in the same circular orbit
of radius ro and initially are some distance apart. One of them, in an
attempt to reach the other, increases its speed without change of direction
by an amount u. Given that k = u(ro /JJ.)1/2, where JJ./r2 is the force of
attraction per unit mass at a distance r, and that e· + 2k < 1, show that
the new orbit is an ellipse whose major axis is ro (1 - 2k - k 2 ) and whose
eccentricity is (2k + k 2 ).
Discuss the possibility of effecting a rendezvous by this means.
7.12 A particle moves in a bounded orbit under an inverse square law of force.
Prove that the time average of the kinetic energy is half the magnitude
of the time average of the potential energy.
7.13 A comet travels in a parabolic orbit round the sun. Its least distance from
the sun is kre(k < 1), where re is the radius ofthe earth's orbit. Show that
the time during which the comet's distance from the sun is less than re is

Show that the time is a maximum when k = t, and that it is then 2/3rr
years.
7.14 A satellite moves in a circular orbit of radius 4rm round the moon, which
is assumed to be a uniform sphere of radius rm' The gravitational force at
the surface of the moon is g m per unit mass. The satellite is to be
intercepted by a rocket fired horizontally from the moon's surface with
initial speed (2gr m )1/2 and launched from a point in the plane of
the satellite's orbit. Show that the rocket should be fired at a time
 Exercises 209

IS·SS(r m /gm )1/2. after the satellite has passed vertically over the rocket
site.
h~unching
7.15 (i) A particle is subject to a central force -p.r/r 3 per unit mass, where r is
the position vector. It is projected at right angles to the radius vector
with speed U at a distance c from the centre of force. Show that

(ii) A particle is at rest on the surface of a smooth sphere of radius c. It is

subject to a central force _p.r/r 3 (p. > 0) per unit mass towards the
centre of the sphere. There are no other forces apart from the reaction
between the particle and the sphere. The particle is given a velocity u
at right angles to the radius vector.

(a) For u 2 <,. J.l./c describe the motion of the particle and give the
periodic time.
(b) For p./c < u 2 < 2p./c, find the greatest and least distances from
the centre of force attained by the particle in its orbit. Deduce the
periodic time.
(c) For u 2 ;;;;. 2p./c what is the asymptotic value of the speed far from
the centre?

(Ans.: 21TC/U, 21TP.(2p./c - u 2 )-3/2, (u 2 _ 2p./C)1/2.)

7.16 A particle is subject to a central force _p.r/r 3 (p. > 0) per unit mass.

(i) The particle is projected at right angles to the radius vector from a
point at a distance C from the centre of force with speed nvo, where
Vo is the speed which would be required for a circular orbit. Show that
the path of the particle turns through an angle cP in the subsequent
. motion, where sin cP = (n 2 - 1)-1, provided n 2 > 2.
(ii) The particle is projected from infinity with a velocity of magnitude
nvo, where Vo is the speed required for a circular orbit of radius c, and
the velocity is initially directed along a line whose perpendicular
distance from the centre of force is c. Show that the path of the
particle is turned through an angle 2CP, where tan cP = n -2 .

7.17 A uniform spherical star, of mass ms and radius rs , is moving with constant
velocity u through a large cloud of particles. Show that all particles ahead
of the star and within a cylinder of radius

where G is the gravitational constant, will eventually collide with the star.
7.lS A particle is subject to an inverse square law central force of attraction. It
210 Central Forces

is projected from infinity with speed Vee along a line whose perpendicular
distance from the centre of force is b, and is ultimately deflected through
an angle rr/2.
Let O(x, y, z) be a system of cartesian axes such that the particle starts
from infinity along the positive x-axis and ultimately recedes to infinity
along the positive y-axis.
Show that the centre of force is at the point (b, b, 0).
A particle is projected from infinity with speed v"" along a line, parallel
to the x-axis, whose perpendicular distance from the centre of force is c.
Show that the orbit has asymptotes which intersect on the plane x = 0 and
that the particle is ultimately deflected through an angle 2 tan -1 clb.
Particles are projected from infinity with speed v"" along lines parallel
to the x-axis within the cylinder (y - b)2 + Z2 = c2 . Show that, if c ~ b,
all such particles ultimately recede to infinity within a circular cone of
semi-angle 2clb, whose axis is the line y =b, Z =0 and whose vertex is the
point (b /2, b, 0).
7.19 (i) Prove that

~(~)=~
dt r r3
(rxdr)xr.
dt

(ii) A particle P, whose position vector is r, is subject to a central force.

State the equation of motion in vector form. Show that r x r is a
constant vector h, and deduce that the motion of P is confined to a
plane through the origin perpendicular to h.

Show that if the central force is of the form _p.r/r 3 per unit mass,

d
p. dt
(r); = dt2r
d2
x h.

Hence show that

Ip.(a. r + r) = h 2
for some constant vector a.
7.20 A useful formula, particularly when the central force mf(r) corresponding
to a given path is required, is

1
u=-
r

Derive this formula.

A particle of mass m is describing the curve r cos 28 = a with angular
momentum mh under a central force to the origin.
Show that the force is one of repulsion with magnitude 3mh2/r3.
As the particle passes through the point r =a, 8 = 0, it receives an
impulse which doubles its speed. Show that the equation of the new orbit
is

air =cOS(7 112 8/2).

 Exercises 211

7.21 A particle, which moves under the influence of a central force, describes
the curve r(O + 1)2 =a, where a is a constant and (r,O) are its polar
coordinates. What is the law of force?
When the particle is in the position 0 = 0 it receives an impulse which
reduces its radial velocity to zero and doubles its transverse velocity. Show
that its subsequent path is given by
3a/2r= 1 +1 COS(3 112 0/2).

7.22 A particle is subject to a central force with potential energy -tJ./4r4 per
unit mass. The angular momentum is h per unit mass.

(i) Show that if the total energy is zero, the orbit consists of part of a
pair of touching circles, each of radius (tJ./8h 2 )1/2 .
(ii) Show th1t if the total energy is h4/4tJ., the orbit is part of the curves

r=b tanh(0/2 1/2 ), r=b coth(0/2 1/2 ),

7.23 A particle of mass m is subject to the central force

-m(!!..? -!!.)
r4 r,

where tJ. and v are positive constants. It is projected with speed Vo from a
point at a distance a from the centre of force, at right angles to the radius
vector. Find the equation of the orbit and show that if vg < 2tJ./a - vla 2
then the orbit is bounded. What is the additional condition for the orbit to
be closed?
Prove that when the particle is next moving at right angles to the radius
vector, the latter has turned through an angle 1ravo/(v +a 2vg)1/2.
7.24 A particle of mass m is subject to the central force

with tJ. > 0, v> O. The angular momentum is mho

Show that two circular orbits are possible provided that K =4tJ.vj
h4 < 1. Show that one of them is unstable and that an orbit which is a
small perturbation of the other has an apsidal angle equal to 1r /(1 - K)1/4 .
Because of the oblateness of the earth, its gravitational attraction in the
equatorial plane is of the above form with v ~ tJ.r~. Show that a nearly
circular orbit can be regarded approximately as an ellipse whose axes
rotate with angular speed VW//J.Q2, where wand a are respectively the
mean angular speed and mean radial distance of the particle.
7.25 For the central force
212 Central Forces

the differential equation for the trajectory can be written in the form

u=- ,
r

(see Exercise 7.20). On the assumption that the term on the right-hand
side of the first equation is small compared with the individual terms on
the left-hand side, show that a solution of the form

lu = I + e cos nO + € cos 2nO, € ~ I,

is consistent with the equation provided that all terms of the second order
of smallness are neglected. Substitute the assumed form for u into the
equation and compare like terms to obtain the following relations:
fJ.l v
1 - 2" = -2- (1 + ~e2),
h h l
I - n2 = 2v/(h 2 l),

€( 1 - 4n 2 ) = ve 2 /(2h 2 l).
When fJ.V/h4 ~ 1, show that these relations can be solved to give, approx-
imately,

h2 fJ.V 1 2
I = - - 4 (l + 2 e ),
fJ. h
n =1 - fJ.V/h4 ,

For e < 1, show that the most significant terms describe an ellipse
whose axes rotate slowly with the angular speed wfJ.v/h 4 , where 21f/w is
the time to traverse the orbit.
For e ~ 1, show that the resulting nearly circular orbit agrees with that
of Exercise 7.24.
Note, however, that the result is not now confined to nearly circular
orbits. A similar modification of the inverse square law arises from the
theory of general relativity, with v = 3h 2 fJ./C2 , where c is the speed of light.
It is used to explain the slow rotation of the orbit of the planet Mercury.
7.26 A particle moves under the influence of a central force f(r)r/r per unit
mass, where r is the position vector of the particle.
When the orbit has two apsidal distances a, b, show that the apsidal
speeds are in the ratio b /a.
Show also that the speed v at a distance r from the origin is given by

~(b2 - a 2 )v2 = a 2 fr
a
f(r) dr + b 2 f r

b
f(r) dr.
 Exercises 213

7.27 It has been suggested that the gravitational constant may in fact vary with
the time. Consider the equation

d2 r r
dt 2 =- p.;:s

in which p. varies with the time. Show that angular momentum is conserved
but that there is no equation of conservation of energy.
Suppose that the particle traverses a bounded orbit, and that the unit
of time is adjusted so that the period of revolution is of order unity.
Suppose also that p. is a slowly varying function on this time scale, so that
p. = p.(et), 0 < e ~ 1.

Show that with the transformations

s =R(et)r, T = fo
t
T(et) dt,

the equation of motion becomes

and that this equation simplifies to

provided that

T1I2 =R = 11,

and that either terms of order e 2 are neglected or 11 = 110 e -€ t.

Is it now possible to define conservation equations in terms of s?
7.28 A particle P rests on a smooth horizontal table and is connected to a string
which passes through a small hole 0 in the table. Initially the string is taut,
with OP = a, and the particle is suddenly given a horizontal velocity aw
perpendicular to the string. During the subsequent motion the particle is
subject to a resistance equal to -k times the velocity per unit mass, and
the length of the string is made to vary in a prescribed manner
Show that the angular speed of the string is a2 we- kt /r2 , where r = OP
and t is the time.
For r =aent , verify that the tension in the string is initially positive
provided that w 2 > kn + n 2 , and that it will become zero after a time

-2-(k-~-2-n-) log (-kn-W-;-n-2) .

7.29 A particle of mass m describes a nearly circular orbit under a central

attractive force mp./r2 and a force mvx in the x direction.
214 Central Forces

Prove that if v ~ w 2 the polar equation of the orbit is approximately

Va
r= a- --2 (1 + cos 28),
6w

where w is the mean angular speed in the orbit and a3 = I1/W2 .

7.30 A particle traverses the ellipse l/r = 1 + e cos 8 under an inverse square law
of force. The apses Al and A2 are such that the apsidal distances are given
by

As the particle passes through Al it receives an impulse which increases

the magnitude VI of the velocity by a small increment DVI without chang-
ing its direction. Similarly as the particle passes through A2 , it received an
impulse which increases V2 by DV2.
Show that
or2 40Vl
-=
'2 (1 - e)Vl
8 Systems of Particles

8.1 MASS CENTRE

In the study of the motion of several particles, it is sometimes more convenient

to consider the motion of the system as a whole rather than the details of the
motion of each separate particle. For this purpose it is useful to introduce the
concept of the mass centre.
Let a typical particle of the system be situated at the point Pi
(i = 1,2, ... ,n) and let its mass be mi' A point C such that

(8.1.1 )

is called the mass centre of the system of particles (see Fig. 8.1.1). If c' is also
a point such that

then, by subtraction,

~mi(CPi -
I
C'P;) = ~miCC' = (~mi)CC' = O.
I I

o
Figure 8.1.1 Illustration of the notation for systems of particles.
216 Systems of Particles [8.2

Hence C' coincides with C and the mass centre is unique.

For a given origin 0, (8.1.1) implies that

Lmj(CO + OP j ) = 0,
j

or (8.1.2)

This gives the position vector of the mass centre relative to O.

8.2 EQUATIONS OF MOTION

For any particle of mass m, position vector r, acceleration a and subject to a

force F, we have the equation of motion

(8.2.1)

Hence, by summation over a system of particles, we have

(8.2.2)

where me = ~m and r e , a e are the position vector and acceleration of the mass
centre. In (8.2.2) the suffix i has been omitted for economy of notation.
In the summation over the forces acting on the system we can distinguish
between two contributions. The first contribution consists of all those forces
originating from outside the system. Particles moving in the neighbourhood of
the earth, for example, would experience the earth's gravitational attraction and
a resistance arising from their motion through the air. Such forces are external to
the system of particles and are to be distinguished from the forces arising from
mutual interactions between the particles. The important dynamical distinction
is that each internal force has an equal and opposite counterpart within the
system, by Newton's law of action and reaction, and the internal forces will
therefore cancel each other in a summation over the whole system of particles.
Thus in equation (8.2.2) the summation on the left-hand side can be restricted
to the external forces. We then have

(8.2.3)

where Fe refers to the typical external force on the typical particle. Equation
(8.2.3) governs the motion of the mass centre, whose acceleration is determined
by the resultant external force. If the latter is zero, then the velocity of the mass
centre is constant.
8.2] Equations of Motion 217

Equation (8.2.3) can be integrated to give

~ f Fdt = ~ f Fedt = [~mvl = [me vel , (8.2.4)

where Ve is the velocity of the mass centre and [mevel denotes the change in
mcvc over the interval of integration. When the interval of time tends to zero,
the limit of the integral

is an impulse if it remains finite. The resultant external impulse is then equal to

the instantaneous change in the linear momentum of the system. It should be
emphasised that any external force which remains finite does not contribute to
the impulse.
The work equation is not quite so straightforward. For a single particle we
still have, as in (5.2.1 ),

f F . dr = fm dv . dr = f ~ (!mJ) dt = [!mv 2 1, (8.2.5)

dt dt

and so, by summation over the system

(8.2.6)

However, the internal forces may do work during the motion of the system, and
this must be included in the summation on the left-hand side of (8.2.6). For
example the work done by the forces acting on two particles connected by a
spring is equal to ! x tension x extension.
Let mi' mk be the masses of two particles with position vectors rj and rk
respectively. Let there be mutual forces ±Fjk respectively on the two particles
arising from their interaction. The work done by these forces is

(8.2.7)

and so depends on the relative motion of mj and mk. Note, however, that if Fjk
is parallel to rk - rj, and if Irk -- rj I is constant so that the particles move as a
rigid body, no work is done by Fjk because it is perpendicular to the direction of
relative motion. In this important special case the work done is confined to that
of the external forces, and if they are conservative it can be calculated from the
potential energy in the usual way.
There is an alternative expression for the kinetic energy ~!mv2, which is
derived as follows. We denote by r' and v' = dr'jdt the position vector and
velocity of a typical particle relative to the mass centre C, so that r = re + r' and
by differentiation, v = Vc + Vi (see Fig. 8.1.1). We note from (8.1.1) that
218 Systems of Particles [8.2

~mr' =0 by definition of the mass centre. Hence, by differentiation, ~mv' =O.

The kinetic energy is therefore
~l ~l _ ~l ~1'2
':"''imv 2 (
=':"''imVe+V') (
• Ve+V') -"'2mVe+"'2mV
2
+Ve . (~')
",mv

(8.2.8)

since ~m =me and ~mv' =O. The first term of (8.2.8) is equal to the kinetic
energy of the whole mass moving with the velocity of the mass centre. The
second term is the kinetic energy of the motion relative to the mass centre.

Example 8.2.1
In this example we have a small ring, of mass m1 , which is connected by a string,
of length I, to a bob of mass m2' The ring is free to slide along a smooth, fixed,
horizontal rail, as in Figure 8.2.1. We shall investigate the oscillations of this
system in a vertical plane.
Let x be the displacement of the ring from some suitable origin, and let e be
the inclination of the string to the vertical. The ring then has a horizontal
velocity x. The bob also has the horizontal velocity x of the ring; in addition it
has a velocity relative to the ring equal to 18 perpendicular to the string; see
Figure 8.2.1.
Of the forces acting on the system consisting of the ring and the bob, the
tension in the string is an internal force acting mutually on the two masses. It
does not contribute to the resultant force acting on the system. Moreover,
provided the string remains taut and inextensible, the tension is always in a
direction perpendicular to the relative displacement of the masses. It will
therefore do no work during the motion. The external forces are the gravi-

o x
i

Figure 8.2.1 Illustration for Example 8.2.1.

8.3] Collision Problems 219

tational forces and the normal reaction N between the ring and the wire. These
are all vertical. Also N and mig act in a direction perpendicular to the displace-
ment of the ring and so do no work during the motion. The gravitational force
m2g is conservative and so is derivable from a potential.
Since there is no resultant horizontal force, it follows from (8.2.4) that the
horizontal component of the momentum is constant. We suppose that the
system is started from rest; the horizontal component of momentum is then zero
and we have

(8.2.9)

Since the only force which does work on the system is m2g, and since this
force has the potential energy -m2g1 cos 8, there is an energy equation of the
form

where E is a constant. Between (8.2.9) and (8.2.10), x can be eliminated to give

an equation involving only 8. After simplification this equation can be written

! m2 (ml +m2 sin2 8)[2iJ2 -m2g1cos8 =E. (8.2.11)

2 ml +m2

For a given value of E, which would be determined by some initial conditions,

equation (8.2.11) is sufficient to determine 8 as a function of the time. In
particular, for small oscillations the equation becomes, approximately,

This equation governs simple harmonic oscillations with period 2rr/n, where
n 2 =(ml +m2)g/ml 1.

8.3 COLLISION PROBLEMS

The word collision is often used to denote the actual physical impact of two
bodies, the effect of which is to produce impulsive changes in velocity. These
changes take place in a very short time interval, outside which the velocities of
the bodies are constant if no other forces are involved. In this discussion it is
convenient to widen the definition and describe a collision between two particles
as an interaction between them such that the initial and final velocities are
constant. A collision can then take place without actual contact of the particles;
an example we shall eventually discuss is the motion of two particles which are a
large distance apart initially and which attract or repel each other with a force
inversely proportional to the square of the distance apart.
220 Systems of Particles [8.3

To calculate the effect of a collision completely it is necessary to know the

law of interaction, but some information about the initial and final states of the
particles can be obtained simply from an application of the laws of conservation
of energy and momentum. Since these laws are also applicable in quantum
mechanics, the results deduced from them have wide validity. Indeed in modern
physics conservation laws are regarded as basic postulates, but in their appli-
cation we have to bear in mind that microscopic particles such as atoms and
molecules possess internal energies associated with the motion of their con-
stituent parts, and they are able to absorb or release energy when they collide.
Macroscopic bodies which collide impulsively always absorb energy, which is
ultimately dissipated into heat by frictional forces, so that there is always a loss
of kinetic energy in this case. Finally, for particles moving with speeds com-
parable to the speed of light, there is a relativistic correction to the conservation
laws.
We describe a perfectly elastic collision as one in which the net work done by
the forces during the collision is zero, and the net change in the internal energy
of the particles is zero. Since the energy is wholly kinetic in the initial and final
states, in a perfectly elastic collision there is conservation of kinetic energy as
well as momentum.

Example 8.3.1
We consider the spontaneous disintegration of a particle into two parts.
Let u be the velocity of the particle before disintegration. Let ml ,m 2 , Vt , V2
be the masses and velocities of the two parts after disintegration (see Fig. 8.3.1).
From conservation of momentum we have

vi

e_ u

Figure 8.3.1 Illustration for Example 8.3.1: disintegration of a particle.

8.3] Collision Problems 221

Since Vc = (miVI +m2V2)/(ml +m2) is the velocity of the mass centre after
diSintegration, conservation of momentum shows that Vc remains unchanged and
equal to u. Also, since

where

are the velocities relative to the mass centre, it follows that the momenta of the
two parts relative to the mass centre are equal in magnitude and have opposite
directions.
The total energy in this problem can be calculated from the sum of the
kinetic energy arising from the motion of the mass centre, the kinetic energy of
the motion relative to the mass centre, and the internal energy which we denote
by E i • Conservation of energy then gives

Since Vc =u and v~ =m1 V'dm2, this relation simplifies to

which serves to determine v~, and hence v;, in terms of the internal energy
released. The angles through which the particles are scattered, say () I and () 2, are
not deducible without further information. If v~ >u, any value is possible for
() I, but if v~ < u, there is a maximum value given by sin -1 (v~ /u).

Example 8.3.2
We now investigate the collision of two particles.
Let the masses of the particles be ml ,m2' Let the velocities be UI , U2 before
collision and VI, V2 after collision. From conservation of momentum, we have

(8.3.1)

where, as before, the velocity U c of the mass centre is unchanged by the

collision. It also follows that the corresponding velocities relative to the centre
of mass, say U'1 , u~, v~ , v~, satisfy the relations

(8.3.2)

(8.3.3)
222 Systems of Particles [8.3

---'---'----.u c

/
/
/

---"T-----.uc

Figure 8.3.2 Illustration for Example 8.3.2: collision of two particles.

If we assume that the collision is perfectly elastic then kinetic energy is also
conserved. Effectively this means that the kinetic energy of the motion relative
to the mass centre is conserved, since conservation of momentum ensures that
the energy associated with the motion of the mass centre is unchanged. We
therefore have the further relation

(8.3.4)

Relations (8.3.2), (8.3.3) and (8.3.4) can only be satisfied simultaneously if

1 UI - U2 1= 1 VI - V2 I, SO that

(8.3.5)

Hence the momenta of two particles relative to the mass centre are unchanged in
magnitude by the collision, the effect of which is to rotate both the relative
momentum vectors through an angle of scatter X, say.
Laboratory experiments are often such that particle 2 is initially at rest, and
then (8.3.1), (8.3.2) and (8.3.5) give, with Uz =0,

(8.3.6)

In the original (laboratory) frame of reference we denote the angles of scatter by

8 1 and 8 z . Reference to Figure 8.3.2 and relations (8.3.6) shows that they are
8.3] Collision Problems 223

given in terms of X, the angle of scatter in the centre of mass frame, by the
relations
V'l sin X sin X
tan () 1 = , = ---..:..:....-- (8.3.7)
Uc + VI cos X (mdm2) + cos X

and
(8.3.8)

since v;
= U c . If ml < m2, any value for 8 1 is possible, but if ml > m2 there is a
maximum value given by sin -1 (m2/md.
The kinetic energy transferred to the second particle is

We compare this with the total kinetic energy !mlui. The ratio is

so that the maximum transfer of energy occurs for a head-on collision (()2 = 0).
Note that it is small for ml·~ m2 and for ml ~ m2' It can only be substantial if
ml and m2 are comparable. For a head-on collision of a proton and a-particle,
where mt/m2 = 4, the fraction of energy transferred is 64%. For a proton-elec-
tron collision it is about 0.2% (mt/m2 = 1836).
When bodies of macroscopic size collide impulsively there is invariably a loss
of kinetic energy. A head-on collision is often dealt with by using the empirical
rule

(8.3.9)

where e is called the coefficient of restitution and differs for different materials.
This relation used in conjunction with the conservation of momentum is suf-
ficient to give VI and V2 in terms of Ut and U2' By (8.3.2) the kinetic energy
relative to the mass centre is

before collision and, by analogy,

224 Systems of Particles [8.3

after collision. The loss in kinetic energy is

For a perfectly elastic collision with no loss of energy, e = 1. The case e =0

corresponds to an inelastic collision, when V1 = V2 and all the kinetic energy
relative to the mass centre is dissipated.

Example 8.3.3
When dissipative processes, such as friction, are present, conservation of energy
can be invoked only if the energy converted into heat is taken into account.
However, on a molecular level, this heat energy can be identified with the kinetic
energy of the random motion of the molecules. We investigate this on the basis
of an idealised model of a simple gas consisting of molecules all having the same
mass m. The gas is assumed to be in equilibrium, which means that on average its
energy does not change. It is also assumed to be isotropic, which means that
there is no preferential direction of motion of the molecules. Let us consider the
force on the walls of the container enclosing the gas. Suppose that when a
molecule strikes one of the walls it is reflected elastically, so that its normal
component of velocity is reversed in sign and its tangential component is
unaltered. If the wall is parallel to the (y, z) plane, a molecule moving towards
the wall with velocity ui + vj + wk before impact will then have a velocity
-ui + vj + wk away from the wall after impact. The net change in momentum is
2mu normal to the wall. Let nu be the number of molecules per unit volume
having an x component of velocity u. The number of such molecules hitting the
wall per unit area per unit time is then un u • The rate of change of momentum
per unit area is 2mu 2 n u . This is now summed over all positive u to get

2m ~ u 2 n u = mnu 2
u>o

say, where n is the number of molecules per unit volume, and u 2 is the mean
value of u 2 over all values of u. Note that the molecules for which u is positive
are assumed to be moving towards the wall. Since there will be an equal number
of molecules for which u is negative, we must have

2 ~ u2 n u = ~ u 2 n u = nu 2 •
u>O aIlu

From the assumption of isotropy we can infer that

where c is the speed of a molecule. We now have the result that the rate of
8.3] Collision Problems 225

change of momentum per unit area of the containing wall, which is the force per
unit area, or the pressure, is given by

where p is the density of the gas.

This result should be compared with Chades's law in thermodynamics,
namely

p=pRT,

where T is the absolute temperature and R is the gas constant. We now see that
the concept of temperature is closely associated with the kinetic energy of the
random motion of the molecules. In fact the kinetic energy per unit volume is

!mnC2 =~pRT.

The above result might seem at first sight to depend on the idealised
assumption that the molecules are all reflected elastically from the wall. Such
elastic reflection does not take place in practice, indeed for some molecules
there is no correlation between the velocity of approach and the velocity with
which they leave the wall. Nevertheless if the isotropy of the gas is to be
conserved, the average effect at the wall is the same as if such reflection had
taken place. The reflecting wall is the simplest mechanism which will maintain
the isotropy of the gas, but the mathematical result depends on this isotropy and
not the particular means by which it is achieved.

Example 8.3.4
A particle PI, of mass ml, is projected from a great distance with a velocity u
along a line whose perpendicular distance from a stationary particle P2 , of mass
m2, is d. We consider the motion of PI and P2 when subjected to a mutual
attracting force inversely proportional to the square of the distance (see Fig.
8.3.3).
The initial velocity of the mass centre Cis ml u/(ml + m2) and, since there is
no external force, C continues to move with this constant velocity. We therefore
consider the motion of PI relative to C as a convenient origin. The motion of P2
can be dealt with by a similar argument.
Let the force on PI towards C be

kmlm2 _ kmlm~
(P 1 P2 Y- (ml + m2)2r2'

where PI C =r. The value of k will depend on the particular mechanism from
which the force arises. A measurable effect in the laboratory is obtainable if, for
example, the particles are electrically charged. Particle PI is therefore subject to
226 Systems of Particles [8.3

~!~
m +m
1
4
2

/
/
/"
/
/
"/
/
,/
,/
,/

_ _ _ _ _ _ f.l __ L.~~ - -
U

(a) Laboratory frame (b) Mass-centre frame

Figure 8.3.3 Illustration for Example 8.3.4: the motion of mutually attracting
particles.

an inverse square law central force towards C of magnitude /1/r2 per unit mass,
where

Relative to C, PI has an initial velocity

The distance from C on to the line of Veo is

The relative path is a hyperbola and the details are deducible from § 7 .5. In
particular, the angle through which the path turns is, by equation (7.5.27),

The result is not immediately useful for comparison with observation, be-
cause in practice the deflection angle will be measured relative to axes fixed in
the laboratory. To calculate this angle we note that the ultimate velocity of PI
consists of two components, the velocity of C and the velocity relative to C. The
velocity of C is

The magnitude of the velocity relative to C depends only on distance, see

equation (7.5.24). Ultimately it is the same as the relative initial speed,
namely
8.3] Collision Problems 227

The direction of this component makes an angle X'with the initial direction. The
resultant of these two components makes an angle 8 with the initial direction,
where

Thus ml sin 8 = mz(sin X cos 8 - cos X sin 8)

Or

in agreement with (8.3.7). If mt 1m2 is negligibly small, we have 8 == X and the

result for a fixed centre of force is recovered. At the other extreme, when
m 1 ~ m2, the deflection is small and there is little effect on the motion of the
approaching particle Pt. If m t = m2, then

sin X
tan 8 = = tan h
l+cosX

and so e = x/2.
Note that the scattering cross-section for this problem is still given by relation
(7.5.29) relative to the centre of mass frame. But to obtain a result which is
useful in the laboratory frame, the variation of (7.5.29) with e and de, rather
than X and dX, needs to be calculated using the above relation between 8 and X.

Example 8.3.5
A wedge, of mass m2, rests with one face on a horizontal plane and with the
inclined face at an angle a to the horizontal. It is hit on its inclined face by a
particle, of mass m1, moving along the plane with speed u in a direction
perpendicular to the edge of the wedge. Show that the speed of the wedge
immediately after impact is mtU sin 2 a/(m2 + ml sin 2 a).
The particle then slides up the face of the wedge and back to the horizontal
plane. Find the final velocities of the particle and the wedge.
It is to be assumed that there are no frictional forces and that the impacts
occurring are inelastic, in other words relative motion in the direction of the
impact is destroyed.

(i) Since the impact between the particle and the wedge is inelastic, there will
be no rebound and the particle will proceed to slide up the face of the
wedge with relative initial speed Ul, say. Let the initial speed of the
wedge be U2' The impact between the particle and wedge is perpendicular
to the wedge face. Hence the momentum of the particle parallel to the
wedge face is unchanged. This yields the relation
228 Systems of Particles [8.3

UI
ml'U
~
m~ex
/11/111 II I,fl II;,

Figure 8.3.4 Illustration for Example 8.3.5: collision of particle and wedge.

U cos a = U I + U2 cos a. (8.3.10)

The impulsive reaction between the wedge and the plane is vertical. Hence
the horizontal momentum of the system consisting of the wedge and the
particle is unchanged. This yields the relation

(8.3.11 )

Equations (8.3.10) and (8.3.11) can be solved for U1 and U2' The result is

(8.3.12)

(li) In the next stage of the motion the particle slides smoothly up the face of
the wedge and returns to its original position. There are two conservation
equations which are sufficient to determine the final speeds VI of the
particle relative to the wedge and V2 of the wedge (see Fig. 8.3 .4). These
equations arise from the conservation of horizontal momentum, since all
external forces acting on the system are vertical, and from the conservation
of energy. Since there is no net work done on the system the latter
equation amounts to conservation of kinetic energy, and we have

mlu =mlUI cos a + (ml + m2)u2 =-ml VI cos a + (ml + m2)v2,

~md(u2 + Ul cos a)2 + u1 sin2 a} + ~m2u~
= ~ml {(V2 - VI cos a)2 + vi sin2 a} + ~m2v~,

These equations can now, in principle, be used to calculate V1 and V2 in

terms of U1 and U2 and hence, by (8.3.12), in terms of u. However, it
happens to be simpler to use the results of Example 3.3.1. There it was
shown that the particle and the wedge have constant accelerations. Refer-
ence to equations (3.3.3) and (3.3.4) show these to be

(ml + m2)g sin a

ml sin2 a + m2
8.4 ] Variable Mass Problems 229

for the downward acceleration ofthe particle relative to the wedge, and

for the wedge itself.

For a particle moving with uniform acceleration we have the results of
§2.3. In particular equation (2.3.8), with U =Ut and a = -at, gives

where v is the speed of the particle after travelling a distance x up the plane.
In particular x = 0 when v = VI' Hence VI = UI and the particle returns to
the base of the wedge with the same relative speed, but with a reversal of
direction. From (2.3.7) the time taken is 2ut/at, and from (2.3.6) the
wedge in this time acquires a speed

2uI 2mlul cos ex

V2 =U2 +a2 . -=U2 +
al ml+m2
mlu{(ml -m2)sin 2 ex+2m2}
=
(ml +m2Xml sin 2 ex+m2) .

(iii) Finally the particle leaves the wedge and returns to the horizontal plane.
This involves another inelastic collision which destroys the vertical com-
ponent of velocity of the particle. The final speed of the particle is therefore
V2 - VI cos ex = V2 - U I cos ex
u(mi sin 2 ex+mlm2 - m~ cos 2 ex)
(ml + m2)(ml sin2 ex + m2)

8.4 V ARIABLE MASS PROBLEMS

When the equation of motion

F=ma (8.4.l)

was introduced for a single particle, it was assumed that the mass of the particle
was constant. When the mass varies, the equation is modified, and the modifi-
cation depends on the details of the process by which the variation is effected.
For example, a raindrop may increase its mass by condensation as it falls
through a cloud, and a rocket decrease its mass by the ejection of burnt gases.
When such problems are examined from the point of view of the appropriate
system, it will be seen that the mass of the system as a whole is not changing,
230 Systems of Particles [8.4

(~-m----")
v
------- ( m Hm ) ~
v+bv v

(--m-----) ----"'" ( m + Sm) ---v+ bv

e ·~u
@
. ---"'u
t +ot t + bt
(a) (b)

Figure 8.4.1 The changes which occur in a small interval of time when: (a) the
mass increases; (b) the mass decreases.

but that individual parts of the system are changing their momentum. For
example, the condensed water vapour is moving with the cloud before conden-
sation, and with the raindrop after condensation, which implies a change in
momentum. Similarly the fuel of the rocket moves with the rocket before
ejection and with the velocity it acquires from combustion afterwards. Such
problems can be treated as dynamical systems in which the impulse of the
external forces is equated to the changing momentum of the system.
let us consider a mass m which, during the interval of time ot, changes its
velocity from v to v + ov and combines with a mass om. Let the velocity of om
before amalgamation with m be u (see Fig. 8.4.1 (a)). If Fe is the external force
acting on the system, it follows from (8.2.4) that

J
t+lit
Fedt=(m+om)(v+ov)-omu-mv (8.4.2)
t

or, equivalently,

1 jt+ot ov om
- F dt=(m+om)-+(v-u)-. (8.4.3)
Of t e Ot ot
The left-hand side of equation (8.4.3) represents the average value of Fe over the
interval of time 0 t, and will tend to the value of Feat time t as 0 t -+ O. Thus in
the limit ot -+ 0 equation (8.4.3) becomes

dv dm
Fe =m dt +(v-u)dt' (8.4.4)

Figure 8.4.1 (b) represents the situation when mass is ejected, rather than
acquired, as in rocket propUlsion. Because om conventionally denotes an incre-
ment in m, the ejected mass is denoted by -om. In problems where m is actually
decreasing, om and dm/dt are negative. The same equation (8.4.2) also governs
this situation and leads to the same limiting equation (8.4.4). Two particular
8.4 ] Variable Mass Problems 231

cases are noteworthy. The first is when u = 0, and then

d
F =-fmv). (8.4.5)
e dt"

This is the equation governing the fall of a raindrop through a cloud which is at
rest.
The second case is u = v, when

Fe = mdv/dt (8.4.6)

and the equation of motion (8.4.1) for a particle of fixed mass is recovered. The
motion of an object from which particles are being released would be governed
by such an equation. But if the particles are ejected with a finite relative
velocity, the more general equation (8.4.4) must be used.
Consider, for example, the rectilinear motion of a rocket in free flight, that is
with no external forces. We assume that the exhaust velocity relative to the
rocket is constant and equal to c. The velocity of the rocket is v = vk say, and
u - v = c = -ck since the gases are ejected in the direction opposite to v.
Equation (8.4.4) then becomes, with Fe = 0,

dv dm
O=m-+c-. (8.4.7)
dt dt

This equation integrates immediately to

VI - Vo = -c 10g(mJ/mo)= c 10gR, (8.4.8)

where R (= mo/md is the ratio of the initial to the final mass. Note that the
change in speed depends only on the exhaust speed c and the mass ratio R. It
does not depend on the rate at which the fuel is consumed.

Example 8.4.1
In a two stage rocket, the first stage is detached after exhausting its fuel in order
to minimise the mass before the second stage is fired. Such a rocket is to
accelerate a 100 kg payload to a speed of 6000 m S-I in free flight. The exhaust
speed is 1500 m S-I relative to the rocket. For structural reasons, the mass of
either stage, without fuel or payload, must be 10% of the fuel it carries. We
consider the best choice of masses for the two stages so that the initial mass is a
minimum
Let the masses of fuel carried in the first and second stages be x and y kg
respectively as shown in Figure 8.4.2, so that the initial mass is

mo=100+1·1(x+y)
232 Systems of Particles [8.4

0'1 x + x

Figure 8.4.2 Illustration for Example 8.4.1: two stage rocket.

and the mass after the first stage has exhausted its fuel is
ml = 100 + l'ly +0·1 x.

By equation (8.4.8) the velocity acquired at this point is

VI = 1500 log(mo/md.

One immediate deduction is that the desired speed of 6000 m S-I cannot be
achieved by a single stage rocket. For with y = 0, mo/ml cannot be larger than
11, and 1500 log 11 is only 3597.
If we proceed to the second stage, after first jettisoning the burnt-out first
stage, the initial and final masses are, respectively,

ml = 100 + l'ly, m3 = 100 +O'ly

and there is a further increment in speed to V2 , where

V2 = VI + 1500 log -m2 = 1500 log -

mOm2
-.
m3 mlm3

If V2 is to be 6000, we require that (mOm2)/(mlm3) = e4 • Since llml =

mo + 10 m 2, we can eliminate ml to get the relation

11mom2
------=e4
(mo + 1Om2)m3
 Exercises 233

and this can, in turn, be rearranged to give

(11
e ) =m
m ---
o m3
4
m2
(11
~ 100+0·ly
- e4
100+ 1·ly
) =10e 4
.

If mo is to be a minimum, y must be chosen so that the expression in brackets is

a maximum. This is so when

_10_0_+_I_·I,;:...y = e2
or y = lOOO(eZ - 1) = 1769.
100 + O·ly 11 - eZ

From this, one can calculate mo = 41 873 and x = 36 206.

Example 8.4.2
A raindrop falls vertically from rest at time t = 0 through an atmosphere
containing water vapour at rest. The mass of the raindrop increases by con·
densation, so that the mass is mo + At at time t, where mo and Aare constants.
The motion of the raindrop is resisted by a force equal to kv per unit mass, where
v is the speed and k is constant.
Since the cloud is at rest, the equation of motion of the raindrop is
d
- {(mo + At) v} = (mo + At)g - k(mo + At)V
dt

or

which integrates to

Since v =0 when t =0, we have

and so

EXERCiSES

8.1 A ring, of mass m I , slides on a smooth, horizontal wire and is attached to

a particle, of mass m2, by a string of length l which passes over a small,
smooth, fixed pulley. The pulley is at a depth d below the wire and in the
same vertical plane. The system starts from rest from a position in which
the upper part of the string makes an angle rr/3 with the vertical. Prove
234 Systems of Particles

that the greatest inclination of the string to the vertical after it is free from
the pulley is

8.2 Three equal particles A, B, C lie on a smooth, horizontal table in a straight

line. They are joined together by two taut light inelastic strings AB, BC,
where AB =BC =1. At time t = 0 the particle B is given a horizontal velocity
u perpendicular to ABC.
Write down equations of conservation of energy and momentum for
the subsequent motion of the system and show that, when either string has
turned through an angle 8, its angular speed is given by

Ie = u(l + 2 sin2 8)-112.

Hence show that A and C collide after a time lflu, where

f= fo1f/2
(l + 2 sin 2 8)112 d8,

and that B has then travelled a distance 1(2 + /)/3.

Show that

where E{k} is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind, namely

E{k} = fo 1f/2
{I - k 2 sin 2 8}1/2 d8.

8.3 A smooth semi-circular thin wire of radius a has two rings fixed at its ends
A and B. The total mass of the rings and the wire is mt. The rings can slide
freely on a. fixed, smooth, horizontal rod. A bead of mass m can move
freely on the wire and starts from rest at the end A of the wire. The
motion takes place in a vertical plane, and 8 is the angle which the radius
through the bead makes with the horizontal radius through A.
State, with reasons, whether or not the following quantities are con-
served:

(i) the horizontal momentum of the system;

(ii) the vertical momentum of the system;
(iii) the mechanical energy of the system;
(iv) the mechanical energy of the bead;
(v) the angular momentum of the bead about the centre of the semi-
circle.
 Exercises 235

Use the conservation laws to derive the equation

. 2g(mt + m)sin (J
(J2 = - - " - - - - -
a(mt + m cos 2 (J) .

Hence show that the time for one complete oscillation of the system is
I(a/g)1/2, where

1= Jo
1r(2(m
t
+ m cos 2 (J))1I2
(mt + m)sin (J
d(J.

8.4 Two particles have masses ml, m2 and position vectors rl, r2 respectively.
They influence each other by gravitational attraction and there are no
other forces.
Show that if re is the position vector of the mass centre and G is the
constant of gravitation,
(i) re is constant,
d2 (rl- r2)
(ii) -d2 (r1 - r2) = -11 1 13 '
t r1 - r2
(iii) (r1 - r2) x (il - f2) is constant,
d2 Gm~ (rl - Ie)
(iv) -d = - (ml + m2 )2 1
2 (II - Ie)
t II - re 13 '

where 11 is a constant which should be determined.

Show that if the orbit of ml relative to the mass centre is an ellipse, the
periodic time is the same as that for ml in its orbit relative to m2'
8.5 A system of mutually gravitating particles moves in such a way that the
position vector ci of the ith particle is given by Ii = aiA(t), where the ai are
constant vectors. Write down the equation of motion of the ith particle.
Obtain conditions which are necessary for the given motion to be possible.
Give the differential equation to be satisfied by A when the conditions
hold.
Given that all the particles recede to infinity, show that ultimately their
velocities will be constant.
8.6 Two particles PI, P 2 , of masses ml, m2 respectively, lie on a smooth
horizontal plane and are joined by a spring, of modulus A and natural
length I. Initially the particles are at a distance 1 apart and have velocities,
of magnitude Ut, U2 respectively, in the direction P t P2 • The motion is
wholly one-dimensional along the line joining PI and P2'
Show that the maximum and minimum lengths of the spring are
1(1 ± k) provided k < I, where

8.7 Two particles, each of mass m, are connected by a light elastic string of
236 Systems o[ Particles

natural length 1 and modulus of elasticity X. Initially the particles are at

rest on a smooth horizontal table with the string just taut. One of the
particles is then given a horizontal velocity of magnitude u at right angles
to the string. Prove that during the subsequent motion the length x of the
string satisfies the equation

(dtdx)2 = n (x -
2 1) 7 (x + 1) - (x -
(exI2 1)
) ,

where n2 = 2Xlmi and ex =mu 2/2Xl.

Show that if ex ~ I,

approximately. Hence show that

x =I + lexO - cos nt).

Show that if ex ;p I the length of the string varies between the limits I
and l(ex l /2 - 1) approximately.
8.8 A smooth block has mass mb and its upper and lower faces are horizontal
planes. It is free to move in a groove in a horizontal plane and a particle of
mass m is attached to a point on its upper face by an elastic string of
natural length I and modulus X. The string is stretched parallel to the
groove to a length (ex + 1) times its natural length and the system is
released from rest. The particle always remains in contact with the upper
surface of the block.
Show that the motion is periodic with the periodic time

( "A(mlmmb)
+ mb)
1I2( 21T + -;;4) .
8.9 Three particles, each of mass m, are free to move on a smooth horizontal
plane. The mutual force of attraction between each pair of particles is of
magnitude m 2 J1 times their distance apart. At time t = 0 the particles are at
points P, Q, R and have velocities "AQR, XRP, APQ respectively. Show that
their centre of mass remains at rest, and that each particle describes an
ellipse with periodic time T = 21T/(3IJ.m) I /2.
Show that the area of the ellipse is 2M T /3, where A is the area of the
triangle PQR.
8.10 Two gravitating particles, of masses ml and m2, start from rest an infinite
distance apart and are allowed to fall freely towards one another. Show
that, when their distance apart is a, their relative velocity of approach is of
magnitude {2G(ml + m2 )/a}1I2 , where G is the gravitational constant.
Impulses of magnitude F are applied to the particles in opposite
directions perpendicular to their line of motion at the instant when their
distance apart is a. Show how to determine b, their distance of closest
 Exercises 237

approach during the subsequent motion, and prove that when b ~a, it is
given approximately by the relation

b Fla ml +m2
a 2G mim~ .

8.11 A train consists of an engine, of mass me, and n trucks, each of mass m.
The train is initially at rest and each coupling has a length I of slack. Show
that if the engine starts to move forward and exerts a constant pull F, the
speed Uj of the train just after the jth truck has been jerked (inelastically)
into motion satisfies the difference equation

Solve this difference equation by the substitution

where A , B, C are constants to be calculated.

Hence show that the speed just after the last truck has been jerked into
motion is

8.12 A shell of mass 2m is fired vertically upwards with velocity v from a point
on a level stretch of ground. When it reaches the top of its trajectory it is
split into two equal fragments by an internal explosion which supplies
kinetic energy equal to mu l to the system. Show that the greatest possible
distance between the points where the two fragments hit the ground is
2uv/g if U ~ v or (u 2 + v2 )/g if u ;;;. v.
8.13 A shell of mass m explodes when in flight into n fragments, whose masses
are ml, m2, ... , m n . Show that the energy developed by the explosion is
such that the kinetic energy associated with the mass centre is unchanged.
Show that the kinetic energy relative to the mass centre is

I 2
- ~ ~ mimj Vi,',
4m i j

where Vij is the velocity of mi relative to mj (Vii = 0).

8.14 A shell moving through the air is broken into two portions, of masses m 1
and m2, by an internal explosion which imparts kinetic energy E to the
system. Show that the relative speed of the portions after the explosion is
{2(ml +m2)E/mlm2}'/2.
8.15 A particle of mass m is describing a circular orbit under an inverse square
law central force of attraction. It is split by an inner explosion into two
parts, of masses (1 - k)m, km. Show that if the first part is instan-
taneously brought to rest, the second part describes an ellipse provided
2e > 1.
8.16 An initially parallel beam of particles collides with a fixed smooth sphere
238 Systems of Particles

of radius a, and the particles are scattered without loss of energy. Show
that the effective scattering cross-section is

do = !1Ta 2 sin X dX,

where X is the scattering angle.

8.17 Apartic1e, of mass ml and velocity VI , is captured by a stationary nucleus.
A particle, of mass m2, is ejected from the nucleus with velocity V2
perpendicular to Vt. The rest of the nucleus has mass m3 and recoils with
velocity V3'
Let T 1 , T2 be the kinetic energies of mt, m2 respectively, and let E be
the energy absorbed in the reaction. Show that

8.18 A photon, of momentum kl' is absorbed by an electron initially at rest,

which instantly recoils and emits a second photon of momentum k2 in a
direction making an angle 8 with the direction of k t . The electron at rest
has an energy c2 mo and when moving with momentum p has an energy
c(c2 m~ + p2 )1/2 . The photons have energies ck I and Ck2 respectively.
Prove that

1 1 1
- - - =- (1 - cos 8).
k2 kl cmo

8.19 The mass m of a moving particle is a function of the speed v, and the force
required to accelerate the particle is equal to the rate of change of
momentum. Show that the energy equation can be written

I I Iv
- mv 2 + - 2 -dm dv + V = constant,
2 2 dv

where V is the potential energy.

Let

m = mo ( 1 - V2c )-1/2
2

Show that the appropriate energy equation is

V2)-lf2
( 1 -;?
moc 2 + V = constant.

Suppose that the particle moves along a straight line with V =! J,l m ox2 ,
where x is the distance of the particle from a centre of attraction O. Show
that the motion is oscillatory with the periodic time
 Exercises 239

where a is the maximum value of 1x I,

8.20 (i) Material is fed continuously from a hopper at rest on to a moving belt
at a mass rate m. Find the force required to keep the belt moving at a
constant speed v. Show that the power required is twice the rate of
change of kinetic energy. Why is the extra power required?
It may be assumed that the material sticks to the belt without
sliding.
(ii) An endless belt moves on rollers at each end. The axes of the rollers
are horizontal and parallel. The upper part of the belt is plane and
inclined at an angle (J to the horizontal. It is fed from a hopper, at a
constant rate 1m, with material which sticks to the belt until it reaches
the lower end, where it falls off. The distance travelled by the material
before it falls off is I. There is a constant force R resisting the motion.
Show that the steady state speed of the roller is
{R2 + 4m 2 gl sin (J}1I2 - R
v=

8.21 A uniform layer of snow, whose surface is a rectangle with two sides
horizontal, rests on a mountain slope of uniform inclination Q, the ad-
hesion being just sufficient to hold the snow while at rest. At a certain
instant, the uppermost line of snow starts to move downwards and collects
with it the snow it meets on the way. Kinetic friction between the snow
and the slope is negligible.
Prove that if v is the speed when a distance x of the slope has been
uncovered, then
d 2 2
- (x v ) = 2gx2sm
·
Q.
dx
Hence show that the moving snow has a constant acceleration
of!g sin Q.
8.22 A boat, of total mass m, is propelled at constant speed u through water
which offers a resistance equal to k times the speed.
At a given instant the boat springs a leak and subsequently takes in
water at a constant mass rate A. The boat sinks when the mass of water in
it is m. Show that the boat travels a distance

-mu (k
- -+-A0- r k / A) )
k+A A k

after springing the leak before sinking.

8.23 A train has speed v and mass m - At at time t. The decrease in mass
arises because of leakage in the wagons which allows the contents to pour
out. The train is subject to a driving force F and a resistance R. Show that

dv
(m - At)- =F-R.
dt
240 Systems of Particles

Given that the engine does work at the constant rate P, that there is a
resistance Uv, and that v = Vo when t = 0, show that

8.24 A cloud of water vapour moves with constant velocity u. A spherical drop
in the cloud increases its mass, by condensation, at a rate k 1 S, where S is
its surface area. It is subject to a constant gravitational acceleration g and a
resistance equal to k 2 S times the velocity of the cloud relative to the drop,
where kl and k2 are positive constants. Given that the drop is initially
very small, show that its trajectory is similar to that of a particle subject to
a uniform gravitational acceleration equal to kl g/( 4kl + 3k 2 ).
8.25 A rocket, of initial total mass mo, is fired from rest vertically upwards. It
propels itself by ejecting mass at a constant rate k with constant speed c
relative to itself. When all the fuel has burnt, the mass of the rocket is mi'
Show that if kclmog> I, the speed of the rocket at the instant of burning
out is c log(mo/md approximately.
A two-stage rocket is constructed from two rockets with the same
exhaust speed c. They each have a mass ratio mOlm1 equal to 4, but the
initial total mass of the first is twice that of the second. The second is
mounted on top of the first in such a way that it begins to fire just when
the first is burnt out and at this instant it is automatically released from
the first. Show that the speed attained by the second rocket is the same as
that of a single-stage rocket of mass ratio 8.
8.26 A rocket is fired vertically, starting from rest, and is propelled upwards by
projecting propellant at a constant relative speed c downwards. The
propellant burns for a time T and the ratio of the initial mass of the rocket
to the mass when the propellant is all burnt is R.
Write down the equation of motion and deduce that the rocket will not
rise from the ground initially unless

(R -OIR > gTlc

where g is the acceleration due to gravity, assumed constant.
Show that if this condition is satisfied, the maximum height attained is

2
c log2
---=-- - R cT(R logR - )
1 .
2g R-I·

Deduce that the maximum height can be increased by reducing the

burning time T.
8.27 A rocket leaves the earth's atmosphere with speed u at time t = O. It is
then at a distance a from the centre of the earth and moving radially. The
gravitational acceleration varies inversely as the square of the distance and
is equal to g at the distance a. The rocket ejects propellant backwards at a
constant speed c relative to itself. The total mass of the rocket and
remaining propellant is moe -kt at time t, where mo and k are positive
constants such that kc < g.
 Exercises 241

Show that the minimum value of u for which the rocket will escape
from the earth's gravitational field is (2a)1/2{gl/2 _ (kc)1/2}.
8.28 A ram-jet aeroplane, of constant mass m, moves horizontally with speed
vet). It takes in air, which is at rest, and ejects an equivalent mass of air at
the back with constant speed c relative to itself. The mass rate at which air
is taken in and ejected is mav per unit time, where a is a constant. There is
a resistance to the motion equal to mkrl' .
Calculate the change in momentum during a small increment in time,
and hence show that

dv
dt + av(v - c) + kv n =o.

For the case n =2, show that the speed v after the aeroplane has
travelled a distance x is given by

v = w - (w - vo)e -(:Ix,

where ~=a+k, vo«w) is the speed when x=O and w is the terminal
speed.
8.29 A pail, of large cross-section and mass m p , is made to move vertically
upwards with constant speed u. Water falls into it from a tank, a mass m
leaving the tank per unit time. The initial speed of the water is zero and
the first of the water reaches the pail when it is a distance h below the
tank. Show that if, after a further time t, the pail is at a depth x below the
tank, it then contains water of mass

m' =m{t + (2h/g)1/2 - (2X/g)1I2}.

Determine the rate at which mass is entering the pail and hence show
that the force required to maintain the speed of the pail is

(mp + m')g+ m{u + (2gX)1I2}2(2gx)-1I2.

8.30 A uniform chain of length I and weight W is hanging vertically from its
ends A, B which are close together. At a given instant the end B is released.
Find the tension at A when B has fallen a distance x(<Z).
(Ans.: ! W(1 + 3x/l).)
 9 Angular Vectors

9.1 EXISTENCE

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce a vector associated with rigid body
displacements, and to discuss its properties and applications.

Definition
A system of vectors ri(i = 1, 2, ... , n), which are displaced subject to the
constraints

(9.1.1 )

for all i, j is said to be displaced as a rigid body.

For the moment we add the further constraint

ri . ri = constant. (9.1.2)

We shall discuss later the effect of relaxing (9.1.2).

Conditions (9.1.1) and (9.1.2) are together equivalent to

ri. rj = constant (9.1.3)

for all i,j, including i = j. Geometrically the vectors are all of constant magnitude
and the angle between any two of them is constant. For future reference we
note that the vectors ri x ri can be added to the system in the sense that the
augmented system will still satisfy (9.1.3). This is so because the magnitude of a
typical vector ri x rj will depend on the constant magnitudes of ri, ri and the
angle between them. Furthermore the constant angles between three vectors ri,
rj, rk of the system are sufficient to determine the angle between rk and ri x rj,
which is therefore constant (see Example 1.5.4).
The vectors ri need not be interpreted as position vectors, but if they are it
will be seen that they are displaced according to the intuitive notion of a rigid
body, for which the distance between any two points remains invariant. The
effect of the additional constraint (9.1.2) is to restrict the displacement to a
rotation about an origin 0, which is fixed.
Let each ri be displaced to ri + ori in a way compatible with (9.1.3). Let the
displacement ori be of the form

(9.1.4)
 9.1] Existence 243

where Vj is independent of ot and 1Ej 1-+ 0 as ot -+ 0 for all i. Roughly speaking,

if ot is a measure of the magnitude of a small displacement, then Ofj = Vj ot to
the first order and Ej ot is the error term. From (9.1.3) we must have

(fj + OfJ • (f; + Of;) = fj. f;

or, with the help of (9.1.4),

Since this equation must be satisfied in the limit ot -+ 0, and since fj • v; + f; • Vj

is independent of Of, it follows that

fj • v; + f; • Vj =0 (9.1.5)

and in particular

fi • Vi = O. (9.1.6)

Theofem
If the rigid body displacements are of the form (9.1.4), and if the fi are not all
parallel, there exists a unique vector w such that

(9.1.7)

for all the vectors fi of the system.

If such a vector exists, it is unique. For suppose that both w and w' satisfy
(9.1.7), so that

(w - w') x fi = 0 (9.1.8)

for all vectors of the system. Since the vectors fj are not all parallel, (9.1.8) can
only be satisfied if w - w' is a null vector, so that w' = w.
Let ft, f2, f3 be three linearly independent vectors of the system. Such a
choice is always possible since, by assumption, we can choose ft and f2 to be
non-parallel. If an appropriate third vector does not already exist we can
augment the system with the vector f3 = f t x f2 which satisfies all the required
conditions. The associated vectors Vt , V2 and V3 cannot all be parallel since, by
(9.1.6), this would imply that ft, f2 and f3 are all perpendicular to Vt and
therefore are not linearly independent. Without loss of generality we assume that
Vt and V2 are not parallel.
If there is a vector w satisfying (9.1.7) for all i it must be perpendicular to all
the Vj' In particular it must be perpendicular to Vt and V2. and therefore of the
 244 Angular Vectors [9.1

form 00= CVt x Vz for some constant c. Now

ooxrl =C(VI xVz)xfi =-c(fl ,VZ)VI,

oox fZ = C(VI x vz) x fz = c(fz . VdV2 = -C(fl . V2)VZ,

where relations (9.1.5) and (9.1.6) have been used. It follows that 00 x fl = Vt
and 00 x f2 = Vz provided that C = -(fl' V2)-1 = (r2 . vd- l or

VI X Vz VI X V2
00=----=---. (9.1.9)
rl.V2 f2'VI

We also have the relation

(9.1.10)

Since we have shown that 00 x fj = Vj for j = 1,2, it follows that (9.1.10) is zero
for j = 1, 2 and for all i. It is also zero for i =j since both 00 x fi and Vi are
perpendicular to fi' We can therefore deduce that (00 x r3 - V3) . fj = 0 for j =
1, 2, 3. Now a vector whose scalar products with three linearly independent
vectors are zero must be a null vector (see Example 1.5.5). Since fl , f2' f3 are
linearly independent we must have oox f3 = V3' We have now shown that oox fj =
Vj for j = 1, 2, 3. It follows from (9.1.10) that (00 x fi - va . fj = 0 for j = 1,2,3
and for all i. Hence 00 x fj - Vi = 0 and the theorem is proved.
The situation when the fi are all parallel is that a linearly independent
reference triad of vectors, on which the above argument depends, cannot be
defined within the system. However, we can augment the system with vectors
which do have the desired property, for example if f2 and f3 are added such that
they form a mutually orthogonal triad with a vector f1 of the system, then an
angular vector 00 can be defined for the extended system and hence for the
original system. Because of the flexibility in the choice of the added vectors
there is not a unique vector w associated with the original system and it is clear
that, for any scalar "11., (00 + Ar1) x fi =Vi if 00 x fi =Vj for any vector fj parallel to
f1 . The component of 00 parallel to the system is therefore arbitrary and can be
chosen, for example, to be zero by appropriate choice of the displacements V2
and V3 associated with the added vectors f2 and f3'
To interpret 00 geometrically, let fj refer to the position vector of a point Pj,
and consider a representation of 00 passing through the origin. Then 00 x fi St
represents a displacement perpendicular to 00 and fj with magnitude equal to
w 8t multiplied by the length of the perpendicular PiN from Pi on to 00 (see
Fig. 9.1.1). The rigid body displacement is thus eqUivalent to an angular dis-
placement of magnitude W ot about ON, at least to first order. For this reason an
alternative presentation of a rigid body displacement about a fixed origin 0 is by
the introduction of a vector oe n whose magnitude is the angular displacement
Of! , and whose direction is that of ON, the axis of rotation. The rigid body
 9.1] Existence 245

Figure 9.1.1 Geometrical interpretation of angular vector.

displacement is then Deo x r, correct to first order. It should not, however, be

inferred that there is a finite angular displacement which has the same
properties. While it is possible to use an angular displacement and the direction
of its axis as the magnitude and direction of a vector, the direct sum of two such
vectors does not in general represent the resultant of the two angular displace-
ments carried out successively on a rigid body (see Example 9.1.1). Small
angular displacements can be combined in such a manner, and if De 101, De 2n2
are two small angular displacements of a rigid body, the final displacement is
equivalent to 08101 + De 2 0 2 and

(9.1.11)

for all points of the rigid body. However, the relation is correct only to
first order. It is not possible to defme vectors for which (9.1.11) is true
exactly when 081n1 and 08202 are small but non-zero displacements. In
spite of this we shall see that the vector W plays a significant role, especially
when we consider the continuous motion of rigid bodies.
So far the analysis applies only to a restricted rigid body displacement for
which both conditions (9.1.1) and (9.1.2) are satisfied. When (9.1.2) is relaxed,
we choose a reference vector, say r 1 , from the system. Then the relative vector
system r; = ri - rl will satisfy the stronger conditions, including (9.1.2), and an
angular velocity WI can be defined such that

and so (9.1.12)

When ri refers to the position vector of a point Pi, the more general
displacement ori of Pi consists of the displacement orl of PI, which is a
translation of all the Pi as a rigid body, together with the displacement or;
relative to PI, which is a rotation WI cSt to first order. In fact WI is independent
246 Angular Vectors [9.1

of the reference vector fl' For if a different reference vector f2 is chosen, we

have

8ri = 8f2 + {W2 x (ri - r2) +e~} 8t

=8r1 +{W1 x(r2 -f1)+Ez}8t+{wz x(ri-r2)+E~}8t (9.1.13)

since rz and 8r2 satisfy (9.1.12). Subtraction of (9.1.13) from (9.1.12) gives

(9.1.14)

Since (9.1.14) must hold in the limit 8t--'>- 0, we must have

(9.1.15)

for all vectors ri of the system. Provided the vectors ri are not all parallel,
(9.1.13) can hold only if WI = W2 = W say. Thus w is a property of the
displacement independent of the reference vector.

Example 9.1.1
In this example we consider a vector defined by a finite angular displacement
and its implications.
Let a rigid body be capable of rotation about a fixed point O. In an angular
displacement (J I about an axis in the direction of the unit vector nl, let the
point P of the body, with position vector r, move to the point PI, with position

N~---+--'f------~

o
Figure 9.1.2 Illustration for Example 9.1.1: finite rotations.
 9.1 ] Existence 247

vector rl . We can define a vector n 1 by the relation

(9.1.16)

which has the property that

rl -r=!nl x (r+rd (9.1.17)

and serves to determine rl in terms of rand n,., at least implicitly. To see that
relation (9.1.17) is satisfied, we first note that

where M is the mid point of PP1 (see Fig. 9.1.2). Also nt x OM has the direction
of PP t = rl - r and the magnitude of MN, where MN is the perpendicular to M
from the axis. Finally

2NM tan tOl = 2MPI =PPI =I rl - rI

and so the two sides of (9.1.17) have the same magnitude and the same
direction.
Note that, when 0 t is small so that I rl - r I is also small, we have

(9.1.18)

approximately. Thus n 1 is consistent with our previous description of a small

angular displacement, but it is clear that relations (9.1.18) are not valid for a
finite rotation.
Let.n2 be a second such displacement. If $11 and n 2 are performed
successively, so that P moves to P t and then to P2 , we have

(9.1.19)

Now there is a single vector, n 12 say, which represents a single angular

displacement that moves P to P2 so that

r2 - r = ! n 12 x (r + r2 ). (9.1.20)

The relationship between n 1 ,.$lz and n t2 is not the simple law of addition for
vectors, that is to say

We proceed to investigate the correct relation between these vectors. It follows,

 248 Angular Vectors [9.2
from (9.1.17) and (9.1.19), that

(9.1.21)

and that

4(rz -r)=2,$11 x(r+rd+2$1z x(rl +rz)

=2($11 +£1 z)x(r+rz)-2£1 1 x(rz -rl)+2$1 z x(rl -r)
=2($11 +$1z)x(r+rz)-$11 x{$1 z x(rl +rz)}
+ n z x {£1 1 x (r + rd}
=2(.Q 1 +£1z)x(r+rz)-{£1 1 .(rl +rz)}n z +{£1z .(r+rl)}£1 1
+ £1 1 . £1z(rz - r). (9.1.22)

With the help of (9.1.21), (9.1.22) can be written

(4-£11 .£1z)(rz -r)=2(nl +£1z)x(r+rz)-{.n 1 . (r+rz)}£1z

+ {£1z . (r+ rz)}£1 1
= {2(£1 1 +nz)-$1 1 x$1z}x(r+rz). (9.1.23)

Comparison of (9 .1.20) with (9.1.23) shows that

(9.1.24)

*
Thus $1 1Z £12 1 unless Al x £12 = 0, so that even the order in which the
displacements occur affects the result. Again, however, we see that the simple
vector relation

does hold approximately for small angular displacements, provided that the
second order terms are neglected.

9.2 ANGULAR VELOCITY

Let r;(t) (i =1, 2, ... ,n) be a system of differentiable vector functions of t. Let

lir; =r;(t + lit) - r;(t). (9.2.1)

 9.2] Angular Velocity 249

Then Vj, as defined in (9.1.4), is just the derivative of rj(t) since, by definition,

dri . lirj .
- = hm - = hm (Vj + Ej) = vi. (9.2.2)
dt or->'O li t or->' 0

If the system ri moves as a rigid body it follows, by a similar limiting process

applied to (9.1.12), that

dri drl
- =- + W x (rj - rl ) (9.2.3)
dt dt

for an appropriate vector 00. To give (9.2.3) a physical interpretation, let t be the
time and let the rj be the position vectors of points Pj moving as a rigid body.
Then (9.2.3) gives the velocity of Pi as the vector sum of the velocity of a
reference particle PI and the velocity relative to PI. The latter is determined by
a rate of rotation vector 00, now called the angular velocity. When drl /dt = 0 and
00 is a constant vector, Pi describes a circle with 00 as axis and with constant
angular speed w. The speed of Pi is wPiN, where PiN is the length of the
perpendicular from Pi on to the representation of 00 passing through PI. When 00
varies with time, it defines at time t an instantaneous axis of rotation, about
whi~h Pi instantaneously turns with speed wPiN. Note that relation (9.2.3) is
exact, since it is obtained by a limiting process in which lit -+ 0, and the term
00 x (ri - rd gives the relative velocity exactly. The angular velocity of a rigid
body, as opposed to an angular displacement, is definable as a vector without
approximation.
As before, the angular velocity 00 is independent of the particular choice of
reference vector rl since, with a second reference vector r2, we have

dri drl
- =- + 00 x (r· - rd
dt dt I

It is sometimes possible to find a point PI which, though not permanently at

rest, instantaneously has zero velocity. Such a point does not always exist but
when it does it is called an instantaneous centre, and the velocity of every other
point at the instant concerned is just the velocity relative to this point, namely
00 x (ri - rd. Note that fl need not be one of the original vectors of the system,
but when added it must satisfy the rigid body relationships so that PI moves
with the rest of the points Pi as a rigid body.
It is clear that if drl/dt is zero, then the velocities of all other points are
either perpendicular to w or zero. A simple example is that of a body rolling
250 Angular Vectors [9.2

without slipping along a fixed surface. The point of contact of the body with the
surface is then instantaneously at rest since there is no relative motion. An
instantaneous centre can always be found in two-dimensional problems, where
dri/dt has no z component for all i, and w= wk. Strictly speaking the instan·
taneous centre is not unique, for if one point of the rigid body has zero velocity,
it can be regarded as rotating about that point and all other points on the axis of
rotation will also have zero velocity. However two-dimensional problems can
usually be regarded mathematically as problems in the (x, y) plane, and the
instantaneous centre is then taken to be in that plane. Given two points P1, P2
of the body in the (x, y) plane, with non-parallel velocities v 1, V2 , the instan-
taneous centre is at the intersection of the lines through P 1 and P2 perpendicular
to V1 and V2.

~xar.nple 9.2.1
We consider the motion of a rod AB in a vertical plane such that its ends are
always in contact with the ground and with a vertical wall, as in Figure 9.2.1.
Let the instantaneous centre be I. Since the velocity of A is horizontal and
that of B is vertical, it follows that I must be at the intersection of the vertical
through A and the horizontal through B. Let the length of the rod be l and let its
inclination to the vertical be 8. Then the velocity of A is lAO = lO cos 8 along
le
OA and the velocity of B is IBe = sin 8 along BO. The point of the rod which
has minimum speed is the foot of the perpendicular from I onto AB.

B ------lI
I
(}
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0 A

Figure 9.2.1 Illustration for Example 9.2.1: construction of the instantaneous

centre I.
 9.2] Angular Velocity 251

lIxan1ple 9.2.2
A circular cylinder of radius at is enclosed inside a coaxial hollow circular
cylinder of radius a2 (>a 1 ). The space between them contains ball bearings of
radius Haz - ad. The inner and outer cylinders are.made to turn with constant
angular speeds Wt and W2 respectively. Show that if there is no slipping the
angular speed 0 f a ball is (W2 a2 - W tat )/ (a2 - a 1 ) and that the centre 0 f a ball
moves in a circle with angular speed (Wtat + W2a2)/(at +a2)' What is the length
of the circular arc on either cylinder with which the ball is in contact in unit
time?
In Figure 9.2.2 the rotations are assumed to be clockwise. In this particular
example the results hold for clockwise or anti-clockwise rotations provided that
the angular speeds are allowed to take both positive values (for clockwise
rotations) and negative values (for anti-clockwise rotations).
Let Wb, We be the angular speeds of the ball bearing and of the radius OC.
Let vq , Vr be the speeds of the points of the ball bearing in contact with the
inner and outer cylinders at Q and R (see Fig. 9.2.2). We have

Figure 9.2.2 Illustration for Example 9.2.2: the motion of a ball bearing
between coaxial cylinders.
 252 Angular Vectors [9.3

Hence

The period of rotation of a ball is

Also

Vc =Vq + WbQC =Wtat + HW2a2 - Wta.) =!(Wtat + W2a2),

W = -Vc = Wtat + W2a2

-"--"---"--=.
C OC at + a2

Hence C moves in a circle with periodic time

Let the radius OPt of the inner cylinder and the radius CP2 of the ball
bearing be vertical at zero time, when P t and P2 both coincide with P (see Fig.
9.2.2). In unit time the radius OPt will move through an angular distance Wt.
The radius OQ, where OQC is the line joining the centres of the coaxial circles
and the ball bearing, will move through an angular distance We. The arc on the
inner cylinder with which the ball bearing is in contact in unit time is

It is in contact with the same length of arc on the outer cylinder.

9.3 RELATIVE ANGULAR VELOCITY

A frame of reference can be regarded as a rigid body, and when it is in motion an

angular velocity can be defmed. Implicit in the statement that a rigid body or
frame of reference is in motion is the existence of a second frame of reference
relative to which the motion takes place. To complete the discussion it is
necessary to investigate the situation in which the second frame is in motion
relative to a third, giving rise to the composition of angular velocities.
Let F t , F 2, F 3 refer to three frames of reference in relative rotatory motion
about a common origin which is regarded as fixed. Let the angular velocity of Fi
 9.3] Relative Angular Velocity 253

relative to Fj be CJ>;j, so that W;j =-Wj;, and W;j =0 if i =j. The question to be
investigated is whether or not the angular velocities combine in such a way that

(9.3.1 )

This relation is, in fact, satisfied and enables us to attach a meaning to the
statement that a rigid body or frame of reference can have simultaneously two
or more angular velocities which are additive in the usual vector sense.
To verify (9.3.1) we consider three vector functions of time rl , r2 , r3, which
are fixed relative to F 1 , F 2, F 3 respectively, and such that

at time t. At time t + ot, we write

to denote the increment in ri relative to Fk • In particular the increment is zero if

i = k since ri is fixed relative to Fi . It follows that

(ori)k = ri(t + ot) - rit + ot) + rj(t + ot) - rk(t + ot)

= (ori)j + (orj)k'

If this relation is divided by otwe have, in the limit ot""* 0,

(dri) (dri) + (~)

dt k
=
dt j dt k
. (9.3.2)

Now ri moves as a rigid body with Fj, and Fi has an angular velocity W'ik relative
to Fk , so that

d:
( dr.) k =Wik x r. (9.3.3)

When this is substituted in (9.3.2), we get

W ik x r = Wij x r + Wjk x r
or (Wik - Wij - W jk) x r = O.

This must be true for any vector r, which is only possible if

Wik - Wij - Wjk =0

and relation (9.3.1) is verified.

254 Angular Vectors [9.4

9.4 ROTATING AXES

We have seen that if a frame of reference F 1 has an angular velocity w relative to

F l , then the derivative of a vector r fIxed in Fl is w x r relative to F 2 . We now
relax the condition that r is fIxed in F 1 and consider the relation between the
derivatives ofr in Fl and Fl'
We may regard Fl as fIxed, and denote the derivative of r relative to F2 as
dr/dt. To distinguish the derivative of r relative to F 1 we use the notation i; this
will be the rate of change of r as measured by an observer using F 1 as his frame
of reference. To be explicit, suppose that F 1 is a cartesian frame of reference
with unit vectors i,j, k parallel to the axes. If

r =xi +yj + zk

. dx. dy. dz
we have r=-I+-J+-k (9.4.1 )
dt dt dt'

dr dx. dy. dz di dj dk
but -=-I+-J +-k+x-+y - +z-. (9.4.2 )
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

Note that although the components (x, y, z) of a vector r depend on the axes
chosen, there is no ambiguity about their derivatives provided it is understood
that they are referred always to the same set of axes.
Since i,j, k are three vectors which move as a rigid body with angular velocity
w, di/dt = w x i etc., and so (9.4.2) may be written

dr/dt=r+wxr. (9.4.3)

If r is the position vector of a particle P, then (9.4.3) gives the velocity of P

relative to F2 in terms of its velocity relative to F 1 and the angular velocity of
F 1 relative to F2 . But the result is applicable to all vectors. For example

dw/dt = w+ W x W =W

so that the rate of change of w is the same in both frames. If dr/dt = v, we have

dv/dt = v+ W x v. (9.4.4)

But, by (9.4.3),

v=f+wxr+wxr, (9.4.5)

w x v = w x r + w x (w x r), (9.4.6)
 9.4 ] Rotating Axes 255

and substitution in (9.4.4) gives

(9.4.7)

The first term i' in (9.4.7) gives the acceleration of the particle as interpreted by
an observer using the rotating frame of reference. The second term wx r arises
only when the angular velocity varies, but the third and fourth terms, called
respectively the Coriolis acceleration and the centripetal acceleration, are present
even when the angular velocity is constant.
In Chapter 3 it was stressed that Newton's laws of motion are formulated
with respect to an inertial frame of reference, and such a frame has always been
assumed in previous applications. This does not mean, however, that we are
necessarily limited to such frames in all problems, and sometimes it is convenient
to use a frame which is not inertial. In such a case one must make appropriate
allowance for the acceleration in the equations of motion. If the position vector
r of a particle of mass m is defined relative to a frame of reference whose origin
o has an acceleration ao relative to an inertial frame, the equation of motion for
the particle is

where F is the force. If the frame of reference also rotates with angular velocity
00 relative to the inertial frame then, by (9.4.7), the equation of motion will be

F = m{ao + r + w x r + 200 x i+ 00 x (w x r)}. (9.4.8)

This equation will be interpreted in different ways by different observers. An

observer using the inertial frame would interpret the force on the particle as F,
but an observer using the rotating frame, and interpreting the acceleration of the
particle as i', would regard the particle as subject to the apparent force

F - m{ao + wx r + 200 x i+oo x (00 x r)}.

The difference would arise from the apparent extra force

-m{ao +w x r+ 200x i+ oox Coo x r)}

that the second observer would attribute to the particle. Whether these terms are
regarded as modifying the acceleration or the force is a question of point of
view. For axes fixed on the earth's surface, gravity is regarded as a force of
attraction between the earth and a neighbouring mass. The earth's rotation also
produces a centripetal acceleration, which is often regarded as a small modi-
fication to the earth's gravitational force. It is then called a centrifugal force.
256 Angular Vectors [9.4

Example 9.4.1
A smooth wire is bent into the form of a circle, of radius a, and rotates about a
vertical diameter with a prescribed angular velocity w(see Fig. 9.4.1). A smooth
bead slides freely on the wire.
Let r be the position vector of the bead relative to the centre of the circular
wire, and let i be the rate of change of r in the plane of the wire. The equation
of motion is then

i + wx r + 2w x i + w x (w x r) =m -I F + g, (9.4.9)

where F is the reaction of the wire, which will be perpendicular to the wire. Of
the terms on the left-hand side of the equation, Wx r and 2w x i are normal to
the plane of the wire, and serve to determine the appropriate component of F
when r and i have been found. The component of the equation of motion
perpendicular to r in the plane of the wire gives

a8 - aw 2 sin (J cos (J =-g sin (J • (9.4.10)

If we now assume that w is constant in magnitude as well as direction, equation

(9.4.10) can be integrated further to give

!o 2 - !w2 sin2 (J - ga- I cos (} =constant. (9.4.11)

Equation (9.4.11) can be dealt with using the general theory for an energy
equation with the pseudo-potential

U«(}) =-!w 2 sin2 (} - ga- I cos (J.

mg

Figure 9.4.1 Illustration for Example 9.4.1.

 9.4] Rotating Axes 257

In fact _~ma2 w 2 sin 2 () can be regarded as the potential energy of a centrifugal

force, which is conservative when w is constant.
The general theory of §6.5 shows that there are equilibrium positions when

U'((}) = _w2 sin () cos () + ga- I sin () =0,

that is when

provided that g < aw 2 •

Equilibrium is unstable when

U"((}) = _w 2 cos 2(} + ga- I cos () < o.

Thus () = 'IT is always unstable, and () = 0 is unstable if g < aw2 • A small
perturbation about cos () =g/aw 2 is then oscillatory with frequency

If g > aw 2 , there is equilibrium only when () =0 or 'IT, and () =0 is stable. The

frequency of a small perturbation about () = 0 is

If g = aw2 it is necessary to use a more accurate approximation. Near () = 0

the first approximation to equation (9.4.11) in this case is

(9.4.12)

where a is the value of () when (j = O. This equation also has oscillatory solutions,
although they are not harmonic. The periodic time is

where K is the complete elliptic integral with argument rI/2 (see Example
6.5.2).

Example 9.4.2 Larnwr Precession

A transformation to a rotating frame of reference can sometimes simplify the
equation of motion, as the following example illustrates. Suppose that an
electron, which has a charge e and mass m, moves in an electric field E and a
258 Angular Vectors [9.4

magnetic field B. Its equation of motion is

d2 r dr
m-=-eE- e-xB. (9.4.13)
dt2 dt

If the acceleration is expressed relative to a frame of reference rotating with

angular velocity w, the equation becomes

m{H wx r+ 2wx t+ wx (w x r)} = -eE - e(i+ w x r) x B. (9.4.14)

The terms in (9.4.14) which involve f can be eliminated by the choke w = eB/
2m and then

.. eE.
r=---w.xr+wx ( )
wxr.
m

If the magnetic field is substantially constant and sufficiently weak for the
second and third terms on the right-hand side to be neglected compared with the
first, the equation approximates to

r= -eE/m.
It follows that the effect of a weak magnetic field is to cause the trajectory
obtained by its neglect to precess slowly, with angular velocity w. This is known
as Larmor precession. If, for example, the electron is in orbit about a nucleus of
charge e', then E = e'r/r3 and so

.. -ee'1-
r= r mr.
3

This is an inverse square law of force and the orbit of the electron is an ellipse.
The addition of a weak magnetic field causes this ellipse to precess slowly with
angular velocity w about an axis through the nucleus.
The conditions required for the validity of the approximation follow from
the equation of motion. They are

where r is a typical length defining the orbit. For an ellipse this can be taken as
the semi-major axis a, and then the conditions are

where

Reference to (7.5 .15) shows that T is the periodic time of the electron in orbit,
so that 21T/T is the mean angular speed.
 9.5] Axes on the Earth '8 Surface 259

9.5 AXES ON THE EARTH'S SURF ACE

For many practical problems it is convenient to use a set of axes fIxed on the
earth's surface. The acceleration of a particle, as it appears to an observer using
such a frame of reference, will differ slightly from the acceleration relative to an
inertial frame because of the motion of the earth. The most significant effect
arises from the rotation of the earth about its axis, which amounts to 2ft radians
per sidereal day. This is equivalent to an angular velocity of magnitude

2n __
- - = 7·29 x 10 5 rad s 1. (9.5.1)
86 164

To define the frame of reference, we choose an origin 0 fixed on, or near, the
earth's surface at a distance BO from the earth's axis of rotation (see Fig. 9.5.1).
Let BO = b and let r be the position vector of a particle P relative to O. Let i,j, k
be a mutually orthogonal right-handed set of unit vectors such that i is hor-
izontal and points south, j is horizontal and points east, and k points vertically
upwards. Here horizontal means perpendicular to the vertical, and vertical means
the direction defined by a plumb line, which is a string fIxed relative to the

Figure 9.S.1 Illustration of the notation associated with axes on the earth's
surface.
 260 Angular Vectors [9.5

earth's surface and supporting a particle suspended from one end. Because of the
rotation of the earth, the direction of the vertical differs slightly from the
direction defmed solely by the earth's gravitational attraction. We therefore
denote the latter by mg', where m is the mass of the plumb bob, and distinguish
it from mg = -mgk, which is equal and opposite to the force measured by the
tension in the string of the plumb line.
If we assume that the point B has no acceleration relative to an inertial frame
of reference, the acceleration of the particle Pis

(9.5.2)

and the equation of motion is

(9.5.3)

where m now denotes the mass of the particle. The force F is the resultant of all
the forces except the earth's gravitational attraction mg'. The acceleration
d2 bjdt 2 of 0 arises from the earth's rotation with angular velocity w. It may
therefore be written

(9.5.4)

where the latitude A is the angle of elevation of the earth's axis of rotation above
the horizontal (see Fig. 9.5.1). With this substitution, equation (9.5.3) becomes

(9.5.5)

Let us now apply equation (9.5.5) to the bob of a plumb line fixed at the
point 0, so that the bob has zero acceleration relative to O. The force F will be
the tension in the string, which is defined to be -mg = mgk. Hence

0= gk + g~ + bw 2 (i sin A + k cos A), (9.5 .6)

where g~ is the value g' at O. In general the force of attraction g will vary from
point to point, partly because of the oblateness of the earth and partly because
it depends on the distance from the earth. In the general neighbourhood of a
fixed point near the earth's surface these variations are small (see §2.4). For
problems where they are small enough to be ignored, so that I g' - g~ I is
negligible, the equation of motion (9.5.5) can be written

(9.5.7)

for the general motion of a particle near the earth's surface. Since it is mgk
9.5] Axes on the Earth's Surface 261

which is readily measurable and which has in general the more immediate
practical significance, equation (9.5.7) is the form usually to be preferred.
To get some idea of the difference between g' and g, we can assume the earth
to be a sphere of radius re and that, approximately, b = re cos "A. Then, from
(9.5.6),

The maximum difference in magnitude occurs at the equator ("A = 0), where
, 2
go - g = re W
g g

approximately. The maximum deviation of g~ from the vertical occurs when

"A = 1[/4 and is rew2 /2g rad approximately. With

re = 6·37 x 10 6 m, W = 7·29 X 10-5 rad s-1, g= 9·81 m S-2,

we get re w2 /g= 3·45 x 10-3 , (9.5.8)

so that the modification is quite small.

We proceed on the basis of equation (9.5 .7). Since the axes defined at 0 by i,
j, k are rotating with angular velocity w, we have that

d2 r/dt2 = f + 2w x r + W x (w x r),

and the equation of motion now reads

mr = F - mgk - 2mw x r - mw x (w x r). (9.5.9)

Of these terms it is customary to neglect the centrifugal force -mw x (IW x r).
The ratio of its magnitude to mg is of the order rw 2 /g. Reference to equation
(9.5.8) giving the value of rew2/g shows that rw 2/g will be negligible in all
problems where r ~ re. The approximate equation of motion is then

mf = F - mgk - 2mw x i. (9.5.10)

On the other hand the Coriolis force, -2mw xi, gives rise to substantial
meteorological effects. When a pressure gradient is set up in the atmosphere the
air will initially tend to move along the gradient. But the Coriolis force, which is
always perpendicular to the velocity, tends to give the motion of the air a
component perpendicular to the pressure gradient. This in tum gives the Coriolis
force a component opposing the pressure gradient, and equilibrium is ap-
proached as the two forces tend to cancel each other. The air is then moving at
right angles to the pressure gradient rather than along it. This is called a
262 Angular Vectors [9.5

geostrophic wind. When a localised centre of low pressure is set up, the air will tend
ultimately to circle round it, giving rise to a cyclone. Consideration of the earth's
angular velocity shows that the air will circulate anti-clockwise in the northern
hemisphere, clockwise in the southern hemisphere, as viewed from above. At the
equator cyclones do not occur.
On a larger scale, the heating of the air at the equator causes it to rise, and to
be replaced by cooler air flowing from the poles. Thus a circulation is set up in
which the air flows from the poles to the equator, rises and returns in the upper
atmosphere. Because of the Coriolis force, the air does not flow due south or
north; it has a component of velocity towards the west, which causes it to blow
from the northeast in the northern hemisphere giving rise to the northeast trade
winds. Their counterpart in the southern hemisphere are the southeast trade
winds. The effect is more readily appreciated from the point of view of an
observer using an inertial frame of reference. Underneath the air flowing from
the poles to the equator is the earth rotating from west to east, and because of
this rotation the air has a component of velocity from east to west relative to the
earth.

Example 9.5.1
We consider the free trajectory of a particle under gravity, whose equation of
motion will be, from (9.5.9) with F = 0,

r = -gk - 2w x r - w x (w x r). (9.5.11)

Now the effect of rotation is small, and the terms on the right-hand side of
(9.5.11) are in decreasing order of significance. The crudest approximation is
therefore obtained by neglecting rotation completely and gives

r == -gk, r == u - gtk, (9.5.12)

where u is the initial velocity. An improved approximation is possible by the

substitution of (9.5.12) in the next most significant term of (9.5.11), namely
-2w x r. This gives

r= -gk - 2w x (u - gtk). (9.5.13)

The integral of (9.5.13) will now include a first approximation to the correction
for the earth's rotation and we have

r =u - gtk- 2wx (ut- tgt 2 k), (9.5.14)

(9.5 .15)

The term -w x (ut 2 - ~gt3k) represents the small correction to the position
vector. For a particle which falls from rest relative to the surface of the earth,
 9.5] Axes on the Earth's Surface 263

u = 0 and equation (9.5 .15) gives

x =0, y =twgt 3 cos A, Z =-tgt 2 •

The value of y represents the deviation from the vertical towards the east. If the
particle falls from rest at a height h above the ground then t = (2h/gY 12 and

y = ~w(8h3 jg)l!2 cos A,

when Z =-h. For h = 100 m this gives y =0·022 cos A. m. It is very small, and
difficult to detect because of extraneous disturbances in the atmosphere.
It is instructive to consider such problems using an inertial set of axes. For
simplicity we consider the case of a particle at the equator dropped from relative
rest at a height h above the surface of the earth. Let re be the radius of the earth
and let oW be its angular velocity. We use inertial axes and specify the position of
the particle by polar coordinates (re + r, 8) based on an origin at the centre of
the earth. Initially r = h,;= 0, 8 = 0, iJ = wand the equations of motion are

(re + r)2 () = constant = (re + h)2 w, r- (re + r)iJ2 = -g,

from which

e= ( 1 + r~ (h - r) )w + smaller terms, r = -g + smaller terms.

A first approximation to r is h - igt2 and this is sufficient to calculate the
correction term in 8. We now have

gt 2 ) w
. ( 1+-;:-
8= or 8= (t +gt3re )w
3

approximately. In this time the earth has rotated through an angle wt. The
relative angular displacement is therefore wgt 3 /3r e' This gives a relative linear
displacement on the surface of the earth of magnitude

as before.
For a projectile given a large initial speed in a nearly horizontal trajectory, as
in the flight of a rifle bullet, the term ut2 will dominate the term gt 3 k/3, at least
initially, and equation (9.5.15) approximates to

r = ut - ht 2k + wt2 cos A i x u - wt 2 sin A k x u. (9.5.16)

The term wt2 cos A. i x u represents a correction to the vertical displacement,

264 Angular Vectors [9.5

since u is almost horizontal. But k x u represents a deflection to the left of the

line of flight. It follows that the deflection is to the left if -sin A is positive, that
is in the southern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere there is a deflection
to the right.

Example 9.5.2 Foucault's Pendulum

For a spherical pendulum we have seen in Example 7.4.1, equation (7.4.9), that
the equation of motion takes the form

(9.5.17)

where I is the position vector of the bob relative to the point of suspension and
T is the tension (see Fig. 7.4.1). We now see, however, that this equation is in a
form suitable for use v,.'ith an inertial set of axes. Relative to axes fixed on the
earth's surface, equation (9.5 .17) becomes

I + 2w x i = -gk - Tllml, (9.5.18)

where the small centripetal acceleration has been neglected. The vertical com-
ponent of (9.5.18) gives

- Tl . klml = k . (gk + i + 2w x i)

= g- z + 20>. (r x k), (9.5.19)

where -zk is the vertical component oft and r is the horizontal component. For
small perturbations about the equilibrium position, the most significant term on
the right-hand side of (9.5.19) is g, the other terms being small in comparison.
Also I. k = -1 approximately and so, if only the most significant terms are
retained, we have, as before,

Tim =g.

The horizontal component of (9.5 .18) then reads

f+ 2w sin Ak x f = -Trlml = -grll (9.5.20)

since, on a linear theory, only the most significant approximation for Tim is
required. For the linear theory, then, it is sufficient to regard the inertial axes as
rotating relative to the earth with the effective angular velocity -kw sin A. Since
the bob performs elliptic harmonic motion relative to inertial axes, it follows
that, relative to the earth, the ellipse rotates with an angular velocity -w sin A
about the vertical.
Alternatively one can argue directly from equation (9.5 .20). In polar co-
 Exercises 265

ordinates, the components of (9.5.20) along and perpendicular to rare

r- ,.02 - 2w,.o sin A= -gr/l,

r8+ 2;8 + 2wr sin A= O. (9.5.21)

The substitution
e=~-wsinA (9.5.22)
gives, when, as usual, terms involving w 2 are ignored,
- ' ' 1 ' = -gr;/1 ,
r··..),2 r~+2r~=0. (9.5.23)

These are just the equations which describe elliptic harmonic motion using the
polar coordinates (r, ¢). Equation (9.5.22) implies that the resulting elliptic
trajectory will, in the (r, 0) plane, rotate about the vertical with angular speed
-w sin A. A more direct interpretation of the result is to regard the pendulum as
oscillating in space with the earth rotating underneath it with the effective
angular velocity kw sin A, which gives the pendulum an equal and opposite
relative angular velocity.
Foucault first suggested that the effect could be used to demonstrate the
rotation of the earth. Care is required in setting up such a demonstration,
because w is so small that the effect can be concealed by other small higher
order corrections.

EXERCISES

9.l A rigid body is free to rotate about a fixed point 0, which may be taken as
the origin of a set of cartesian axes.
Angular displacements, each of magnitude n/2, are performed succes-
sively, first about Ox and then about Oy. Show that the result is equiv-
alent to a single angular displacement 2n/3 about an axis in the direction
i + j - k.
9.2 A rigid body is given an angular displacement 0 about an axis through the
origin 0 in the direction of the unit vector n. If the point with position
vector r moves to the point with position vector rt, show that

rl = cos Or + sin On x r + (1 - cos O)(n • r)n.

9.3 The vectors rl, r2, r3 =rl xr2 are three vectors of a system which is
displaced as a rigid body subject to the constraints ri . rj = constant for all
i, j. The displacement ori of ri is of the form ori = (Vi +IEi) ot,where Vi is
independent of ot and I Ei I ~ 0 as ~ O. ot
(i) Show that
266 Angular Vectors

(li) A vector W is defined by the relation

W = r3"2{13 x V3 + (VI' I2)r3}.

Verify that w x Ii = Vi for i = 1,2,3 and hence deduce that w x ri = vi
for all i.
This is an alternative existence proof for the angular vector w which
uses a representation in terms of its components perpendicular and parallel
to I3.
9.4 Particles PI, P2 , P 3 are instantaneously at the points (0,1,1), (1,1,0),
(1,0,1) with velocities (u, v, w), (v, w, u), (w, u, v) respectively, referred
to a fixed frame of reference. What condition is required for the particles
to be moving as a rigid body? What is the angular velocity when this
condition is satisfied?
(Ans.: 2u = v + w, !(w - v)(1, 1, 1).)
9.5 A spool of film is free to rotate about its axis, and film is fed off the spool
at a constant rate. Show that the angular velocity of the spool is propor-
tional to (c - t)-1/2 , where t is the time and c is some constant.
9.6 A sphere, of radius a, rolls without slipping on a horizontal plane. The
velocity of the centre of the sphere is given to be aw x k, where k is a unit
vector vertically upwards. Show that the angular velocity of the sphere is
w + sk, where s is its arbitrary spin about the vertical axis.
9.7 Two discs, each of radius a, are attached to an axle of length Z. The
discs are able to rotate independently about the axle. The system rolls
without slipping on a horizontal plane and the centres of the discs have
velocities VI, v2' Show that the angular velocities of the discs are
rl(VI - v~dk + a-I k X VI and Z-1 (VI - v2)k + a-I k x V2, where kis
a unit vector vertically upwards.
9.8 A rigid sphere, of radius a, is pressed between two rough parallel planes
which rotate with angular velocities WI, W2 about fixed axes perpen-
dicular to the planes. A parallel plane through the centre C of the sphere
intersects these axes at 0 I and O 2 , where 0 Ie = r I , O2 C = r2 .
Show that the velocity of C is hWI x II + W2 x r2).
Show that C moves in a circle, with centre 0 and with angular velocity
hWl + (2), where 0 is such that

Show that the angular velocity of the sphere is

where A is an arbitrary scalar.

9.9 Two concentric spherical shells, of radii a I, a2 (>a I), rotate with constant
angular velocities WI, W2 respectively. A sphere of radius (a2 - a d rolls
without slipping in the annulus between the first two spheres. Show that
the centre of the third sphere describes a circle with angular velocity
(alWl +a2W2)/(al +a2).
 Exercises 267

9.10 A right circular cone, of semi-angle Q, rolls without slipping on a hori-

zontal plane with constant angular velocity w. If the contact generator of
the cone revolves around the vertical with angular velocity WI , show that
W sin Q= WI cos Q.
Show that the time for a complete revolution of a generator of the
cone is (21T sin Q)/WI.
9.11 Two points 0, P of a rigid body have velocities vo , vp and accelerations ao ,
a p respectively. The body has angular velocity w.
Show that
vp=vo+wxr,
dw
a p = ao + - x r + w x (w x r),
dt

where r = OP.
Hence show that, for some scalar A,

r = W -2 (v P - vo ) x w + AW,
I w x ·w 12r = w 2{(ao - a p ). w}w+ {(a o - a p ). w}W
+(a o -ap)x{wxw)}.

Deduce that there is no point for which vp = 0 unless Vo . W= 0 and

that in general there is one point for which a p = O.
9.12 A wheel moves in a vertical plane in a straight line along the ground. It
slips and rolls so that at time t the horizontal displacement of its centre is
x and its angular displacement is O.
Show that the point which instantaneously has zero velocity is at a
distance :i/O from the centre.
Show that the point which instantaneously has zero acceleration is at a
distance X/((j2 + (j4 )112 from the centre.
9.13 A disc, of radius a, rolls without slipping on a horizontal plane. The disc is
inclined at a constant angle Q to the horizontal and its centre C describes a
horizontal circle, of radius c, with constant speed v.

(i) Find the angular velocity of the disc, and show that it is horizontal if

(c 2 + 4a 2 )112 - C
cos Q =
2a

(U) Find the acceleration of the highest point of the disc, and show that it
is vertical if cos Q = a/c.

9.14 When the position of a particle is specified by spherical polar coordinates

(r, 0, rp) at time t, the components of the acceleration in the directions of
r, 0, rp increasing are respectively
268 Angular Vectors

1 d 2' '2
- - (r (J) - rsin (J cos (J ,{..
r dt 'I' ,

1 d 2 2 •
- .- - (r sin (J cp).
r sm (J dt

Derive these results from the theory of rotating axes.

9.15 Let
dr/dt = W x r, W·. r = 0,

where W is a vector constant in magnitude and direction. Show that

and hence that the general solution is of the form

r = a cos wt + w -1 W x a sin wt.

Deduce from this result that a particle whose position vector is r describes
a circle of radius a with angular speed w.
9.16 A beam of particles, each of mass m and charge e, is emitted from a point
source. The particles are subject to a uniform magnetic field B and they
have initial velocities whose components parallel to B are all of magnitude
v. The equation of motion for a particle is

Show that the effect of the field is to focus the beam at a point whose
distance is 2rrmv/eB from the source.
This result is used in electromagnetic focusing.
9.l7 A bead slides on a smooth circular wire which rotates in its own horizontal
plane with constant angular speed w about a vertical axis passing through a
point A of the wire. Let 0 be the centre of the circular wire and let (J be
the angular displacement of the bead from ~A. Show that

where c is a constant. Deduce that the position of stable equilibrium is

(J = rr and that small oscillations about this equilibrium position have
frequency w.
9.18 A smooth tube of narrow bore is bent into a circle of radius a. The circle is
fixed in a vertical plane which is constrained to rotate with constant
angular speed w about a fixed vertical axis not in the plane. A particle P,
of mass m, is free to move in the tube and is initially at the highest point
of the tube with zero relative velocity.
Show that when the radius vector to P from the centre of the circle
makes an angle (J with the upward vertical,
 Exercises 269

where ex = g/aw2 •
9.19 A particle is constrained to move in a straight line due north at latitude A
with constant speed u. Calculate the force on the particle.
(i) Show that if a train of mass m travels due north at 100 km h -I, there
is a small horizontal force on the eastern rail of about 2 x 10-4 mg sin A.
(w=7'29x 10- 5 rads- l ,g=9'8l ms- z ).
(ii) Show that if the point of suspension of a plumb line is constrained to
move due north with constant speed u, the line will be inclined at an
angle tan -I (2uw sin A/g) west of the downward vertical.
(iii) The free surface of a liquid moving in the same way sets itself
perpendicular to the direction of the plumb line, so that there is no
apparent tangential force on the liquid. Show that if a tidal current
runs due north in a channel of breadth b, the height on the east coast
exceeds that on the west coast by an amount 2buw sin A/g.
For the Irish Channel show that this is about 1'6 m. (b = 90 km,
u= 1·5ms- l ,sin'A=0·8).
9.20 A particle is projected with speed u on a smooth horizontal plane at
latitude A. Show that, approximately, the particle will describe an arc of a
circle of radius u/(2w sin 'A), where w is the angular speed of the earth.
9.21 Relative to axes rotating with angular velocity w, the equation of motion
of a particle subject to a constant gravitational force can be written in the
form
r= -gk - 2wx i - w x (wx r).

On the assumption that the effect of rotation is small, show that the
third approximation to the trajectory of a particle falling from rest at
r = 0 is

In the case of the earth the final term is negligible. Indeed the
refinement is not strictly justified. It is comparable in magnitude with
errors already incurred in the neglect of local variations in g.
9.22 A projectile is fired due north, from a point on the earth's surface whose
latitude is A, at an angle ex to the horizontal, where ex> 0, 'A < n/2. Show
that the point where it strikes the earth will be east of the vertical plane
through the point of projection if tan ex < 3 tan 'A.
9.23 A particle moves freely near the surface of the earth. Derive an approxi-
mate equation of motion for the particle in the form

f+ 2wx i = g.

A particle is projected vertically upwards with speed u. Show that

when it returns to the ground there is a deviation to the west equal to
4wu 3 cos A/3i.
9.24 Let 0 be a point fixed on the earth's surface. Let a be the position vector
270 Angular Vectors

of 0 relative to the centre of the earth. Let the force on a particle of mass
m, arising from the attraction of the earth, be mg'(r) when the position
vector of the particle relative to 0 is r.
Show that the equation of motion of the particle is

r + 2w xi + w x (w x r) + w x (w x a) = g'(r).

Show that when r ~ a this can be approximated to

r + 2w xi + w x (wx r) = -gk + g{r - 3(k. r)k}/a

where -gk = g'(O) - w.x (w x a).

Show that for a projectile the term g{r - 3(k . r)k} /a will be more
significant than the term w x (w x r).
Solve the equation

r + gk = -2w xi + g{r - 3(k. r)k}/a

on the basis that the terms on the right-hand side are small and of the same
order of magnitude.
9.25 A satellite travels round the earth in a circular orbit of radius a with
angular velocity w. A set of axes is defined with the origin at the satellite,
the x-axis along the radius vector from the centre of the earth to the
satellite and the y-axis in the direction of motion. Show that a particle
moving freely in the vicinity of the satellite has the approximate equation
of motion

r + 2w x i - 3w2 xi = O.

Assume that r ~ a and that the mutual attraction between the particle
and the satellite is negligible.
10 Moments

10.1 FIRST MOMENT

This chapter is devoted to the introduction of three different types of moment

and their properties. The definitions are independent of the postulates of
dynamics; rather they are extensions of the vector algebra introduced in
Chapter 1. However, the discussion is a necessary preliminary to the next
chapter whiGh deals with the dynamics of rigid bodies.
For a set of scalar quantities mj (i = 1,2, ... ,n) associated with a discrete set
of points Pj, the first moment relative to some origin 0 is defined as LjmjOPj.
We have already met a special case of this notion when the mass centre of a
point mass distribution was introduced in §8.l as the point C such that

(10.1.1)
or, equivalently,
(10.1.2)

Another special case is the geometrical centre or centroid, for which each point
is given equal weighting. Then we have

nOC =~OPj.
j

For economy of notation we shall continue to use m as an arbitrary weighting

factor, and refer to C as the weighted centroid. When a mass distribution with its

*
associated mass centre is being discussed, this will be made clear in the context.
Note that the position of C is well defined by (10.1.1) provided Ljmj O.
The following general results are of practical use in the calculation of the
position of the weighted centroid.
Let a distribution mj at Pj (i = I, 2, ... ,n) have the weighted centroid C1 •
Let a second distribution mj at Pj (j = n + 1, n + 2, ... ,p) have the weighted
centroid C2 • Then the two distributions taken togeth~r have a weighted centroid
which coincides with that of Ljmj at C, and Ljmj at C2 • For we have that

OC = l:jmjOPj + l:jmjOij = (l:jmj)OC, + (l:jmj)OC2

Ljmj + l:jmj (l:jmj) + (l:jmj)
272 Moments [10.1

from which the result follows. The result clearly generalises to a distribution
involving several subdivisions. As a simple example, the distribution m j , m2 , m 3
at the points P j , P 2 , P 3 is such that m2 at P2 and m3 at P3 have a weighted
centroid Cj on P2 P 3 , where m2P2 C1 = m3Cj P 3 • Then mj at Pj and m2 + m3 at
C1 have a weighted centroid Con PjC j , where m j Pj C=(m2 +m3)CC j . The
weighted centroid of the original system coincides with C.
An immediate corollary of the above result is that if a distribution can be
divided in such a way that the weighted centroids of the separate subgroups are
at a given point, or on a given line, or on a given plane, then the weighted
centroid of the whole distribution coincides with the given point, or lies on the
given line, or on the given plane. Thus, for example, a distribution of pairs of
points, each pair having the same weighting m and equal and opposite position
vectors relative to some point C, has its weighted centroid at C. Such a
distribution is said to have central symmetry. Again two equally weighted points
which lie on either side of a given line (or plane) and are equidistant from the
line (or plane) have a weighted centroid on the line (or plane). Any distribution
of such pairs of points will also have a weighted centroid on the line (or plane).
Note that it is not necessary for the pairs of points to be mirror images.
Equation (10.1.1) is readily generalised to include a continuous distribution.
This extension will be required when dealing with the dynamics of rigid bodies.
Let each point P of a given region have associated with it a density per), which is
a function of the position vector r of P (see Fig. 10.1.1). If an elementary
volume l57 containing P has a weighting om, the density at P may be regarded as
the limit
om dm
p= lim - = -
IiT->O Or dr'

on the assumption that such a limit exists. In particular, if om is the mass of the
element or, then p is just the mass density. It follows that the mass of the given
region is

jp(r) dr,

o
Figure 10.1.1 The position vector of a point P contained in an elementary
volume or of a continuous distribution.
10.1] First Moment 273

where the integration is taken over the volume of the region concerned. The first
moment is defined as

Jrp(r) dr
and the weighted centroid is the point e whose position vector is given by
oe = frp(r) dr. (10.1.3)
fp(r) dr

An important special case is the uniform distribution, for which p = constant.

The centroid is then given by

oe =frdr (10.1.4)
fdr'

With an appropriate interpretation of dr, the results can be used to calculate the
first moment and the position of e for a continuous distribution in one, two, or
three dimensions (line, surface, or volume distributions).

Example 10.1.1
Let the line density along the x-axis be proportional to xn. It follows, from
(10.1.3), with dr = dx, that the weighted centroid of a line distribution OA, of
length a, along the x-axis is a point e 1 such that

oe l =
r~ax n n dxdx =--2
+1 n +1
a. (10.1.5)
OX n+

The calculation is similar for a surface density distribution p = poxn over the
rectangular surface with adjacent sides OA, oflength a, and OB, of length b (see
Fig. 10.1.2). Relation (10.1.5) then gives the x coordinate of the weighted

B
- ---------------l
I
1
b
I
I
I

jY~..u-"
I
I
---...
o x dx C1 A
a - - - - ' - - -.....

Figure 10.1.2 Illustration for Example 10.1.1.

274 Moments [10.1

centroid C2 • The formal calculation, with dr = dx dy in (10.1.3), is

- IUg rPox n dx dy
OCz =
IUob PoX n dx dy
(i I~ x n+ 1 dx IS dy + jJ~ xn dx IS y dy)
=
I~ xn dx IS dy
n+1
= - - ai+!bj. (10.1.6)
n+2

Example 10.1.2
Let us consider the centroid of a uniform density distribution over the following
regions (see Fig. 10.1.3):

(i) the two straight lines OA, OB;

(ii) the area of the triangle OAB;
(iii) the surface of a cone with vertex 0 and plane base;
(iv) the volume of a cone with vertex 0 and plane base.

In (iii) and (iv) the cross-section of the cone can be arbitrary.

. (i) For uniform line distributions along OA, OB we consider an elementary
strip, parallel to AB, which cuts off elements Sa from OA and Sb from OB.
Since, by similarity, SalOA = SblOB it follows that the weightings of Sa and Sb
are in the ratio OA/OB. Hence the weighted centroid of Sa and Sb is a point C 1 ,
say, which divides the strip in the same ratio. By similarity, the weighted
centroid of each such elementary strip will lie on the line OC 2 , where C2 lies on
AB and BC 2 /C 2 A = OA/OB. It follows that the centroid C of the original
distribution lies on OC 2 • For a given width, the weighting of each elementary
strip is independent of its position and so the determination of C is equivalent to
the determination of the centroid of a uniform line density distribution along
OC z . This is a particular case of Example 10.1.1 with n =0, and (10.1.5) gives
OC =!OC 2 •

o o

A
Figure 10.1.3 Illustration for Example 10.1. 2.
10.2] Second Moment 275

(ii) When the strip refers to an element of area, the centroid C1 of the strip
clearly lies on the median of the triangle OAB, and C2 is then the mid point of
AB. It follows that the centroid of the triangle lies on OC 2 • To find the position
of C on OC 2 we note that, as the position of C 1 varies along OC 2 , the weighting
of an elementary strip varies in proportion to x = OC 1 since, by similarity, the
length of the strip parallel to AB varies in proportion to x. We therefore consider
a line density distribution along OC 2 proportional to x. With n = 1 in (10.1.5)
this gives OC = ~ OC 2 •
(iii) For a distribution over the surface of a cone, the elementary slice refers
to a closed contour, whose thickness at a point P on the circumference is
proportional to OP, the distance from the vertex O. The weighted centroid C 1 of
this slice is that of a line distribution around the circumference, with a density
proportional to the distance from 0 of the points on the circumference. By
similarity, C1 will lie on OC 2 , where C2 is the weighted centroid of the
circumference of the base, weighted according to the distance from O. This part
of the calculation will depend on the details of the base profile.
When C2 is known, the position of C on OC 2 is obtained from a line
distribution along OC 2 with density varying in proportion to x = OC 1 since, as x
varies, the circumference of the ring, and hence its weighting, varies in propor-
tion to x. This gives OC = ~ OC2 .
(iv) For a solid cone, C2 is clearly the centroid of a uniform density
distribution over the surface of the base of the cone. To calculate the position of
C on OC 2 , a line distribution along OC 2 with weighting proportional to the
cross-sectional area of an elementary slice is required. Since the variation of this
area is proportional to Xl , we have, from (10.1.5) with n =2, OC =~OC2.

10.2 SECOND MOMENT

The second moment about a given axis, of a set of scalar quantities mi associated
with a set of points Pi, is defined as

(10.2.1)

where Pi is the perpendicular distance of Pi from the axis. It is often referred to

as the moment of inertia, particularly when the mi refer to point masses.
Let Pi have position vector ri relative to an origin 0 on the given axis, let n be
a unit vector along the axis and let (} be the angle between ri and n, as in Figure
10.2.1. We have

pr = rt sin2 e = (n x ri?
=rr - rr cos2 (} =rr - (n . ri? ,
and so 1= "EmiPr = "Emi(n x ri)2 = "Emz{rr - (n . ri)2}. (10.2.2)
i i i
276 Moments [10.2

Pi

Figure 10.2.1 The notation used in the discussion of second moments.

The analysis may be carried still further with the choice of a set of cartesian
axes based on 0 such that rj has components (X{,Yi, Zi) and n has components
(nx, ny, nz), with ni + n~ + n~ =1. Then we have

I = ~mi {(n~ + n;, + n; )(xl + yl + zl) - (nxxi + nyYi + nzzi)2}

I

where, with some judicious rearrangement, it may be shown that

The coefficients lxx, Iyy, I zz are just the moments of inertia about the
respective coordinate axes Ox, Oy, Oz. The coefficients Iyz, Izx, Ixy are called
products of inertia. It follows that, with a knowledge of these six coefficients,
the moment of inertia about any line through 0, with direction cosines
(nx, ny, n z ), may be calculated using (10.2.3).
Although we shall not prove it here, it is in fact true that there always exists a
set of axes based on 0 for which I yz =Izx =Ixy =O. They are called principal
axes and the associated moments lxx, I yy, I zz are called principal moments of
inertia. Relation (10.2.3) for the moment of inertia about a line through 0 with
direction cosines (nx, ny, n z ) simplifies to

(10.2.5)

when principal axes are used. The simplicity resulting from their use makes such
axes a desirable choice in practical applications.
10.21 Second Moment 277

It is sometimes possible to recognise the principal axes. For example suppose

that the distribution has synunetry about two perpendicular planes, so that to
each point there corresponds an equally weighted image point relative to either
plane. The principal axes at any point on the line of intersection of the planes
are the line of intersection itself and the lines in the planes that are perpen-
dicular to the line of intersection.
If two principal moments of inertia Ixx and Iyy are equal, the body is said to
have kinetic synunetry about the third axis. It may be clear from geometrical
synunetry when this is the case. For example, at a point on the axis of a body of
revolution, or of a pyramid with square base, the moments of inertia are the
same about all axes perpendicular to the axis of synunetry.
It follows from (10.2.5) that, if Ixx = Iyy, then I = Ixx for all lines through 0
in the (x, y) plane, for then nz = 0 and n; + n~ = 1.
If all three principal moments of inertia are equal, then

the moment of inertia is the same for all axes through 0 without restriction and
the products of inertia will vanish for any set of axes. This is referred to as total
kinetic synunetry. It is well to remember that for this to be so it is not sufficient
that Ixx =Iyy =Izz . It is also necessary that the axes are principal ones so that
the products of inertia vanish.
It is often convenient to introduce a length k, called the radius of gyration,
defined by

(10.2.6)

It is an inunediate consequence of the defmition that several distributions,

having second moments /1 =(:~;m)lki, 12 =(l:m)2k~ ... about a given axis,
have together a second moment given by

when considered as a single distribution. A useful special case is that in which

each subdivision has the same radius of gyration k. Then

(10.2.7)

and so k is also the radius of gyration of the complete distribution.

Theorem of Parallel Axes

Let k be the radius of gyration of a system about a given axis. Let kc be the
278 Moments [ 10.2

Figure 10.2.2 Illustration for the parallel axes theorem.

radius of gyration about a parallel axis through the weighted centroid C of the
system Then

(10.2.8)

where d is the perpendicular distance between the axes.

In order to prove this simple and useful result, it is convenient to choose an
origin 0 on the given axis such that OC is along the common perpendicular to
the two axes and hence OC = d. Let n be a unit vector parallel to the axis, let ri
be the position vector relative to 0 of a typical point Pi with weighting mi and
let ri be the position vector of Pi relative to C (see Fig. 10.2.2). The radius of
gyration about the given axis is given by

( ~mi ) k 2 = ~mi(n x ri)2 = ~mj(n x d + n x ri)2

I I I

= ~mi{d2 + (n x ri)2 + 2(n x d) . (n x ri)}

i

= ( tmi )(d2 + k~) + 2(n x d). (n x 7miri )

Since Limiri = 0, by (10.1.2), the last term is zero and so, finally, we obtain the
result k 2 = d 2 + k~ .

Theorem of Perpendicular Axes

This theorem is applicable to plane distributions only. Let the plane be defined
by the axes Ox, Oy of a cartesian system Oxyz. Let Pi be a typical point with
weighting mi and coordinates (Xj,Yi, O) (see Fig. 10.2.3). Let kx, ky, k z be the
 10.2] Second Moment 279
Y

Yi

o x
Figure 10.2.3 Illustration for the perpendicular axes theorem.

radii of gyration about the axes Ox, Oy, Oz respectively. It follows at once that

and hence that

k z2 =k2x +k2y' (10.2.9)

Finally we note that the results of this section generalise immediately to

continuous distributions of density and all the theorems so far discussed are
applicable. The generalisation of (10.2.6) is simply

(10.2.10)

where Pi is the distance from the given axis, and p is the density at the field
point associated with the continuous distribution.

Example 10.2.1
As in Example 10.1.1 and Figure 10.1.2, let the line density along Ox be
proportional to xn. The radius of gyration k oy about an axis Oy perpendicular
to Ox is given by

(10.2.11)

We can also infer the following related results.

280 Moments [10.2

(i) About an axis inclined at an angle a « n 12) to Ox, the radius of gyration is
koy sin a, because the distance from the axis of every point in the distribu-
tion is reduced by the factor sin a compared with the distance when
a = n12.
(ii) From Example 10.1.1, the weighted centroid C is at a distance (n + 1)al
(n + 2) from O. Therefore, by the parallel axes theorem, we have

2 -_ key
koy 2 + (n+I)22
- - a,
n+2

and so

2
key -
_ {nn ++ 3I - (nn ++ 2I )2} a 2 _ en + l)a
- (n + 2)2 (n + 3) ,
2
(l0.2.12)

where key is the radius of gyration about an axis through C parallel to Oy.
In particular, for a uniform density distribution (n = 0), we have

k oy
2 =a 2 /3 , cky
2 =a 2 /12 . (10.2.13)

(iii) The calculation is essentially unchanged for a surface density P = poxn over
the rectangular surface with sides OA=a, OB=b (Fig. 10.1.2). The formal
calculation is

k2 - r:..:o=-"'0-i:-_
fb px 2 dx dy
_"-
oY - fUS p dx dy
_ °
f a0 x n + 2 dx fb dy
- f~xn dx fS dy
n +1 2
=--a
n+3

as before. The result might also be inferred from a subdivision of the

rectangle into elementary strips parallel to OA, each of which has the radius
of gyration koy given in (l0.2.11), which is therefore the radius of gyratio\1
of the complete distribution. The product of inertia Ixy at 0 is given by

Ix = -
y
f° f°
a b
pxy dx dy =- J f° poxn+ly dx dy =-Po 2(n +b2) .
0
a b an + 2 2

(iv) For a uniform density distribution over the rectangle, the radius of gyration
about the centroid C, where OC = ! (OA + OB), is given by k~y = a 2 112 for
an axis parallel to Oy. By analogy, we have k~x =b 2 /12 about an axis
through C parallel to Ox. By the perpendicular axes theorem, the radius of
gyration about an axis through C perpendicular to the plane Oxy is there-
10.21 Second Moment 281

fore given by

(10.2.14)

The principal axes at C are parallel to Ox, Oy and their mutual perpen-
dicular Oz, since the products of inertia vanish by symmetry. The radius of
gyration k about any other line through C with direction cosines
(nx, ny, n z ) is given, with the help of (10.2.5), by

(10.2.15)

Note that, for a uniform square of side a, the radius of gyration about any
line through C in the plane ofthe square (so that n z = 0) is such that

(10.2.16)

since n~ + n~ = 1. Thus the radius of gyration of a uniform square is the

same about any coplanar line through C.
(v) Now consider a uniform density distribution through the volume of a
rectangular parallelepiped with sides parallel to Ox, Oy, Oz. The radius of
gyration about an axis parallel to Oz through the centroid C is still given by
k~z = (a 2 + b 2 )/ 12. In particular, for a uniform cube of mass m and side a,
the principal moments of inertia at C are all equal to ma 2 /6. From (10.2.5),
the moment of inertia about any line through C with direction cosines
(nx,ny,nz)is

(l0.2.17)

since n is a unit vector. A uniform cube therefore has the same moment of
inertia about any line through its centroid.

Example 10.2.2

(i) The radius of gyration of a uniform line density around the circumference of
a circle, of radius a, is equal to a about an axis Oz through the centre 0 and
perpendicular to its plane. This follows immediately from the fact that
every element of the distribution has this radius of gyration.
About perpendicular axes Ox, Oy in the plane of the circle, the radii of
gyration are equal by symmetry. From the perpendicular axes theorem,
they must therefore be equal to a/2112. It is clear from symmetry that this
is the radius of gyration about any axis through 0 in the plane of the circle.
(ii) For a uniform surface density over a circular disc, of radius a, the radius of
282 Moments [10.2

Figure 10.2.4 Illustration for Example 10.2.2.

gyration about Oz can be calculated from a decomposition into elementary

rings, of radius r and thickness or, each of which has a radius of gyration r
and area 2rrr or (see Fig. 10.2.4). Their moment of inertia is 2rrpr 3 or. By
integration we have

a
where m= fo 2rrpr dr =rra 2 p.

Hence

By symmetry and the perpendicular axes theorem, it follows that the

radius of gyration about an axis through 0 in the plane of the disc is a12.
(iii) For a uniform surface density over the surface of a spherical shell of radius
a, we consider the radii of gyration about three mutually perpendicular axes
Ox, Oy, Oz through the centre O. From symmetry they are all equal. Let
(x, y, z) be coordinates of a typical point on the surface of the shell, subject
to the condition x 2 +y2 + Z2 = a2 • We have

and so
 10.3] Vector Moment 283

Hence, by symmetry,

(10.2.18)

ia
and k 2 = 2 for any axis through O.
(iv) For a uniform volume density throughout the volume of a sphere of radius
a, we can calculate the radius of gyration about any axis through 0 from
that of elementary spherical shells of radius r. The volume of the elementary
shell is 41Tr2 or, its moment of inertia is

~r2 . 41Tpr 2 br = ~1Tpr4 or

and so, by integration, we have

where

Hence (10.2.19)

(v) The radii of gyration calculated in (i) - (iv) are also appropriate for, respec-
tively: (i) a semicircle; (ii) a semicircular disc; (iii) a hemispherical shell;
(iv) a solid hemisphere. This follows from the fact that the two halves which
constitute a complete circle or sphere have, by symmetry, the same radius
of gyration. It must therefore be the same radius of gyration as that of the
complete configuration. Note that the semicircular distributions have the
same radius of gyration about any coplanar axis through O. The hemi-
spherical configurations have the same radius of gyration about any axis
through O.

10.3 VECTOR MOMENT

The moment of the ordered pair of vectors r, F is defined to be r x F. The

moment is simply a function of the two vectors defining it, but in applications it
is useful to regard r as the position vector of some point P relative to some origin
0, and to regard the line of action of F as passing through P. Vectors with
different lines of action are then to be distinguished and they are called line
vectors to indicate the restriction. The advantage of this interpretation is that
the line of action of F is sufficient to defme the moment about a particular
origin, since r x F is the same for the position vector of any point on the line of
action of F. For if r' is the position vector of P', as in Figure 10.3.1, we have

r' x F =(r + PP') x F =r x F,

284 Moments [10.3

o r

Figure 10.3.1 The notation used in the discussion of vector moments.

since pp' and F are parallel vectors with zero vector product.
The combined moment of several line vectors F 1, F 2 , ••• all of whose lines of
action pass through the point P is

r x F 1 + r x F 2 + ... = r x (F 1 + F 2 + ... ),

which is the moment of a line vector passing through P equal to their resultant.
For a general system of vectors the notion of a resultant is still applicable, in the
usual sense of a free vector. But for a system of line vectors it is useful to
introduce the following definition of equivalence.

Definition
Two systems of line vectors are said to be equivalent if: (i) they have the same
resultant; (li) they have the same moment.
It is sufficient that they have the same moment about one point; it can then
be shown that they have the same moment about all other points. For let
Fj, Fj be typical members of the two systems, and let Pj, pj be points on their
respective lines of action. If we are given that

~Fi =~Fj, ~OPi x F j =~OPj x Fj

I J I J

then, for any other origin 0', we have that

~O'Pj X Fj = ~(O'O + OPj) x Fj

i i

=0'0 X ~Fj + ~OPj x Fj

i i

= 0'0 x ~F~
• J
+ ~OP~
• I
x F~I
J I
10.4 ] Parallel Vectors 285

= ~(O'O
•
+ op)
J
x F~J
J
- , x F'j.
= ~O'Pj
j

Any system of concurrent vectors, with resultant R, is equivalent to a single

line vector R passing through the common point. However, we shall see that for
a general system of vectors it is not always possible to obtain a single equivalent
vector.

10.4 PARALLEL VECTORS

Let a typical vector of a system of parallel vectors be Fi n, where n is a fixed unit

vector, and let Pi be a point on its line of action. The moment of the system
about an origin 0 is

Now ~FiOPi =R OC, R = ~Fi'

i i

and this defines a point C, the weighted centroid of the Fi associated with the
points Pi. A necessary condition here is that the resultant R must not be zero,
and provided this is satisfied the system is equivalent to a single vector Rn whose
line of action passes through C. Note that the position of C is independent of the
direction of n.
A particular application of this result is to the gravitational forces acting on a
system of particles (or, in the limit, to the continuous distribution of parallel
forces acting on the elements of a continuous distribution of mass). Here
Fi = mig, R '£imig is the total weight, n is in the direction of the downward
=0

vertical and C is the mass centre. Thus a system of gravitational forces is

eqUivalent to a single force, namely the total weight acting through the mass
centre. In this context C is called the centre of gravity.
Note that if the mass system moves as a rigid body, the position of each
element is fixed relative to a frame of reference moving with it. Hence so is the
position of the mass centre, which is therefore fixed in the body. But whereas
the result is precise for the mass centre, it is only approximate for the centre of
gravity because the gravitational attraction of the earth is towards its centre, and
the forces on masses in different positions are not strictly parallel. If this is taken
into account, the concept of a centre of gravity ceases to be appropriate.
However, the error incurred in the neglect of this refinement is small for
situations involving length scales which are small compared with the radius of
the earth.
286 Moments [ lOA

r
P 1 r - - - - - - 7 I P2
F

Figure 10.4.1 Illustration of a couple.

We return to the general system of parallel vectors, and to the special case
R = 0 for which there is no single equivalent vector. The most that is possible by
way of reduction is to separate the vectors into two groups, those for which
Fi > 0, and those for which F j < O. Since 'LiFi =1= 0 for each group, there is a
single equivalent vector for each group separately. These two vectors will be
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and each will have a definite line of
action. Apart from the trivial case in which the two lines of action coincide and
the system is equivalent to a null vector, the equivalent system consists of two
equal and opposite parallel vectors a definite distance apart. Such an entity is
called a couple and no further reduction is possible. We list below three
important properties of couples.

(i) A couple has the same moment about any point. Let PIP 2 be the common
perpendicular to the lines of action of equal and opposite line vectors F and
-F (see Fig. 1004.1). The moment about any point 0 is

This is a vector perpendicular to the plane of the couple and of magnitude

\ P 2 P 1 \\ F \, which is independent of O.
(ii) Two couples are equivalent if they have the same moment, since the
resultants are zero in both cases and so equal.
(iii) Two couples are together equivalent to a third couple. Again the resultants
are zero in both systems, and we have merely to find a couple whose
moment is the sum of the separate moments. Note that the moment is by
definition a vector, and it is the vector sum of the constituent moments that
is required. The result can clearly be generalised to include an arbitrary
number of couples.
It is clear that a couple is defmed by its moment, say M, and in future it
will be referred to as a couple M.
10.5] Reduction of a System of Line Vectors 287

10.S REDUCTION OF A SYSTEM OF UNE VECTORS

An arbitrary system of line vectors is not in general equivalent to a single line

vector, as we have seen in the particular case of a couple. The simplest equivalent
system is a combination of a line vector and a couple. To see this let Fj, localised
at r" be a typical line vector of the system with moment rj x Fj about some
chosen origin O. This line vector is equivalent to a line vector F; at a together
with a couple Mj = rj x Fj, since the resultants and their moments about 0 are
the same. The original system is thus equivalent to a system of line vectors Fj,
localised at 0, and couples Mj. The concurrent line vectors are themselves
equivalent to a single line vector R = ~iFi through a and the couples are
equivalent to a single couple M =~jMj.
The couple M depends on the choice of origin but the resultant R does not.
The system (R, M) at a is equivalent to (R, M + 0'0 x R) at a' (see Fig. 10.5.1).
Only in the special case R =0 is the system equivalent to a couple independent
of the origin.
If R =1= 0 let us suppose that M has a component pR parallel to R and a
component d x R perpendicular to R. A change of origin to a' produces the
couple
pR + d x R + 0'0 x R.

A choice of a' such that 00' = d reduces to zero the component of M

perpendicular to R. No choice of origin is possible which will eliminate the
component of M parallel to R. The system (R,pR) is called a wrench, and p is
called the pitch of the wrench.
Coplanar systems of line vectors are always equivalent to a couple if R = 0 or
to a single line vector appropriately chosen if R =1= O. For M must be perpen-
dicular to the common plane, and hence to the resultant R, so that p is always
zero.

Example 10.5.1
We have already seen that, in general, a system of line vectors is not equivalent

M+O'O xR
Figure 10.5.1 Equivalent systems at 0 and 0'.
288 Moments [10.6

to a single line vector. One might, however, consider the possibility that such a
system is equivalent to two line vectors, one of which acts along a prescribed
line.
Let 0 be a point on the prescribed line, and let n be a unit vector defining its
direction. We assume that the given system is equivalent to the force and couple
combination (R, M) at 0, and look for an equivalent system consisting of
F 1 = Fl n at 0 and F2 = R - Fl n along a suitable line. Let the position vector of
a typical point on the line of F 2 be r relative to O.
The couple M can arise only from F 2 , since F 1 has no moment about O.
Hence we have

rxF 2 =rx(R-Fln)=M.

This condition requires that F2 be perpendicular to M, so that

In order to satisfy this condition Fl , which is not yet determined, is chosen so

that

M.R
Fl = - - .
M.n
Note that this can only be done provided M . n =f= 0 and so the prescribed line
cannot be chosen in a completely arbitrary fashion. It must not be perpendicular
toM.
With Fl and hence F2 determined, the relation r x F2 = M is, in effect, an
equation giving the line of action of F2 . To derive an explicit expression for r,
we write it in the form

r =a +AF2 ,

where A is an arbitrary scalar, and choose a so that a, F2 and M are mutually

perpendicular. Then a is well defined and is given by

F2 xM
a=--2-'
F2

10.6 WORK OF A SYSTEM OF UNE VECTORS

Let a system of line vectors Fi be localised at points Pi with position vectors rj.
Let the system be eqUivalent to

R=~Fi and M=~(ri-rl)xFi

i i
 Exercises 289

at Pt. Let the rj suffer a small rigid body displacement ~ri defined by a
translation ~rt of P t and an angular displacement 66n about Pt. We then have

~ri =~rt + ~8n x (ri - rl), (10.6.1)

1::Fj . ~rj =1::Fi . ~rl + 1::Fi • {«SOn x (ri - rd}

i i i
=R . ~rl + M . ncS8. (10.6.2)

This expression is the work of the system correct to the first order, which is
sufficient for our purposes. Note that only R, M and the small rigid body
displacement are required to evaluate (10.6.2). Since R, M are the same for all
equivalent systems, it follows that the work done in any given rigid body
displacement is the same, to first order, for all equivalent systems.
We note in particular that the work done in any small rigid body displace-
ment is zero, to first order, for a null system in which R = M = o. Conversely
(10.6.2) can only be zero for all small rigid body displacements if R = M = 0 and
the system is equivalent to a null vector. These results form the basis of the
discussion of virtual work in Chapter 12.
If the riare differentiable functions ofa parameter t and, as in §9.1,

where 1Ei 1-+ 0 as cSt -+ 0, we can divide (10.6.2) by cSt and take the limit as
cSt -+ 0 to get, exactly,

1::Fi . Vi =R . VI + M . w. (10.6.3)
i

The work of the system over a finite interval of t is then

f~Fi.dri= f~Fi.Vidt= f(R.v1 +M.w)dt. (10.6.4)

I I

EXERCISES

10.1 The lines QS, RT intersect at 0, and P is a point such that PT = RO.
Show that the centroids of uniform density distributions over the areas
QRST and PQS coincide.
10.2 Establish the following rule, known as Routh's rule.
For the bodies listed below, the moment of inertia about an axis of
symmetry of a uniform density distribution with total mass m is

m
-(sum of squares of the perpendicular semi-axes),
n
290 Moments

where

.3 for a rectangle or a rectangular parallelepiped,

n = { 45 for an ellipse,
for an ellipsoid.

10.3 An isosceles triangle ABC is such that AB = AC, BC=a and the
perpendicular height from A to BC is h. Show that a uniform density
distribution over the area ABC has a radius of gyration equal to
(h 2 /2 + a2 /24)1/2 about an axis through A perpendicular to the plane
of ABC. What is the interpretation of this result as: (i) h -+ 0; (ii) a -+ O?
Deduce that the radius of gyration of an n sided regular polygon,
about an axis through its centroid perpendicular to its plane, is given by

where h is the radius of the inscribed circle.

Verify the correctness of this result for the special cases n = 4, n -+ 00.
10.4 A wheel consists of a rim, which is a ring of mass mr and radius a r , a hub,
which is a disc of mass mh and radius ah, and n spokes, which are rods
each of mass ms and length (a r - ah).
What is the moment of inertia of the wheel about its axle?
(Ans.: mra~ + ~mha~ + ~nms(a; + a~ - arah).)
10.5 Show that the moment of inertia of a uniform density distribution over
the surface of a parallelogram is:

(i) mh2/12 about an axis through the centroid parallel to one pair of
sides, where m is the total mass and h is the perpendicular distance
between the pair of sides;
(ii) m(a 2 + b 2 )/3 about an axis through C perpendicular to the plane of
the distribution, where 2a, 2b are the lengths of the adjacent sides.

10.6 The two sets of axes Oxy, Ox'y' have a common origin 0 and lie in the
plane of a two-dimensional distribution of matter. The angle between Ox'
and Ox is a. Show that
, .
x' = x cos a + y sin a, y = y cos a - x sm a.

Show that

Ix'y' =Ixy cos 2a - !(Ixx - Iyy) sin 2a.

Deduce that the two values of a for which Ix'y' = 0 differ by Ti/2 and
hence that the principal axes are perpendicular.
10.7 A plane distribution of matter has the same amount of inertia about two
lines which lie in the plane and meet at a point O. Show that the
 Exercises 291

distribution either has kinetic symmetry about an axis through 0 per-

pendicular to the plane, or that the two principal axes in the plane are
equally inclined to the two given lines. Show that if the distribution has
the same moment of inertia about three lines through 0 in the plane then
it must have kinetic symmetry.
10.8 Let a typical point P of a system have c'Oordinates (x, y, z) and weighting
m. Show that

'"
~myz = (~m)yczc + ~my I z , ,

where Yc, Zc refer to the coordinates of the weighted centroid C and

I ,
Y = Yc +Y ,z = Zc + Z •
Suppose that one of the principal axes at 0, say Ox, passes through C.
Verify that the principal axes at C are parallel tQ those at O. If the
principal moments of inertia at 0 are lxx, lyy, lzz, show that, at C, they
are Ixx,Iyy - (~m)c2 ,Izz - (Lm)c2 , where c = OC.
Show that the principal moments of inertia at one of the corners 'Of a
uniform cube of mass m and side 2a are ima 2 , lfma 2 , l,}ma 2
10.9 Find the centroid of a uniform density distribution over: (i) a semi-
circular wire; (ii) a semicircular disc; (iii) a hemispherical shell; (iv) a
solid hemisphere.
Calculate the principal radii of gyration 'Of the above distributions
about the geometrical centre 0 and the centroid C.
CAns.: The centroid C lies on the radius of symmetry. As a fraction of
the radius, OC is: (i) 2/1(; (ii) 4/31(; (iii) !; (iv) ~.
As a fraction of the radius the principal radii of gyration at 0 are:

At C the c'Orresponding results are:

(i) 1/2112, «1T 2 - 8)/21T2)1I2,«1T2 _4)/1T2 )1/2;

(ij) 1/2, «91T2 - 64)/361T 2 )1/2, «91T 2 - 32)/181T2 )1/2;
(iii) (2/3)112, (5/12)1/2, (5/12)112;
(iv) (2/5)112, (83/320)112, (83/320)112.)

10.10 A circle in the (x, y) plane has radius a and centre at the 'Origin of
coordinates. A second circle has radius a/2 and centre at (a/2, 0).
Find the centroid of the area between the two circles.
Find the principal radii of gyration at the 'Origin of coordinates and at
the centroid.

( .(_ :: ) ((~)1I2 (!.!)1I2

Ans..
6
,0 ,
16
a,
48
a (11)112)a ,
'24

(C )112 a,C~4y/2
56 a, (~r2 a).)
292 Moments

10.11 The mutually perpendicular edges of a uniform rectangular block are of

lengths 20, 2b, 2e, respectively. If these edges are used as coordinate axes
Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively, show that

10.12 Three uniform line distributions OX, OY, OZ, each of length i, lie along
the coordinate axes. Show that any axis through 0 is a principal axis with
associated moment of inertia 2mP /9, where m is the total mass. Show
that the principal moments of inertia at the centroid Care

Show that relative to axes parallel to the original axes, but with the
origin at C, the associated moments of inertia are all equal to mi 2 /6 and
the products of inertia are all equal to mZ 2 /36.
10.l3 Three line vectors have lines of action passing through Pi, P22 3
respectively. They are represented in magnitude and direction by OQi ,
OQ2, OQ3, where Qi' Q2, Q3 are the mid points of P2 P 3 , P 3P i , P i P2
respectively. Show that they are equivalent to the system represented by
OP i , OP 2 , OP 3 passing through Qi, Q2, Q3'
10.l4 The system of line vectors

i x (F x i), j x (F x j), k x (F x k)

pass through the points with position vectors

i x (r x i), j x (r x j), k x (r x k),

respectively. Prove that they are equivalent to a single line vector 2F

passing through the point !r.
10.l5 A system of three wrenches is equivalent to a null vector. Show that their
axes are all parallel to one plane and that there is a common transversal
perpendicular to all the axes.
10.l6 A system of line vectors has a resultant R and a moment M about an
origin O. Given that the system is equivalent to a wrench (R, pR), show
that p = R. M/R 2 and that the axis of the wrench is given by

RxM
r=--+AR
R2

for arbitrary A.
10.l7 Show that a system of line vectors is equivalent to a null vector if their
moments about two points are both zero and their resultant has no
component in the direction of the line joining these two points.
10.18 Investigate the possibility of equivalence between a general system of line
vectors, and a combination of two line vectors acting at two prescribed
points.
10.19 A typical mass m of a system has a position vector r relative to the mass
 Exercises 293

centre C. A distant point P has position v.ector rp and rp ~ r for all r of

the system.
Show that the gravitational potential at P arising from the mass system
is
Gm
Vp=-:I;! !
rp - r

=-G -
rp
(
~m+ - 3
1 (Ixx+1yy+l -31)+'" ) ,
2rp
zz

where Ixx + Iyy + I zz = ~mr2 and I is the moment of inertia of the mass
system about CPo
Let there be a particle mp at P. Show that the moment about C oft~e
forces on the system arising from the attraction of mp is approximately
_3Gmp
M - - - 5- :I; mer x rp)(r . rp).
rp
Show that, relative to the principal axes at C of the system, this expres-
sion can be written

10.20 A system of n particles, of mass mj and position vector ri (i =

1,2, ... , n), are in motion under the action of the mutual forces of
gravitation which act between each pair of particles. The centre of mass
of the system is at rest at the origin O. Show that
n Gmimj(rj - rj)
mifi = :I;
j=l !rj-ri!3
r*i
Show that the potential energy of the system is

V=-.!. i iGmjmj .
2i=lj=1!rj-rt!
i*j
Let the three moments of inertia referred to coordinates at 0 be lxx,
Iyy,/zz. Derive the Lagrange-Jacobi identity, namely

d2
dt 2 (Ixx+Iyy+Izz}=4(T+E),

where T is the kinetic energy and E = T + V is the total energy of the

system.
Note that Ixx +Iyy +Izz , and hence the identity itself, does not
depend on the particular choice of coordinate system at O.
11 Rigid Bodies

11.1 EQUATIONS OF MOTION

We start from the fundamental equation F = rna for the motion of a single
particle. It follows immediately that

~F = ~rna, ~r x F = ~r x rna, (11.1.1)

where the summation is over a system of particles. For economy of notation the
suffix i labelling a particular particle is omitted in (11.1.1), so that F represents
the resultant of the external and internal forces on a typical particle of mass rn,
position vector r and acceleration a. When the internal forces form a null system
(that is, a system with zero resultant and zero moment), as is the case when they
occur in equal and opposite pairs in the same line, they do not contribute to the
left-hand sides of either of equations (11.1.1) and the summation is then
confined to the external forces only. The same is true of a rigid body if it is
regarded as a system of particles obeying the same rules. There are, however,
logical difficulties associated with this assumption, one of which is that there are
limiting processes involved in the mathematics since rigid bodies are modelled as
continuous distributions of matter. Another difficulty is that a model in which
the internal forces occur in equal and opposite pairs acting along the same line is
not realistic, since there are electromagnetic forces involved which do not have
this property. Indeed the internal forces in real solids are not adequately
described by classical mechanics. However, we can proceed with the dynamics of
rigid bodies if we assume that equations (11.1.1) are valid, with the summation
confined to the external forces only. Since this assumption is justified under
conditions which are weaker than those invoked for a system of particles, it is
better to accept the equations themselves as basic postulates and to regard their
derivation from the motion of a system of particles as a motivation rather than a
proof. This point of view makes the minimum necessary assumptions, and
no discussion of the internal forces of cohesion is required. The ultimate
justification, as always, depends on the correspondence between theory and
observation.
We use the notation

~F = R, ~r x F = M, (11.1.2)

where F now refers to a typical external force. Note that the resultant R
depends only on the external force system but that, in general, the couple M
depends also on the reference point 0 relative to which r is measured. When this
11.1 ] Equations of Motion 295

dependence on 0 needs to be stressed the couple will be written Mo , but when

no confusion is likely to arise the suffIx will be omitted.
We shall henceforth assume that the equations

I-F =R = ~ma, ~r x F =M =~r x rna (11.1.3)

are valid for any system of particles or rigid bodies or combinations of particles
and rigid bodies. These equations imply that the system of external forces is
equivalent, in the mathematical sense of § 10.3, to the force and couple combi-
nation (R, M) which is in turn equivalent to the system of mass accelerations rna.
They do not contain all the information about the dynamics of a general system,
but for the particular case of a rigid body they are just suffIcient to determine
the motion completely when combined with appropriate initial conditions. It is
for this reason that they are now to be discussed.
When we calculate the moment in (11.1.3) it is not essential that the position
vector r be referred to a fixed origin, and for the motion of rigid bodies it is
often convenient to take an origin moving with the body. However, care is then
required in the calculation of the acceleration a, because d2 r/dt2 is merely the
relative acceleration. In Figure 11.1.1 let 0 have acceleration a o and let a typical
particle m have position vector r relative to J. The acceleration of m is then
d2 r
a=a + -2
o dt
d2 r
and so ~r x rna = (~mr) x a o + ~r x m dt 2 '

d dr
= mere x ao + dt ~r x m dt ' (I 1.1.4)

where the suffix c in general refers to the mass centre C and, in particular,
me = ~m is the total mass. Note that the second term on the right-hand side
depends only on the motion relative to O. It is the moment of the relative mass
acceleration and can be written in the alternative form

d2 r d dr
~rx m- =-~rx m-
dt 2 dt dt

o 30

Figure 11.1.1 Acceleration of a particle m when referred to a moving point O.

296 Rigid Bodies [ ILl

because dr/dt x m dr/dt = O. Now k(r x m dr/dt) is just the moment of the
relative momentum about 0, more usually called the relative angular momen-
tum. It follows that the moment of the relative mass acceleration is equal to the
rate of change of relative angular momentum.
We use the notation
p= kmV=meVe (11.1.5)

for the linear momentum of the system, and

dr
L=krxm- (11.1.6)
dt
for the relative angular momentum. Note that L, like M, depends on the
reference point 0 and will be written Lo when this dependence needs to be
stressed.
We can summarise the foregoing notation and results in the equations

kF = R = kma = meac = dp/dt, (11.1.7)

kr x F = M = kr x ma = mefe x a o + dL/dt. (11.1.8)

The dynamics of rigid bodies is founded on equations (11.1.7) and (11.1.8). In

applications it is necessary to choose a reference point 0 about which moments
are taken, and a wise choice can simplify the mathematics considerably. It is
particularly recommended that moments are calculated about a point for which
the term mefe x ao in (11.1.8) vanishes. We discuss this case separately.

(i) The special case fe X a o = O.

When this condition is satisfied, only the relative motion need be considered
in the moment equation (11.1.8), since L refers to the relative angular mo-
mentum as given by (11.1.6). We shall see later that there are a few applications,
such as the rolling of a circular body, where it will be useful to use a reference
point 0 for which fc X a o = 0 because fc is parallel to ao. But the two most
useful conditions in practice are ao = 0 and rc = O. That ao = 0 is a possibility
might have been foreseen, for if 0 has no acceleration itself the relative
acceleration and the actual acceleration of m are the same when referred to O.
If, for example, a rigid body rotates about a fixed point, then it is natural to
take moments about this point. The second possibility, namely rc = 0, can
always be satisfied by taking moments about the mass centre, so that 0
coincides with C. This possibility is particularly valuable because it always
exists.
For the special case under consideration, equations (11.1.7) and (11.1.8)
reduce to

R = dp/dt, M = dL/dt, if fc X a o = O. (11.1.9)

11.11 Equations of Motion 297

*'
(ii) The general case re x 80 0.
In most applications it is safer and advisable to take moments about a point 0
for which re x ao = 0, othelWise this term makes it awkward to handle (11.1.8)
since ao is not known a priori. If there is a compelling reason to take moments
about a general point for which re x 8 0 =#:'0, it is better to proceed as follows.
We first note, from case (i) with moments taken about the mass centre C, that

R= dp/dt, Me = dLe/dt, (11.1.10)

where Me and Le now refer specifically to the moment of the external forces
an(the relative angular momentum about C. Next we appeal to §10.5 to infer
that the system of external forces, which is equivalent to the vector couple combi-
nation (R, Me) at C, is therefore equivalent to (R, M = Me + re x R) at 0
(compare Fig. 11.1.2 with Fig. 10.5.1). The corresponding results for the mass
acceleration system are that it is equivalent to (dp/dt, dLc/dt) at C and
(dp/dt, dLe/dt+ re x dp/dt)at 0.1t follows immediately that, without restriction,

R=dp dL dp
M=_e +r x- (11.1.11)
dt' dt e dt'

where M is now the moment of the external forces about O. The rate of change
of angular momentum, however, is calculated relative to C with a correction
equal to the moment about 0 of dp/dt localised at C.
It is also possible to deduce the moment equation given in (11.1.11) from
first principles, and it is perhaps instructive to see what lies behind the analysis
leading to this equation. The basic relation is M = ~r x rna and we rewrite this
relation in the form

On the right-hand side, the first term is

ctp
R 01

ctp
R dl

Figure 11.1.2 Equivalent systems at C and O.

298 Rigid Bodies [ 11.1

The second tenn ~rc x ma is, by (11.1.7), rc x dp/dt and the third tenn
~ {(r - rc) x mac} is zero because ~mr = (~m )rc. The final result agrees with
the second of equations (I 1.1.11 ).
One useful application of equations (11.1.11) is that for which the system
divides naturally into several component subsystems, for example two or more
rigid bodies moving under constraints. In these circumstances the notion of a
single mass centre for the whole system is not so convenient, and it can be more
useful to preserve the identity of each component in the calculation of the mass
accelerations and their moments. For this purpose we observe that, although
(11.1.11) was derived for the system as a single entity, the arguments are still
valid if the system is split into several components. Equations (11.1.11) are then
replaced by

(11.1.12)

where the notation implies that each tenn is calculated from the linear momen-
tum and the relative angular momentum of each subsystem separately. Note that
the calculation for a particular subsystem is referred to its own mass centre.
The results so far are applicable to any system of particles. We now specialise
to the case of a rigid body and consider the point 0 to be moving with the body.
Then the velocity relative to 0 of any particle of the body is just w x r, where w
is its angular velocity. The relative angular momentum about 0 is

dr
L= ~r x m dt = ~mr x (w x r) = ~m{r2w - (r. w)r}. (11.1.13)

If axes based on 0 are specified, the components of angular momentum take

the form

Lx: Ixxwx + Ixyw y + Ixzwz , }

Ly -Iyxwx + Iyywy + Iyzw z , (11.1.14)
Lz =Izxwx +Izywy +Izzwz ,
where the coefficients Iij satisfy Iij = Ij; and are just the moments and products
of inertia as defined by (10.2.4). For axes which move with the rigid body, these
coefficients will depend only on the geometry of the body, and variations in the
angular momentum will arise only through variations in
11.1 ] Equations of Motion 299

Equations (11.1.14) simplify when the axes are chosen as principal axes,for
then the products of inertia all vanish. To denote that principal axes are being
used, we introduce the notation

(11.1.15)

(11.1.16)

and then (11.1.17)

The components of the angular momentum are now proportional to the cor-
responding components of the angular velocity. Note, however, that L and 00 are
not in general parallel vectors. For this to be so the body must rotate about a
principal axis.
The simplest application of the foregoing theory is to a rigid body which is at
rest. Then the linear and angular momenta are both zero and so, by (11.1.7) and
(I 1.1.8), the external forces form a null system. Conversely, if the 'externaf
forces form a null system, it follows from (11.1.7) and (11.1.8) that the linear
and angular momenta are constant. Thus the velocity of the mass centre is
constant and, by (11.1.14) or more directly (11.1.17), the angular velocity is
constant. In particular if they are zero at one particular instant, they remain zero
and the body is permanently at rest.
The dynamical applications will be confined initially to two-dimensional
motion, in which all particles move parallel to the (x,y) plane and ,00= wk, say.
Usually only the component of relative angular momentum perpendicular to the
plane of the motion is required, namely L z = /zzw, where /zz = ~m(x2 + y2) is
the moment of inertia about the axis through 0 perpendicular to the plane of
the motion. If M is the moment of the external forces about this axis we have

d
M=-/
dt zz w (11.1.18)

provided that 0 is a point such that rc x ao = O. If it is not we replace (11.1.18)

by the appropriate components of (11.1.11).
The more difficult three-dimensional problems are left until the end of the
chapter and are discussed in §§11.5, 11.6.

Example 11.1.1
A uniform cube, of mass ml and side 0, stands on a rough plane. A uniform
circular cylinder, of mass m 2 , diameter d and length d, rests with its curved
surface in contact with the plane and with one of the vertical sides of the cube.
The plane is gradually tilted about an axis parallel to the line of contact of the
cube and cylinder. The coefficient of friction for every contact is p.
Show that if p < 1, equilibrium is broken by the cube slipping down the
plane and the cylinder rolling down the plane. The angle of inclination 0: of the
 300 Rigid Bodies [ ILl

Figure 11.1.3 Illustration for Example 11.1.1.

plane to the horizontal is then given by

tan a= pml .
ml + (1 - /l)m2

The system of forces is shown in Figure 11.1.3. Note that the frictional forces
Fl and F2 must act up the plane to prevent sliding. The tangential component
F3 of the contact force between the cube and the cylinder must then be in the
direction shown in order that the force system should have zero moment, for
eqUilibrium, about the axis of the cylinder. In fact since all the forces on the
cylinder act through its mass centre except F2 and F 3 , we must have

F2 = F3 = F (say).

Resolving along and perpendicular to the plane for the cube and the cylinder,
we get

mig sin a + N3 - Fl =0, mig cos a - Nl + F3 =0,

m2g sin a - N3 - F2 = 0, m2g cos a - N2 - F3 = 0.

Accordingly we have

and so N2 > N3 if tan a < 1. Since F2 = F3 this means that F 2/N z < F31N3 if
tan a < 1. Since /l is the same at all contacts, it follows that slipping will occur
between the cylinder and the plane before it occurs between the cylinder and
the cube if tan a < 1.
We now consider how eqUilibrium is broken when the cube is about to move.
Let us assume that tan a < 1 and that the cube slips. Then
ILl ] Equations of Motion 301

F =J.JN3 =--E-
l+IL
m2g sin a
'
mig sin a + N3 = FI = J.JNI = IL(mlg cos a + F).

Elimination of N3 and F gives

or tana= .I!ml
ml + (1 - IL)m2

and tan Q < 1 if IL < 1, which is consistent with our original assumption.
It remains to consider the condition for which equilibrium is broken by the
cube toppling about its lowest edge. When this is about to happenNl will have
no moment about this edge, and so the moment equation about it gives

ml g(cos Q - sin a) + 2F3 - N3 = 0,

or
. 1-2IL .
mlg(cos Q - sm Q) - -1-- m2g sm Q =0,
+Il

so that

tan Q = (1 + Il)ml
----'--~-"---
(1 + Il)ml + {l - 21l)m2

Hence equilibrium will be broken by slipping between the cube and the plane if

I!ml < {l + Il)ml

ml + {l -1l)m2 {l + Il)ml + {l - 21l)m2

or

For 0";;; Il";;; 1, the maximum value of the left-hand side of this inequality is
attained when IL = 2 - 3 1 / 2 and is (2 - 3 1 / 2 )2/(3 1 / 2 - 1)2 < 1. It follows that
the above inequality is always satisfied for 0 .,;;; Il";;; 1 and so the cube will slip
before it topples.

Example 11.1.2
A uniform rod AB, of mass m and length 21, is suspended by two strings OA, OB
of equal length attached to a fIXed point O. The rod is at rest in a horizontal
302 Rigid Bodies [ ILl

B
cr'~x
10
Figure 11.1.4 Illustration for Example 11.1.2.

position, and each string makes an angle Q with the horizontal (see Fig. 11.1.4).
If the string OB is cut, show that the tension in OA is instantaneously
reduced in the ratio 2 sin 2 al(l + 3 sin 2 a).
When OB is cut, the acceleration of the mass centre C of the rod is the
acceleration of A plus the acceleration relative to A. The end A moves in a circle
with the string as radius but, since the initial angular velocity is zero, it will have
no radial acceleration initially. Let the transverse acceleration of A be x. Let the
initial angular acceleration of the rod be e.Since its initial angular velocity is
zero, the acceleration of the mass centre has components x perpendicular to OA
and 10 perpendicular to the rod.
The equations of motion are therefore

mg cos a = m(x + Ie cos a),

mg sin a - T= mle sin a,

IT sin a =!mI2e.

The last equation is obtained by taking moments about C and using the result
that the moment of inertia of the rod about a perpendicular axis through C is
t ml2 . Elimination of 0 from the last two equations gives
T= mgsina
1 + 3 sin 2 a
11.1 J Equations of Motion 303

This compares with the value mg/2 sin a when the rod is at rest supported by
both strings. There is a reduction in the ratio 2 sin 2 ,a1(l + 3 sin 2 a).

Example 11.1.3
A light, inextensible string passes over a pulley of mass m, radius a and radius of
gyration k about its axis. Particles, of masses m 1 and m2 (m2 > m d, are sus-
pended from the ends of the string. The pulley is sufficiently rough to prevent
the string from sliding and motion is resisted by a frictional couple M at the axis.
Find the acceleration of the masses when the system is released from rest.
Let x be the displacement of either particle. The equations of motion are

In addition, taking moments about the axis of the pulley, we have

(T2 - Tda-M=mk 2X/a,

since the angular acceleration of the pulley is X/a. Elimination of Tl and T2

from these three equations gives

Since m2 > ml , x cannot be negative. It follows that for motion to be possible

we must have

M«m2 - ml)ga

otherwise the system will be in equilibrium with M = (m2 - m 1 )ga.

Figure 11.1.5 Illustration for Example 11.1.3.

304 Rigid Bodies [ 11.1

Example Il.1.4
We consider the problem of a body of circular cross-section rolling and slipping
down an inclined plane. We shall assume that the body is symmetricai about a
circular cross-section, and that the mass centre coincides with the geometrical
centre of this circular cross-section. This enables us to treat the problem as a
two-dimensional one. The uniform sphere and the uniform cylinder are special
cases.
Let a be the radius of the body in the plane of symmetry, x the displacement
of the mass centre C,8 the angular displacement of the body, F the frictional
force and N the normal reaction (see Fig. 11.1.6). The equations of motion are

mgcosa-N=O, mgsina-F=mi, Fa=mk'·iJ,

where k is the radius of gyration of the body about an axis through C.

In the above three equations there are four unknowns, namely F, N, x, 8.
Hence a further relation is required before the equations can be solved.
We consider first the possibility of the body rolling without slipping, so that
its point of contact with the plane is instantaneously at rest. The kinematical
condition for this is

x - a8 = 0 or x - aiJ = 0
which gives mg sin a - F = F a2 /k 2 ,

k2
or F = -2--2 mg sin a,
a +k

.. a2
and so X =a8 = ---gsin a.
a2 +k2

Figure 11.1.6 Illustration for Example 11.1.4: circular body rolling and slip-
ping on an inclined plane.
11.1 ] Equations of Motion 305

Note that, by taking moments about the instantaneous centre, we can obtain
directly the relation

mga sin IX = m(k2 + a2 )0.

The right-hand side here is the rate of change of relative angular momentum
because the acceleration of the instantaneous centre is towards C (ao parallel to
rc in the notation of equations (11.1.9)). To see this we can calculate the
acceleration of the instantaneous centre as the resultant of the acceleration of C,
which is x down the plane, and the acceleration relative to C, which has the
components aO up the plane and a0 2 towards C. The resultant has components
x - aO = 0 down the plane and a(;2 towards C. *
If Il is the coefficient of friction we must have F'::;; pN. If there is no
slipping this gives k 2 tan IX .::;; ll(a2 + k 2 ). This is a necessary condition to be
satisfied if there is to be no slipping, but if the motion is to start as a rolling
motion it is also necessary that the initial velocity Vo of the point of contact
between the body and the plane be zero. The condition for this is Vo = Xo
- aBo = 0, where Xo and Bo are the initial values of x and O. In this case, if the
condition k 2 tan IX .::;; ll(a 2 + k 2 ) is also satisfied, the body will continue to roll.
If, however, Vo is positive, the body will start by slipping down the plane. The
frictional force F will be limiting and will act up the plane. Conversely if Vo is
negative F will be limiting and will act down the plane. To take the former case,
Vo > 0, the kinematical condition of no slip is replaced by F = JJN = 1J.mg cos IX as
the fourth relation. This gives

x =g(sin IX - Il cos IX), jj =pga cos IX/k2

and so, by integration,

x - aO = Vo +g { sin IX - ( I+ ~: ) Il cos IX } t.

Unless k 2 tan IX .::;; ll(a 2 + k 2 ), x - ad will be positive for all positive t, which
verifies our previous conclusion that the inequality is a necessary condition for
rolling. If k 2 tan IX =ll(a 2 + k 2 ), rolling is possible only if Vo =0, but if
k 2 tan IX < ll(a 2 + k 2 ) there is a value of t;> 0 for which x - ad is zero. The
motion for later times is one of rolling.
If Vo < 0, then F = -1J.mg cos IX and

x- aO = Vo + g { sin IX + (1 + ~: ) Il cos IX } t.

* Note that when taking moments about the instantaneous centre, the unrestricted
relation (11.1.11) will in general be required. The restricted relation (11.1.9) is valid here
only because of the special properties of the kinematics associated with a rolling body of
circular cross-section.
306 Rigid Bodies [ Il.I

The condition x- ad = 0 is certainly attained at some positive value of t.

Whether or not the body will subsequently roll depends on whether or not the
inequality k 2 tan ex ~ p(a 2 + k 2 ) is satisfied.

Example 11.1.5
In this example we investigate the dynamics of a car moving in a straight path
without slipping. The mass of the car body, excluding the wheels and axles, is m
and its mass centre C is at height h above the ground and a horizontal distance d
from the rear axle. The distance apart of the front and rear axles is I, and the
radius of the car wheels is a. The mass centre of the front wheels and axle is C1 ,
the mass is m I and the radius of gyration of the system about the axle is kl . The
corresponding quantities for the rear wheels and axle are C2 , m2, k 2 . respec-
tively. It is assumed that the car has a vertical plane of symmetry defined by the
plane containing C, C I and C2 .
We consider first the forces involved and we distinguish between those which
are external to the car as a whole and those which are external to the wheels and
axles. For the car as a whole there are the gravitational forces mg, mIg and m2g
acting vertically through C, C I and C 2 in the plane of symmetry. There are also
the reactions at the points of contact of the wheels with the ground. For either
pair of wheels these reactions can be combined into a single equivalent resultant
in the plane of symmetry. Let the resultants have components in the horizontal
and vertical directions equal to F I , NI at the front and F2 , N2 at the rear, as
shown in Figure 11.1.7. It is assumed that the car is being driven forward by the
rear wheels, which means that the frictio l1 ;J;1 force F2 must be in the direction of
motion to prevent the slip that would otherwise occur if the rear wheels rotated

~mg
c. _x
1
t h
t

0 2 - F2 1';-01

N2i:::=======__d__-_-_-_~~--··__________~.~iNI
Figure 11.1.7 Illustration for Example 11.1.5: the dynamics of a car.
11.11 Equations of Motion 307

with the car at rest. In fact F2 is the force which moves the car forward.
Conversely the front wheels are pulled along by the car and so F1 opposes the
motion of the car to prevent slip.
Internal to the car as a whole, but external to the rear wheels and axle, is the
torque or couple assumed to be applied to the rear wheels by the engine. This is
denoted by T. There are also reactions where the car body is mounted on the
axles. These are assumed to have no moment about C1 or C2 •
Let the horizontal displacement of C be x, and let the angular displacement
of the wheels be (). The kinematical condition of no slip gives x - a(} = O. The
equations of motion for the car as a whole are
(11.1.19)

(11.1.20)

The moment equation for the whole system requires some care. It is possible to
define a mass centre for the system as a whole, but this would not be a
convenient procedure here since we are dealing with three systems. These are: (i)
the front wheels and axle; (ii) the rear wheels and axle; and (iii) the car body;
they do not move as a single rigid body because the wheels can rotate relative
to the rest of the car. This is one of the exceptional situations where it is
preferable to choose a convenient reference point and apply the unrestricted
result in its more general form (11.1.12). We choose to take moments about the
point in the plane of symmetry which is equivalent in the two-dimensional
problem to the point of contact of the rear wheels with the ground, denoted by
O2 in Figure 11.1.7. The advantage of this is that Fl ,F2 ,N2 have no moments
about O2 and the resulting relation can be used to determine Nt. The car body
has no angular momentum about its mass centre C, so that dLe/dt is zero and
the only contribution to the moment is through the term fe xdp/dt. Since the
linear momentum of the body is mX horizontally, and since the height of C
above O2 is h, this contribution is hmi (the vector character of the moment is
suppressed since the direction of all moments is perpendicular to the plane of
the problem). For the front wheels and axle, the relative angular momentum
e,
about C1 is mkj so that dLe/dt for this component is of magnitude mkjO.
The linear momentum is mIX horizontally and contributes a term amlx to the
moment about O2 , Similarly the contribution from the rear wheels and axle is
m2 k~ (j + am2X. The resulting equation is

mgd + (mIg - N1)l = mhX + m1kjij + mlax + m2k~ij + m2ax

= {mh + ml (a + kiJa) + m2(a + kVa)}'x. (11.1.21)

For the wheels and axle systems, moments about C1 and C2 for each system
separately give

(11.1.22)
308 Rigid Bodies [ 11.2

Note that, by assumption, the reactions between the car body and the axles do
not contribute.
We now have, from (11.1.19) and (11.1.22),

or

This equation serves to give the linear acceleration directly in terms of the
torque of the engine. When x is known we can obtain Nt from (11.1.21), which
gives

and then, with the help of (11.1.20), we have

lN2 = mg(l- d) + m2g1 + {mh + ml (a + kt fa) + m2 (a + k~fa)}x,

which is equivalent to the moment equation about the point Ot of

Figure 11.1.7.
If the torque is applied to the front wheels, the only modification is that

Here the signs of Fl and F2 will change but the expression for F2 - F J is
unchanged. Since x depends only on F2 - F t ,it follows that the expressions for
Nt and N2 are unchanged. Now slipping begins at the front wheels when
I Fl I = JJ.Nl and at the rear wheels when I F21 = JJ.N2, and so it depends on the
magnitudes of the normal reactions.
There are two factors affecting the magnitudes of Nl and N 2 . The
first is the position of the mass centre C. In a front-engined car C will
tend to be nearer the front, and so d> /- d. This factor will tend to in-
crease Nl relative to N2 and improve the adhesion of the front wheels.
On the other hand acceleration has the opposite effect, since it increases
N2 and decreases Nt. When the acceleration is substantial it will tend to be the
dominant effect so that the rear wheels are able to sustain a larger frictional
force than the front wheels before slipping. This is a reason in favour of using
the rear wheels to drive the car. Conversely the act of braking when x < 0 tends
to increase Nt relative to N2 and more reliable braking is obtained through the
front wheels.

11.2 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

Equations (11.1.3), with F interpreted as a typical external force, can be

11.2) Impulse and Momentum 309

integrated over an interval of time to give

~ SF dt = ~ fma dt, ~ fr x F dt =~ fr x ma dt. {I 1.2.1)

We shall discuss equations (11.2.1) only in the limit of idealised impulses when
the time interval tends to zero but

remains fmite. * We then have an instantaneous change in the velocities of the

particles, but no instantaneous change in position since the velocities remain
fmite while the time interval tends to zero. In this case the relation between
moments in (11.2.1) can be written

~r x JF dt = ~r x fma dt
and equations (I 1.2.1) become, in terms of F,

~F- = ~ Jddt (mv) dt = [~mv] = [meve] ,

} (11.2.2)
~r x F =~r x f"!dt (mv) dt =~r x [mv] = [~r x mv] ,
where the square brackets denote the instantaneous change of the quantity
enclosed.
In the calculation of the angular momentum ~r x mv about a point 0, we can
write
v = Vo + dr/dt,

and the analogue of (I 1.1.4), with a replaced by v, is

~r x mv = mere x Vo + ~r x m dr/dt. (11.2.3)

It follows that the total angular momentum about °

is equal to the relative
angular momentum provided that re x Vo = O. The practically useful cases are
when moments are taken about C (re = 0) and when moments are taken about a
fixed point (vo = 0). For such points equations (11.2.2) give

~F =it = [p], ~r x F =M= [L] if re x Vo = 0, (11.2.4)

where F is a typical external impulse and L is the relative angular momentum

* Remember that any force which does not become correspondingly large as the time
interval becomes small will not contribute to the system of impulses.
310 Rigid Bodies [ 11.2

about 0, as defmed in (11.1.6). Equations (11.2.4) imply that the system of

external impulses is equivalent to the vector couple combination [p J , [LJ at 0.
There is also the analogue of (11.1.11), namely

(11.2.5)

without restriction on the origin. These equations follow directly by integration

of (11.1.11) if account is taken of the fact that r does not change during the
interval of integration. They are also a consequence of the equivalence of the
systems (p, Lc) at C and (p, Lc + rc x p) at 0.

Example 11.2.1
Suppose a rigid body suffers an impulsive blow F in a plane of symmetry, so that
the motion is two dimensional. We show that although the body is instan-
taneously set in motion, there can be points for which the induced velocity is
zero.
Let F act along a line whose perpendicular distance from the mass centre C is
x. Let the instantaneous angular speed of the body be w_and let the instan-
taneous speed of C be Vc (see Fig. 11.2.1). We have

F= mvc , Fx = mk2 w.
If P is a point on the perpendicular, through C, to the line of F and if PC = y, the
instantaneous speed of P is Vc - yw. This is zero if y = vclw = k 2 Ix. For
example a uniform rod, of length I, will begin to turn about one end if given an
impulse perpendicular to its length at a distance 11 from that end. A uniform
sphere of radius a resting on a horizontal plane will begin to roll without slipping
if it receives an impulse at a height 7al5 above the plane. This is the correct
height for the cushion of a billiards table.

Example 11.2.2
Two uniform rods AO, OB, each of mass m, length 21 and radius of gyration

x
F
1
t
l L,,~o
tf
y

Figure 11.2.1 Illustration for Example 11.2.1: two-dimensional motion pro-

duced by an impulse.
11.2] Impulse and Momentum 311

~A~____________~~__~8r ____~______________-=B
x~H~x
Figure 11.2.2 Illustration for Example 11.2.2: impulsive motion of two
jointed rods.

1/3 1 / 2 about an axis through its mass centre, are smoothly jointed together at 0
and are at rest in a straight line. An impulse F is applied at A perpendicular to
the line of the rods. We wish to determine the instantaneous motion of the two
rods.
The problem is two dimensional in the plane defmed by the initial line of the
rods and the line of F. There will be an internal impulsive reaction at the hinge
producing equal and opposite impulses on the rods, say with components X
along the rods and Y perpendicular to the rods in the directions shown in
Figure 11.2.2.
Since the impulses on the two rods parallel to AB, namely iX, are equal and
opposite, any velocity components acquired by the mass centres of the rods
parallel to AB must be equal and opposite. This is not consistent with the
constraint imposed by the hinge unless X = 0 and the rods move perpendicular
to AB initially. Let the velocity of 0 be Vo perpendicular to AB and let the
angular velocities of the rods be WI, W2 perpendicular to the plane of the
problem, as shown in Figure 11.2.2. These quantities are sufficient to determine
the motion of the rods.
The impulse equations can be written down separately for the mass centres of
the rods. We have

and, by taking moments about the mass centres of the rods, we get

We then have four equations to determine Vo , WI, W2 and Y. Alternatively, if

the information required is confined to the motion of the rods, it is possible to
write down three equations which do not contain Y. For example, the impulse
equation for the whole system is

Two further equations not containing Yare obtainable by taking moments

about the hinge for each rod separately. Since 0 is then neither the mass centre
 312 Rigid Bodies [ 11.2

nor a fixed point it is necessary to use the general result (11.2.5), which gives

21F= ml(vo + IWI) +!ml'WI,

O-=ml(vo +1w,)+!mZ'W2.

Either set of equations can be solved to give Vo =-F/m, WI =9F/(4ml),

W2 =3F/(4ml).

Example 11.2.3
A uniform inelastic sphere of radius a rolls without slipping along a horizontal
plane with speed u. It strikes a kerb, of height a/S, which is at right angles to its
path. Show that the conditions for the sphere to tum without slipping until it
has surmounted the kerb are

18u 2 > 7ga, JJ.(98ga - 90u 2 ) > 21ga,

where JJ. is the coefficient of friction.

As the sphere strikes the kerb, there is an impulsive change from rolling with
speed u to rotation about the point of contact with angular speed w, say. Since
the only impulsive force arises at the kerb, there will be no change in angular
momentum about this point. Since this is not a fixed point before impact, we
must again use (11.2.5) to get

where h = a/S, k 2 =2a2 /S, and so W =6u/7a.

Let the impulsive reaction on the sphere at the kerb have components Ji1
radially and F tangentially, as shown in Figure 11.2.3. Then we have

F = m(aw - u sin 8), Ji1 = mu cos 8,

Figure 11.2.3 Illustration for Example 11.2.3: rolling of a sphere over a kerb.
11.2] Impulse and Momentum 313

where sin 0 = 4/5, cos 0 = 3/5. If the sphere is not to slip initially, it is necessary
that F < pR, or
6u _ 4u <3/lu
7 5 5'

which gives /l > 2/21.

In the subsequent motion, we continue to use 0 for the angle made by the
radius vector to the kerb with the horizontal, and we denote by F,N the
tangential and radial components of the reaction at the kerb. The equations of
motion are
F - mg cos 0 = maO,
. ·2
N- mgsmO =-maO ,

mga cos 0 =-sma

1
0 =-"ma 0-
2 ·· '1 2· dO
dO·

The final equation integrates to

2
. 0 - -4 ) = -i'oma 2 ( 0.2
mga ( sm - 36u
-- )
5 49a 2 •

In order that the sphere surmounts the kerb, (j2 must remain positive until
o = n/2, so that
36u 2 /49a 2 > 2g/7a, or 18u 2 > 7ga.
In order that there should be no slipping during this motion, it is necessary that
F<pN,andso

meg cos 0 + ae) < /lm(g sin 0 - a( 2 ).

The most critical case occurs initially, since cos 0, 0, jj all decrease, and sin 0
increases. Substitution of the values

sin 0 = t cos 0 = t 0 = 6u/7a, e = -3g/7a

gives

90U 2 )
or 21</l ( 98- ga .

The inequality required for no slip during impact is clearly covered by this.
314 Rigid Bodies [ 11.3

11.3 WORK AND ENERGY

It has already been noted that the system of vectors consisting of the external
forces F and the system of vectors consisting of the mass accelerations rna are
equivalent in the sense of the defmition introduced in § 10.3. Hence the work
done by these two systems in a rigid body displacement is the same (see § 10.6).
The work done by the mass acceleration system is the increase in kinetic energy
since

Thus we arrive again at the energy relation, namely that the work done by the
external forces is equal to the increase in kinetic energy. Note, however, the
slight change in the argument compared with that used in §8.2. Here there is no
mention of the internal forces. The equivalence of the two systems of vectors is
itself sufficient to ensure that they do the same work in any rigid body
displacement.
The result can be generalised to a system consisting of several particles and
rigid bodies by summation over the constituent parts. However, the calculation
of the work done by the forces must then include the contribution, if any, from
the forces of constraint. Such a contribution might arise, for example, from the
stretching of a string, or the sliding of two rough bodies in contact. On the other
hand there are a number of situations for which the constraints are workless. For
example the net work done by the reactions ±X between the two surfaces in
contact is

fX. dr,
where dr refers to the relative displacement. If the contact is smooth X has no
component in the direction of relative displacement, so that the work done is
zero. If the contact is rough, but there is no sliding, the relative velocity is zero
and so

JX . dr = f X . v dt =o.
Another example arises from the tensions at the two ends of a light inextensible
string, which are equal in magnitude. The displacement of the two ends is
composed of two components, along and perpendicular to the string. The
component perpendicular to the string is also perpendicular to the tension, and
therefore makes no contribution to the work integral. The component parallel to
the string will make equal and opposite contributions to the work integral from
the two ends and so these contributions cancel. This will be the case if the string
is free or if it passes over a smooth peg but not if the peg is rough (see Example
5.3.1 ).
11.3 ] Work and Energy 315

Workless constraints do not contribute to the work equation

This is particularly useful in applications since the forces of constraint are

usually not known a priori. Those forces which do contribute to the work
equation are called applied forces, in order to distinguish them from the forces
involved in the workless constraints. When the applied forces are conservative,
the work can be evaluated from the loss in potential energy, as described in
Chapter 5, and the work equation is simply the energy equation

kinetic energy + potential energy = constant.

To calculate the kinetic energy of a rigid body, let 0 be a point moving with
the body and let (a) be the angular velocity. A point of the body with position
vector r relative to 0 has velocity (a) x r relative to O. The kinetic energy of the
motion relative to 0 is therefore ~ !m(oo x r)2 . With the help of (11.1.13), this
is seen to be equal to ! L . (a), since

-!L. (a) = -! (a). ~mr x ((a) x r) = ~!m(oo x r)2 (11.3.1)

with the help of the relation (a). (r x v) = v . ((a) x r). The most general expres-
sion for the kinetic energy of the motion relative to 0 is therefore, from
(11.1.14),

~!m( (a) xr? =! L . =!(Ixxw~ + Iyyw~ + Izzwi

(a)

+ 2Iyz w yw z + 2Izx w z w x + 2Ixy w x W y ). (11.3.2)

It simplifies to

(11.3.3)

where I is the moment of inertia about the axis defmed by (a). This is readily
demonstrated by taking instantaneous axes such that (a) = (w, 0, 0). It also
simplifies to

(11.3.4)

when the axes are principal axes, so that the products of inertia vanish.
In applications, the above results are most useful when 0 is a fixed point, so
that the relative kinetic energy is the total kinetic energy, or when 0 is the mass
centre. In the latter case the total kinetic energy T can be written, with the help
of (8.2.8), (11.1.5) and (11.3.3), as

(11.3.5)
316 Rigid Bodies [ 11.3

where Le is the relative angular momentum about the mass centre C and Ie is the
moment of inertia about an axis through C parallel to w.

Example 11.3.1
A uniform circular disc turns about a horizontal axis through its centre 0, the
motion being resisted by a frictional couple whose magnitude is constant and
equal to M when the disc rotates. A particle is attached to a point P on the rim
of the disc. The system is released from rest with OP horizontal and swings
through an angle (!1T + 8) before coming to rest (see Fig. 11.3.1).
Show that: (i) the disc will not move from rest again unless (hI' + 8 )tan 8 > 1;
(li) if this condition is satisfied, OP will not reach the vertical again unless

cos e < (1T + 2e)/(1I' + 48).

The loss in potential energy of the particle is mga cos 8. The work done by
the frictional couple M is -M(! 1T + 8). Hence

mga cos 8 = M(!1T + e).

The particle will not move unless the moment of the force mg can overcome the
couple M, or mga sin e > M. Therefore we must have

(!1T + e)tan e > 1.

If OP is to reach the vertical, the loss in potential energy must not be less
than the work done by the frictional couple, since the kinetic energy cannot be
negative. This means that
mga(1 - cos e) ~ Me

1T + 28
or cos e ...;;;-- .
11'+48

mg
Figure 11. 3.1 Illustration for Example 11.3.1.
11.3 ] Work and Energy 317

Figure 11.3.2 Illustration for Example 11.3.2: rolling of a sphere on a fixed

sphere.

Example 11.3.2
A uniform solid sphere is slightly displaced from its position of unstable
equilibrium at the topmost point of a fIxed sphere and it then rolls on this
sphere (see Fig. 11.3.2). Show that, irrespective of the magnitude of the
coeffIcient of friction, slipping must occur before the angle 0 which the join of
the centres of the spheres makes with the vertical attains the value cos- l (l0/17).
I.et the radii of the spheres be al, a 2 • The centre of the rolling sphere
describes a circle of radius (a 1 + a2). Its acceleration therefore has radial and
transverse components -(al +a2)(P and (al +a2)8 respectively. The equations
of motion are
·2
mgcosO-N=m(al +a2)0 ,
mg sin 0 - F= meal +a2)8.

The velocity of the centre of the rolling sphere is (a 1 + a2)8. It is also equal to
al W, where W is the angular speed of the sphere, since the sphere is instan-
taneously rotating about the common point of contact. Hence w =(a 1 + a2)8 /al
and the energy equation gives

!m(al +a2)28 2 +H~manw2 -mg(al +a2)(l-coSO)=0,

. 10
(al + a2 )0 2 = 7" g(1 - cos 0),

N = mg ( cos 0 - 7"
10 (1 - cos 0) ) = 7"
mg
(17 cos 0 - 10).

Accordingly N is zero when cos 0 = 10/17. Slipping must occur before this.
318 Rigid Bodies [ 11.4

11.4 OSCILLATIONS

The mathematical equations involved in the theory of oscillations have already

been discussed in Chapter 6. There the applications were wholly to the oscil-
lations of particles. For a rigid body it is simply a matter of deriving similar
equations. If the motion depends on one space coordinate, and if the only forces
which do work are conservative, it is sufficient to write down the energy
equation, as the following examples illustrate.

Example 11.4.1
A rigid body, allowed to oscillate about a horizontal axis through 0, is called a
compound pendulum (see Fig. 11.4.1). Moments about the fixed axis give

where e is the angular displacement, k is the radius of gyration about the mass
centre C, and OC = 1. The integral of the above equation gives the energy
equation, namely

!m(k 2 + z2 )(de /dt)2 - mgl cos e = constant.

The equations are similar to those for the simple pendulum (see Example 6.5.1)
and can be integrated in similar fashion. For small oscillations we have

2 gl
n =---
k + 12 '
2

so that the oscillations are simple harmonic with period 21T/n.

If the pendulum is subject to a resisting couple M, the equation of motion is

Figure 11.4.1 Illustration for Example 11.4.1: the compound pendulum.

11.4 J Oscillations 319

When M arises from solid friction, it is constant in magnitude (but its sign
changes with that of dO (dt). The analysis for small oscillations corresponds to
that of Example 6.1.3. For viscous damping M is proportional to de (dt. The
analysis for small oscillations corresponds to that of § 6.2. For quadratic damp-
ing M is proportional to dO/dt 1dO/dt I. The equation in this case is essentially
non-linear evert when the amplitude is small. It is discussed in Chapter 13.

Example 11.4.2
We consider the equilibrium of a cylinder resting on a fixed cylinder. The
generators of the two cylinders are horizontal, their perimeters are assumed to
have continuous curvatures, otherwise their cross-sections are arbitrary. The
contact is assumed to be sufficiently rough to prevent sliding.
We can treat this as a two-dimensional problem in the vertical plane through
the mass centre C of the movable cylinder. Let P denote the point in this plane
on the generator of contact, lnd let the common normal at P make an angle 1/1
with the upward vertical. The mass centre C of the first cylinder must be
vertically above P, say at a height h, for otherwise the moment of the gravi-
tational force through C about P will be non-zero and prevent equilibrium.
Let us consider a small displacement from such a position of equilibrium, in
which the point of contact moves to Q. Let P t , P2 be the points on the two
cylinders which started together at P in equilibrium. Let the normals at P t and Q
meet in Ot, and let the normals at P2 and Q meet in O 2 as shown in Figure
11.4.2. We use the notation

where ¢ is the angle through which the cylinder turns.

C
c

°2
Figure 11.4.2 Illustration for Example 11.4.2: equilibrium of one cylinder
resting on another.
320 Rigid Bodies [ 11.4

In order to discuss the stability of equilibrium we require an estimate of the

change in potential energy arising from the displacement. Since this is a second
order quantity in general, it is necessary to calculate the change in height of the
mass centre C to this order of accuracy. Initially the height of C above P2 is h. In
the displaced position C is at a height h cos cp above PI· since the body rotates
through an angle cp, and P 1 is at a height P 1 P2 cos 1/J above P2 sirlce P 1 is
displaced along the normal at P2 in a small displacement. Hence we must now
calculate P 1 P2 which is already a small quantity of the second order. We first
note that, correct to the first order, the straight line segment PI Q is parallel to
the tangent at the mid point of the arc P 1 Q. Hence the angle between PI Q and
the common tangent at Q is ~ 0 l ' Similarly the angle between the straight
segment P2 Q and the tangent at Q is ~O 2. It follows that PI QP2 ==
! (0 1 + ( 2 ) == tcp with an error of second order, With the same order ofaccuracy
we also have PI Q == P 2 Q == os, where os is the length of arc, since to first order
this is equal to the length of arc of either cylinder which is irl contact during the
displacement. We can therefore infer that P1 P2 == ~rpos which verifies that it is
indeed of second order. Finally we derive a more useful expression for os from
the first order relations P 1 Q =r 10 1 , P2 Q =r202 , where r 1 and r2 are the radii of
curvature at P 1 and P2 of the movirlg and the fixed cylinder respectively, These
relations give os(l/r1 + l/r2)=01 +0 2 =cp, or os=r1r2CP/(rl +r2), and so the
irlcrement in potential energy arisirlg from the displacement is

correct to second order. This expression is positive, and so the eqUilibrium

position is stable, provided that

cos1/J>.!..+.!..,
h rl r2

(In the critical case of equality the increment in potential energy is of a higher
order and a more .accurate calculation is required.)
If equilibrium is stable the cylinder will oscillate when disturbed. The oscil-
lations can be described with the aid of the energy equation, for which we need
to calculate the kinetic energy. From (11.3.5) this is !mv~ + !Ie(d¢/dt)2, where
Ie == mk2(say) is the moment of inertia about an axis through C, and Ve = QC dcp/
dt since the cylinder is instantaneously rolling about Q. Now dct>/dt is small and
QC differs from h by a small quantity of the first order. It follows that the
kirletic energy is !m(k 2 + h2 )(dr/>/dt)2 correct to second order, and so the energy
equation takes the form

dct»2
( dt + n2 ct>2 = constant,
11.5] Three-Dimensional Problems 321

rlr2 cos 1/1- h(rl + r2)

where
n= (rl + r2)(k2 + h 2) g.

This is the standard form of the energy equation for simple harmonic motion.
If one of the cylinders is locally concave, the formulae are still applicable
with a change of sign for the appropriate radius. If one of the cylinders
degenerates into a plane, so that the appropriate radius tends to infinity, we have

where r is the radius of curvature of the non-degenerate cylinder. The stability

condition is then r cos 1/1 - h > O.
As a specific example consider a cylinder, whose cross-section is a semi-circle,
resting in equilibrium with its curved surface on a horizontal plane. Here we have

1/1 =0,

n2 = 8 g 0·6518g
97T - 16 r r
If the cross-section of the cylinder is an ellipse, with major and minor semi-axes
a and b «a), it will rest in stable equilibrium on a horizontal plane with the
major axis horizontal. In this case we have

(a 2Ib) - b a2 - b 2 4g
Ha 2 +b 2 )+b 2 g=a 2 +5b 2 b·
Note that when the cylinder rests with its minor axis horizontal we have h = a,
r = b2 la. Hence r - h < 0 and equilibrium is consequently unstable.

11.5 THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS

The applications discussed so far have been confmed to two-dimensional prob-

lems, although the theory is quite general. We now discuss some examples which
involve three-dimensional motion. To deal with the motion of the mass centre is
relatively straightforward, since it is formally the same as that of the motion of a
particle subject to the same external forces. To deal with the motion relative to
the mass centre can be substantially more complicated than it is for two-
dimensional motion, since the moment equation now takes on its full vector
322 Rigid Bodies [ ll.S

form. It is helpful to consider the formulation of this equation in its various

stages.

(i) Choose an appropriate ongm. In most examples this will be either a

fixed point of the body or the mass centre.
(li) Calculate the moments and products of inertia at the origin. The analysis is
considerably simplified by choosing principal axes. Iii the following ex-
amples this is done by recognising the appropriate axes through appeal to
symmetry properties of the body.
(iii) Formulate the angular momentum vector L using (11.1.14) or preferably
(11.1.17).
(iv) Calculate dL/dt. Remember that if the axes rotate, as they will if they are
fixed in the body, the derivative will contain a contribution from the
rotation of the axes, as discussed in §9.4. In general principal axes are fixed
in the body, and so have the angular velocity of the body. It will be noticed,
however, that in several of the examples the axes and the body have
different angular velocities. This arises when advantage is taken of the
symmetry properties of the body. For example the principal axes at the
centre of a uniform sphere need not rotate with the sphere. We can even
choose them to be fixed in direction since all axes are principal axes at the
centre of the sphere.
(v) Formulate the moment equation using (11.1.9), namely,

or, more generally, using (11.1.11)

dLe dp
M=~rxF=-+r x-
dt e dt

without restriction on the origin O.

For impulsive problems equate the moment of the external impulses to
the change in momentum, as in (11.2.4), namely

M=2;:rx F= [L] if re x Vo =0,

or, more generally, using (11.2.5)

without restriction on the origin O.

Example 11.5.1
A body rotates with an angular velocity (a) about a fixed point O. The forces on
the body have moment M about 0 and the angular momentum of the body is L.
11.5] Three-Dimensional Problems 323

Show that if M . w = 0, the kinetic energy is constant and that if in addition

w is fixed in direction, then W is constant.
Show that if L. M = 0 then L is constant in magnitude.
The principal axes at 0 are fixed in the body and therefore rotate with
angular velocity w. Let the principal moments of inertia at 0 be 11 , /2 , 13 , so
that L = II Wli + 12w2j + 13w3k.
When the equation of motion is formulated, account must be taken of the
rotation of the axes so that, in the notation of §9.4, we have

dL/dt = L+wx L= M

with components

[10;1 -(/2 -I3)w2w3 =MI ,

12 0;2 - (/3 - Id w 3 W I =M2 ,

130;3 -(/1 - /2 )WI W 2 =M3·

These are called Euler's equations. From them we see that

where T = Hll wi + I 2 W~ + 13 wn is the kinetic energy. It follows that the

kinetic energy is constant if M . w = O. If w is also fixed in direction, say
w = (11, 12 , 13 )w, where (11, 12 , 13) are fixed direction cosines, then T = ~(/Ili
+ 121~ + 131Dw2 is constant and so w is also constant in magnitude. Note that
the couple required to maintain the fixed direction of spin is

From Euler's equations, or directly from the vector equation of motion, we

have

dL 1 d 2
L.M=L.-=--L
dt 2 dt

and if L . M =0 we have L 2 =constant so that L is constant in magnitude.

Example 11.5.2
A uniform rectangular plate, with sides of length 2a, 2b, spins with constant
angular speed W about a diagonal. In order to maintain this motion a couple has
to be exerted by the bearings, which we proceed to calculate.
The principal axes at the mass centre C of the plate are parallel to the sides
and perpendicular to the plane of the rectangle, since the products of inertia for
these axes clearly vanish, by symmetry. The principal moments of inertia at C
324 Rigid Bodies [ 11.5

2a

~
o
Figure 11.5.1 Illustration for Example 1l.5.2: rotating rectangular plate.

are

The angular velocity is

WI= wei cos a - j sin a),

where tan a = b/a.
The angular momentum vector at C is

Lc = Ii Wi i + 12 W2j + 13 W3 k
= tmw(ib 2 cos a - ja 2 sin a)

mwab
(11.5.1)

The couple exerted on the plate is dLc/dt, where

dL •
-dt c =Lc + W x Lc =w. x Lc
=_!mw2 (a 2 - b 2 )ksinacosa
mw 2ab(p2 _ b 2 )k
-- 3(a 2 +b 2 )

This is the couple required to be exerted by the bearings.

Let us now consider the effect of releasing the plate from its bearings and
instantaneously fIxing the corner 0 (see Fig. 11.5.1). To find the new angular
velocity, say W , we use the fact that the angular momentum about 0 must
remain unchanged, because the impulsive reaction required to fix 0 will have no
moment about O. To calculate the angular momentum both before and after the
11.5] Three-Dimensional Problems 325

corner is fixed, it is instructive to use the unrestricted result (11.2.5) and

evaluate Lc + rc x p. Before the corner is fixed p = 0, since the mass centre has
no motion, and so the angular momentum about 0 is just Lc. This gives, from
(11.5.1),

mwab ..
Lo = Lc + rc x p = Lc = (2 2)112 (bl -aJ). (11.5.2)
3 a +b

Let w' be the angular velocity immediately after 0 is fixed. The new angular
momentum relative to C is

Relative to axes based on 0, we have rc = ai + bj, and p' = mv~ = mw i x rc since

the plate is now rotating about 0 with angular velocity ow' . Accordingly

= m (b 2 W1' - W2 ).1- m\a

ab' (b'W1 - a2
W2' ).~ + m\a W3 k
( 2 + b 2)'

and so*

L~ =L~ + rc x p' =(1mb 2 w~ - mabw;)i + (-mabw~ + 1ma 2 w;)j

+ 1m(a 2 + b2)W~k. (11.5.3)

Since the expressions calculated in (11.5.2) and (11.5.3) are equal, it follows
that w~ = 0 and

When solved for w~ , w;, these equations give

*The result can also be deduced from (11.1.14). With axes based on 0 parallel to the
original axes, we have

Ixx = ~mb2, Iyy =~ma2, I zz=tm (a + b

2 2 ),

IyZ = 0, Izx =0, Ixy = -mab,

from which (11.5.3) follows.
 326 Rigid Bodies [ 11.5

so that w' is parallel to w, and is reduced in magnitude by a factor 1/7.

Immediately before 0 is fixed the kinetic energy is t Lc . w. Immediately after 0
is fixed the kinetic energy is ! L~ . 00'. Since Lc = L~ and w' = 00/7, there is a
reduction in kinetic energy by a factor 1/7.

Example 11.5.3
A uniform circular disc is suspended from a point 0 on its circumference. It is
given an impulsive blow, perpendicular to its plane, at a point P of its cir-
cumference (see Fig. 11.5.2). We wish to fmd the instantaneous axis of rotation.
The principal axes at 0 are horizontal and vertical in the plane of the disc and
perpendicular to the plane of the disc. The principal moments of inertia are

where a is the radius of the disc. The angular momentum is

The impulse is Fk, say, and is applied at the point

r = ia sin a - ja(1 - cos a),

where a is the inclination of the radius vector CP to the vertical. The moment of

Figure 11.5.2 Illustration for Example 11.5.3: impulsive motion of suspended

disc.
 11.5) Three-Dimensional Problems 327

the impulse about 0 is

r x Fk =-iaF(l - cos 0:) - jaF sin 0:,

and the moment equation r x Fk = Lo gives

-iaF{l - cos 0:) - jaF sin 0: = rna2(iwl i + lW2j + ~W3 k).

It follows that rna 51.(1 - cos 0:) +J..

w= - 4F(1 sm 0: ) •

The instantaneous axis of rotation is therefore in the plane of the disc. Let it
make an angle (J with OC so that
w =-w(i sin (J + j cos (J).

Comparison of the two expressions for w shows that

tan (J =I-coso: -1 tan -1 0:.

Ssino: S 2

It is clear that (J remains small over a substantial range of 0:. In fact 0 ~ (J < rr/lS
for 0 ~ 0: ~ rr/2.
To fmd the impulsive reaction at 0, say X, we require the velocity of the
mass centre. This is

vc = w x (-aj) =Sm
4F (1 - cos o:)k.

Then from the equation for the motion of the mass centre, namely

we have X =HAl - cos 0:) - P}k = -!F(1 + 4 cos o:)k.

Note that X is zero when cos 0: = -1 so that for this value of 0: the disc would
still rotate about the same axis if free from the constraint at O.

Example 11.5.4
We consider the motion of a spherically symmetric sphere rolling and slipping on
a horizontal plane. Let m, a, r denote respectively the mass, radius and position
vector of the mass centre of the sphere. Let -Fn denote the frictional force at
the point of contact of the sphere and plane, where n is a horizontal unit vector.
When the sphere slips we have F =prng and the velocity of slip will be in the
direction of n and so of the form vn (see Fig. 11.5 .3).
The calculation of the angular momentum is straightforward for the sphere
 328 Rigid Bodies [ 11.5

--lin

Figure 11.5.3 Illustration for Example 11.5.4: a sphere rolling and slipping on
a horizontal plane.

because all sets of orthogonal axes through the mass centre are principal axes. If
the angular velocity of the sphere is w, the angular momentum about the mass
centre is

since Ii =12 =13 =I say, at the mass centre. Note that the symmetry properties
of the sphere allow a choice of principal axes which are fIxed in direction and
not rotating with the sphere.
The equations arising from the kinematical condition at the point of slip, the
motion of the mass centre and the motion relative to the mass centre are
dr
dt + W x (-ak) = vn,

-Jimgn = m d 2 r/dt 2 ,
ak x /lmgn = I dw/dt.

Note that the gravitational force is cancelled by the normal reaction, and neither
of these forces is included in the equations. Differentiation of the fIrst equation
and elimination of d'2 r/dt2 and dw/dt with the help of the second and third
equations gives

dv dn ma 2
- n + v - = -pgn - - Jig(k x n) x k
dt dt I

Ima
2
= -pgn - pgn,

where the fact that k and n are perpendicular has been used. Since n is a unit
11.5] Three-Dimensional Problems 329

vector, dn/dt is also perpendicular to n and so the above equation implies that
dn/dt = 0 or n is a constant vector. The equation then reduces to

from which it follows that v decreases uniformly to zero. Note that d 2 r/dt2 =
-pgn is a constant vector, so that

where ro, u are the values of r, dr/dt at t = O. The above expression for r
represents a parabolic path for the centre of the sphere.
The equation

I(dw/dt) =ak x J.lfflgn

shows that k . 00 and n . 00 are constant and that the horizontal component of 100
perpendicular to n is proportional to the time.
After slipping ceases, the equations become

dr
--a,ooxk=O
dt '
--Fn = m d 2 r/dt 2 ,
doo
I -=ak x Fn = -ak x m d 2 r/dt 2
dt

=_ 2{d,OO _ (k doo) k}
rna dt . dt '

so that (I +rna 2)(-dWdt l.1+-

dt
J + I -dw3 k = 0 .
dW2")
dt

Therefore dw/dt =0 and 00 is a constant vector. Hence dr/dt =aloox k is also a

constant vector and the mass centre moves with constant velocity.

Example 11.5.5
Two uniform rods OA I , OA2 , each of mass m and length 2a, are freely jointed
together at O. We shall derive the equations of motion when the system falls
freely under gravity.
Let Cl , C2 be the mass centres of OA I , OA2 respectively and let al = OC I ,
330 Rigid Bodies [ 11.5

A2
Figure 1l.5.4 Illustration for Example 11.5.5: two jointed rods falling under
gravity.

a2 = OC2 , so that at = a2 = a (see Fig. 11.5.4). The acceleration of Ct relative to

the mass centre C of the whole system is ~d2(at - a2)/dt2 . Since the only
external force is gravitational, the acceleration of C is g, so that the acceleration
of C1 is g + ~d2 (a1 - a2 )/dt2 • Let R, -R be the reactions at the hinge on the
rods OAt, OA2 respectively. The motion of Ct is then governed by the equation

I d2
or R=-m- 2 (a1 -a2).
2 dt

The moment equation for OAt about Ct gives -at x R = dL/dt where L
depends on the angular velocity Wt say of OAt. Now the angular velocity for a
rod is not uniquely defined and we can in fact specify that Wt . at = O. Since
Wit x at = da 1 /dt, we then have

and so

where 1= ma 2 /3 is the moment of inertia of OAt about a perpendicular axis

through Ct. The moment equation now becomes

The corresponding equation for OA2 is

1 d2 1 d( da 2 ) 1 d 2a2
-a2 x (-R)=-ma2 dt (a1 -a2)=-m-d
X -2 a2 X-
dt =-3ma2 x -2- ·
2 3 t dt

We therefore have a pair of equations for a1 and a2, namely

11.6] Gyroscopic Problems 331

To take the analysis further we defme unit vectors i along OC and j

perpendicular to OC in the plane of At OA2 . Together with k = i xj these unit
vectors determine a moving frame of reference in which a -I at = i cos 0 +j sin 0
and a -I a2 =i cos 0 - j sin 0, where 20 = Al OA2 . Addition and subtraction of
the two equations for at and a2 then give

i cos 0 x :t: (i cos 0) + 4j sin 0 x : ; (j sin 0) =0,

4i cos 0 x ::2 Gsin 0) + j sin 0 x ::2 (i cos 0) =o.

The first of these relations integrates to

i cos 0 x :t (i cos 0) + 4j sin 0 x :t (j sin 0) =c,

where c is a constant vector. This relation in turn can be written

If the reference system has angular velocity w with components (wx, w y , w z ),

we have di/dt = w x i and dj/dt = w x j, and so the last equation implies that the
quantities Wx sin 2 0, Wy cos 2 0, wz(cos 2 0 + 4 sin 2 0) are all constants of the
motion which are therefore determined by the initial conditions. Further details
of the motion are determined, at least in principle, by the remaining equation.

11.6 GYROSCOPIC PROBLEMS

The application of rigid body dynamics to gyroscopic problems is one of the

most striking successes of the theory, and warrants a separate account. These
problems are concerned with the motion of a rigid body in which the main
constituent of the motion is a basic spin about a principal axis. This underlying
spin causes curious effects which are not intuitively obvious.
Let 0 be a point on the axis of spin, and let k be a unit vector along this axis.
Let w be the angular velocity of the body, We have

dk/dt =wx k, (I 1.6.1)

k x dk/dt =k x (wx k) = w- (w. k)k, (11.6.2)

dk
and so we can write -w=kx- +sk (11.6.3)
dt '
332 Rigid Bodies [ 11.6

where s = w. k is defined as the spin. Equation (11.6.3) simply displays the

components of wperpendicular and parallel to k.
We shall consider only bodies having kinetic symmetry about the principal
axis in the direction of k. Let It =I, 12 =I, 13 be the principal moments of
inertia at O. The relative angular momentum is then

(11.6.4)

Let M be the moment of the external forces about 0, so that

(11.6.5)

provided that 0 is either a fixed point or the mass centre. Equation (11.6.5) is
the general equation describing the motion of a spinning symmetrical body
about a fixed point. For more general motion it can be used to describe the
motion relative to the mass centre and it is then augmented by an equation for
the motion of the mass centre.
Note that the first two terms on the right-hand side of (11.6.5) have no
component parallel to k. In gyroscopic problems this is often true of M as well,
in which case (11.6.5) implies that s is constant and Simplifies to

(11.6.6)

Example 11.6.1. The spinning top

The most familiar gyroscopic problem is that of a rigid body free to rotate about
a fixed point 0 on an axis of symmetry OC. The spin s about OC is taken to be
constant and the equation of motion is consequently given by (11.6.6).

o
Figure 11.6.1 Illustration for Example 11.6.1: the spinning top.
11.6] Gyroscopic Problems 333

Let k be a unit vector along OC and let k' be a unit vector in a fIxed
direction. We consider fIrst the conditions for which a solution is possible in
which the angle 8 between k and k' is constant and k rotates steadily about k'.
This is called steady precession and the constant angular speed of precession p is
defIned so that pk' is the angular velocity with which k rotates about k'. The
point on OC with position vector k then has a velocity

dk/dt =pk' x k (11.6.7)

so that

k x d2 k/dt2 = k x (pk' x dk/dt) =-p(k. k') dk/dt. (11.6.8)

Equation (11.6.6) then becomes

M ={I3S - /p(k . k')} dk/dt ={I3SP - Jp2 cos 8}k' x k. (11.6.9)

It follows that a couple of constant magnitude (/3SP - Jp2 cos 8)sin 8 is re-
quired to maintain the steady precession. Its direction is normal to the plane of
k and k'. It is the direction of this couple which is surprising when fIrst
encountered. Suppose the couple is produced by a force Fk', say, acting at a
point ak on the axis of symmetry so that M =ak x (Fk'). The body then moves
perpendicular to the applied force rather than yielding to it, as might have been
expected. A familiar example of this effect is the fact that the rider of a bicycle
must lean over on one side in order to turn a corner. The axle of the front wheel
is then the axis of spin, and the gravitational couple acts about a fore and aft
horizontal axis. The effect of the couple is to give the wheel an additional
angular velocity of precession which has a vertical component and turns the
front wheel in the required direction (the rear wheel is of course not free to
rotate about a vertical axis relative to the frame).
The results are immediately applicable to the spinning top, as illustrated in
Figure 11.6.1, which has its mass centre C at a distance a along the axis of
symmetry from the fIxed point O. The fixed direction k' is then vertical, the
gravitational couple at 0 is ak x (-mgk/), and a steady precession about the
vertical is possible if

mga(k' x k) = (J 3SP - Jp2 cos 8)(k' x k). (11.6.10)

Apart from the degenerate case, when the axis of spin is vertical, the
condition is

(11.6.11)

This is a quadratic in p2 and so, for given values of S and 8, two values of p are
334 Rigid Bodies [ 11.6

possible which are real if

~SZ >4 mgaI cos 8. (11.6.l2)

When s is large, as is usually the case in practice, p approximates either to the

small value mga/13s (slow precession) or to the large value 13S/1 cos 8. Note
that when cos 8 < 0, so that the mass centre lies below 0, solutions are always
possible.

Example 11. 6.2. The nearly vertical top

The equation of motion of the spinning top, namely

, dZk dk
-mgakxk =Ikx- z +/3 sd- (11.6.l3)
dt t

has the solution k = k'. This solution refers to the case of a top spinning with
constant spin s about the vertical. To discuss the stability of this solution, we
assume that in a small perturbation of the above solution

k=k'+p,

where p is a vector of small magnitude. Since k'. k = cos 8 = 1 + 0(8 2 ),

it follows that k' . P' = 0(8 z ) and that hence p is a small horizontal vector if
second order quantities are neglected. Equation (11.6.13), when linearised,
simplifies to
, , d2 P dp
-mgapxk =Ik x - z +hs dt· (11.6.l4)
dt

This equation is best discussed with reference to axes rotating with constant
angular velocity wak', where Wa is a constant to be determined. Relative to such
a frame we have

dp/dt = p+ wak' x p, (11.6.l5)

d Z pldt2 = p+ 2wak' x P- w;p, (11.6.l6)

since k' . p = o. The notation now being used is that introduced for rotating axes
in §9.4. Substitution of (11.6.15), (11.6.16) in (11.6.14) gives

-mgap x k' = Ik' x (p - wi p) - 21waP + 138(i'+ wak' x p). (11.6.17)

Since wa is at our disposal, we choose it so that the coefficient of p vanishes.

Therefore 2Iwa = 13S and (11.6.17) then simplifies to

(11.6.18)
11.6] Gyroscopic Problems 335

The nature of the solution of (11.6.18) depends on the sign of the coefficient
of p within the parentheses. If the coefficient is positive, say n 2 , then p
satisfies the equation

which represents elliptic harmonic motion relative to the frame rotating with
angular speed 1 3 s/21. It follows that any small initial disturbance will remain
small. On the other hand if the coefficient is negative, say _[12, the solution for
p has the form

where P1 and P2 are fixed vectors in the rotating frame. Since P2 will not be
zero for an arbitrary initial disturbance, this situation represents instability. In
the critical case, for which the coefficient of p in (11.6.18) is zero, we have
p = O. Hence p varies linearly with t and this case is also unstable. It follows that
the condition for instability is

l~s2 ~ 4Imga. (11.6.19)

Example 11.6.3
We now consider the motion of a uniform sphere rolling without slipping on the
surface of a second fixed rough sphere. The fixed sphere has centre 0, radius b.
The moving sphere has centre C, radius a and mass m. The reaction on it at the
point of contact with the fixed sphere is R. Unit vectors k' and k are defined in
the vertical direction and along the line of centres OC respectively (see
Fig. 11.6.2).
In this example k is not fixed in the moving sphere, so that the previous
analysis is not immediately applicable. However, it is clear that the position

R
kl b

o
V.

Figure 11.6.2 Illustration for Example 11.6.3: a sphere rolling and slipping on
a fixed sphere.
 336 Rigid Bodies [ 11.6

vector of C relative to 0 is (a + b)k so that the velocity of C is (a + b) dk/dt.

Also if CJ.) is the angular velocity of the moving sphere, the velocity of C can be
expressed alternatively as w x ak since the sphere is instantaneously rotating
about the point of contact with the fixed sphere. It follows that

a +bdk
---=wxk. (11.6.20)
a dt
This equation is the same as (11.6.1) apart from the factor (a + b )/a and the
analysis now follows similar lines. Analogous to (11.6.2) we have

a +b dk
--kx-=w-(w.k)k
a dt

a +b dk
and so (a) = - - k x - + sk (11.6.21)
a dt '

where s = w. k is the spin of the sphere about k.

For the motion relative to C we have the equation

-ak x R = dLc = dw=

dt dt
I I(a a+ ok x ddtk + s dkdt + d
2
2
ds k)
t'
(11622)
. .

where I is the moment of inertia of the moving sphere about a diameter. The
component of the above equation parallel to k gives ds/dt = 0 and so s is
constant.
Equation (11.6.22) must now be augmented by the equation for the motion
of the mass centre, which is

d2 k
R - mgk' = mea + b) dt 2 • (11.6.23)

We can eliminate R from (11.6.22) using (11.6.23) to get

, a+b d2 k dk
or -mgak x k = (I + ma 2 )-a- k x dt 2 + Is dt . (11.6.24)

This equation is similar to (11.6.13) for the spinning top. If in (11.6.13) I is

replaced by (I + rna 2 )(a + b )/a and 13 is replaced by I, the result is just (11.6.24).
Hence we can discuss (11.6.24) on the basis of the analysis of(11.6.13) andihe
above substitutions.
11.6] Gyroscopic Problems 337

e
There are, for example, solutions for which the angle between k and k' is
constant and k rotates steadily about k' with constant angular velocity pk'.
From (11.6.11) and the appropriate substitutions the condition for this is,

a+b
(I + ma 2) - - p2 cos () - Isp + mga= O. (11.6.25)
a

There is a solution of (11.6.24), for which k = k', which represents a spin

about the highest point of the fixed sphere. From (11.6.19) this is unstable if

(11.6.26)

Example 11.6.4. The Gyrocompass

In Figure 11.6.3(a), 0 represents a point on the earth's surface at latitude A,
and the line SN represents the direction south to north at 0, which therefore
makes an angle A with the earth's axis of rotation. Let the unit vectors i, j, k at 0
be such that i is vertical, and j and k are horizontal with k making an angle e
with SN (see Fig. 11.6.3(b)). If We is the angular speed of the earth about its
axis, the angular velocity of the earth has components We cos A parallel to SN
and We sin A parallel to i, and we have

We = we(i sin A - j cos A sin () + k cos A cos ()). (11.6.27)

The angular velocity Wa of the axes differs from We by a term -Oi and so

Wa = i(We sin A - 0) - jWe cos A sin e + kWe cos A cos (). (11.6.28)

N
N

s
s

(a) (b)

Figure 11.6.3 Illustration for Example 11.6.4: notation used in the discussion
of the gyrocompass.
338 Rigid Bodies [ 11.6

We now consider the motion of an axially symmetric flywheel, situated at 0,

whose axis is constrained by an appropriate couple to remain in a horizontal
plane. If k is chosen to lie along the axis of the flywheel, the latter's angular
velocity (a) differs from Wa by a spin about k and so

W = i(we sin A - 0) - jWe cos A sin 8 + ks, (11.6.29)

say. The angular momentum will then be

L = i/(we sin A - 0) - jIwe cos A. sin 8 + kI 3 s, (11.6.30)

where I, I, 13 are the principal moments of inertia at the mass centre of the
flywheel. To maintain the axis in a horizontal plane, it is necessary to apply an
appropriate couple of the form .Mj through the bearings in which the axis
rotates. Now

.Mj = dL/dt = L+ wa x L
= -i/O - jIweO cos A. cos 8 + kI3s
+ iWe cos A. sin 8(Iwe cos Acos 8 - 138)
+j(we ~ A. - OXIwe cos A. cos 8 - 138), (11.6.31 )

and so there are two relations implied by the condition that the i and k
components of dL/dt are zero. The second of these implies that the spin 8 is
constant, and the first gives the equation

-Ie + We cos A. sin 8(Iwe cos A. cos 8 - 138) = O. (11.6.32)

In applications of interest, s ~ we and (11.6.32) can be approximated to

(11.6.33)

This is just the equation for the simple pendulum as discussed in Example 6.5 .1.
In particular,small oscillations are simple harmonic with a periodic time 2rr/n.
Since the axis of the flywheel oscillates about 8 = 0, such a device offers the
possibility of estimating true north on the earth's surface, as opposed to the
magnetic north registered by a magnetic compass. This principle is the basis of
the gyrocompass. Since we is small, s must be large in order to achieve a periodic
time which is not too small. If, by way of illustration, we take

13 cos 'A/I = 1
s =6000 rev min -1 =2rr x 100 rad S-1,
We = 1 rev(sidereal day)-1 = 2rr/86 164 rad S-1,
11.6) Gyroscopic Problems 339

the periodic time is

21T (
I )112 =(861'64)1/2 =29·4 s.
13swe cos A.

Example 11.6.5
In this example we consider the motion of a uniform disc, of mass m and radius
a, which is rolling on a rough, horizontal plane. Let k', k,j, i, be unit vectors
such that k' is vertically upwards, k is along the axis of the disc, j is parallel to
k x k' and i = j x k (see Fig. 11.6.4). Let e be the inclination of k to the vertical
and let 4J be the angular displacement of the disc about the vertical. The angular
velocity tIla of the axes is
Wa = i~ sin e - j8 + k~ cos e. (11.6.34)

The angular velocity til of the disc is

til = i~ sin e - j8 + ks. (11.6.35)

The angular momentum relative to the mass centre C is

L = iI~ sin e - jI8 + kI 3 s, (11.6.36)

where I, I, 13* are the principal moments of inertia at C. The equations for the
motion of the mass centre, the motion relative to the mass centre and the

k'

Figure 11.6.4 Illustration for Example 11.6.5: a disc rolling on a horizontal

plane.
* In this particular example /3 = 2/, but the mathematics is applicable to more general
bodies which have the same perimeter as the disc and for which the disc is a plane of
symmetry.
340 Rigid Bodies [ 11.6

condition of no slip give respectively

R - mgk' =m(dve/dt), (11.6.37)

-ai x R =dL/dt, (11.6.38)

ve - wxai=O, (11.6.39)

where R is the reaction at the point of contact of the disc and plane and ve is the
velocity of the mass centre.
Elimination of R from (11.6.38) using (11.6.37) gives

dVe)
•
-aIX
( I
mgk +m'dt =dL
dt' (11.6.40)

Elimination of Ve from (11.6.40) using (11.6.39) gives

. (gk' +
-al x m d ( wx al.)) = dL
m dt dt . (11.6.41)

Substitution for wand L from (11.6.35) and (11.6.36) into (11.6.41) gives

jmga cos (J - ma2 i x :t Us + kO) = :t (il~ sin (J - jIO + kl3S). (11.6.42)

This is the equation for the general motion of the disc. We consider a special case
by looking for a solution in which 8, ~ and s are constant. This case represents a
rolling motion with the plane of the disc at a constant angle to the vertical and
the mass centre C moving in a circle with constant angular velocity. For this
steady motion, the rate of change with time arises solely from the rotation of
the axes. Hence (11.6.42) simplifies to

jmga cos 8 - ma2 i x (wa X js) = Wa x (il~ sin (J + k/3s). (11.6.43)

Substitution for Wa from (11.6.34) gives the required condition

mga cos (J + (/3 + ma2)v~ sin (J - 1~2 sin (J cos (J = O. (11.6.44)

In particular if (J =1(/2, so that the plane of the disc is vertical, (11.6.44) is

satisfied by s =0 when the disc spins about a vertical diameter, or by ~ =0 when
the disc rolls straight ahead. It is of interest to consider the stability of the latter
case, by satisfying (11.6.42) on the assumption that 1(/2 - (J =X and ~ are small.
Correct to first order, we have

(11.6.45)
 Exercises 341

which is also small. Equation (11.6.42) then approximates to

jmgax - ma 2Ux + kS) - ma2i x (Wa X js) = iI~ +jlx + kl3 s+ Wa X kl3 s.

(11.6.46)
The three components of (11.6.46) give, respectively,

I~ +I3sX=O, (11.6.47)
x
mgax - ma 2 + ma2s~ =IX - 13s~, (11.6.48)
-ma 2s=hs. (11.6.49)

Equation (11.6.49) shows that s is constant to first order. Equation (11.6.47)

then integrates to

if it is assumed that X= ~ = 0 initially. Elimination of ~ from (11.6.48) gives,

finally,

It follows that rolling is unstable if

EXERCISES

11.1 A rigid body has angular velocity 00 and a point 0 of the rigid body has
velocity vo' Show that the kinetic energy T(v o , (0) is such that

Vo . P +00 . Lo = 2T(vo , w),

Vo . P - oo. Lo = 2T(vo , 0) - 2T(O, (0),

where p, Lo are respectively the linear momentum and the angular

momentum about O.
11.2 A uniform rod, of length 21, rests partly inside and partly outside a
smooth, fixed, hemispherical bowl of radius a whose rim is horizontal.
Given that the inclination of the rod to the horizontal is Q, show that
1 cos Q = 2a cos 2Q.
11.3 A rough rod passes under a peg A and over a peg B and rests in
eqUilibrium at an angle Q to the horizontal. Given that the mass centre of
the rod is at a distance a from A and b from B, and that the friction is
limiting, show that tan Q = (a + b )/(a - b).
11.4 A rough uniform circular cylinder, of mass m, rests in a rough V-shaped
groove whose sides are inclined at angles Q with the horizontal. A
342 Rigid Bodies

gradually increasing horizontal force R is applied to the highest point of

the cylinder at right angles to its axis and in the vertical plane containing
the mass centre. Given that the coefficient of friction is tan X, show that
equilibrium is broken by slipping when a > 2X and
mg sin 2X
R =---==-----
2(cos a + sin X) .
2

11.5 Two equal rough circular cylinders rest in contact with each other on a
rough inclined plane, and their axes are horizontal. The inclination of the
plane to the horizontal is a. The coefficient of friction at all contacts is
tan X.
The cylinders are prevented from moving down the plane by a force
applied to the lower cylinder along the line of centres, and this force is
gradually increased. Show that equilibrium is finally broken by the lower
cylinder slipping up the plane if a > i1T - X, and by slipping between the
two cylinders if a < i1T - X.
11.6 A uniform circular disc, of mass m, is suspended in a vertical plane by two
vertical strings attached at points A, B on the circumference. The points
A, B are on the same level and the arc AB subtends an angle 2a at the
centre of the disc.
One of the strings is cut; what is the initial tension in the other?
(Ans.: mg/O + 2 sin 2 a).)
11.7 Two equal uniform rods AO, OB, are smoothly hinged together at 0 and
the end A is smoothly hinged to a fixed point. The rods are held in a
vertical plane with A and B on the same level and the angle AOB a right
angle.
Show that when the rods are released the initial angular accelerations
are in the ratio 3 : 4.
Note that there are two possible initial configurations, with 0 either
above or below the level of AB. The answer is the same for each case.
11.8 A uniform rod is supported against a smooth fixed sphere by a horizontal
string fastened to its upper end and to the highest point of the sphere.
Show that if the string is cut, the reaction between the sphere and the rod
is changed instantaneously by a factor cos2 a/(l + 3 sin4 a), where a is
the inclination of the rod to the horizontal.
11.9 A flywheel rotates with an average angular speed w. It is acted upon by a
forcing torque T sin 2 wt and there is a constant torque! T opposing the
motion.
What is the least moment of inertia required to make the difference
between the greatest and least angular speeds less than w/l00?
(Ans.: 50T/w 2 .)
11.10 A rough uniform rod, of mass m and length 21, is freely pivoted at one
end and is initially supported at the other end in a horizontal position. A
particle, of mass am, is placed on the rod at the mid point. The
coefficient of friction between the particle and the rod is fJ.. Show that if
the support is removed:

(i) the reaction at the hinge is instantaneously reduced by a factor

2/(4 + 3a);
 Exercises 343

(ti) the particle begins to slide when the rod is inclined to the horizontal
at an angle (J given by IJ. = (10 + 9a)tan (J.

11.11 Two rods, each of mass m and length l, are joined together to form a
single rod of length 2l. The combination rotates on a smooth horizontal
plane about one end which is fixed. The join is such that it cannot sustain
a tension greater than T. Show that the angular speed must be less than
(2T/3ml)1/2.
Describe the subsequent motion of the two rods if the linkage should
snap.
11.12 A straight beam, of mass mb, rests on two uniform circular cylinders,
each of mass me and radius a. The cylinders are at rest on a horizontal
plane with their axes parallel, and the length of the beam is perpendicular
to the axes. The mass centres of the beam and cylinders lie in one vertical
plane. The beam is pulled with a horizontal force F parallel to its length
acting through its mass centre. Show that if there is no slipping, the
acceleration of the beam is F(mb + ime) -1.
11.13 An axially symmetric yo-yo consists of two equal discs joined by a short
axle, of radius a. The radius of gyration of the yo-yo about its axis is k. A
light string is partly wound round the axle and held vertically by its free
end.
Show that if the free end of the string is stationary and the yo-yo is
ascending with angular speed w, it will climb a length 1 of the string
provided that w 2 > 2g1/(k2 + a2 ). Show that if this condition is not
satisfied it will still climb a length 1 of the string if the free end is given a
constant down ward acceleration not less than

11.14 A pair of wheels joined by an axle stands on a rough slope, of inclination

a, with the axle horizontal. The radius of the axle is a and the radius of
each wheel is b. The system is axially symmetric, its mass is m and the
radius of gyration of the system about its axis is k. A light string is wound
round the axle and emerges from the underside. It then passes up the
plane parallel to the line of greatest slope, over a smooth peg and hangs
vertically with a particle, also of mass m, suspended from its end.
The system is released from rest. Show that if the wheels roll without
slipping, they roll down or up the plane according as a ~ b( 1 - sin a).
If slipping should take place, show that it will be such that the points
of contact move up the plane.
11.15 A non-uniform sphere, of radius a, has its mass centre C at a distance c
from its geometrical centre O. It is placed on a rough horizontal plane so
that OC is horizontal. On the assumption that the sphere rolls in the
ensuing motion, write down the equations of motion in terms of the
angle (J which OC makes with the horizontal.
Show that it will roll initially if IJ. > ac/(k 2 + a 2 ), where IJ. is the
coefficient of friction and k is the radius of gyration about the horizontal
axis through C perpendicular to OC.
344 Rigid Bodies

If Il =acl(k 2 +a 2 ), what is the condition for the sphere to roll

initially?
(Ans.: 3k 2 > a2 .)
11.16 Two uniform cog wheels have masses m 1 , m2, radii ai, a2 and moments
of inertia 11 ,12 about their axes.
Show that if they rotate with angular speeds WI, W2 on the same
axle and are suddenly locked together, the final angular speed is
(II WI +/2 w 2)/(/1 +/2 ).
Show that if they rotate on parallel axles, and are suddenly meshed at
their circumference, the fmal angular speeds are vIal, vla2,

where

11.17 A uniform circular hoop, of radius a, is struck a blow at a point of its

circumference. If it is perfectly free, find the initial axis of rotation: (i)
when the blow is tangential in the plane of the hoop; (ii) when it is at
right angles to the plane of the hoop.
(Ans.: A distance: (i) a; (ii) al2 from the centre.)
11.18 A train begins to move with a carriage door open at right angles to the
length of the train. What is the angular speed of the door as it closes if:

(i) The train moves with a constant acceleration a?

(ii) The train jerks into motion with speed v, which is maintained?

(Ans.: {21al(1 2 + k 2 )}1/2 , Iv 1(12 + k 2 ), where I is the horizon tal distance

of the mass centre from the hinge of the door and k is the radius of
gyration about a vertical axis through the mass centre.)
11.19 A uniform bar, of length 21, rests symmetrically on two pegs at a distance
2d apart in a horizontal line. One end of the bar is raised and then
released. Show that if there is no slip, and no recoil when the bar strikes
the peg, the bar is reduced to rest on impact if 3d 2 > 12 • Show that if
3d 2 < 12 , the angular velocity is instantaneously reduced at each impact
in the ratio (12 - 3d 2 )/(12 + 3d2 ).
11.20 Two uniform rods AB, Be, each of mass m and length 21, are hinged
together at B and are free to rotate about A, which is fixed. At a certain
instant they are collinear and rotating as if rigid with angular speed w. An
impulse is applied that brings both rods to rest. Find the magnitude of
the impulse and the point at which it acts.
(Ans.: 11mlw13, 26l/11 from A.)
11.21 Four equal uniform rods, of mass m, are freely jointed together to form a
square and rest on a horizontal plane. A horizontal impulse P is applied at
one corner. What is the initial velocity of the opposite corner?
(Ans.: -P/8m.)
11.22 A uniform circular cylinder, of radius a, rolls with speed u along the
ground, up a slope inclined at an angle a to the hOrizontal, back down the
slope and finally along the ground.
The problem is two-dimensional, all surfaces are inelastic and rough
enough to prevent sliding.
 Exercises 345

To what height does the mass centre of the cylinder rise? What is the
final speed along the ground?

(1 + 2 cos Cl)2U 2 (1 + 2 cos Cl)2U )

( Ans.: a + , .
6g 9
11.23 A rod, of mass m and length 1, rests on a horizontal plane and is freely
hinged at one end. A particle, of mass Clm, rests on the plane and touches
the rod. An impulse is applied to the free end of the rod which jerks the
particle into motion. Show that the initial velocity of the particle will be
a maximum if it lies at a distance klCl l / 2 from the hinge, where k is the
radius of gyration of the rod about the hinge. Show that the total energy
is then shared equally between the rod and the particle.
11.24 Two uniform rods, each of mass m and length 21, are hinged together and
lie in a straight line. An impulse F is applied to the mid point of one of
the rods perpendicular to its length. What is the kinetic energy imparted
to the rods?
-2
(Ans.: 7F 116m.)
11.25 A spherically symmetric golf ball of radius a rolls without slipping
directly towards the centre of a hole of diameter d(>2a) with speed
v> (ga)1/2. If the ball strikes the opposite edge of the hole and no
slipping takes place, show that it will overshoot if

k2 ) ga sin Cl(d - a sin Cl)}2

{( -;; + a cos Cl v - v > 2ga(k 2 + a 2 )(1 - cos Cl),

g(d - a sin Cli

where CoSCl= 1
2av2
and k is the radius of gyration about an axis through the mass centre.
11.26 A uniform rectangular lamina is held with one edge on a smooth hori-
zontal plane and the opposite edge against a smooth vertical wall. It is
released from rest inclined at an angle Cl to the horizontal. Show that its
angular speed when it reaches the horizontal is {g sin Cl(9 - sin 2 Cl)/61} 1 /2,
where 21 is the length of the inclined edge.
11.27 A uniform rod rests vertically with one end on a rough horizontal floor
and is then slightly disturbed. Show that it must slip before 0 = cos -1 i,
where 0 is the inclination of the rod to the upward vertical.
Show that it slips backwards or forwards according as slipping occurs
before or after 0 = cos -1 j.
11.28 A uniform sphere (or cylinder), of mass m and radius a, rolls and slides
along a rough horizontal plane. The motion is two-dimensional and
initially the velocity of the mass centre is of magnitude u. At the same
time the sphere has an angular speed w tending to make it move in the
opposite direction.
Show that ultimately the loss in kinetic energy is

mk2(u +aw)2
2(a 2 + k2 )
where k is the radius of gyration about an axis through the mass centre.
346 Rigid Bodies

Show that the mass centre of the sphere (or cylinder) will return to its
initial position if u < k 2 wla.
11.29 A rigid body has radius of gyration k about an axis through the mass
centre C.

(i) Show that the frequency of small oscillation.~ about a parallel axis is
a maximum if the axis is at a distance k from C.
(ii) Show that the frequency of oscillation is the same for all parallel
axes at a distance cor k 2 Ie from C.
(iii) The points 0, C, 0' lie on a straight line in that order and such that
OC = c, CO' = k 2 Ie. Show that if a particle is placed on the line, the
frequency of oscillation of the complete system about an axis
through 0 is increased if it lies between 0 and 0', and decreased if it
lies outside this interval.

11.30 A uniform rod, of length 2b, is suspended by two vertical light strings,
each of length I, which are fixed to the ends of the rods and to two fixed
points a distance 2b apart.
Show that the energy equations for motions in which the strings
remain taut and: (i) each string moves through an angular distance e with
the rod moving in a vertical plane; (ii) the strings move through equal and
opposite angular distances e with the mass centre of the rod moving
vertically, are

(i) !UP + g(l - cos e) = constant,

(ii)
1 .
-10
(!b
2 2 * e) -
2(l + 2 sin 2 */2 sin4
2 • 2 e
e) + g(1 - cos e) = constant.
2 b - 1 sm

Deduce that the periods of small oscillations are: (i) 2rr(l/g) 112 ;
(ii) 2rr(I(3gi 12 •
11.31 A uniform rectangular lamina, of mass m and with vertices A, B, C, D, lies
in a vertical plane and is free to swing about the point A which is fixed. A
particle of mass ! m is fixed to the lamina at B. The system is released
from rest with AB horizontal and is next instantaneously at rest when AB
is vertical.. Show that BC = 2AB.
Show that the frequency of small oscillations about the equilibrium
position of the system is

(
13g )112
6.2 1/2 AB

Show that if the motion is retarded by a constant frictional couple M,

AB swings through an angle e, where

sinO +cose -ae = 1

and a = MI(mgAB). Show that if a is small e = !rr(l - a), correct to first
order.
 Exercises 347

11.32 A uniform solid hemisphere, of radius a, stands with its curved surface in
contact with a horizontal plane.
Show that the period of small oscillations about its equilibrium
position is 21r/n, where

2 120g
n =--
119a

if the contact is perfectly smooth, and

if the contact is perfectly rough.

In both cases show that if the hemisphere starts from rest with its
plane surface vertical, the angular speed is 21/2 n when the plane surface
becomes horizontal.
11.33 A circular cylinder has mass m and radius a. The mass centre of the
cylinder lies on its axis, about which the radius of gyration is k. The
cylinder rolls inside a fixed circular cylindrical shell of radius a + b.
Show that the condition for rolling without slipping is that the
coefficient of friction 1J. satisfies the inequality

k2
1J. ~ -2--2 tan Il,
k +a

where Il is the maximum angle which the plane joining the axes of the
cylinders makes with the vertical.
Show that the period of small oscillations about the eqUilibrium
position is then 21r/n, where

11.34 A circular cylinder, of radius a, is fixed with its axis horizontal. A

uniform plank, of thiekness 2h, rests horizontally across the top of the
cylinder with its mass centre C vertically above the axis of the cylinder
and its length perpendicular to this axis. The radius of gyration of the
plank about an axis through C parallel to the axis of the cylinder is k.
Suppose that the plank is disturbed from its position of equilibrium.
Show that, when it is inclined at an angle e to the horizontal, the energy
equation is

Show that the horizontal position is unstable for a ..;;; h.

Show that if a> h, the period of small oscillations is 21r{ (k 2 + h2 )/
(a - h)g} 1/2.
11.35 A uniform right circular cylinder, of mass m, has height 2h and radiusa.
348 Rigid Bodies

Let 0 be a point on the circumference of the cylinder at one end. Let

axes Ox, Oy, Oz be defined such that Ox is along a diameter and Oy is
parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
Show that

Ixx=m(~a2 +~h2), Iyy=%ma 2 , Izz=m(~a2+~h2}

Iyz =0, Izx =0, Ixy = -mah.
The cylinder rotates with angular velocity (a) = w(i cos Q + j sin Q)
about a line passing through O. Show that the angular momentum vector
makes an angle /3 with the x-axis, where

11.36 An axially symmetric disc, of mass m, radius a and radius of gyration k

about its axis, rolls along the ground at a constant inclination Q, and its
centre C describes a horizontal circle, of radius c, with speed V.
Show that the kinetic energy is

11.37 A uniform rectangular block has adjacent edges of length 20, 2b, 2c. It
rotates with angular speed W about an axis parallel to a principal diagonal
passing through a vertex not lying on the diagonal.
Show that the kinetic energy is

m(b 2 c2 + 7c 2a2 + 7a 2 b 2 )w2

3(a 2 + b 2 + c2 )

11.38 Two wheels, each of mass mw and radius a, are joined by an axle of mass
ma and length 1. Each wheel has moments of inertia equal to Ia about its
axis and I d about a diameter. The axle has moment of inertia I at its mass
centre. The system is axially symmetric.
The combination rolls on a horizontal plane and the angular speeds of
the wheels are w, w'.
Show that the kinetic energy is

11.39 A uniform circular cone, of semi-angle /3, vertex 0 and axis OC, rolls inside
a conical shell, of semi-angle (Q + /3), vertex 0 and axis OZ. The shell
rotates with angular velocity Ws about OZ. The axis OC of the cone
rotates with angular velocity We about OZ.
 Exercises 349

Show that the angular velocity of the cone is

sin a
Ws + (ws - we) --:--a k,
sm '"

where k is the unit vector along the common generator ~A.

Let the principal moments of inertia of the cone at 0 be I, I, h. Show
that its kinetic energy is a minimum as a function of Ws when

We = (1 + cos a tan (3)w s .

Show that the kinetic energy is a minimum as a function of we when

(I sin 2 {3 + 13 cos 2 (3)sin a

W = We.
s 13 COS (3 sin(a + (3)

11.40 A uniform pole is supported at its lower end, which is carried round in a
horizontal circle of radius a with constant angular speed w. Prove that it
can maintain a constant inclination a to the vertical provided that

gc tan a = w 2 (ac - k5 sin a),

where ko is its radius of gyration about its supported end, and c is the
distance of its mass centre from this end.
11.41 A uniform sphere rolls without slipping on an inclined plane. Show that
the path of the centre of the sphere is a parabola.
11.42 A spherically symmetric sphere rolls without slipping on a horizontal
plane, and the plane rotates about a fixed vertical axis with constant
angular speed wo. Show that the centre of the sphere describes a circle
with constant angular speed wo/O + ma2 II), where m is the mass, a is the
radius and I is the moment of inertia about an axis through the centre of
the sphere.
11.43 Two men support a uniform pole, of mass m and length 2/, in a horizontal
position. They wish to change ends without changing their positions by
throwing the pole into the air and catching it. Show that if the pole is to
remain horizontal throughout its flight, and if the magnitude of the
impulses applied by each man is to be a minimum, the required impulses
have components! m (11g11 6) 1 /2 vertically and !m(11g116)1 /2 horizontally.
11.44 A uniform square plate, of mass m and side 2a, is suspended from one
comerO. Let axes Oxyz be defined such that Ox is horizontal in the plane
of the plate and Oy is vertically downwards. Show that· these are principal
axes.
Let the plate be given an impulsive blow F at the corner with position
vector 21/2 a(i + j). Show that the angular velocity imparted to the plate
is
350 Rigid Bodies

Show that the impulsive reaction at 0 is

11.45 A uniform rectangular lamina has sides of lengths 2a, 2b. It is given an
impulsive blow perpendicular to its plane at one of its corners. Show that
the lamina instantaneously rotates about a line parallel to a diagonal and
at a distance ab /3(a 2 + b 2 )1 /2 from it.
11.46 A uniform cube is spinning freely about a diagonal. Show that if one edge
is suddenly fixed, the kinetic energy is reduced by a factor 1/12.
11.47 The centre of a spherically symmetric sphere, of mass m and moment of
inertia I about a diameter, coincides with the origin. The sphere is free to
turn about the point ck. It is set in motion by an impulse Fi applied at
the point r = xoi + yoj + zok.
Show that the impulsive reaction on the sphere at the fixed point is
Xi, where

11.48 A body turns freely about its fixed mass centre C under no forces other
than the reaction at C. The principal moments of inertia at C are It, 12 ,
1 3 , where It > 12 > 1 3 . The body is set in motion so that the angular
momentum L and the kinetic energy T satisfy the relation L 2 = 212 T.
Obtain a solution of Euler's equations for the angular velocity and hence
show that the angular velocity tends to (0, L/I2' 0) as t --+ 00.
11.49 A body turns freely about its fixed mass centre C under no forces other
than the reaction at C. The principal moments of inertia at C are It, 12 ,
13 and the angular velocity has components (Wt , W2, W3) relative to the
principal axes.
Show that if Wi ~W3, W2 ~W3, then W3 is approximately constant and
that if the small variation in W3 is ignored both Wt and W2 satisfy the
equation x + vx = 0, where v = (13 - It )(h - 12 )w~/ItI2.
Hence show that a steady rotation about the third principal axis is
unstable unless (13 - Id(I3 .- 12 ) > o.
11.50 A body turns freely about its fixed mass centre C under no forces other
than the reaction at C. The principal moments of inertia at C are It ,12,
13 and the angular velocity has components (Wt , W2 , W3) relative to the
principal axes.
Show that if (I2 - II )(13 - II - 12 ) = 0 and 12 ;p II , then

(i) For a body with It = 12 = I show that the magnitUde of the angular
velocity is constant and that the direction precesses about the axis of
symmetry with a periodic time 2nI/(I3 - I)s, where s is the constant
spin about the axis of symmetry.
 Exercises 351

Now let the body be subject to a couple Nk x w. Show that the

above results are modified to the extent that 13 is replaced by
13 +N/s.
(ii) A uniform rectangular lamina, which is free to rotate about its
centre, is set spinning about a diagonal with angular speed woo Show
that in the subsequent motion the lamina first spins about the other
diagonal after a time

2WOl (sec 2a)1I2 K(sin a)

where

and 2a is the acute angle between the diagonals.

11.51 A body of revolution turns freely about its fixed mass centre C, and is
subject to a retarding couple equal to k times the angular velocity. The
principal mo ments of inertia at Care I, I, 13 and the initial spin about the
axis of symmetry is s. Write down Euler's equations and show that, after
a time t, the angular velocity makes an angle I/> with the axis of symmetry
given by

tan I/> = exp{ -(13 - I)kt/II 3 }tan 1/>0,

where 1/>0 is the initial value of 1/>. Deduce that if 13 > 1 the direction of
the angular velocity tends to coincide with the direction of the axis of
symmetry. Show that during the motion a plane through these two
directions turns through a total angle 1 3 (13 - I)s/kl relative to axes fixed
in the body.
11.52 Two gyroscopes are fixed to a light axle, which is their common axis of
symmetry. The gyroscopes can turn freely and independently about the
axle and the whole system can turn freely about a fixed point 0 of the
axle.
Show that the gyroscopes each have constant spin about the axle.
Show that the motion of the axle would be the same if the whole system
moved as a rigid body with spin (/3S + l~s')/(/3 + I~) about the axle. Here
s, s' refer to the constant spins of the gyroscopes and 13 , I~ refer to their
moments of inertia about the axle.
11.53 A top, of mass m, spins about a fixed point 0 on its axis of symmetry.
Unit vectors k', k, j, i are defined so that k' is vertically upwards, k is
parallel to the axis of the top, j is parallel to k x k' and i = j x k. The angle
between k and k' is (}, and I/> is the angular displacement of the vertical
plane of k and k' relative to a fixed vertical plane. The principal moments
of inertia at 0 are I, I,I3.
Show that the angular velocity of the top and the angular momentum
relative to the fixed point are, respectively,

w=i~sin(} -j6 +ks,

L=I(i~sin(} -j6)+I3ks,
352 Rigid Bodies

where s is the constant spin. From the conservation of angular momen-

tum about the vertical and the conservation of energy, deduce the
equations

I~ sin 2 e + I3s cos e = H,

!I(~2 sin2 e + 1:)2) + !I3s2 + mga cos e = E,

where Hand E are constants, and a is the distance of the mass centre
from the fixed point.

(i) A spinning top is released from an initial position in which its axis is
horizontal and at rest. Show that the axis will rotate about 0 until it
makes an angle {3 with the downward vertical such that

cos {3 = (b 2 + 1)112 - b, where b =I~s2/(4Imga).

(ii) Given that the axis of the top passes through the vertical, and that
e e
= 0 when = 0, show that

.
y2 = -2mga
I_y(1)2 + 2ky _ y2),

where

y =1 - cos e, 1)2 = 0 21
mga'

Hence show that when I) is small, the axis of the top remains near the
vertical provided that k is small or negative.
11.54 The top of Exercise 11.53 is subjected to a couple Mk'. The couple is
adjusted to ensure that ~ = p is constant. Show that

(2/p cos e - I3s)e =M sin e,

-Iii" + Ip2 sin e cos e - I3Ps sin e = -mga sin e,
I 3s=Mcose,

and that, if e = rr/2, e = 0, s = So at t = 0,

Iii + I3Pso + Ip2(e - rr/2) = mga sin e.

Deduce that e increases or decreases initially according as mga is greater

or less than I3pso and that if I3Pso = mga(1 + e), where e ~ 1, then
approximately e oscillates between rr/2 and rr/2 - 2mgaelIp 2 with a
period 2rrlp.
1l.55 One end of a uniform rod, of mass m and length I, is constrained to slide
along a smooth vertical axis. The other end slides on a smooth horizontal
e
floor. Let be the angle between the rod and the downward vertical and
 Exercises 353

let cp be the angular displacement of the vertical plane through the rod.
,p
Let 0 =n/4, iJ =0, =Wo when t =O. Show that
Z 3g
8z =W~ (2 - cosecz 0) + _(rI/Z - cos 0)
4 1

provided that the rod remains in contact with the floor. Show that the
minimum value of Wo below which the rod will maintain contact with
the floor during the subsequent motion is given by wg IIg =3(2 - 2 1 / 2 ).
11.56 A spherically sYmmetric sphere, of mass m, centre C, radius a and
moment of inertia I about a diameter, rolls without slipping inside a
hollow fixed sphere, of centre 0 and. radius b. Show that a steady
precession is possible in which OC is inclined at a constant angle a to the
downward vertical and rotates about the vertical with constant angular
speed p provided that
b-a
-(1+ maZ) _ _ p2 cos a+Isp + mga =0,
a
where s is the constant spin of the sphere about OC.
Show that the solution is consistent with the no slip condition
provided that

sin a I g - (b - a)p2 cos a I < fJ.{g cos a + (b - a)p2 sin2 a},

where fJ. is the coefficient of friction.

11.57 The mass centre of an axially symmetric flywheel is fixed at a point 0 of
the earth's surface. The axis of the flywheel is constrained to remain in
the meridian plane at 0 (that is the vertical plane containing the earth's
axis of rotation). Initially the flywheel has a spin s about its own axis,
which is parallel to the earth's axis of rotation. Show that if the axis is
slightly disturbed, it will oscillate with period

where we is the angular speed of the earth and l, l, 13 are the principal
moments of inertia at 0 of the flywheel.
11 .58 An axially symmetric circular disc, of radius a, is in motion with its edge
touching a smooth horizontal table. The axis of the disc is inclined at an
angle 0 to the vertical, the spin about the axis is s.
Show that in steady motion the two rates of precession p are given by
the roots of

mga cos 0 =Ip2 sin 0 cos 0 - 1 3 sp sin 0,

where I, I, 13 are the principal moments of inertia of the disc at its centre.
Show that the particular solution 0 = n/2, s = 0, when the disc rotates
about the vertical, is unstable if ap2 ~ 4g.
11.59 An axially symmetric circular cone, of mass m and semi-angle a, rolls on a
354 Rigid Bodies

horizontal plane. The angular speed of the cone's axis about the vertical is
p. Show that the vertex of the cone tends to rise from the plane if

where d is the distance of the mass centre from the base of the cone, and
1,1,111 are the principal moments of inertia at the mass centre.
11.60 A spherically symmetric sphere, of mass m, radius a and moment of
inertia 1 about a diameter, rolls without slipping on the inner surface of a
fixed hollow circular cylinder of radius b.
Let 8 be the angular displacement of the plane through the axis of the
cylinder and the centre of the sphere, and let x be the displacement of
the centre of the sphere parallel to the axis.

(i) Assume that the axis of the cylinder is vertical. Show that iJ is
constant and that x satisfies the equation x+n 2 iJ 2 (x+xo)=0,
where Xo is a constant and n 2 = fl(I + ma 2 ).
(ii) Now consider the problem when the axis of the cylinder is hori-
zontal. Show that

d2 X• 2 • .. ma 2 g sin 8
- + n x=O 8+ = O.
d0 2 ' (I + ma 2 )(b - a)
12 Virtual Work and
Lagrange's Equations

12.1 VIRTUAL WORK

In equations (11.1.3), namely

LF :: Lma, Lr x F :: Lr x ma,

we introduced the basic relations governing the dynamics of a system of rigid

bodies. These relations imply that the system of external forces is equivalent to
the system of mass accelerations. Now in §1O.6 we derived the result that the
work of equivalent systems of vectors is the same, to first order, for an arbitrary
small rigid body displacement. In particular the work of a null system is zero, to
first order, for an arbitrary small rigid body displacement. In this chapter we
show how this result can be made the basis of a general theory for describing the
mechanics of systems of rigid bodies.
For a single rigid body it follows at once that the work of the system of
external forces is the same, to first order, as that of the system of mass
accelerations for any small displacement of the body. However, a system of
particles and rigid bodies is not in general restricted to rigid body displacements,
so that the result is not immediately applicable to such a system. We can, of
course, equate the work of the forces and the work of the mass accelerations for
each component of the system which is displaced as a rigid body, and these
relations can be summed over the whole system. There may then be contri-
butions from forces of constraint, such as the tension in a stretched elastic string
or the frictional force where one body slides on another. These constraints are
external forces as far as a component of the system is concerned, but may be
internal or external forces for the system as a whole. Provided the contribution
from such forces is included, the result can be generalised to include systems of
rigid bodies moving under constraints. Furthermore, there are several forces for
which the net work of the constraints is zero, such as the tensions at the ends of
an inelastic string or the contact force where one body rolls on another (see
§ 11.3). If we refer to those forces, both internal and external, which do not
arise from workless constraints as applied forces, we see that for a system of
particles and rigid bodies, subject to applied forces and workless constraints, the
work of the system of applied forces is the same, to first order, as that of the
system of mass accelerations in an arbitrary small displacement of the system
compatible with the constraints. Indeed it is possible to include a displacement
of the system with a constraint relaxed, provided account is taken of the fact
356 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.1

that the force of constraint may do work in such a displacement and thereby
become an applied force, even though it is workless in the constrained condition.
It is important to appreciate that the result is to be taken as it stands, and is
irrespective of what may happen if the system undergoes a real physical displace-
ment appropriate to the dynamics of the situation. In application it is important
that the displacement of the system can be arbitrary, subject to compatibility
with the workless constraints. For this reason the displacement is referred to as a
virtual displacement and the work of the applied forces is called the virtual
work.
We begin with a discussion of a system in equilibrium, for which the work of
the system of mass accelerations is clearly zero, and we have the following result.

The Principle of Virtual Work

A system subject to applied forces and workless constraints is in equilibrium if
the virtual work of the applied forces is zero for an arbitrary small displacement
of the system compatible with the constraints.
The principle is also a sufficient condition for equilibrium, in other words if
the virtual work of the applied forces is zero for any small displacement of the
system compatible with the constraints, then the system is in equilibrium. For if
the system is not in equilibrium it will begin to move. If it starts from rest each
particle of the rigid body will move initially in the direction of its acceleration a
and the distance it moves will be approximately !at2 , if t is small. Accordingly a
possible small displacement of the system, which is compatible with the con-
straints, is tir:: €a for each particle, where € is small and positive. For such a
virtual displacement, the virtual work of the mass accelerations is

~ma . tir = ~ma . (€a) = €~ma2 > o.

But this is equal to the virtual work of the applied forces, which contradicts the
hypothesis that the virtual work of the applied forces is zero. Hence the system
is in equilibrium.
It may be that the applied forces are all conservative. In such a case the work
done is the loss in potential energy and the requirement that the system should
do no work in all small rigid body displacements implies that the potential
energy should have a stationary value with respect to such displacements.
To investigate the nature of the equilibrium, let us suppose that the potential
energy V = Vo in equilibrium, and that the system starts from rest in a neigh-
bouring configuration for which V:: V t . If the system is not in equilibrium it
will begin to move and so acquire kinetic energy. Since the sum of the kinetic
and potential energies is constant, V will decrease so that V ~ V t . If Vo is a
minimum, then V;;;;' Vo in the neighbourhood of eqUilibrium and so V is
confined within the limits Vo ~ V ~ Vt. If V t - Vo is small it follows that V
never departs appreciably from its eqUilibrium value and the system will remain
close to its equilibrium configuration.
12.1] Virtual Work 357

Conversely if Vo is a maximum, so that V t < V o , the effect of the ensuing

motion after a small displacement is to decrease V further from its equilibrium
value, and hence the equilibrium is unstable.
The following examples illustrate how the principle of virtual work can be
used to obtain information about systems in equilibrium. One of its merits is
that the unknown forces of constraint do not enter into the work equation
unless the constraint is relaxed and the associated force becomes an applied
force. It is therefore an advantage to consider virtual displacements compatible
with the constraints, unless the problem requires a force of constraint to be
calculated.

Example 12.1.1
Three uniform rods AB, BC, CD, each of mass m and length 2/, are smoothly
hinged at Band C. They are suspended from A and a horizontal force F
is applied at D (see Fig. 12.1.1). It is required to find the equilibrium
configuration.
Let the inclinations of the rods to the downward vertical be denoted by () 1 ,
()2, () 3' We consider the work done by the forces in a small virtual displacement
in which () 1, ()2, ()3 change by small increments. The mass centre of AB is at a
depth 1 cos () 1 below A and so there is a contribution to the work done by
gravity of amount mg6 (J cos () 1 ) = -mglo () 1 sin () 1 arising from the displacement
of AB. We take the sum of the contributions from the displacement of each rod
together with the work of F to get

6 W = mg 6(l cos () d + mgo(21 cos () 1 + I cos ()2) + mgo(21 cos () 1 + 21 cos ()2
+ I cos ()3) + FO(21 sin ()l + 21 sin ()2 + 21 sin ()3)
= (2F cos () 1 - Smg sin () 1 )/o() 1 + (2F cos () 2 - 3mg sin () 2 )lo() 2
+ (2F cos () 3 - mg sin () 3 )/o() 3'

~21
I

o F
Figure 12.1.1 Illustration for Example 12.1.1: eqUilibrium of three jointed
rods.
358 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.1

For equilibrium this must vanish for all displacements, which is only possible if
the coefficients of [j() 1, [j() 2, and [j() 3 are separately zero. Hence we have

2F 2F 2F
tan 8 1 =-5-' tan 8 2 =-3-' tan 8 3 = - .
mg mg mg

Note that because the result must be true for all displacements, we get from the
one calculation the inclination of all three rods. Furthermore, since the displace-
ments chosen are compatible with the constraints at A, B and C, the net work of
the reactions at A, B and C is zero, and there is no contribution to the work
equation.

Example 12.1.2
Four uniform rods AB, BC, CD, DA each of mass m and length 2/, are smoothly
hinged together at their ends to form a rhombus. The frame is maintained in a
rigid configuration by a light rod BD. The rods AB and AD rest on two smooth
pegs at the same level and at a distance 2d apart as in Figure 12.1.2(a).
We derive the condition for the stability of equilibrium of the symmetrical
position and we calculate the tension in the tie rod.
Let x be the height of A above the level of the pegs, let AB be inclined at an
angle a + e to the downward vertical, where BAD = 2a. We have

x tan(a + e) + x tan(a - e) = 2d

and hence

2d d(cos 28 +cos 2a)

x=
tan(a + e) + tan(a - 8)
= sin 2a

The centre of the rhombus is at a depth 21 cos a cos e - x below the level of
the pegs. The potential of the gravitational forces on the rods, measured from
the level of the pegs, is therefore

4mg
V= 4mg(x - 21 cos a cos e) = --:--2 (d cos 28 + d cos 2a - 41 sin a cos 2 a cos 8),
sm a

and so dd8V = - :-m2g (2d sin 28 - 41 sin a cos 2 a sin e),

. sm a

d2 V 4mg
d8 2 = - -'-2-
sm a
(4d cos 28 - 41 sin a cos 2 a cos 8).

It follows that d Vide = 0 when 8 = 0 so that this is an eqUilibrium position. The

equilibrium is stable if d < I sin acos 2 a since this is the condition for d 2 Vlde 2 to
 12.11 Virtual Work 359

o
D

C mg
(a) (b)

Figure 12.1.2 Illustration for Example 12.1.2: equilibrium of a frame resting

on two pegs.

be positive. Equilibrium is also stable when d = I sin a cost a; in this case it is

necessary to show that d 4 Vjde 4 is positive at e = 0, which is now the condition
for V to have a minimum value there. For d > I sin a cos 2 a, e = 0 is an unstable
position of equilibrium, but there is stable equilibrium for a value of e given by
d cos e = I sin a cos 2 a.
To calculate the tension T in the tie rod, we relax the constraint that BD is
fixed in length in order to get a contribution from T to the virtual work. We
consider a virtual displacement from the equilibrium position e = 0 in which Q
increases by oa. When e = 0 we have

V(a) = 4mg(d cot a - 21 cos a)

and the net work done when a changes by oa is

oW = -0 V - 10 (41 sin a)
= { 4mg(d cosec2 a - 21 sin a) - 41T cos a} oa.
For equilibrium this must be zero, and so

T =. mg ( ~ _ 2 sin3 a ) .
sm2 a cos a '1

Let us compare the above derivation with one working directly with the
equations for equilibrium. In this approach we can take advantage of the
symmetry and confine the discussion to one half of the framework. Because of
the symmetry the forces on either side of AC are mirror images; in particular,
the reactions Xa and Xc at A and C are horizontal, as shown in Figure
360 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.2

12.1.2(b). Note that when the equilibrium of the right-hand half of the
framework is considered, Xa and Xc are external forces.
The relation ~F = 0, has the horizontal and vertical components

T - N cos 0: + Xa + Xc =0, N sin 0: - 2mg =O.

In order to fmd T, we now need to calculate Xa and Xc' These are obtained by
taking moments about D for the equilibrium of AD and CD separately. We have

Xa21 cos 0: = N(2/- ~) -

sm 0:
mgl sin 0:,

Xc21 cos 0: = mgl sin 0:.

These equations give

T=NCOSCli.-~(
cos CIi.
I _ _d_ )
21 sin CIi. '

= mg ( ~_ 2 sin3 0: )
sin 2 CIi. cos 0: 1 .

Comparison of the two calculations shows how the virtual work approach avoids
the calculation of unknown reactions. If it is necessary to calculate these
reactions, the virtual work approach can also be used to do this. It merely
requires the relaxing of a constraint so that the desired reaction contributes to
the work equation. If this can be done in a way which involves only one
unknown reaction, the equation gives directly an expression for the reaction.
For example if it is required to calculate Xc, the constraint at C is relaxed and
the virtual work equation is derived for a displacement in which the rod CD
rotates through a small angle OCli. about D. We then have

mgl 00: sin 0: - Xc2l 00: cos 0: = 0

for equilibrium. This gives Xc = !mg tan 0: which is the same as the result
obtained by taking moments about D for the equilibrium of CD.

12.2 GENERAUSED COORDINATES

Before we proceed to a discussion of dynamical problems, it is necessary to

introduce the concept of a generalised coordinate system. It is clear from earlier
examples that the choice of coordinate system in any given problem is at our
disposal, and that a judicious choice can simplify the mathematics considerably.
For example th~ position of a particle moving in two dimensions can be defined
12.2] Generalised Coordinates 361

by cartesian coordinates (x,y) or polar coordinates (r, 8). The latter description
has obvious advantages in central force problems and especially when the
particle moves in a circle, since its distance from the centre is fIxed and its
position can be defmed by a single angular coordinate 8. If we insist on using
cartesian coordinates (x, y), then we must also impose the constraint x 2 + y2 =
constant for circular motion. The common feature of all descriptions, whatever
coordinates are used, is that the number of coordinates less the number of
constraints is a constant, called the degrees of freedom. A particle moving on a
circular path has one degree of freedom. A particle free to move in three
dimensions has three degrees of freedom. A system of two particles moving
independently has six degrees of freedom, but if they move as a rigid body this is
reduced to fIve by the constraint that their distance apart is invariant. The
position in space of such a system can be described by three coordinates defIning
the position of one particle, and two angular coordinates defming the position
of the second particle relative to the fIrst. We then have fIve coordinates and
no constraints, giving the same number of degrees of freedom as three
coordinates for each particle together with one constraint. A rigid body
proper actually has six degrees of freedom, because in addition to the five for
the orientation of two of its points, the body can have a further angular
displacement about the line joining them.
These ideas can be extended to more complex systems of rigid bodies, either
moving independently or subject to certain constraints. Any set of quantities
which is used to specify the configuration of a system is called a set of
generalised coordinates and a knowledge of the generalised coordinates implies a
knowledge of the position of every particle of the system. When the generalised
coordinates are subject to constraints, it is not possible to vary all of them
independently without violating the constraints. But if the constraints are of the
form

(12.2.1)

where q 1, Q2, ••• ,qn are the generalised coordinates and t is the time, such a
relation can be used to eliminate one of the coordinates. If there are m
independent constraints, all of the form (12.2.1), it is possible in principle to
eliminate m of the coordinates in this way. Any configuration of the system can
then be specified in terms of the n - m remaining coordinates, the number of
coordinates now being equal to the degrees of freedom. There being no further
coordinate constraints, these n - m coordinates can be changed independ-
ently. When the configuration of a system can be defined by a set of generalised
coordinates which can be varied arbitrarily and independently without violating
any constraints, the system is called holonomic. This possibility does not always
exist, because relation (12.2.1) does not represent the only type of constraint
that can be encountered. For example, the condition of no slip when one body
rolls on another involves the derivatives of the coordinates, and such constraints
are of the form
 362 Virtwll Work and Lagrange's Equations [12.2

f(q1> Q2, ••• , qno til> 42, ... , 4n,t) =O. (12.2.2)
Unless the expression can be integrated to the form of (12.2.1), the pOSSIbility
of eliminating one of the coordinates is not available and the use of more
coordinates than there are degrees of freedom is unavoidable. Systems involving
such constraints are called non-holonomic.

Example 12.2.1
Figure 12.2.1 represents a system consisting of two circular discs, each of radius
a, free to rotate at the opposite ends of a slender axle of length 21. The system is
free to roll on a horizontal plane with the axle horizontal and the discs vertical.
To specify the configuration of the system we first specify the position of the
" mid point C of the axle by cartesian coordinates (x, y) relative to horizontal axes
Ox, Oy. Relative to C the position of the axle is specified by the angular displace-
ment 8 o(the axle from the fixed direction Oy. Finally the displacements of the
. discs relative to the axle can be specified by the angles cp and", through which
they rotate about the axle.
The five quantities x, y, 8, cp, '" represent one possible choice of generalised
coordinates which will specify the configuration of the above system. If the discs
were allowed to slip on the plane, all these coordinates could be given indepen-
dent increments without violating any constraints, and so there would be five
degrees of freedom. If, however, the motion is confined to that which does not
involve slipping, certain constraints must be imposed to ensure that the velocity
at each point of contact is zero. One condition is that the velocity of C along the
line of the axle should be zero, so that there will be no slipping in the direction
of the axle. This gives

X sin 8 +Y cos 8 =O. (12.2.3)

o x

Figure 12.2.1 Illustration for EXample 12.2.1: generalised coordinates for

wheels and axle.
12.3 ] Lagrange's Equations 363

In addition the velocity of each disc perpendicular to the axle should be zero at
the point of contact with the plane and this gives the two further conditions

x cos e - y sin e + [(j - a~ = 0, (12.2.4)

x cos e - y sin e - 10 - a{J = 0. (12.2.S)

These last two conditions are better discussed in the alternative forms

2(x cos e - y sin e) - a(~ + ~) = 0, (12.2.6)

210 - a(~ - {J) = 0, (12.2.7)

obtained by addition and subtraction of (12.2.4) and (12.2.5). There are in all
three constraints and five coordinates and so two degrees of freedom.
Equation (12.2.7) can be integrated to give

210 - a(cp - 1/1) = ° (12.2.8)

subject to suitable initial conditions. We now have the choice of eliminating one
of the variables, say e, from the system of generalised coordinates since it is seen
to be specified in terms of cp - 1/1. No such integration is possible with the
remaining pair of constraints, or any combination of them, and we cannot
reduce the coordinates to less than four with two non-integrable constraints.
If, however, we consider a motion with one degree of freedom by specifying a
°
further constraint that e = and the discs roll in a straight line, the constraints
simplify to

o = 0, y = 0, x - a~ = 0, x - a{J = 0.
These are all integrable and give

e = 0, y = 0, x - acp = 0, x - al/l = °
subject to suitable initial conditions. In this case one coordinate, say x, is
sufficient to specify the configuration and this is classed as holonomic since
there are no constraints on x.

12.3 LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS

The point has been made that there is considerable merit in a careful choice of
generalised coordinates, so that the configuration of a mechanical system is
specified in a way that avoids unnecessary complication. But if we wish to
discuss the dynamics of the system by direct application of Newton's laws of
motion, it is necessary to calculate the accelerations in terms of the chosen
coordinates. This is not always a straightforward matter. Even for the simple
364 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.3

example of a particle moving in two dimensions, the components of accelera-

tion, when using polar coordinates (r, ll), are (r - T0 2 ,,.e
+ 2ft}). The result is
not intuitively obvious and has to be calculated from first principles. For more
complicated systems such calculations can be quite involved. Furthermore
equations of motion have been formulated for particles or rigid bodies only. For
more complicated systems it is necessary to derive the equations of motion for
each separate component, and this means that unknown reactions of constraint
must be included and eventually either evaluated or eliminated after the
equations have been formulated.
A general procedure for obtaining the equations of motion for any system,
preferably without the inclusion of unknown reactions, is much to be desired.
Such is the achievement of the analysis fust formulated by Lagrange. It requires
a knowledge of the kinetic energy of the system, a much simpler calculation
than that for the vector accelerations, and a knowledge of the work of the forces
involved. Thus any force which does no work is automatically eliminated from
the equations. When this information is known, there is a routine procedure for
the derivation of the equations of motion. The achievement is a considerable one,
even when confmed in application to problems in dynamics. But the insight
gained from the analysis has had a far-reaching influence in the development of
both classical analytical mechanics and modern theoretical physics, and there is a
considerable body of literature dealing with these more general aspects.
The present discussion will be confined to a derivation of Lagrange's
equations of motion. As a preliminary, we derive some mathematical relations
which will be useful later in the discussion. If the configuration of a system is
defined by n generalised coordinates, it follows that the position vector r of any
particle of the system is a function of the generalised coordinates. It may also
depend explicitly on the time if there are moving constraints or a moving
coordinate system. For example a natural coordinate to use for specifying the
configuration of a simple pendulum is its angle of inclination II to the downward
vertical. If the point of support of the pendulum moves with a displacement
ai sin pt + bj sin pt at time t, the cartesian coordinates of the bob of the
pendulum can be expressed as

x(ll, t) = a sin pt + I cos ll,

y(ll, t) =b sin pt -I sin ll,

and the position of the bob depends explicitly on the time as well as on the
generalised coordinate II .
We write

(12.3.1)

(12.3.2)
12.3 ] Lagrange's Equations 365

Thus r, and its partial derivatives or/oqi and or/ot, are functions of the coordi-
nates and the time. The total derivative dr/dt, which takes into account the
variations of the coordinates qi with t as well as the explicit variation ofrwitht,
is a linear function of the generalised velocities (i; (i = 1, 2, ... , n), with coeffi-
cients which are functions of the qi and t. If it suits our purpose to do so, we can
look upon dr/dt as a function of the 2n + 1 variables q j, qi (i = 1,2, ... ,n) and
t, and operate on it as such. It should be stressed that this procedure is solely
mathematical manipulation of the functions involved, and is quite independent
of any mechanical considerations. On this basis, it follows from (12.3.2) that

o dr or
(12.3.3)

We also have the relations

(12.3.4)

d or
(12.3.5)

On the assumption that r has continuous second order partial derivatives, so that
the order of differentiation is not significant, relations (12.3.4) and (12.3.5)
show that

(12.3.6)

We proceed now to consider the mechanics. To derive Lagrange's equations

we use the fact that the forces acting on a mechanical system are equivalent to
the mass accelerations of all the particles of the system. It follows that the work
of the applied forces in a small displacement is equal to the work of the mass
accelerations of the particles, as discussed in § 12.1.
For the moment we consider only holonomic systems where the number of
generalised coordinates is equal to the number of degrees of freedom. For such a
system each coordinate can be given an arbitrary and independent increment
without violating any constraint. We are therefore at liberty to discuss a small
virtual displacement for which just one of the generalised coordinates qi
becomes qi + oqi. The work of the applied forces in such a displacement is

(12.3.7)

say, where the summation is over all the forces which do work in the
 366 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations! [ 12.3

displacement. The quantity

or
Qj=~F '-0 (12.3.8)
qj

is called the generalised force* corresponding to the generalised coordinate qj.

The work of the system of mass accelerations for such a displacement is

(12.3.9)

where the summation is over all particles of the system. It follows that

(12.3.10)

We transform the right-hand side of this equation by means of the following

relation:

~m d2 r . ~ = i. ~m dr . ~ _ ~m dr . i. ~ . (12.3.11)
dt 2 oqj dt dt oqj dt dt oqj

Now we have, with the help of (12.3.3),

(12.3.12)

where T is just the kinetic energy of the system. Again, with the help of
(12.3.6), we have

dr d or
~m-.--=~m-.--=-~!m-.-=-,
dr 0 dr 0 dr dr or (12.3.13)
dt dt oqj dt oqj dt oqj dt dt oqj

d or or
so that finally, Q.=---- (12.3.14)
! dt oQ.j oqj'

Equation (12.3.14) is Lagrange's equation corresponding to the generalised

coordinate qj. There is one such equation corresponding to each coordinate so
that the equations are equal in number to the degrees of freedom.
As anticipated earlier, Lagrange's equations in the form (12.3.14) require a
knowledge of the kinetic energy as a function of qj, qj (i = 1,2, ... ,n) and
* In spite of the name, the dimensions of a generalised force will depend on its
derivation and need not be those of a conventional force. Similarly a generalised coordinate
does not always have the dimension of length.
12.3] Lagrange's Equations 367

possibly t. In addition, the system of generalised forces Qi (i = 1, 2, ... ,n) is

required. These are best obtained in practice by calculating the work of the
forces in a virtual displacement fJqi, which is then identified with QifJqi' If, in
particular, all the forces involved are conservative, a potential function V exists
which is a function of the generalised coordinates. The work of the forces for a
virtual displacement fJqi is then

av
-ov=--oq·
aqi I'

and so we have Qi = -aVjaqi, (12.3.15)

av d aT
-=--
aT
hence (12.3.16)

Lagrange's equations in this form are particularly effective because all the
equations are deducible from a knowledge of T and V.
The above discussion is valid only for holonomic systems where all the
coordinates can be given independent displacements. This is necessary in order
to justify a relation such as (12.3.7), which is obtained on the basis of a virtual
displacement in which one coordinate varies independently of the rest. A
non-holonomic system of the type discussed in Example 12.2.1 can be brought
within the framework of the discussion by allowing all the coordinates involved
to be capable of independent displacements in spite of the constraints, which
will now be violated. In other words the constraints are not to be imposed
during the exercise of deriving Lagrange's equations. We therefore formulate the
equations of motion for a more general situation, but once they have been
formulated we can reimpose the constraints and integrate the equations of
motion subject to these added conditions. When this procedure is followed it
should be borne in mind that the forces brought into play by a constraint may
not be workless if the constraint is relaxed, even if this is so in a constrained
displacement. This would be the situation in Example 12.2.1, where the system
can be made holonomic by relaxing the no slip constraints. Then the contact
forces between the discs and the plane will contribute to the work even though
they are workless when the discs are rolling. It is further to be emphasised that
the work is calculated on the basis of the actual forces involved in the physical
situation when they are given a virtual displacement. If the conditions of the
problem require no slipping, it is the forces appropriate to such a situation that
are involved, even though the virtual displacement may violate the no slip
condition.

Example 12.3.1
The position of a particle in three dimensions can be specified by the length r of
the position vector, the inclination e of the position vector to a fixed axis (the
polar axis) and the angular displacement if> of the plane containing the position
368 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.3

vector and the polar axis relative to a fIxed plane. The quantities (r,8,4J) are
called spherical polar coordinates. The components of the velocity in the
directions of increasing r, 8 and 4J are ;., riJ, r~ sin 8 respectively.
Let the force on the particle have components F r , Fe, F q, in the direction of
increasing r, 8, 4J respectively. The work of the force arising from virtual
displacements 8r, 88, 84J in the coordinates is Fr 8r, Fe (r88), Fq,(r84J sin 8).
These expressions are to be identifIed with Qr8r, Qe88, Qq,84J. Hence the
generalised forces are

The kinetic energy is

Lagrange's equations are therefore

F =d-aT - =m (f- r8·2 - r4J·2 sin 2 8)

- -aT
rdtaf ar '

daT aT (d 2· 2·
rFe = dt ae - a8 = m d/ r 8) - r 4J2 sin 8 cos 8 ,
)

. d aT aT d .
rFq, sm 8 = - - ; - - - = m -(r24J sin 2 8).
dt a4J a4J dt

These are the equations of motion for a particle in spherical polar coordinates.
A spherical pendulum consists of a particle free to swing at the end of a string
whose other extremity is fIxed, as in Figure 12.3.1. Spherical polar coordinates
are a natural choice for such a system because r is now constant and the first

mg

Figure 12.3.1 Illustration for Example 12.3.1; spherical polar coordinates.

12.3] Lagrange's Equations 369

equation simplifies to

This equation serves to determine Fr , which is the difference between mg cos ()

and the tension in the string. The other two equations give, with F8 = -mg sin ()
and FtP=O,

-g sin () =r8 - T~2 sin () cos (),

0= :/T2~sin2()).
The last equation verifies that the angular momentum about the vertical is
constant, since there is no moment of the forces about the vertical. Between the
pair of equations ~ can be eliminated to give a second order equation for () .
Note that in this problem the particle actually has two degrees of freedom,
but three equations of motion have been obtained by relaxing the constraint
that T is constant until the equations of motion have been formulated. We
therefore get more information at the cost of discussing a more complicated
situation. It is one of the strengths of Lagrange's theory that this choice is open.
Because the system with two degrees of freedom is still holonomic, we can
stipulate that T is constant from the beginning, and simplify the kinetic energy to

The effect of this simplification is to yield the equations in () and <p, but not in T.
But this is sufficient to determine the motion, and if the calculation of the
tension in the string is not of interest, the equation in T is superfluous.

Example 12.3.2
A ring 0, of mass ml, is free to slide along a fIXed horizontal smooth wire. An
inelastic string, of length I, is fixed to one point A of the wire, is threaded
through the ring and has a particle P, of mass m2, fastened to its other end.

-;
/-r A

._r
;/\.
p •

r()
Figure 12.3.2 Illustration for Example 12.3.2.
370 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.3

If the string remains taut, the configuration of the above system is completely
specified by the three coordinates r, 8, fj), where r = OP, 8 is the inclination of
OP to the wire and cp is the angular dil\plac~ment from the vertical of the plane
through OP and the wire.
The velocity of the ring is ;- along the wire. The velocity of P consists of a
horizontal component f of the ring together with components relative to the ring
of magnitude ;-, riJ, rei> sin 8 in the directions of r, 8, rp increasing. The kinetic
energy is

If we neglect all frictional forces, only gravity will contribute to the work, and
so there is a potential energy given by

v = -m2gr sin 8 cos cp.

Therefore Lagrange's equations in r, 8, cp are, respectively,

~ {m2r(re+ f sin 8)} - m2 {f2 sin 8(1 - cos 8) + reos OCre + f sin 0)

+r2~2 sin 0 cos O} = m2gr cos 0 cos rp,

A simple analysis of the equations is not feasible in their full generality. We

consider the possibility of a solutip~ for which 0 is constant. The first two
equations then simplify to .

= g cot 0 cos cp.

Elimination of f gives, after some simplification,

. g cos rp)
(cos 2 0 - 2k cos 0 + 1) (rrp2 +-.- = 0,
sm 8

where k = 1 + ml .
2m2
12.3] Lagrange's Equations 371

The equations are therefore compatible with the assumed form of solution if

If in addition t/J is small we have, correct to the first order,

r= g cot (J
so that the acceleration of the ring along the wire is approximately constant.

Example 12.3.3. The double pendulum

Figure 12.3.3 illustrates a double pendulum. Two particles ml, m2 are con-
nected to different points of a light string and the system is allowed to oscillate
in a vertical plane about a fixed point of the string. The system has two degrees
of freedom. Its configuration can be dermed by the two angles (J 1 and (J 2 which
the two portions of the string make with the vertical. It is assumed that the
string remains taut throughout the motion.
For this system we have
_1 2'2 1 2'2 2'2 ..
T-"'l.ml 1l(J1 + "'l.m2{l1(J1 +12(J2 +2/t12(JI(J2 COS((J2 -(Jd},
V= -mlg11 cos (JI- m2g(11 COS(J1 +12 cos (J2)'

Therefore Lagrange's equations in (J 1 and (J 2 are

d 2" • • •
dt {(ml + m2)l1(J1 + m2 1112(J2 COS((J2 - (Jd} - m2lt 12(Jl(J2 sm((J2 - (Jd

= -(ml + m2)glt sin (Jl,

Figure 12.3.3 Illustration for Example 12.3.3: the double pendulum.

372 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.3

We shall discuss these equations when they are linearised on the basis of small
oscillations, so that

The linear equations describe coupled oscillations of the type discussed in §6.4.
We look for the normal modes of oscillation on the assumption that

We then have

For these equations to be consistent we must have

This equation is quadratic in n 2 and so has two roots. The left-hand side is
negative when n 2 = gill or gl12 and is positive when n = 0 or n ~ 00. Hence there
are two positive roots for n 2 , one less than gill or gl12 and one greater. The
corresponding oscillations are such that 0 1 10 2 is positive and negative respec-
tively. When the two roots nl, n2 are known, the general solution can be written
as a linear combination of the two normal modes.

Example 12.3.4
The position of a rigid body which is free to turn about a fixed point 0 may be
specified by the three coordinates 0, 4>, tJ;, where 0 is the angle between an axis
OC fixed in the body and an axis fixed in space, 4> is the angular displacement of
OC about the fixed axis and tJ; is the angular displacement of the body about
oc. The quantities 0, 4>, tJ; , are called Euler's angles (see Fig. 12.3 .4).
If we consider unit vectors i, j, k with k along OC, j perpendicular to the
plane of OC and the fixed axis, and i = j x k, the angular velocity of the body is

~i sin 0 - ej + (~ + ~ cos O)k.

12.3] Lagrange's Equations 373

o
Figure 12.3.4 Illustration for Example 12.3.4: Euler's angles.

Let us consider the motion of an axially symmetric top, whose principal

moments of inertia at 0 are I, I, 13 • The kinetic energy is

and the potential energy is

V= mga cos e,

where a = OC. Lagrange's equations in e, et>, 1/1 are then, respectively,

Ie - I~2 sin e cos e + I3(~ + ~ cos e)¢ sin e = mga sin e,

d. ..
dt {Jet> sin 2 e + 13 (1/1 + et> cos e)cos e} = 0,

d . .
13 dt (1/1 + et> cos e) = o.

The third of these equations gives

~ + ~ cos e = s,

where s is the constant spin about the axis of the top. The second equation gives

I~ sin 2 e + I3s cos e = constant,

which is the constant angular momentum of the top about the vertical. The first
equation can now be transformed into a second order equation for e, by
elimination of ~ and ~. We note in particular that the condition for steady
 374 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations [ 12.3

precession, when e and ~ = p are constant, is given by

(lp2 cos e - 13SP + mga)sin e = 0,

which verifies equation (11.6.11).

Example 12.3.5
For the system represented in Figure 12.2.1, let m be the total mass, let I be the
moment of inertia of the system about a vertical axis through the mass centre
and let Iw be the moment of inertia of either disc about the axle. It is assumed
that the discs are equal and symmetrical about the axle, and that C is the mass
centre of the system. We then have

and Lagrange's equations give

where the generalised forces are to be calculated from a consideration of the

work associated with a small change in the variables. Ifwe assume that the only
relevant forces are the horizontal forces at the points of contact, and if these
have components Fq" FIjJ in the plane of the discs, and Gq" GIjJ perpendicular to
the plane of the discs, the equations of motion are

mi = -(Fq, + FIjJ )cos e + (Gq, + GIjJ)sin e, my = (Fq, + FIjJ )sin e + (Gq, +GIjJ )cos e,
10 = -1(Fq, - FIjJ), Iw~ =aFq" Iwij; = aFIjJ.

These equations could have been written down directly, and the power of
Lagrange's method is not fully apparent in this example. It does illustrate,
however, that a system with non-integrable constraints can be dealt with if the
constraints are ignored until the equations of motion have been derived. The
equations are then available for the more general situation of slipping or rolling.
For rolling, the above equations are to be solved in conjunction with the
constraints given by (12.2.3), (12.2.6) and (12.2.7). Since (12.2.7) is an inte-
grable constraint it could have been used to eliminate e, say, from the above
discussion, but a little care is then required in the calculation of the generalised
forces in cp and 1/1. The neatness of the equations of motion and the ease of
calculation of the generalised forces when e is retained illustrate a situation in
which the extra degree of freedom actually simplifies the discussion.
The solution of the equations of motion, subject to the rolling constraints,
will not be discussed in detail. It may be verified that they are consistent with
the solution ~ = constant, 0 = constant. Equations (12.2.7) and (12.2.6) then
determine the constant values of I:i and the speed of the mass centre respectively.
12.4] The Lagrangian and Hamiltonian 375

12.4 THE LAGRANGIAN AND HAMILTONIAN

With the introduction of the Lagrangian function

L=T- V, (12.4.1)

Lagrange's equations (12.3.16) can be written in the form

(12.4.2)

This follows because V does not depend on the generalised velocities, so that

aT/aqi = aL/aqi' (12.4.3)

For the purposes of elementary mechanics, the introduction of L is not essential,

but in the more general theory of analytical mechanics, and in modem theoreti-
cal physics, the Lagrangian plays a leading role. Indeed, from a more general
standpoint, the dynamics of a system is defined in terms of the single Lagrangian
function without the intermediate introduction of T and V.
Another function of importance in modem physics is the Hamiltonian,
defined by

H =~ oL .
"" ;-:- qj - L.
i uqj
(12.4.4)

This equation can be written in differential form as

=~j (q..dp. _ p' .dq.)- aL

I I I I at dt
' (12.4.5)

where Pj= aL/aqj (12.4.6)

and (12.4.2) has been used. The variables Pi are called generalised momenta. At
this stage we change our point of view and choose to regard H as a function of
the qi, Pi, t, regarded as independent variables. Note that in order to evaluateH
it is necessary to eliminate the tii in (12.4.4) in favour of the Pi defined by
(12.4.6). When the differential

aH aH) aH
dH(qi,pj, t) =~ ( ;- dqi +;- dpi + -;- dt (12.4.7)
i uqj UPI ut
376 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations 12.41

is compared with (12.4.5), it follows that

aH/at = -aLjat, (12.4.8)

(12.4.9)

since each coefficient of the differentials on the right-hand sides of (12.4.5) and
(12.4.7) must separately correspond. For i = 1,2, ... ,n, relations (12.4.9) form
a system of 2n first order equations which are equivalent, and can be used as an
alternative, to the n second order Lagrange's equations (12.4.2).
One of the useful properties of (12.4.9) is that if a coordinate qi does not
appear in the Hamiltonian, so that aH/aqi = 0, the corresponding moment';1m Pi
is a constant. The 2(n - ],.) Hamilton's equations for the other coordinates and
momenta then form a system of n - 1 degrees of freedom, and the coordinates
not appearing in H can be ignored. For this reason they are called ignorable
coordinates. Further, if H (or L) does not depend explicitly on the time, we have
that

by virtue of (12.4.9). Hence H = E say, where E is a constant of the motion. This

is a generalisation of the concept of energy conservation. Indeed if we are
dealing with a system of particles, where the position and velocity of a typical
particle can be described in the form

r=r(ql,q2, ... ,qn)'

dr ar. ar. ar .
-d =-a ql +-a q2 + ... +-a qn,
t ql q2 qn

it follows that the kinetic energy is a homogeneous quadratic function of the

generalised velocities and is expressible in the form

T= ~~aijiliqj.
I I

We then have, by direct verification, that

~ aL.
'"-'-a·
~ aT .
qi= '"-'-a· qj=2
T
,
i qi i qi

and that

H= ~ aa~ qj - L =2T - (T - V) = T + V.
qi
12.4] The Lagrangian and Hamiltonian 377

Example 12.4.1
The successful exploitation of ignorable coordinates depends on the choice of an
appropriate coordinate system. The motion of a single particle in two dimen-
sions can be described, using cartesian coordinates, with the aid of the functions

T= !m(x 2 +P), V= V(X,y),

L=!m(.*2 +y2)_ V(X,y),
Px = aL/ax = mX, Py = aLjay = my,
_ 1 2 2
H - 2m (Px + Py) + V(x,y),

. aH av. aH av
Px = - ax =- ax' Py =- ay =- ay .

There are no ignorable coordinates unless V is independent of x or y.

If V is a function of r = (x 2 + y2 )1/2, then it is necessary to use polar
coordinates to obtain an ignorable coordinate. We write

L = !m(;2 + r 282 ) - V(r) ,

Pr = aLIa; =m;, Po =aL/ae =mr 2e,
H= T+ V= _1_ (p; + 12
2m r
p~) + Vcr).
Here e is an ignorable coordinate and Po is therefore constant and equal to mh
(say). Then

and the problem is now reduced to one degree of freedom. The remaining
equation gives

. ..
Pr = mr =- a;:
=7 - V '()
aH mh2
r

but in this problem it may be more convenient to use the energy equation

1 mh2
H=-p Y2 +-+ Vi(r)=E
2m 2r2 .

Example 12.4.2
In Example 12.3.4 the motion of a spinning top is described in terms of Euler's
378 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations 12.4 ]

angles (0, cp, I/J) by the Lagrangian

L = T - V= V(IP + ~2 sin2 0) + H3(~ + ~ cos 0)2 - mga cos O.

Here
Po = aL/aO =10,
Pq, =aL/a~ =I~ sin2 0 + 13 cos 0 (~+ ~ cos 0),
PIjJ= aL/a~ = I3(~ + ~ cos 0),

which can be solved to give

{) = Po/I,
• _ Pp - PI/! cos 8
cp - I sin2 () ,

~ + ~ cos () = PI/;/I3.

These relations are now used to compute the Hamiltonian

2 (p P cos O? p2
H= T+V=P
-.!l. + q, - IjJ + ~ + mga cos O.
21 21 sin 2 () 213

Both cp and I/J are ignorable coordinates in this Hamiltonian, implying constant
values of PI/> and PI/! which represent the constant angular momenta about the
vertical and about the axis of symmetry respectively. The reduced problem,
having one degree of freedom, is described by the Hamiltonian
2
H=PO + U«())
21

say. Since H is independent of the time, energy conservation gives

2
~~ + U(O) =tI0 2 + U«()) =E,

where E is constant.

EXERCISES

12.1 Two particles PI, P2 , of masses ml , m2 respectively, are connected by an

inextensib1e string which passes over a smooth peg S. Particle P2 hangs
vertically and PI slides along a smooth curve which lies in a vertical plane
through the peg.
 Exercises 379

Let SP t = r and let the inclination of SP t to the downward vertical be

8. Use the principle of virtual work to show that, if the particles are in
equilibrium for all positions of P t on the curve, the equation of the latter
is of the form

Ilr =1 - e cos 8,

where e = m t /m2 and I is some constant.

12.2 A pentagon ABCDE is formed of rods whose mass is p per unit length.
The rods are freely jointed together and stand in a vertical plane with the
lowest rod AB fixed horizontally. The joints C and E are connected by a
light string. The rods BC and EA are each of length a, CD and DE are
each of length b, the angles at A and B are each 21(/3 and the angles at E
and C are each 1(/2.
Show that the tension in the string is

a + 5b
pg 2.3 112

and that the reaction at Dis 3 1/2 pgb/2.

12.3 Four uniform rods of equal length are smoothly jointed at their ends to
form a rhombus ABCD, which is suspended from the corner A. The rod
AD is of mass 2m, AB and BC are each of mass m and CD is of negligible
mass. The mid points of AB and BC are connected by a string.
Find the tension in the string and the stress in CD.
(Ans.: 3mg, mg/2 cos! BAD.)
12.4 A framework consists of six equal uniform rods, each of mass m, which
are smoothly jointed to one another at their ends to form a hexagon
ABCDEF. The frame is suspended from A and maintained in a rigid
configuration by two light rods BF and CE (>BF). The rods AB, BC, CD
make angles a, (3 and r respectively with the vertical.
Show that sin a + sin (3 = sin r.
Show that the stressesR, Sin BF and CE are given by

R = tmg(5 tan a - 3 tan (3), S =! mg(3 tan (3 + tan r)·

12.5 A tripod is composed of three equal uniform rods OA, OB, OC, smoothly
hinged at O. The ends A, B, C are joined by three equal strings forming an
eqUilateral triangle, and stand on a smooth horizontal plane. Show that
the tension in each string is (3 1/2 mg tan 8)/6, where m is the mass of
each rod and 8 is the inclination of the rods to the vertical.
12.6 A long, uniform, flexible chain, of mass me and length I, hangs over a
pulley consisting of an axially symmetric disc, of mass md and radius a,
which can turn freely about a horizontal axis through its centre. A
particle of mass mp is attached to the rim of the pulley. The particle is at
the lowest point of the pulley when the lengths of the chain hanging on
either side are equal. The angular displacement 8 of the disc and the
380 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations

potential energy V of the system are both measured from this position.

(i) Show that

Show that 8 = 0 is a position of stable equilibrium if

When this inequality is satisfied show that there is a second

position of equilibrium in the range 0 < 8 < 1r which is unstable.

(ti) Show that if the particle is removed, and the system is displaced
slightly from its position of unstable equilibrium, the angular displace-
ment after a time t is given by

and k is the radius of gyration of the pulley about its axis. It is

assumed that the chain does not slip on the pulley.

12.7 A smooth circular cylinder, of radius a, is fixed with its axis horizontal
and parallel to a smooth vertical wall. The axis is at a distance d from the
wall. A smooth uniform rod, of length 2/, rests on the cylinder with one
end on the wall, and in a plane perpendicular to the wall. Show that its
inclination (J to the horizontal is given by

d + a sin (J - I cos3 (J = o.

12.8 A uniform solid hemisphere is supported by a string fixed to a point on

its rim and to a point on a smooth vertical wall. The curved surface of the
hemisphere is in contact with the wall. Show that if (J and cp are
the inclinations of the string and the plane base of the hemisphere to the
horizontal,

tancp=i +tan8.

12.9 A uniform sphere, of mass ms and radius a, lies at the bottom of a fixed,
rough, hemispherical bowl, of radius a(1 + a), where a > O. A particle, of
mass m p , is attached to the top of the sphere.
Show that if the sphere rolls without slipping to a position in which
the join of the centres of the sphere and the bowl is inclined at an angle (J
to the vertical, the increase in potential energy is

V =msKaa(l - cos (J) + mpga(l - a cos (J + cos (8).

 Exercises 381

Hence show that the equilibrium position 0 = 0 is stable if mg +

mpO - 0:);;;;' O.
12.1 0 A uniform rod OA, of mass m and length 2l, can turn freely about the
end 0, which is fixed. A light elastic string, of modulus A =o:mg and

°
natural length 2l, is attached to the end A and to a fixed point B
vertically above and at a distance 2l from A.
Show that, if 0 is the angle BOC, stable equilibrium is possible when

o= 1T for 0: ~ 1,
0:
or sin!O = - - - for 0: > 1.
20: - 1

12.11 A particle of mass m moves in a plane. Its cartesian coordinates are (x, y)
and the cartesian components of the force on the particle are (Fx,Fy )'
Generalised coordinates qt, q2 are defined so that x=X(qt,q2) and
y =y(qt,q2).
Derive the generalised forces Q 1, Q2 and the kinetic energy in terms
of 4 t , 42 and the partial derivatives of x and y.
(i) For x = qi - q~, y = 2q 1 q2 show that Lagrange's equations give

2m{(qi +q~)ql +ql(qi - qi)+2q2Qlq2}=q I F x +q2 F y,

2m{(qi + q~)q2 - q2(QI - Q~) + 2qlQlQ2} =-Q2Fx + Q1Fy .

(ii) For x = c cosh Ql cos Q2,Y = c sinh Ql sin q2, (Fx, Fy) = (-[.IX, -(.Ly)
obtain Lagrange's equations and show that Q1 = constant, tii = (.Lim is
a solution when (.L> 0 and that Q2 = constant, 4i = -(.Lim is a sol-
ution when (.L < O.

12.12 A conservative dynamical system with two degrees of freedom has kinetic
and potential energies given by

T = !aiJ 2 + F(O)~2, V = V(O),

where a is a positive constant and F is a positive function of O.
Show that steady motion is possible with 0 = 0:, ~ = W, where 0: and W
are constants, provided that

Show that F(8)~ is constant for any motion of the system. Show that
if the steady motion with 0 = 0:, ~ = W is slightly disturbed without
altering the value of F(O)~,

+7
.. (2F'2
a~ + F - F "F'V") w2 ~ = 0

to the first order in ~ = (0 - 0:).

382 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations

12.13 Calculate the kinetic and potential energies of a simple pendulum using in
turn: (i) the angular displacement; (ii) the horizontal displacement; (iii)
the vertical displacement as the generalised coordinate.
Hence obtain the forms of the equations of motion in these coordi-
nates.
12.14 A uniform, smooth rod AB, of mass m 1 , hangs from two fixed supports
C, D by light inextensible strings AC, BD each of length I. The rod is
horizontal and AB = CD. A bead, of mass m2, can slide freely on the rod
and the system moves in a vertical plane.
Let 8 be the inclination of the strings to the vertical, and let x be the
distance of the bead from a fixed point of the rod. Write down Lagrange's
equations and show that

e
where 8 = Q when = O.
12.15 A ring, of mass ml, slides on a smooth straight wire inclined at an angle Q
to the horizontal. A particle, of mass m2, is attached to the ring by a
string of length l.
Show that a motion is possible in which the string is inclined at a
constant angle Q to the vertical and the ring slides down the wire with
constant acceleration g sin Q.
Show that a small perturbation of this motion is simple harmonic with
frequency

12.16 A uniform rod AB, of mass m and length 2a, is attached at A to a vertical
wire. The rod is free to rotate about the end A, and A itself is constrained
to move down the wire and is subject to a vertical force mf. Use as
generalised coordinates the vertical displacement x of A, the angle 8
between the rod and the upward vertical and the angular displacement
cp of the vertical plane through the rod and the wire. Derive the Lagrangian
and the generalised forces and hence obtain Lagrange's equations. Show
that ~ sin 2 8 = p is constant and that

3 2)" 3.
( 1 - - sin 8 8 - - 8 2 sin 8 cos 8 -
p2 cos 8 3f
3 + - sin 8 = O.
4 4 sin 8 4a

Integrate this relation to get

3 ) . 3f
( 1 - - sin2 8 8 2 + p cosec 2 8 - - cos 8 = constant.
4 4a

12.17 Three particles A, B, C, each of mass m, are connected by two inelastic

strings AB and BC, each of length I. The particles lie on a smooth
 Exercises 383

horizontal plane initially at the points (0, i), (0,0), (0, -I) respectively
relative to a set of axes Oxy in the plane.
At time t = 0 forces Yj, Xi, -Yj begin to act on A, B, C respectively.
Use the displacement x of B and the angular displacement 8 of either
string (assumed to remain taut) as generalised coordinates. Hence show
that the generalised forces are

Qx=X, Qo=-2Ylsin8.

Calculate the kinetic energy and obtain the equations of motion.

r
Hence show that

m(!x 2 + 12 1P - 21xe cos 8) = (Xx - 2 YZO sin 0) dt.

o
Show that, if X and Yare constant,

mle 2 (l + sin2 8) = 2X sin 8 + 6Y cos O.

12.18 If F is any function of the generalised coordinates and the time, show
that the Lagrangians Land L + dF/dt yield the same equations of motion.
The Lagrangian for the motion of a system of particles is of the form

L='1:,~m#r +fT +zr)- V,

i

where V varies only with the relative distances between particles, that is
with

foralli,j.
Show that the transformation

Xi = xI + ut, Yi = Y; + ut, Zj = ZI + wt, i=1,2, ... ,n,

where u, u, ware constants, leaves the equations of motion invariant.

12.19 A bead, of mass m, slides round a smooth circular wire, of radius a and
moment of inertia I about a diameter. The wire is constrained by a couple
M to turn about a vertical diameter.
Let the angular displacement of the wire be I/J. Let the inclination to
the downward vertical of the radius through the particle be 8. Obtain the
equations of motion in 0 and I/J.

(i) Show that, if M = 0,

.2 2g h2
8 = - cos 8 - 2 +c1,
a sin 0 + I/ma 2

where h and c~ are constants.

384 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations

(ii) Show that, if ~ = constant = w,

M = ma 2 w 2 sin 2() ( sin2 ()

2g
+ aw2 cos () + C2
)112 ,

where C2 is a constant.

12.20 Two discs, each of radius a, are joined by an axle to form an axially
symmetric system which rolls without slipping on a plane inclined at an
angle a to the horizontal. The mass of the system is m and its radius of
gyration about the axle is k. A pendulum is suspended from the mid
point of the axle and can swing freely in a plane perpendicular to the
axle. The mass of the pendulum is m p , the distance of its mass centre
from the point of support is 1 and its radius of gyration about an axis
through its mass centre parallel to the axle is k p . The motion is two
dimensional with each disc rolling down a line of greatest slope.
Use the displacement x of the axle and the angular displacement e of
the pendulum from the vertical as generalised coordinates. Write down
the kinetic energy and potential energy and hence obtain Lagrange's
equations.

(i) Show that a motion is possible in which the system rolls down the
plane with constant acceleration provided () is constant and given by

tan a mk2
tan () = ----::-- where" = 2 .
1 + " sec 2 a ' (m + mp)a

(ii) If a = 0 and e is small, show that the system oscillates with frequency
2rr/n, where

12.21 A uniform circular drum, of radius a and moment of inertia I about its
axis, is free to rotate about its axis, which is horizontal. A light inelastic
string is wound round the drum and has one end fixed to the drum. A
light spring, of modulus A. and natural length I, is fixed to the free end of
the string. A particle, of mass m, is attached to the spring. The system is
released from rest in which the string and spring are held in a vertical
position with the length of the spring equal to I.
Write down Lagrange's equations in terms of the angular displace-
ment of the drum and the extension of the spring. Hence show that the
acceleration of the particle is

g(ma 2 + I cos nt)

ma 2 +1
 Exercises 385

where n 2 =A
- (1+ma-2 )
ml I

12.22 A sphere, of mass mt, radius at and moment of inertia It about a

diameter, rests on a horizontal plane. A second sphere, of mass m2, radius
a2 and moment of inertia 12 about a diameter, rests on the highest point
of the first sphere. Both spheres are spherically symmetric.
Suppose the system is slightly displaced from this position of equi-
librium. Let tP be the angular displacement of the first sphere, and let 8 be
the inclination of the join of centres to the vertical in the ensuing motion.
Show that, provided no slipping takes place at either point of contact,

a 1tP = c sin () and (d - c cos2 8)(:/2 = 2g(1 - cos 8),

where

12.23 A double pendulum consists of two uniform rods OA, AB, each of mass
m and length l, smoothly hinged at A. The system is suspended from 0
and performs small oscillations in a vertical plane. Show that the fre-
quencies of the two normal modes are

12.24 Three particles P t , P2 , P 3 , have masses 2m, m, m respectively. They are

connected by light springs P2 P 3 , P 3 P t , P l P2 . The tensions required to
produce unit extensions in the springs are a, 2a, 2a respectively. The
system rests on a smooth horizontal plane and when in equilibrium forms
an isosceles triangle with P l , P2 , P 3 at the points (0,0), (a,a), (a,-a)
respectively. Use momentum considerations to show that if the system
performs small oscillations in the plane, the displacements of the particles
are of the form

Write down the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the system
in terms of ql, q2, q3 and their derivatives. Hence obtain Lagrange's
equations, and deduce that the frequencies of the three normal modes of
oscillation are equal.
12.25 A uniform rectangular plate rests on four equal springs at the corners.
Show that for small vibrations, in which each corner is displaced
vertically to first order, the three normal modes have frequencies in the
ratios 1 : 3 1 / 2 : 3 1 / 2 .
12.26 A uniform rectangUlar plate has sides of length 2a, 2b. It is suspended by
386 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations

two light vertical strings attached at adjacent corners of the plate. The
strings are of length 1 and their distance apart is 2a.
Find the characters of the four normal modes. For small oscillations
about the eqUilibrium position show that the frequencies are

( !)1/2
1 '
(K)1/2 (2g)1/2{(I+..!)
31 ' 1 4b
± (1+31+~)112}1/2
4b l6b 2

12.27 A mechanical system is acted upon by impulses. A typical impulse is

denoted by F. The velocities of a typical particle m immediately before
and after the impulse are denoted by VI and V2 respectively.
Deduce the equivalence of the system F and the system m(v2 - VI)'
From a consideration of the virtual displacement in which the dis-
placement of m is proportional to (Vt + V2), show that

where the summation on the left-hand side is over all the impulses which
do work in the virtual displacement and the right-hand side represents the
change in kinetic energy of the system.
12.28 The motion of a mechanical system is defined by generalised coordinates
qi. If the motion undergoes an impulsive change, show that

The left-hand side represents the change in oTjoqi arising from the
impulses. The generalised impulse Qi is such that Qi oqi is the work of the
impulses in a small virtual displacement oq i.
12.29 Two uniform rods AB, BC, of masses ml, m2 and lengths 11 ,12 respec-
tively, are jointed at B and lie in one straight line on a horizontal table.
The system is given a horizontal impulsive blow F at A at right angles to
ABC.
Formulate the kinetic energy in terms of the initial velocities Yt, Y2,
Y3 of A, B, C respectively. Deduce the generalised impulses and hence the
velocities.
Show that the kinetic energy acquired by the system is

(4ml + 3m2)P
2ml(ml + m2) .

12.30 Two uniform rods AB, BC, each of mass m and length 1, are smoothly
jointed at B and lie on a horizontal table with AB perpendicular to BC. A
horizontal impulse F is applied at C in the direction AC.
Show that the kinetic energy produced when A is fixed is 15/16 times
the kinetic energy produced when A is free.
12.31 A dynamical system with one degree of freedom has the Hamiltonian
H = q2(!p2 + 1). Write down Hamilton's equations and show that q =
sech 21/2 q
t given that = 1, q = 0 at t = O.
 Exercises 387

12.3 2 A charged particle of unit mass is in two-dimensional motion under the

influence of a dipole. You are given that the Lagrangian of the motion is

L = ~(72 + r 2 ( 2) - JJ.. cos 8/r 2 ,

where (r, 8) are the polar coordinates of the particle and JJ.. is the constant
strength of the dipole. Derive the generalised momenta Pr, Po, write
down the Hamiltonian in terms of r, 8, Pr , Po and hence obtain
Hamilton's equations. Show that p~ = Q - 2JJ.. cos 8, where Q is a con-
stant, and hence that ,.2
+ Q/r2 = 2E, where E is the constant total energy.
The particle is projected from the point r = a, 8 = 0 at time t = 0 with
a speed v perpendicular to the radius vector. Show that r2 = a 2 +
(v 2 + 2JJ../a 2 )t 2 .
12.33 Find the Hamiltonian for the system whose Lagrangian is given by

where (r, 8, z) are cylindrical polar coordinates and JJ.. is a constant.

Deduce from Hamilton's equations that Po, Pz and P; + r -2 (Po _ J.lT2)2
are constants of the motion.
I2.34 A light inextensible string passes over a small light smooth pulley. On one
side a mass m 1 is tied to the string. On the other side a mass m2 slides
down the string, its velocity relative to the string being controlled by an
inner mechanism to be u(t). Initially m 1 is at rest and each mass is at a
depth I below the pulley. Calculate the Lagrangian of the system in terms
of the depth x of ml below the pulley. Find the Hamiltonian and show
that it is constant if {(ml -m2)gt-mlu-m2uO}ti=(ml +m2)gu,
where uo = u(O). For the case m I = m2, Uo = 0, show that this condition
implies that both masses move upwards with acceleration g.
12.35 For a body with kinetic symmetry rotating about a fixed point the
Lagrangian is, in the usual notation,

where the Euler angles 8, cp, 1/1 are the generalised coordinates. Determine
the generalised momenta Po, P</>, PljI. Show that if L 1 , L 2 , L3 are
defined by

L 1 ± iL2 = e±iljl (± ipo + P</> cosec 8 - Pv; cot 8), L3 = PljI ,

then the Hamiltonian H may be expressed in the form

We define the Poisson bracket [F, G) of F and G by the relation

n (3F 3G 3F 3G)
[F G] = ~ - - - - -
, i= 1 3qi 3Pi 3Pi 3qi '
388 Virtual Work and Lagrange's Equations

where the summation is over all the degrees of freedom. Note that
[F, FJ = 0 and that [G, FJ = -[F, G].
Evaluate [L 1 +iL 2 ,L 1 -iL 2 1 and [L 1 ±iL 2 ,L 3 J. Hence show that
[L 2 ,L 3 J =L t , [L 3 ,Ltl =L 2 , [L t ,L 2 J =L 3 •
13 Non-Linear Problems

13.1 CONSERVATIVE FORCES

Many of the problems which occur naturally in mechanics are governed by

non-linear differential equations, and yet there is a considerable body of estab-
lished theory which is developed on the basis of linear differential equations.
One reason for this is that most of these problems are too difficult to solve in
their full generality, and it is necessary to look for a simplifying procedure. Since
linear differential equations are more easily solved than non-linear equations,
such a simplification often amounts to a linearisation in some fashion.
A typical procedure is to assume that there is a small perturbation of a known
state of a mechanical system, and then to neglect all but the small linear terms in
the perturbation because they dominate the non-linear terms. Such a procedure
has formed the basis of many successful and established theories. However, apart
from the loss of accuracy involved in any approximation, some problems possess
qualitative features which arise essentially from the non-linearity and cannot be
otherwise explained. Some of these features are described in this chapter.
When the forces involved are conservative, there exists an energy equation.
This is, in effect, an integral of the equation of motion and involves only first
derivatives (velocities) whereas the equations of motion involve second deriva-
tives (accelerations). If the problem depends on only one space coordinate, the
energy equation is sufficient to determine the motion, at least in principle, when
combined with appropriate initial conditions. The most familiar situation of this
kind is that of one-dimensional motion, where the energy equation is of the
form

(13.1.1)

where !x 2 is the kinetic energy, V(x) is the potential energy, and E is the total
energy, per unit mass. This equation has already been discussed within the
context of non-linear oscillations in §6.5. We have also seen in Chapter 7 that
even a two-dimensional problem can sometimes be reduced to the form of
(13.1.1), as in (7.2.3). This possibility arises when there are two conservation
equations, thereby allowing one of the two dependent variables to be eliminated
in favour of the other. Equations of the form (13.1.1) are not difficult to
integrate although in complicated problems this may have to be done numeric-
ally. We summarise here some of the main qualitative features of problems
governed by (13.1.1).
Motion is physically possible in any interval for which E - Vex) is positive,
since (13.1.1) gives a real value for x in such intervals.
390 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.1

Equilibrium is possible for x =a provided E = V(a) and V'(a) = O,since these

conditions imply zero velocity and acceleration.
A small perturbation about a position of equilibrium remains small and
oscillatory if Vex) has a minimum there. It is approximately a simple harmonic
oscillation, with period 21T(V"(a)yl/2, if V"(a) is positive (see §6.5). If Vex)
does not have a minimum then the position of equilibrium is unstable.

Example 13.1.1
With a little experience, qualitative information about the motion of a particle
subject to a conservative force is quickly deduced from a graph of the potential
energy. Figure 13.1.1 shows the variation of

V(x) = _n 2x(a 2 - tx 2 )Ia, a> a

as a function of x. Bearing in mind the energy equation

we classify the various possibilities in the following way.

(i) E < V(a) = _2n 2a213.

Here the motion is restricted to the regime V(x) < V(a), or x < -2a.
The maximum value of x possible is that for which E = V(x). There the
velocity is zero and the acceleration, which is given by

is negative. Hence, although the particle may initially move in the positive x
direction, it will ultimately move in the negative x direction with ever
increasing speed.
(ii) V(a)~E~ V(-a).
Case (i) is still possible, but now there is a second possibility in which
the particle oscillates between the two largest roots of the relation
V(x)=E.
If E = V(a) there is equilibrium since V'(a) = O. The equilibrium is
stable since V"(a) = 2n2 > O. For a value of E slightly greater than V(a), the
particle will perform small oscillations with the approximate periodic time
21T(V"(a)y 1 / 2 = 2 1 / 2 1Tln.
The point x = -a is also a point of equilibrium but it is unstable, and if
the particle starts from rest at a small distance from x = -a, it will move
further away, at least initially.
(iii) E> V(-a).
Here the whole of the energy curve, as far as the value of x for which
Vex) = E, is available in the physical problem. This is the only value of x for
which the velocity is zero and, since the acceleration there is negative, the
 13.11 Conservative Forces 391

V(x)

a x

Figure 13.1.1 Illustration for Example 13.1.1: variation of the function

V(x) = _n 2 x(a 2 - !x 2 )/a.

particle will ultimately be moving in the negative x direction whatever the

initial motion might be.

Example 13.1.2. The Spherical Pendulum

In Example 7.4.1 we considered the equation of motion

(13.1.2)

for the spherical pendulum and showed that the pendulum executes elliptic
harmonic motion when the amplitude is small. For arbitrary amplitude the
problem is non-linear and has certain features in common with the central force
problems of Chapter 7.

cp¢
I

I
I
L__ .... __
I r

Figure 13.1.2 Illustration for Example 13.1.2: notation for the spherical
pendulum.
392 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.1

The horizontal component of (13.1.2) is

d2 r 11-
m dt2 =-T' (13.1.3)

where r is the horizontal component of 1. This has the form of a central force
problem, although T is not known a priori. The associated angular momentum is
constant, since

.!
dt
(r x i) =r x i =0 (13.1.4)

by (13.1.3). Hence

I r x i I =I sin 8(/~ sin 8) = 12~ sin2 8 =h,

where IP is the angular displacement about the vertical and h is the constant
component of angular momentum per unit mass about the vertical. If the
horizontal projection of I sweeps out an area A in time t, it follows that

(13.1.5)

and the rate of sweep of projected area is constant, as in Example 7.1.1.

There is also an energy equation, since the tension does no work and the
gravitational force is conservative. The components of velocity are 18 in the
direction of increasing 8 and I~ sin 8 in the direction of increasing IP (see
Fig. 13.1.2). The potential energy per unit mass is -gl cos 8 and so the energy
equation is

or, with the help of (13.1.5),

1 2 ·2 h2 _
'II 8 + 2/2 sin2 8 - gl cos 8 - E. (13.1.6)

The governing equation has now been reduced to a first order equation for 8
involving two constants of the motion h and E. It is mathematically similar to
equation (13.1.1), which governs one-dimensional motion under a conservative
force.
The solution of (13.1.6) can be expressed in terms of elliptic functions, from
which the details of the motion can be deduced. Some insight can be obtained
simply (rom a calculation of the apsidal angle, that is the angular displacement in
IP between the minimum and maximum values of 8. This is more readily
13.11 Conservative Forces 393

calculated from the equation

h2
(dO)2
2gZ3 sin2 0 dl{>
(E) (1 - cos2 0) - 2gZ3
= gZ + cos 0
h 2

= (CI - cos 0Xcos 0 - C2 XC3 + cos 0)

(13.1.7)

say, which is obtained from a combination of (13.1.5) and (13.1.6). The

right-hand side of (13.1.7) is negative for cos 0 = ±1 and must be positive for
some real values of 0 if a solution exists with a physical interpretation. Hence
two of the roots of (13.1.7) must lie in the interval-l < cos 0 < 1. Let these be
Cl = cos 0 1 , C2 = cos O2 , with Cl ;;;. C2' Because the expression is negative for
cosO = -1, it follows that C3 > 1 (see Fig. 13.1.3). The roots also satisfy the
relations

Relation (13.1.8) follows from (13.1.7) with cos 0 = ±1. Relation (13.1.9)
follows from a comparison of the coefficients of cos 0, and implies that

(13.1.10)

from which it follows that Cl and C2 cannot both be negative. Hence Cl cannot
be negative, since Cl ;;;'C2' Furthermore C2 cannot be less than -Cl and we have
the following inequalities (see also Fig. 13.l.3):

(13.1.11)

1 c

Figure 13.1.3 Variation of (Cl - c)(c - C2)(C3 + c).

394 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.1

For physically possible motion, 8 is confmed to the interval 8 1 .e;;; 8 .e;;; 8 2 , and
the motion is oscillatory between these limits. The apsidal angle q,a is then, from
(13.1.7),

q,a =( yl2
h 23
2g1)
f8
8J
2

sin 8{(C1 -
d8
cos 8Xcos 8 - C2 )(C3 + cos 8)}
112' (13.1.12)

This integral can be transformed by the substitution

to give

r/2 2{(1 - C1 Xl - C2 XC3 + 1)}1I2 d1/l

q,a = o. {I - (C1 cos2 1/1 + C2 sin21/1)2}(c3 + C1 cos 2 1/1 +C2 sin21/1)1/2'

(13.1.13)

where use has been made of (13.1.8).

Although the motion of the pendulum has been defined in terms of two
parameters which arise naturally in the analysis as h and E, more readily
observed parameters of the motion are 8 1 and 8 2 , It is more useful to regard
these, or equivalently C1 and C2, as determining the motion. The value of C3
then follows immediately from (13.1.10). Since the motion of the bob will be a
repetition of its motion between adjacent apses, a knowledge of 8 1 ,8 2 and the
angular separation q,a of adjacent apses is useful information in forming a
qualitative impression of the motion.
Figure 13.1.4 shows the result of integrating (13.1.13) numerically. The
apsidal angle is shown plotted against the angular amplitude (8 2 - 8d. Since
two parameters are required to define the motion, the different graphs are
exhibited for _varying values of the minimum angle of inclination 8 1 • All these
quantities have been normalised so that the range of interest is (0,1).
The apsidal angle always lies between nl2 and n. It increases monotonically
from its limiting value as 8 2 -+ 8 1 to a limiting value of n as 8 2 -+ n - 8 1 •
These limiting oscillations are of some interest and are discussed below.

(i) The Conical Pendulum (8 2 ~ 8d

When 8 2 - 8 1 -< 1, the oscillation approximates to the conical pendulum
where the bob describes a horizontal circle with constant angular speed

g )1/2
( (13.1.14)
w= Icos8 1 '

see Example 3.3.3. Note, however, that as C2 -+C1 the integrand of

13.11 Conservative Forces 395

28 1 = 1
71:

1)08

-I

il ..
0'6

0'4

,0'01
0'4 0'6

Figure 13.1.4 Variation of the apsidal angle CPa with the minimum and maxi-
mum values 0 1 , 8 2 of 8 for the spherical pendulum.

(13.1.13) tends to become independent of I/J and gives a defmite value for
CPa, namely
_ 7T(C 3 + 1)112 7f
CPa - (1 + Cd(C3 + Cd l12 =(4 - 3 sin20d12 . (13.1.15)

This is the apsidal angle in the near circular orbit for which the departure
from 0 =8 1 is always small (see Fig. 13.1.5). Since the angular speed in this
orbit is approximately w, as given in (13.1.14), the period of the small
perturbation superimposed on the circular orbit is the time to traverse an
angle 2CPa with angular speed w, that is

7f
(13.1.16)

(ii) The Circular Pendulum (8 2 : : : : 7f - ( 1 )

As 82 -+- 7f - 8 1 , the pendulum tends to rotate rapidly in a circle of radius I,
whose centre is the point of suspension and whose plane is inclined at an
angle 0 1 to the downward vertical. The apsidal angle in this case is 7f. Reference
to Figure 13.1.4 shows that for a small deviation from the circular motion,
the value of 7f is an overestimate. This means that the positions of the apses
are not fixed, but rotate slowly in the sense opposite to that of the motion
of the pendulum. The visual impression is that the plane of the pendulum's
motion rotates slowly about a vertical axis through the point of support.
396 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.1

- -
----------
7
(
\
\
\
~

Figure 13.1. 5 Perturbed path of a conical pendulum. The full line represents
the orbit of the bob as a small departure from the dotted circular orbit.

(iii) The Simple Pendulum ((J 1 ~ 0)

It can be seen from Figure 13.1.4 that there are two principal regimes for
small values of (J 1. The first is when rr - (Jz is not small, so that the
pendulum does not approach the upward vertical position. Then if>a is
approximately rr/2 with the positions of maximum amplitude lying in a
vertical plane at right angles to the vertical plane through the positions of
minimum amplitude. The visual impression is that of a simple pendulum
swinging in the vertical plane of maximum amplitude. To the extent that
this is in error when (J 1 is small but not zero, Figure 13.1.4 shows that a
value of rr/2 for if>a is an underestimate. The effect of the correction is to
cause the apparent vertical plane of oscillation to rotate slowly in the
direction in which the orbit is described. The phenomenon should be
compared with Foucault's pendulum (Example 9.5.2) in which a similar
effect arises from the rotation of the earth. One qualitative difference
between the two cases is that the effect of the earth's rotation does not
disappear when (J 1 = 0, whereas the plane of oscillation ceases to rotate
when (J 1 = 0 in the present case. Another is that the sense of rotation of the
apse lines for Foucault's pendulum is clockwise in the northern hemisphere
and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
The situation is quite different for the limit (Jz -+ rr - (J l ' Then, as we
have seen, the pendulum rotates rapidly in a nearly vertical plane with an
apsidal angle approximately equal to rr and with the plane of rotation itself
rotating slowly in a retrograde direction.
Between these two regimes is a transition region, with (Jz close to
rr - (J 1, where there are substantial changes in r/Ja for small changes in (J z .
The reason is that, when (J 1 is small, substantial changes in r/J are confined to
13.2] Autonomous Forces 397

those parts of the oscillation for which the pendulum is in the nearly
vertical position. There is a rapid change in if> of almost 1T in the vicinity of
the downward vertical, and little further change unless the swing of the
pendulum carries it near to the upward vertical. When this happens a small
increase in (J 2 can produce a substantial increase in if>a until the stage is
reached when the pendulum begins to rotate in a nearly vertical circle and
the limiting value 1T of if>a is approached.

13.2 AUTONOMOUS FORCES

Although many of the forces which occur naturally depend on position only,
such forces do not exhaust all the possibilities. A more general type of force is
one which depends also on the velocity, and perhaps on the time explicitly, so
r,
that it is of the form F(r, t). The discussion in this section is restricted to
forces of the form F(r, i), so that the time does not appear explicitly. For the
one-dimensional motion of a particle, the governing equation is then

x = f(x, x), (13.2_1)

say, where f is the force per unit mass. Equations in which the time does not
appear explicitly are called autonomous. They have the property that if x(t) is a
solution, so is x(t + to) and one of the constants of integration will always occur
in this fashion as a shift in the origin of time. There are special cases for which
(13.2.1) is integrable by simple analysis, but this is not always so. Numerical
integration of such an equation is straightforward, but gives only a particular
solution to a particular problem. We shall consider here what information of a
general character can be obtained about the properties of the solution of
(13.2.1).
It is often useful to write the equation in the alternative form

dv
v dx = f(X, v), (13.2.2)

where v = dx/dt. The plane in which (x, v) are used as cartesian coordinates is
called the phase plane. Solution curves in the phase plane are called integral
curves or trajectories. Note that whereas (13.2.1) is a second order equation,
(13.2.2) is of first order, so that the integral curves form a singly infinite family
depending on one parameter of integration. Of course when the solution of
(13.2.2) is known, we can identify v with dx/dt to get dx/dt = vor

I x dx
o vX
- ()=t+to .

This relation expresses x implicitly as a function of t + to and introduces the

parameter to as a shift in the origin of time, as described earlier.
398 Non-Linear Problems [13.2

Equation (13.2.2) does not always have a simple integral, but information of
a qualitative nature is readily obtainable from it. In particular, since dxjdt = v,
the integral curves are traversed in the direction of x increasing when v > 0 and x
decreasing for v < O. From equation (13.2.2) they have vertical tangents where
v =0 and horizontal tangents where f(x, v) =0, apart from exceptional cases
which are discussed below. More generally, (13.2.2) defmes the slope of the
integral curve at any point of the phase plane asf(x, v)jv. This means that if we
approximate the curve by its tangent, we can proceed a small distance to a
neighbouring point. By repeated application, this process can be made the basis
of a scheme of numerical integration, although it may then be desirable to return
to (13.2.1) rather than to use (13.2.2). One reason for this is that there is a
difficulty in the numerical integration of (13.2.2) when v = f(x, v) = 0, for then
the slope of the integral curve is not well defmed. A point of the phase plane
where this is so is called a singularity. In a physical problem it is a point where
both the velocity and acceleration (and hence the force) vanish and accordingly
it is a point of equilibrium. The neighbourhood of such a point requires special
investigation. Numerical integration will then complete the details of the solution
at non-singular points.
We shall consider only points of equilibrium, such as (xo, 0), in the neigh-
bourhood of which f(x, v) can be approximated by an expression of the form

f= p(x - xo) + qv, (13.2.3)

where p and q are constants. Many of the examples encountered in applications

will be of this form, and they can be classified in the way to be described. Other
forms should be investigated on their merits. In particular if either p or q is zero,
the higher order terms may have a significant effect on the behaviour of the
solution curves, and then a better approximation is required.
It is convenient to transfer the origin of coordinates to the point of equi-
librium so that we can, henceforth, take Xo = 0 in (13.2.3). With f= px + qv,
equation (13.2.1) becomes,*

(13.2.4)

*Phase plane analysis is often discussed with reference to the pair of first order equations

dx/dt =ax + by, dy/dt =ex + dy.

With the substitutions

v=ax+by, p=be-ad, q=a+d

the above equations become

dx/dt =v, dv/dt =px + qv

which are equivalent to (13.2.4).
13.21 Autonomous Forces 399

or, equivalently,

(I3.2.S)

Equation (13.2.5) is similar to equation (6.2.6) arising in the theory of

damped oscillations. The type of solution will depend on the sign of (p + q2/4)
and we classify solutions in the following way:

x = aeqt / 2 cos net + to), (13.2.6)

v =x= ae qt / 2 {!q cosn(t + to) - n sin net + to)}. (I 3.2.7)

To plot the integral curves in the phase plane one can take ¢ = t + to as the
parametric variable and write
x = a'eq<P/2 cos n¢, (13.2.8)

v = a'e q l/>/2 (!q cos n¢ - n sin n¢), (13.2.9)

say, wh,~re a' = ae -q t o /2. Any particular integral curve is obtained by regarding
x and v as functions of ¢, and the different integral curves are obtained by
varying the single parameter a'. The resulting curves are spirals as shown in

°
Fig. 13.2.1(a). The equilibrium point in this case is called a focus.
Equations (I3.2.6) and (13.2.7) show that when q > the amplitudes of x
and v increase with t, and the direction of traverse of the spiral is away from the
focus. This is described as unstable equilibrium. Conversely the amplitudes of x
and v decrease when q < 0. The direction of traverse is towards the focus and
the situation is stable. This corresponds to the physical interpretation of stable
equilibrium in the sense that a particle whose motion is governed by equation
(13.2.4) would oscillate with decreasing amplitude if q < 0, and so there would
be a tendency towards the equilibrium position as is the case for damped
harmonic motion (see §6.2).

(b) p=_n 2 <O,n>O,q=O,

x =a cos net + to), (I 3.2.10)

v = -an sin net + to). (13.2.11)

The integral curves are confocal ellipses and the equilibrium point is called a
centre. The force is conservative and the integral curves are the curves of
constant energy
400 Non-Linear Problems [13.2

This situation is sometimes described as one of stable equilibrium on the basis

that a small displacement from equilibrium will always remain small. In the
theory of the phase plane, however, it is more usual to describe as stable only
those cases where there is a definite tendency towards the equilibrium point as
t -+ 00, that is cases for which q < O. The case q = 0 is described as neutral and
this includes all conservative force fields for which the potential Vex) has a
mlrumum at the singular point, as discussed in §13.1. But if (13.2.3) is only \ an
approximation to a non-linear force field which in its exact form depends on v,
it should not be inferred that the non-linear case is also neutral. Such a case
requires a more accurate approximation, with the most significant term in v
included.

(c) p + q2 /4 = 0, q =1= 0,

x = (At + B)eQt / 2 , (13.2.12)

v =AeQt / 2 + !q(At + B)eQt / 2 • (13.2.13)

The integral curve for A = 0 is the straight line 2v = qx. All other curves pass
through the origin and are tangent there to the line 2v = qx. This is because the
origin is approached on all curves as qt -+ - 0 0 . Then the first term in equation
(13.2.13) for v is small compared with the second. If only the most significant
term is retained we have that 2v - qx as qt -+ - 0 0 .
The singular point is called a node and the integral curves are as shown in
Figure 13.2. 1(c). Equilibrium is stable for q < 0 and unstable for q > O.

(d) p+q2/4>0,p<0,

x = AeA\t + Be Azt , (13.2.14)

v=A/qeA,t +BA2eAzt, (13.2.15)

where Al =!{q + (q2 + 4p)I!2}, (13.2.16)

A2 =!{q - (q2 + 4p)I!2}. (13.2.17)

There are two integral curves which are straight lines, namely v = A2X (A = 0)
and v = AtX (B = 0). All other curves are tangent to one or other of these straight
lines at the origin. If q < 0, so that Al < 0, A2 < 0, I A2 I> 1Al I, the origin is
stable and is approached as t -+ 00. Hence

as t -+ 00, for all the curves except v = A2x(A =0) which is called the exceptional
direction.
13.2) Autonomous Forces 401

If q > 0, then Al > A2 > O. The origin is unstable and the vicinity of the
origin represents large negative values of t for which

and the exceptional direction is v = A1X.

The equilibrium point is again called a node (Fig. 13.2.1(d».

(e)p=O.
When p = 0, equation (13.2.4) is equivalent to

dv/dx = q

since d 2 x/dt2 = (dv/dx)(dx/dt). The integral curves consist of a family of parallel

straight lines with slope q. The solution in terms of t is

x = Ae qt + B, v =Aqeqt (l3.2.18)

if q:;/= 0, and x=Aeqt+B, v=Aqeqt (l3.2.19)

if q = O. Equilibrium is neutral if q < 0 and unstable if q ;;" O.

(f)p > O.
For p > 0 the form of the solution is given by (l3.2.14)--(l3.2.17) but now Al
and A2 are of opposite sign. Equilibrium is always unstable since one of the
exponential factors will tend to infinity as t -+ 00. Only two integral curves pass
through the origin, namely v = A1X (B = 0) and v = A2X (A =0). These straight
lines are asymptotes for all the other integral curves. This type of singularity is
called a saddle point.

This completes the classification. The various cases are summarised in

Figures 13.2.1 and l3.2.2.

Example 13.2.1
As a simple example we consider the integral curves of the equation

(l3.2.20)

where a >0.
The force here is conservative and easily integrable, so that an explicit
formula is available for the integral curves. In Example 13.1.1 the qualitative
aspects of the motion have aheady been discussed from an analysis of the
potential energy. For comparison, the integral curves in the phase plane will now
be discussed on the basis of equation (13.2.20).
402 Non-Linear Problems [13.2

"

x x

(a) (b)

IJ

(c)

(e)

Figure 13.2.1 Classification of the singularities in the phase plane. The arrows
show stable equilibrium in (a), (c), (d), neutral equilibrium in (b) and (e) and
unstable equilibrium in (0.

(a) Spiral, p + q2/4 < 0, q =1= O.

(b) Centre, p < 0, q = O.
(c) Node, p + q2/4 = 0, q =1= O.
(d) Node,p+q2/4>0,p<0.
(e) Straight lines, p = o.
(0 Saddle, p > o.
13.2] Autonomous Forces 403

unstable node q

unstable spiral

centre

stable spiral

stable node

Figure 13.2.2 Dependence of the phase plane singularities on p and q.

The curves have horizontal tangents on x =±a and vertical tangents on v =o.
These lines separate the regions of the (x, v) plane where dv/dx> 0 from those
where dv/dx < O.
There are singular points at x = ±a, v = O. Near x =-a

v(dv/dx) - 2n2(x +a).

Since p = 2n2 > 0, x = -a is a saddle point. Near x = a

v(dv/dx) - -2n 2 (x - a),

so that p =-2n2 ,q =0 and the singular point is a centre.

The information obtained so far is shown diagrammatically in Fig-
ure 13.2.3(a). A little further reflection on the possibilities and some freehand
drawing produces Figure 13.2.3(b), which is qualitatively correct. The physical
interpretation is that the particle can oscillate between the two extreme values
of x on a closed trajectory (see case (ii) of Example 13.1.1). On a trajectory
which recedes to infinity the particle will ultimately move in the negative x
direction with an ever increasing speed.
404 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.2

vi v
~ /
<0 !!.!:...>o <0
~ / ~

I I Ef
,...--.;
I I 0 I I \-x
I x

/ ~ /
>0 ~<o
dx >0
/
I' (a) (b)

Figure 13.2.3 Illustration for Example 13.2.1 : variation of !u 2 -

n 2 (a 2 x - h 3 )/a = E.

Example 13.2.2
The equation of motion for a pendulum oscillating in a vertical plane with
quadratic damping is of the form

(13.2.21)

where nand k are positive constants, 8 is the angular displacement and w = e. In

the (8, w) phase plane there are singularities when w =0 and sin 8 = O. At 8 = 1T ,
for example, the linearised approximation is

which gives a saddle point singularity. At 8 = 0 we have, approximately,

which gives a centre. This is, however, a situation in which the linearised
approximation fails, from lack of sufficient accuracy, to give a true indication of
the singular point. Physical intuition suggests that the damping term gives
genuine stability with a decay in amplitUde, as for a spiral singularity. This is in
fact the case. It so happens that equation (13.2.21) is easily integrated, since it is
a linear differential equation in w 2 • The result is

w>O
(13.2.22)
13.2] Autonomous Forces 405

Figure 13.2.4 Illustration for Example 13.2.2: integral curves for pendulum
with quadratic damping.

where tan a = 2k and Cl ,C2 are constants of integration.* The integral curves, as
given by equations (13.2.22), are shown in Figure 13.2.4. The neighbourhood of
the spiral singularity at the origin represents damped oscillations as expected. The
existence of a spiral singularity at each even multiple of 7r implies that the
pendulum can make a number of complete revolutions before finally settling
down to damped oscillatory motion. The integral curves which pass through the
saddle point singularities at odd multiples of 7r represent oscillations which come
to rest in the unstable equilibrium position.

Example 13.2.3
For a pendulum with linear damping, the equation of motion takes the form

(13.2.23)

which again has singularities on the 8-axis when sin 8 =O. At 8 =7r we have
w(dw/d8) = n 2 (8 - 7r) - kw,

* On a particular integral curve these constants must be chosen so that the curve is
continuous at w =o.
406 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.3

Figure 13.2.5 Illustration for Example 13.2.3: integral curves for pendulum
with heavy linear damping.

so that (J ='IT is a saddle point. But for (J =0 the linearised approximation now

gives w(dw/d(J) = -n 2 (J - kw.

If n 2 - k2/4 > 0 there is a spiral singularity and if n 2 - k2/4 .;;;; 0 there is a nodal
singularitv. These cases correspond respectively to the damped harmonic oscil-
lations and the heavy damping aperiodic motion. The integral curves for the
oscillatory case are qualitatively similar to Figure 13.2.4, and Figure 13.2.5 shows
the main features when the motion is aperiodic.

13.3 THE METHOD OF AVERAGING

The discussion of damped oscillations in § 6.2 shows that, although the solution
(6.2.4) of equation (6.2.1) tends to a simple harmonic oscillation in the limit of
no damping (k = 0), this limiting solution is not a satisfactory approximation
when the resisting force is small. The reason is that the amplitude of the
oscillation, ao e- kt /2, will eventually differ substantially from its initial value ao
for sufficiently large values of the time, no matter how small k might be
provided that it is not zero. This is a particular example of a situation in which a
small effect is nevertheless cumulative and so can produce substantial changes
over sufficiently long periods of time. We say that the approximation is not
uniformly valid as t ~ 00.
For damped oscillations governed by equation (6.2.1) we have the exact
solution (6.2.4), but there are many examples of oscillations which are governed
by equations of the type

(13.~.1)
13.3] The Method of Averaging 407

where the small positive constant e is included to indicate that the term ef(x, x)
is small compared with n 2 x, but is sufficiently complicated to prevent the
integration of the equation in simple terms. An approximate method of solution
is therefore to be desired, but it should be one which gives due consideration to
the form of the solution for large values of t. One such technique is the method
of averaging.
We start from the observation that, since the solution of(13.3.1), when e = 0,
is of the form x = a cos rp with a and ~ (= n) constant, there is something to be
said for retaining the same form of solution for the full equation provided
allowance is made for possible variations in a and ~, which will presumably be
slow when e is small. To take again the example of damped harmonic oscillations
as illustrated by (6.2.4), the solution does approximate to a simple harmonic
oscillation in any range of t for which kt is small. There is a change in amplitude,
which can be substantial, but it will take place slowly if k is small and this is the
property ofthe solution which is exploited in the method of averaging.
It is convenient to rewrite equation (13.3.1) as the pair of first order
differential equations

x =v, iJ = -n 2 x + ef(x, v), (13.3.2)

for the two variables x and v. Next we consider a transformation of variables

from x, v to a, rp through the relations

x =a cos rp, v = -na sin rp. (13.3.3)

This transformation is suggested by the form of the solution when e =

~ = 11, but here a and rp are functions of t still to be found. Since
°and so

x= d cos rp - a~ sin rp, (13.3.4)

ti= -wi sin rp - na~ cos rp, (13.3.5)

we have, by substitution in (13.3.2),

acos rp - a(~ - n)sin rp = 0, (13.3.6)

-a sin rp - a(~ - n )cos cf> = n~ f(a cos rp, -na sin rp). (13.3.7)

If equation (13.3.6) is multiplied by cos rp, equation (13.3.7) by sin rp and the
resulting equations subtracted, ~ is eliminated and the following equation for ti is
obtained:

a= - ~ f(a cos rp, -na sin rp)sin rp.

n
(13.3.8)

a
Again, by elimination of from (13.3.6) and (13.3.7), we get
408 Non-Linear Problems [13.3
•
a{4> - n) =- -ne I{a cos 4>, -na sin 4»cos 4>. (13.3.9)

A.t this stage no approximations have been made, and equations (13.3.8) and
(13.3.9) are equivalent to the original equations (13.3.2) through the trans-
formation (13.3.3). Equation (13.3.8) verifies the previous conjecture that the
rate of change of a is small when e is small. In other words, although it is possible
for a to change substantially, the change takes place on a slow time scale com-
pared, say, with the changes in the phase 4> which take place on a time scale of order
n- 1 • Similarly equation (13.3.9) shows that~ - n is also small, of the order of e.
However, as they stand, equations (13.3.8) and (13.3.9) are not more easily
solved than the Original equations (13.3.2). They are simplified on the following
basis. A substantial change in a is produced only if d is on average non-zero. A
contribution to d which is both small and zero on average will not produce a
substantial change in a because the small integrated contributions will con-
tinually cancel out. As a simple illustration, consider the equation
a = -ea{1 + cos t) (13.3.10)

which is easily integrated to give

a =aoe -e(t+sin t) (13.3.11)

It is clear from the solution (13.3.11) that the substantial changes in a that can
arise, do so from the factor e-Et • This, in turn, comes from that part of d which is
non-zero on average, namely -ea. But the term -ea cos tin d contributes the
factor e -e sin t, which never differs substantially from unity for all t when e
is small. We say that

(13.3.12)

is a uniformly valid first approximation to a because it is valid for all t.

The above argument can be formalised by averaging the right-hand side of
(13.3.10) over a period of the OScillatory term, thereby eliminating the term
which is zero on average. Explicitly this gives

1 eo 211"
a=-2'
•
J211"
0
-ea{l +cost)dt=--
2.~
r (1 +cost)dt=-ea,

if the variation in a over a period is negligible. Hence d =-ea and the integral is
given by (13.3.12).
This is the basis of the method of averaging. It brings out clearly the
difficulty encountered in approximating to the solution of equations (13.3.2)
and, hence, the way to overcome it. To justify the procedure formally is,
however, difficult and will not be attempted here. We proceed by analogy and
approximate equations (13.3.8) and (13.3.9) by taking the average value of the
13.3 ] The Method of Averaging 409

right-hand sides. Since they are periodic in <P with period 21T, it is sufficient to
take the average over this interval of <p. The result is

E
Ii = - -2
1211" t(a cos <p, -na sin <p)sin <p d<p, (13.3.13)
n1T 0

• E
<p - n = - -2-
1211" t(a cos <p, -na sin <p)cos <p M. (13.3.14)
n1Ta 0

° In the evaluation of these average values, the variation of a in the interval

~<p ~ 21T is regarded as negligible and ignored. The mathematical simplifi-
cation arises from the disappearance of <p from the equations and, in fact, they
become uncoupled since equation (13.3 .13) states that Ii is some function of a.
Accordingly, although it may be non-linear, it is of a simple form and can
usually be manipulated without difficulty. When a is known as a function of t,
so is the right-hand side of equation (13.3.14) and straightforward integration of
this equation then gives <p as a function of t.
As a check on the method, consider the special case

t= -v = na sin <p

which gives the equation for linear damping. Since the average value of sin 2 <p is
! and the average value of sin <p cos <p is 0, equations (13.3.13) and (13.3.14)
become

a= -Ea!2 whence a = aoe- et / 2 ,

cb-n=O whence <p = nt + <Po •

Reference to (6.2.4), with k replaced by E, shows that the damping co-

efficient is given correctly and that the error in the frequency is of order E2 • The
method can be continued to give higher orders of accuracy, but we shall not
pursue this.
Note that, although in application it is not essential to introduce a separate
distinguishing symbol, the slowly varying quantity in (13.3.9) is

<p - f n dt.
In the present case this is just <p - nt since n has been assumed constant. The
following example discusses the technique when n has a prescribed variation.

Example 13.3.1
The method of averaging can be readily applied to the equation

(13.3.15)
410 Non-Linear Problems [13.3

or, equivalently,

(13.3.16)

where n is not constant, but is a given function of the time which varies slowly.
The equation occurs in the theory of wave propagation and was first studied
because of its application in quantum mechanics.
As in the general theory we put

:". =a cos r/>, v =-na sin r/> (13.3.17)

and now, in the evaluation of Ii, it is necessary to take into account the variation
ofn with t. We have

x =a cos rt> - a¢ sin rt>, (13.3.18)

Ii = -na sin rt> - na¢ cos rt> - liasin r/>. (13.3.19)

Substitution of (13.3.18) and (13.3.19) into (13.3.16) gives

Ii cos r/> - a(¢ - n)sin rt> = 0, (13.3.20)

-a sin rt> - a(¢ - n)cos r/> = na sin (/>.

n
(13.3.21)

When these equations are solved for Ii and ¢, the result is

.
a = --SIn
na. 2 A.
0/, (13.3.22)
n
. Ii
r/> - n= - - sin rt> cos r/>. (13.3.23)
n

For the method of averaging to be applicable, it is necessary that ri <{ n 2 ,and

this is the condition referred to in the statement that n should be a slowly
varying functibn of the time. Then equations (13.3.22) and (13.3.23) can be
simplified by taking the average value of the right-hand sides. The result is

Ii
-=--
ri
whence- a =(no- )112 , (13.3.24)
a 2n ao n

¢ =n whence r/> = fo n dt + rt>o ,

t
(13.3.25)

X =a cos rt> =ao nnO 112 (t

cos fo n dt + rt>o .
) (13.3.26)
13.3] The Method of Averaging 411

In this example, the amplitude of the oscillation is inversely proportional to

the square root of the frequency n.

Example 13.3.2
We consider next the plane oscillations of a simple pendulum, of length I and
angular displacement 8, when there is a small damping term proportional to the
velocity and when the length of the pendulum is allowed to vary in a slow
prescribed manner.
The transverse acceleration is Iii + 2ie. In the same direction the components
of the resistance and of the gravitational force are, respectively, -kid and
-g sin 8 per unit mass. The transverse component of the equation of motion is
therefore

10 + 2ie =-kiO - g sin 8 . (13.3.27)

Let n 2 =gIl and let the amplitude of the oscillation be small, so that sin 8 can
be replaced by the first two terms of its expansion in powers of 8, namely
8 - 83 /6. Then equation (13.3.27) can be written as the pair of equations

0= w, (13.3.28)

With the substitutions

8 = a cos cp, w = -na sin cp, (13.3.29)

equations (13.3.28) give, when solved for aand~,

(13.3.30)

2 •
~ - n = - na cos4 cp + 3 ~ sin cp cos cp - k sin cp cos cp. (13.3.31)
6 n

It is assumed that all the terms on the right-hand sides of equations (13.3.30)
and (13.3.31) are small and can be averaged. The only terms which are non zero
on average are those proportional to sin 2 cp and cos4 cp whose average values are,
respectively,! and i. The averaged equations are therefore

a 3n I
-=-- --k whence a =ao ( no
n )3/2 e -kt/2 , (13.3.32)
a 2n 2 '

r
and
2
whence cp = n(1 - a ) dt + CPo· (13.3.33)
o 16
412 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.3

It follows that the uniformly valid approximation is

(13.3.34)

where a is given by (13.3.32) as a function of t. In particular we have the

interesting result that the amplitude is proportional to n 3 / 2 or, equivalently,
inversely proportional to the l power of the length.
As a check on the approximation we note that the damping term, e- kt / 2 , is
given correctly and that if a is constant (I =10 , k =0), then

The periodic time is therefore

a )-1 21T (
T=-;
2
21T ( 2
a
1-16 =-;- 1+ 16 )

approximately since a is assumed small. This result agrees with (6.5.21).

Example 13.3.3
In the previous examples, the method of averaging has been demonstrated when
the governing equation is a small modification of the equation x + n 2 x =0 which
describes simple harmonic motion. The essence of the technique is to retain the
form of solution x = a cos c/> of the simple harmonic equation, and to allow for a
small modification of the equation by appropriate modifications in a and cp. It is
the calculation of these modifications which is simplified by the method of
averaging.
The aim of the present example is to demonstrate that the method of
averaging is of more general application, and that the essential property of the
reference equation is that it should have a periodic solution. The example is
based on the equation

x + V'(x) = 0, (13.3.35)

which has the energy integral

ti 2 + Vex) = a, (13.3.36)

say, where a is the constant energy. We know that this equation has a periodic
solution when a - Vex) is of the appropriate form (see §6.5). Let us assume
that the solution is periodic, with period 21T/n in t given by

21T 1
-; = 2112
J±(a _ dxV(X))1I2 ' (13.3.37)
13.3] The Method of Averaging 413

where the integral is to be taken over one complete oscillation. The sign of
(a - V(X»1/2 is positive over that part of the oscillation where x increases with t
and negative where x decreases. Equation (13.3.37) defmes n as a function of a.
In equation (13.3.36) a appears as a constant of integration, but in the
following analysis a, and therefore n, will be regarded as a variable. Now in
the application of the method of averaging it is an essential requirement that the
periodic functions which appear should have a ftxed period, as we shall see later.
We therefore regard the solution x(a,4» of (13.3.36) as a function of the
parameter a and a variable 4> which is normalised so that 4> changes by 21T in one
complete oscillation. It follows that x(a, 4» satisftes the equation

3X)2 (13.3.38)
!-n 2 ( 34> + V(x)=a

where, as already explained, n is chosen to satisfy (13.3.37) so that x is now

periodic in 4> with period 21T.
We shall apply the method of averaging to the equation

x + V'(x) = e/(x, x) (13.3.39)

or, alternatively, to the pair of equations

x = v, V+ V'(x) = e/(x, v). (13.3.40)

We ftrst make a transformation of variables from x, v to a, 4> such that

x = x(a, 4», v = n(3x/34», (13.3.41)

and x(a, 4» is the solution of (13.3.38), which may also be written in the form

!v 2 + V(x)=a. (13.3.42)

In order that x and v should satisfy (13.3.40), it is necessary to calculate the

appropriate variations of a and 4> as functions of t. The equations which
determine these variations can be obtained by the substitution of (13.3.41) in
(13.3.40). The resulting equations can then be solved for d and ¢ in a fashion
similar to that used in previous examples. A simpler procedure is to note first
that, from (13.3.40), (13.3.41) and (13.3.42),

iz = vv + V'(x)X = vee/ex, v) - V'(x» + V'(x)v

= eV/(X, v) = en/ex, v) 3x/34> (13.3.43)

and then, from x = v in the form

3x. 3x. 3x
-a+-4>=v=n-
3a 3ifJ 34>
414 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.3

we have, with the help of (13.3.43),

~ - n = -en[(x, v) ax/aa. (13.3.44)

Equations (13.3.43) and (13.3.44) are now in a form suitable for averaging.*
Since the right-hand sides are small and periodic in r/> with period 21T, the
approximate averaged equations are

21T f21T
11= en ax
0 [(x, v) ar/> dr/>,
)
(13.3.45)
. en ax
fo
21T
r/> -n = - 21T [(x, v) aa dr/>,

with x and v given in terms of a and r/> by (13.3.41). The right-hand sides of
(13.3.45) are functions only of a. The first equation becomes uncoupled from
the second and can be solved to give a as a function of t. Then the second
equation gives ~ as a function of a and hence as a function of t, so that r/> can
also be evaluated as a function of t. Note that n varies slowly since it is a
function of a given by (13.3.37). In principle the first of equations (13.3.45) can
be solved without a knowledge of x and v as functions of a and r/>. With the help
of (13.3.42), it can be written

(13.3.46)

The integral in (13.3.46) is taken over one complete oscillation and the sign of
21 /2(a - V(x)) 1 /2 is determined by the sign of v or ax/ar/>, so that it is positive
when x is increasing and negative when x is decreasing. Note that a knowledge of
a as a function of t is sufficient to give the variation of the amplitude and the
approximate period 21T/n of the oscillation as functions of t.
The analysis can be taken a stage further when the term ef(x, v) arises from
linear damping, so that [= -v. If we define

A(a) = f ±2 1/2 (a - V(X))1I2 dx,

* It is at this stage that the requirement that the period of oscillation be fixed is
necessary. In order to apply the method of averaging to (13.3.43) and (13.3.44), the right-
hand sides of the equations should be periodic functions of rp. If x is periodic with period P,
say, whereP is a function of a, we have x(a, rp) =x(a, rp + P) and ox(a, rp)/orp = ox(a, rp + P)/orp,
so that x and ax/arp are periodic. However

-
a x(a, rp)
a
=-x(a, dP a
rp+P) + - - x(a, rp+P)
aa aa. da arp
so that ax/aa is not periodic unless dP/da = 0 and the period is fixed. To take a simple
example, if x = sin arp, then ax/aa = rp cos a<l> and the amplitude increases linearly with rp.
13.4] Forced Non-Linear Oscillations 415

where the integral is taken over one complete period, relations (13.3.37) and
(13.3.46) show that for the case of linear damping

. €A ~d
a = - dA/da or dt log A = -e.

The integral of this equation gives

where ao is the value of a when t = 0. This is an implicit relation for a as a func-

tion of t.

13.4 FORCED NON-UNEAR OSCILLATIONS

We saw in §6.3 that the amplitude of forced, linear oscillations increases

dramatically near resonance if the resistance is small. In the case of a simple
pendulum, for example, the effect could render the linear approximation invalid.
We also saw> in Example 6.5.1, that one property of non-linearity is to alter the
periodic time and hence the natural frequency of oscillations. this suggests that
the increase in amplitude arising near resonance may be limited by the associ-
ated change in the natural frequency arising from non-linearity. To investigate
this possibility we consider the one-dimensional motion of a particle under the
influence of a forcing term if cos pt per unit mass, and a restoring force
-i(n 2 x + vx 3 ) per unit mass. The reason for this choice is that in many practical
examples the restoring force is an odd function, so that at points at the same
distance on either side of the equilibrium position it has the same magnitude but
is opposite in sign. The first two terms in the expansion for small x will then be
of the form chosen. A familiar example is provided by the small oscillations of a
simple pendulum, where the restoring force is

-mg sin 8 = -mg(8 - ! 8 3 + ...)

in the notation of equation (13.3.27).

We take as our equation of motion

(13.4.1)

or, equivalently,

x=v, v=-n 2 x-vx 3 -kv+fcospt, (13.4.2)

with n > 0, v, k;;;' 0, f;;;' 0, p > °all constant parameters. A term representing
416 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.4

linear resistance is also included so that the interplay between resistive and
non-linear forces, and their modification of the linear solution near resonance,
can be assessed.
The averaging technique, as described in the previous section, suggests that we
make the preliminary transformation x = a cos if>, v = -na sin if> and neglect those
small terms which are zero on average in the resulting equations for a and if>.
However, we shall concentrate here on the solutions of (13.4.2) representing
forced oscillations. When the linearised equation is used, it is known that the
frequency of the forced oscillations is determined by the frequency p of the
forcing term, and that the free oscillations ultimately decay because of resis-
tance. It is to be expected that the situation is qualitatively similar when there
are small non-linear effects, so that we should look for solutions where ~ approxi-
mates to p rather than to n. This suggests that the transformation

x =a cos if>, v =-pa sin if> (13.4.3)

is a preferable alternative. Of course we are chiefly interested in the resonant

regime for which I n - p I ~ 1 and then there is little to choose between n and p
as a factor in v. However, we shall see that the solution of (13.4.2) for
In - p I ~ 1, based on the transformation (13.4.3), happens to agree with the
straightforward linearised solution which is valid when n - p is not small. Hence
the range of validity of the solution is not restricted to I n - p I ~ 1 even though
the arguments used to derive it depend on this inequality being satisfied.
Substitution of (13.4.3) in (13.4.2) yields the equations

dcos if> - a~ sin if> = -pa sin if>,

(13.4.4)
-pd sin if> - pa~ cos if> = _n 2a cos if> - va 3 cos 3 if> + kpa sin if> +f cos pt.

These equations can be solved for aand ~ to give

pd = (n 2 - p2)a cos if> sin if> + va 3 cos 3 if> sin if> - kpa sin 2 if> - f cos pt sin if>,
(13.4.5)

p(~ - p) = (n 2 - p2)COS 2 if> + va 2 cos 4 if> - kp sin if> cos if> - fa- l cos pt cos if>.
(13.4.6)

In order to Simplify equations (1.3.4.5) and (13.4.6), it is assumed that all the
terms on the right-hand sides are small. This means that the non-linear terms, the
resistive terms and the forcing terms should all be small. In addition the forcing
frequency p should approximate to the natural frequency n in order to ensure
that the first terms on the right-hand sides are small. This concentrates attention
on the oscillations near resonance, where a linear approximation is invalid. With
these assumptions, (13.4.5) shows that d is small and (13.4.6) verifies the earlier
13.4] Forced Non-Linear Oscillations 417

comment that ~ - p is small. This is made explicit by the substitution

t/J =pt + X

so that both a and X are at most slowly varying functions of t.

Finally we approximate the right-hand sides of (13.4.5) and (13.4.6) by
averaging over the variations in t/J. In so dOing, changes in the slowly varying
quantities a and X are ignored, as in previous examples. Note that, since
t/J =pt + X, the average values of cos pt sin t/J and cos pt ,cos t/J are 1 sin X and
! cos X respectively.
Equations (13.4.5) and (13.4.6), when averaged, give

2piJ =-kpa - f sin X, (13.4.7)

(13.4.8)

Unlike the equations in the examples of the previous section, these equations are
coupled and cannot be solved independently. They are non-linear and do not
have simple solutions. Nevertheless they are much easier to handle than the
original equations (13.4.5), (13.4.6) and, most significantly, they are auton-
omous since t no longer appears explicitly.
We can, for example, examine the equilibrium solutions, for which,ti = X=O.
Physically these solutions represent oscillations for which the amplitude and
phase are constant on average. They are of particular interest because the
solutions corresponding to stable equilibrium are the non-linear equivalent of the
forced oscillations which remain in linear theory after the transient oscillations
have decayed.
We consider first the equilibrium solutions when there is no resistance. With
k = 0, the solutions of (13.4.7), (13.4.8) for,g = X= 0 are sin X = 0 and

(13.4.9)

say, where r = 0 or 1 according as X = 0 or 'IT. We may regard (13.4.9) as a

functional relation between the forcing frequency p and the amplitude a of the
forced oscillations. The resulting curve showing the variation of a with p is called
a response curve. We note that the linear solution (v = 0) away from resonance is
in fact recovered from (13.4.9), which then gives

provided we choose X=0 if P < n and X = 'IT if P > n (we do not consider
negative values of the amplitude a; such a change of sign is rather taken into
account by a change of the phase Xby 'IT). At resonance, however, the non-linear
contribution is crucial, for without it the amplitude is singular. Its introduction
has several modifying features. Not only is the amplitude fmite when p =n.
418 Non-Linear Problems [ 13.4

v= 0

a a

j/
'/
I
1
I/; X =n:
/ /
/ I
/ (h
p n
~ p
v<o v::> 0

Figure 13.4.1 Response curves for forced, non-linear oscillations with v = 0,

v < 0, v > 0, no damping and three values of [labelled 0,[1,[2.

where a =(41/31 v I)l!r, but it is not even a maximum there. The fact that
(13.4.9) is a cubic for a means that there are three possible values for a, at least
for some values of the parameters, so that equilibrium solutions at a given
frequency may not be unique. These features are clearly shown in Figure 13.4.1.
It appears that there are three values of a for a given value of p if P < n
°
and v < or if p > n and v > 0.
Of equal importance is the question of the stability of the equilibrium
solutions, for if they are unstable they will not in practice be observed. To
answer this question, we consider a perturbation of (a, X) from an equilibrium
solution (ao, Xo) to a neighbouring solution (ao + a I , Xo + Xl ), where ao ,Xo are
constant and ai, Xl are relatively small. With k = 0, equations (13.4.7), (13.4.8)
13.4] Forced Non-Linear Oscillations 419

linearise to
2pQI =-(-lrfxl' (13.4.10)

(13.4.11)

where A(a) is given by (13.4.9) and the fact that Xo is either 0 or 7T has been
used. One can now verify from § 13.2 that the singular point al = XI = 0 is a
centre or a saddle according as (-lrA'(ao) is positive or negative. Alternatively,
it follows directly from (13.4.10) and (13.4.11) that

(13.4.12)

with a similar equation for Xl' The solution of (13.4.12) is oscillatory, implying
r
neutral stability (centre), if (-1 A'(ao) is positive. If it is negative a will grow
exponentially in time leading to instability (saddle).
From (13.4.9), it is seen that A '(a) is just 2pdp/da and so has the same sign as
the slope da/dp of the response curve. It follows that there is instability if
r =O(X =0) and a decreases with p, or if r = I(X =7T) and a increases withp. The
unstable oscillations are shown dotted in Figure 13.4.1, the net result being that
there are either one or two neutrally stable oscillations for any given value of p.
Equation (13.4.9) even has a solution for the free oscillations when f= 0,
namely

(13.4.13)

The response curves for non zero values of f are all asymptotic to (13.4.13).
Although the method of solution described here is not strictly appropriate for
free oscillations, it is a simple matter to check the validity of (13.4.13) in-
dependently, since equation (13.4.1) with k = f= 0 is conservative and so can be
integrated.
It remains to discuss the further modifications of the small resistive term, so
far omitted. When d = X= 0, equations (13.4.7), (13.4.8) imply that

(13.4J4)

when X is eliminated. For sufficiently small k it may be expected that the

response curves are not markedly different from those given by (13.4.9). There
are, however, some significant modifications. Equation (13.4.14), unlike
(13.4.9), implies an upper bound on a, since a cannot exceedf/kp. What happens
is that the two branches of the response curve obtained when k =0 now jOin
together in the vicinity of this maximum to give one continuous curve, as shown
in Figure 13.4.2. For sufficiently small f the modification is more substantial,
since it is no longer possible for the response curve to bend back on itself and
yield more than one equilibrium solution so that the solution is unique over the
whole range of p. Indeed a now tends to zero withf. It is hardly surprising that
420 Non-Linear Problems [l3.4
a

Figure 13.4.2 Response curves for v> 0 and small damping.

there is no equilibrium solution (other than a =0) without a forcing term, since
the resistance will ensure that any initial oscillation will decay to zero.
Finally the resistance changes the neutrally stable oscillations into stable
oscillations (the singular point becoming a stable spiral instead of a centre). The
effect of this is to ensure that any small perturbation from a stable equilibrium
solution will ultimately decay and give a defmite tendency to the equilibrium
oscillation.
The existence of cut-off frequencies at P1 and P2, as shown in Figure 13.4.2,
gives rise to jump phenomena, which are easily observed in practice and peculiar
to forced non-linear oscillations. Let the particle oscillate with a frequency
P > P1 and an amplitude corresponding to a point on the lower branch of the
response curve labelled 12. Suppose now that the frequency is decreased con-
tinuously so that the amplitude of the oscillation follows the response curve
towards Pl. At Pl no further continuous increase in amplitude is possible. The
oscillation becomes unsteady and finally settles down to an amplitude appropriate
to the higher stable branch of the response curve. A similar, and more violent,
change takes place if the oscillation initially corresponds to a point on the upper
branch of the response curve and the frequency is continuously increased towards
P2·
The preceding discussion has concentrated on the equilibriu~ oscillations in the
vicinity of the principal resonant frequency. For non-linear oscillations there is,
however, the possibility of resonant response at other frequencies. With equation
(13.4.1), for example, there is an important subharmonic resonance, at a
frequency p/3, when P is in the neighbourhood of 3n. Such solutions can be
discussed by means of an analysis similar to that described here, but in the case
of equation (13.4.1) the subharmonic response only emerges when the approx-
imation is taken to second order.
 Exercises 421

EXERCISES

13.1 The acceleration of a particle P in a straight line is given by -n 2 x

+ 3n 2 x 2 /2a, where x is the distance of P from a fixed point 0 of the line
and n > 0, a > 0 are constants.
Sketch the potential energy curve. For what values of the total energy
E is an oscillatory motion possible? What is the approximate periodic time
time when the amplitude of the oscillations is small?
Find the variation of x with t given that x =a,x = 0 when t =O.
Deduce that x -+ 00 as t -+ n /n.
(Ans.: 0<E<2n 2a2 ,2n/n,x=asec2 !nt.)
13.2 The acceleration of a particle P in a straight line is given by n 2 x
-3n 2 x 2 /2a, where x is the distance of P from a fixed point 0 of the
line and n > 0, a> 0 are constants.
Sketch the potential energy curve. For what values of the total energy
E is an oscillatory motion possible? What is the approximate periodic time
when the amplitude of the oscillations is small?
x
Find the variation of x with t given that x =a, = 0 when t = O. Show
that the time elapsed when x = 3a/4 is n -I log 3.
(Ans.: -2n 2a2 /27 <E<O, 2n/n,x =a sech2 !nt.)
13.3 Let 0 be the inclination to the downward vertical of a spherical pendulum
of length I. Let 0 1 , O2 be the minimum and maximum values of 0
respectively, and define

(i) For 0 1 ~ 1, 0 2 ~ 1 show that, approximately,

the periodic time is 2n(Zjg)!l2,
the apsidal angle is !n(1 + i sin 0 1 sin O2 ),
the angular speed of advance of the apse lines is i sin 0 1 sin O2 (gjl)1/2.
(li) For O2 ~ n - 0 1 show that, approximately,
the periodic time is n(21/gc3 )1/2,
the apsidal angle is n(1 - 3 sin 0 tf8c~),
the angular speed of the apse line is i sin 0 1 (g/2/d )1/2.

13.4 A particle moves on the inner surface of a paraboloid of revolution whose

axis is vertical. Cylindrical polar coordinates r, 4>, z are defined such that r
is the horizontal distance from the axis of the paraboloid, 4> is the angular
displacement about the axis and z is the axial distance measured vertically
upwards. The equation of the paraboloid is r2 = 4az.
Show that the periodic time for motion in any horizontal circular
path, and for any motion with small amplitude, is 2n(2a/g)1!2 .
For any motion in which Zl ..;;; Z ~ Z2 show that the apsidal angle is
given by
422 Non-Linear Problems

Evaluate CPa for a perturbation on motion in a horizontal circle and for

motion with small amplitude.
(Ans.: !7T(l +zt/a)1I2,!7T{1 +(ZlZ2)1/2/a}.)
13.5 Sketch the integral curves in the phase plane for the equation x = f(x)
whenf(x) is equal to:
(i) x; (ii) -x; (iii) x 2 ; (iv) _x 2 ; (v) x 3 ; (vi) _x 3 .
State whether the singularities are stable, neutral or unstable.
(Ans.: (i), (lii), (iv), (v) unstable, (ii), (vi) neutral.)
13.6 Sketch the integral curves in the phase plane for the equation x =
k( V 2 - iii I), which represents one-dimensional motion with damp-
ing and a constant propelling force, where V is the terminal speed.
Discuss their physical interpretation.
13.7 Classify the singular points of the equation x = n 2 (a 2 - x 2 )/a - ki for all
positive values of k, and discuss their stability.
How would you expect the integral curves for k = (see Fig. 13.2.3)
to be modified when k is small?
°
13.8 A particle is connected by a light spring to a point 0 on a rough
horizontal table. Oscillations of the particle are governed by the equation

d
m - x = - -Ax - flmg sgn -
2
(dX)
dt 2 I dt '

dx) { 1 if dx/dt > 0,

where sgn ( -
dt
= °
if dx/dt = 0,
-1 ifdx/dt<O.

Ax f = d~ .
Let ~=-,
flmgl dr

Write down the equation of motion using these non-dimensional

variables. Show that the integral curves in the (t f) plane are semi-
circles. Given that the particle starts ftom rest at a point where ~ = ~o ,
such that
4r - I < ~o < 4r + 1,
where r is an integer, show that the particle makes r complete oscillations.
13.9 The angular displacement 8 of a simple pendulum subject to damping
satisfies the equation of motion

d2 8/dt 2 = -n? sin 8 - kil 1 il I.

Show that it describes r complete revolutions before oscillating to and
fro if the initial angular speed w satisfies the inequalities

1 + 4k2
1 + exp{ 2(2r - 1)k7T} < - - 2 - w 2 < 1 + exp{ 2(2r + l)k7T}.
2n

13.1 ° A particle is in one-dimensional motion along the x-axis and is subject to

 Exercises 423

a resistance equal to -ki I i I per unit mass and a force [(x) per unit
mass. Show that, while i remains positive,

where B is a constant and

A(x) = 2e- 2kx f J(~)e2k~ d~.

x

Show that if [(x) is periodic, so is A (x) and with the same period.
Let [(x) be the periodic function defined by

x=nX,

[(x) ={~o < <

nX x t
(n + )X,
x = (n + t)X,
-10 t
(n + )X x< < (n + 1)X,

where X is constant and n is an integer. Calculate A(x) in the interval

nX ~x ~ (n + l)X by writing

and using the fact that A (x) is periodic with period X to calculate C.
Hence show that

{
~ (1 _ 2exp{ -2k(x - nx)}) ,
nX~x ~(n + t)X,
k I + exp(-kx)
A(x) =
_~ (1 _
k
2exp{ 2k(x - nX - t X)}) , (n + t )X
l+exp(-kx)
~ x ~ (n + 1)X.

Deduce that the velocity of the particle will eventually become zero.
What are the points of equilibrium, and which of them are stable?
(Ans.: x = nX, unstable; x =(n +! )X, stable.)
13.11 Verify, by direct substitution, that the solution of the equation

is x =ao(1 + t/to )cos(1 + toft) -1.

Show that the method of averaging, when applied to this· equation,
gives the exact solution.
13 .12 A particle moves under the influence of a restoring force and solid
424 Non-Linear Problems

friction. The equation of motion is of the form

•.
X =-n 2 x - •
e sgn x.

Use the method of averaging to show that an approximate solution

whenO<e.<aon 2 is

x = ( ao 4et) cos nt.

- --;;

Deduce that the particle will come permanently to rest in a time of

the order of magnitude aon/4e.
13.13 Use the method of averaging to solve the equation for damped harmonic
motion in the form

where k t and k2 are small positive constants.

Show that there is an approximate solution of the form x =
a cos{n(t + to)}, where
I I 4n
-=- +- k2t
a ao 37r

if kl = 0 and

if k 1 =:f. 0, where A = Bnk2 /(37rk 1 ).

13.14 Use the method of averaging to show that the equation

has an approximate solution of the form

x=a cos nt,

where

Show that small perturbations about the two solutions a = 0, a = 2 are

respectively unstable and stable. Verify that this is so by integration of
the equation for a. The result is

This differential equation is called the Van der Pol equation. The
stable oscillation x = 2 cos nt is called a self-excited oscillation or a limit
 Exercises 425

cycle. For small values of € all oscillations tend eventually to this as

t ~OO.

13.15 For the central force

-m(~+ :5) r,
acting on a particle of mass m, the differential equation for trajectories of
the particle can be written in the form
d2 u /l vu 2
- +u- - =- u = r- 1 ,
d0 2 h2 h2 '

(see Exercise 7.20).

On the assumption that the term on the right-hand side is small, use
the method of averaging to show that an approximate solution is of the
form
lu = lr- 1 = 1 + e cos{(l - /lV/h4)O},

provided that l = h 2 //l and e < 1. Interpret the trajectory as an ellipse

whose axes rotate slowly with the angular speed w/lvlh 4 , where 21r/w is
the time to traverse the elliptic orbit.
Deduce that the leading terms agree with the result of Exercise 7.25.
13.16 Let 0 denote the angular displacement of a simple pendulum of length l.
The energy equation can be written in the form

where n5 = gil and the energy constant is written as 2n5a 2 • This equation
represents oscillatory solutions with period 21rln, where

The integral is taken over a complete oscillation and the sign of the
denominator is determined by the sign of e.
Investigate the equations

x =W, W + n~ sin 0 = -€!(w),

by means of the transformation from 0, W to a, ct>, where

00
o= O(a, ct», w=n-
act> '

Show that the approximate equations obtained by the method of

averaging are

~= n,
426 Non-Linear Problems

where the integral is taken over a complete period of oscillation.

Consider the following cases:

(i) a< 1 and ef(w) = el w. This case represents the oscillations of a

pendulum subject to linear damping. The amplitude 0 m of 0 is given
by sin lOm =a. Show that

where ao refers to the value of a at t = 0 and

A Io
=
Bm
(a 2 - sin2 !0)1/2 dO = 2{E - (1 - a)K},

The integrals K and E are the complete elliptic integrals of the first
and second kinds.
Show that, approximately for a ~ 1,

om =0 0 e-e,t/2 (1 __192
5_ 02 (1 _ e-e,t»).
0

(ii) a» 1, e[(w) = e2 w I wi. In this case the pendulum makes rapid

rotations in complete circles and is subject to quadratic damping.
Show that, approximately,
2a = 3 112 coth{31I2e2no(t + to)},

where to is a constant of integration which can be adjusted to give

the correct value of a when t = O.
13.17 Consider the equation

where the terms on the right-hand side are assumed to be small compared
with the individual terms on the left-hand side. Verify, by direct sub-
stitution, that the expression

x =a(cos 0 + e cos 30), 0 =pt - a, e ~ 1

is consistent with the equation, provided that all terms of the second
order of smallness are neglected. Substitute the assumed form for x into
the equation and compare like terms to obtain the following relations:

sin a =kpa/f,
a(p2 _n2)=~va3 -fcosa,
e(9p2 _ n 2 ) =!va 2 .
 Exercises 427

Verify that the leading terms agree with the solution obtained from the
method of averaging.
13.18 The point of support of a simple pendulum, of length I, has a small
vertical displacement €l sin pt (0 < € ~ 1). The small angular displace-
ment of the pendulum is (J. Show that the approximate equation of
motion is

where n 2 = gil. Use the method of averaging to show that there is a

subharmonic resonance when p approximates to 2n, and that then (J =
a cos {!(pt + X)} where, approximately,
a= -€na cos X, X= 2n - p - ~ na 2 + 2€n sin X.

Show that there are equilibrium solutions when

x= ±11'/2, P = 2n(l - ha 2 ± €)

and that those for X = -11'/2 are unstable.

Investigate the solution when the small non-linear term is omitted, that
is the term -ln 2 (J3 in the original equation which gives rise to the term
-ina 2 in the equation for X. Show that the transformations
x = a(cos h + sin h), y = a(cos h- sin h)

yield the equations

x ={(n - !p) - €n}y, y = -{(n - !p) + en}x.

Deduce that the linearisation is not valid when 2(1 - €)n < p < 2(1 + e)n.
13.19 For the equations
dx dv
-=v -+n 2 x=€d(x,v)+€2 cbspt
dt ' dt

make the substitutions

x = a cos cp, v = -pa sin cp, cp = pt + X

and use the method of averaging to obtain the following approximate
equations near resonance:

da dX
2p - = -k(a) - €2 sin X, 2pa - = -/.l(a) - €2 cos X,
dt dt

where

€1
k(a) = -
11'
f 1T

-1T
I(a cos cp, -pa sin cp)sin cp dcp,
428 Non-Linear Problems

€l
f..l(a) = -
7T
f-71
71
f(a cos 1/>, -pa sin I/»cos I/> dl/> - (n 2 - p2)a.

Hence show that the amplitude a of the equilibrium oscillations

satisfies the relation f..l2 + k 2 = d and that the equilibrium oscillations are
stable provided that f..l2 + k 2 and keQ are increasing functions of a.
13.20 It is given that the equation !n 2 (a)(ax/al/»2 + V(x)=a has the periodic
solution

x(a, 1/» = ~ Ar(a)cos rI/>.

r=l

Deduce an expression for n(a) as a function of a.

Investigate the periodic solutions of the equations

x=v, v+V'(x)=fcospt, f>O,

where f cos pt is a small forcing term. Consider a transformation to a, 1/>,
where

x = x(a, 1/»,

and show that the equations satisfied by a, I/> are

Use the method of averaging to show that there are resonant oscil-
lations when rl/> = pt + X, where X is a slowly varying function and r is an
integer. Hence show that the approximate equations for a and X are

Ii = -hnfAr sin X, X= rn - p - !rnfA; cos X.

Deduce that there are equilibrium oscillations when X = 0, 7T and

p = rnO + !fA;). Show that these equilibrium oscillations are neutrally
stable if

X=O and Ar da
d
nO -
l'
lfAr) > °
d
or X=7T and Ar -
da
l'
nO + lfAr) < 0.
Index

acceleration 59 conservative vector field 42

centripetal 255 coordinates
constant 63 cartesian 12
Coriolis 255 generalised 360
gravitational 64 ignorable 376
in polar coordinates 59 polar 28
in spherical polar coordinates 267, 368 spherical polar 267, 368
relative 59 Coriolis acceleration 255
amplitude of oscillations l37 Coriolis force 261
angular momentum 174, 296, 309 couple 286
angular speed 59 critical damping 141
of earth 81, 259 curl 45
angular vector 243 cut-off frequency 420
existence, uniqueness 243 cyclone 262
angular velocity 248
aphelion 178 damped oscillations 140,404, 405
apogee 178 damping
applied force 315, 355 frictional 139
apse 177 viscous 100, 140
autonomous force 397 degrees of freedom 361
axes dimensional consistency 72
cartesian 12 dimensions 71
inertial 80 direction cosines 13
on earth's surface 259 divergence 45
principal 276 double pendulum 371, 385
ree tangular 12 drag coefficient 100
rotating 254 dynamics 57,80
beat oscillation 152
electromagnetic focusing 268
carrier wave 152 elliptic harmonic motion 183
central force 174 elliptic integral
centre of gravity 285 first kind 157
centre of mass 215 second kind 172
centrifugal force 255 energy
centripetal acceleration 255 conservation of 124,315
centroid 271 internal 220
circular pendulum 395 kinetic 121, 217, 315
coefficient of restitution 223 potential 124, 315
coefficient of viscosity 100 equilibrium, conditions for 299, 356
coefficients of friction 93 in conservative field 154, 390
table of values 95 in phase plane 398
collisions 219 equipotentials 32, 48
inelastic 224 equivalent systems
perfectly elastic 220 of forces 295, 355
compound pendulum 318 of impulses 310
conical pendulum 86, 395 of line vectors 284
conservation escape speed 190
of energy 124, 315 Euler's angles 372
of momentum 174 Euler's equations 323
conservative force 123, 176, 389 external force 216
430 Index

field Lagrange-Jacobi identity 293

conservative 42 Lagrange's equations 363
scalar and vector 32 Lagrangian 375
field line 33, 48 Larmor precession 252
lust moment 271 law of dimensional consistency 72
force 82 of gravitation 82, 185
applied 315, 355 of Hooke 137
autonomous 397 laws of friction 93
central 174 of Kepler 199
centrifugal 255 of motion 80
conservative 123, 176,389 length 57
contact 84 lift coefficient 100
Coriolis 261 limit cycle 424
external 216 linear dependence 10
generalised 366 linear momentum 119, 296, 309
impulse of 119 line integral 36
in string 84, 98 line vectors 2, 284
internal 216 equivalent systems 284
of constraint 314 parallel systems 285
resisting 93 reduction of system 287
work of 121 work of system 288
forced oscillations 142, 415
Foucault's pendulum 264
frames of reference - see axes Mach number 101
free oscinations 142 mass 81
frequency of oscillations 137 mass centre 215
friction 93 method of averaging 406
metre 57
generalised modulus of rigidity 138
coordinates 360 moment
force 366 lust 271
impulse 377 of inertia 275,298
momentum 375 second 275
velocity 365 vector 284
geometrical centre 271 momentum
geostrophic wind 261 angular 174, 296, 309
gradient of scalar 45 generalised 375
gradient operator 42 linear 119, 296, 309
gravitational constant 82, 185 moment of 174
gyrocompass 337
gyroscopic problems 331 newton 83
nodal point 400, 401
Hamiltonian 375 non-holonomic system 362, 367
Hamilton's equations 376 non-linear oscillations 154, 391,404
holonomic system 361 normal modes 148
Hooke's law 137
orbits
impact parameter 193 circular 179
impulse 119, 217, 309 elliptic 187
generalised 377 hyperbolic 191
instantaneous centre 249 resisted 202
integral curve 397 oscillations 136
internal force 216 amplitude of 137
inverse square law 185 beat 152
damped 139, 140, 404
joule 121 forced 142, 415
free 142
Kepler's laws 199 frequency of 137
kinematics 57 non-linear 154, 391,404
kinetic energy 121, 217,315 normal modes of 148
kinetic symmetry 277 of conservative system 156
 Index 431

phase of 137 gyroscopic problems 331

resonant 144 impulsive problems 308
simple harmonic 136 kinetic cncrgy 315
linear momentum 296, 309
parabola of safety 67 oscillations 318
parallel axes theorem 277 three-dimensional problems 321
particle 58 rigid body displacement 243
pendulum rocket, motion of 231
circular 395 rocking cylinder 319
compound 318 rolling disc 3 39
conical 86, 395 rotating axes 254
damped 318,404
double 371, 385 saddle point 401
Foucault's 264 scalar field 32
of varying length 411 scalar potential 44
simple 156, 396 scattering cross-section 193,227
spherical 184, 368,391,421 second moment 275
perigee 178 SI57
perihelion 178 simple harmonic motion 136
periodic time simple pendulum 156, 396
of compound pendulum 318 with linear damping 405
of elliptic orbit 189 with quadratic damping 404
of oscillations in conservative field 154 singularities in phase plane 398
of simple harmonic oscillations 137 classification of 399
of simple pendulum 157 specific resistance 105, 109
perpendicular axes theorem 278 speed 59
phase of oscillations 137 angular 59
phase plane 397 escape 190
singularitie,s 398 of precession 333
planetary dat~, 201 spherical pendulum 184, 368, 391, 421
Poisson braCKet 387 spherical polar coordinates 368
polar coordinates 28 spin 332
potential, scalar 44 spinning top 332, 372, 377
potential energy 124, 315 steady precession 333, 373
power 128 stability of 334
precession 333 stability
pressure 225 in conservative field 156, 356, 390
principal axes 276 in phase plane 399
moments of inertia 276,299 of circular orbit 179
principle of virtual work 356 of forced oscillations 418
products of inertia 276, 298 of rocking cylinder 319
projectiles 64 of rolling disc 341
with air resistance 103, 108 of spinning disc 353
of spinning sphere on sphere 337
radius of gyration 277 of spinning top 334
relative acceleration 59 stiffness of spring 13 7
angular velocity 252 subharmonic resonance 420,427
velocity 59 systems of particles 215
resistance equations of motion 216
effect on oscillations 139, 140,404 kinetic energy 217
effect on trajectories 103, 108 mass centre 215
of fluids 99
of solid friction 93
specific 105, 109 tables
resonance 144, 415 coefficients of friction 95
Reynolds number 100 Planetary data 201
rigid bodies 294 tension in string 84, 98
angular momentum 296, 309 terminal speed 105
energy equation 315 time 58
equations of motion 294 trade winds 262
Euler's equations 323 two-body problem 225
432 Index
units resolutes 11
joule 121 scalar product 14
kilogram 83 triple products 18
metre 57 unit 13
newton 83 vector product 16
SI 57, 83 work of 38
watt 128 velocity 59
unit vectors 13 angular 248
relative 59
Van der Pol equation 424 virtual work 355
variable mass problems 229 principle of 356
vectors 1 viscosity 100
addition 4 coefficient of 100
angle between 3 viscous damping 100
components 12
coplanar 4 watt 128
curl 45 weight 83
differentiation 24 weighted centroid 271
divergence 45 work 121, 314
field of 32 in rigid body displacement 217, 289
free 2 of force 121, 217,314
gradient 45 of tension in string 126, 130, 159, 217
integration 30 of vector 38
line 2 virtual 355
linearly dependent 10 workless constraint 314, 355
moment of 284 wrench 287
null 3
position 3 Young's modulus 138