First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter:

The first order low pass butterworth filter is realized by R-C circuit used
along with an op-amp, used in the noninverting configuration. The circuit
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.74. This also called one pole low pass
butterworth filter.

The resistances Rf and R1 decide the gain of the filter in the pass band.

Analysis for First Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter Circuit:

The impedance of the capacitor C is – j X C where XC is the capacitive

reactance given by

By the potential divider rule, the voltage at the noninverting input

terminal A which is the voltage across capacitor C is given by,
As the op-amp is in the noninverting configuration,

i.e.

where

and

and

The Vo/Vin is the transfer function of the filter and can be expressed in the
polar form as,

where
and

The phase angle Φ is in degrees.

The equation (7) describes the behavior of the low pass filter.

1. At very low frequencies, f < fH

2. f = fH,

3. At f > fH

Thus, for the range of frequencies, 0 < f < f H, the gain is almost constant
equal to fH which is high cut off frequency. At f = fH, gain reduces to
0.707 AF i.e. 3 dB down from AF. And as the frequency increases than f H,
the gain decreases at a rate of 20dB/decade. The rate 20 dB/decade
means decrease of 20 dB in gain per 10 times change in frequency. The
same rate can be expressed as 6 dB/octave i.e. decrease of 6 dB per
two times change in the frequency. The frequency f H is called cut off
frequency, break frequency, — 3dB frequency or corner frequency.
The frequency response is shown in the Fig. 2.75.
The rate of decrease in gain is 20 dB/decade i.e. the decrease can be
indicated by a negative slope in the frequency response, as – 20
dB/decade.

Design Steps:

The design steps for the first order low pass Butterworth filter are

1) Choose the cut off frequency, fH.

2) Choose the capacitance C usually between 0.001 and 1 μF.

Generally, it is selected as 1 μF or less than that. For better
performance, mylar or tantalum capacitors are selected.

3) Now, for the RC circuit,

Hence, as fH and C are known, calculate the value of R.

4) The resistances Rf and R1 can be selected depending on the required

gain in the pass band.

Frequency Scaling:

Once the filter is designed, sometimes, it is necessary to change the

value of cut-off frequency fH. The method used to change the original
cut-off frequency fH to a new cut-off frequency fH1 is called as frequency
scaling.
To achieve such a frequency scaling, the standard value capacitor C is
selected first. The required cut-off frequency can be achieved by
calculating corresponding value of resistance R. But to achieve
frequency scaling a potentiometer is used in fig 2.74 . Thus, the
resistance R is generally a potentiometer with which required cut-off
frequency fH can be adjusted and changed later on if required.

Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter:

The practical response of Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

must be very close to an ideal one. In case of low pass filter, it is always
desirable that the gain rolls off very fast after the cut off frequency, in the
stop band. In case of first order filter, it rolls off at a rate of 20
dB/decade. In case of second order filter, the gain rolls off at a rate of 40
dB/decade. Thus, the slope of the frequency response after f = f H is —
40 dB/decade, for a second order low pass filter.

A first order filter can be converted to second order type by using an

additional RC network as shown in the Fig. 2.76. The cut off frequency
fH for the filter is now decided by R 2, C2, R3 and C3. The gain of the filter
is as usual decided by op-amp i.e. the resistance R1 and Rf.

Analysis of the Filter Circuit:

For deriving the expression for the cut off frequency, let us use the
Laplace transform method. The input RC network can be represented in
the Laplace domain as shown in Fig. 2.77.

Now

Using potential divider rule, we can Write

Substituting in (1) and solving for VA, we get

Now, for op-amp in noninverting configuration,

where

and

As the order of s in the gain expression is two, the filter is called Second
Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter.

Second Order Butterworth Filter Transfer Function:

The standard form of Second Order Butterworth Filter Transfer Function
of any second order system is

where

A = overall gain
 ξ = damping of system
 ωn = natural frequency of oscillations
Comparing (7) and (8), we can say that

In case of Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter, this frequency is

nothing but the cut-off frequency, ωH

This is the required cut off frequency.

Replacing s by jω, the transfer function can be written in the frequency

domain and hence, finally, can be expressed in the polar form as,

where

and

 AF = gain in filter in pass band

 f = input frequency in Hz
  fH = high cut-off frequency in Hz
The frequency response is shown in Fig. 2.78.

At the cut off frequency fH, the gain is 0,707 AF i,e. 3 dB down from its 0
Hz level. After, fH ( f > fH ), the gain rolls off at a frequency rate of 40
dB/decade,. Hence, the slope of the response after fH is – 40 dB/decade.

Design Steps:

The design steps for Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter are

1) Choose the cut-off frequency fH,

2) The design can be simplified by selecting R 2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C

and choose a value of C less than or equal to 1 μF.

3) Calculate the value of R from the equation,

4) As R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C, the pass band voltage gain AF = (1 +

Rf/R1) of the second order low pass filter has to be equal to 1.586.

Note: For R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C, the transfer function takes the

form

From this we can write that,

Now, for Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter, the damping factor
required is 0.707, from the normalized Butterworth polynomial.

Thus, to ensure the Butterworth response, it is necessary that the gain

Af is 1.586.

Hence, choose a value of R1 ≤ 100 kΩ and calculate the corresponding

value of Rf.

The frequency scaling method discussed earlier for first order filter is
equally applicable to the Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter

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First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter:

As mentioned earlier, a high pass filter is a circuit that attenuates all the
signals below a specified cut off frequency denoted as f L. Thus, a high
pass filter performs the opposite function to that of low pass filter. Hence,
the First Order High Pass Buterworth Filter circuit can be obtained by
interchanging frequency determining resistances and capacitors in low
pass filter circuit.
The first order high pass filter can be obtained by interchanging the
elements R and C in a first order low pass filter circuit. The Fig. 2.79
shows the first order high pass Butterworth filter.

It can be observed that as compared to first order low pass filter, the
positions of R and C are changed in the high pass circuit shown in Fig.
2.79.

The frequency at which the gain is 0.707 times the gain of filter in pass
band is called as low cut off frequency and denoted as f L. So, all the
frequencies greater than fL are allowed to pass but the maximum
frequency which is allowed to pass is determined by the closed loop
bandwidth of the op-amp used.

Analysis of the Filter Circuit:

The impedance of the capacitor is

where f is the input i.e. operating frequency.

By the voltage divider rule, the potential of the non inverting terminal of
the op-amp is
As

Substituting in the above expression of VA,.

This can be represented as

where

Now, for the op-amp in non-inverting configuration,

where

and

This is the required expression for the transfer function of the filter. For
the frequency response, we require the magnitude of the transfer
function which is given by,

The equation (6) describes the behavior of the high pass filter.

1.At low frequencies, i.e. f < f′L

2) At f < f′L

3) At f > fL, i.e. high frequencies, 1 can be neglected as compared to (f/fL)

from denominator.
Thus, the circuit acts as high pass filter with a passband gain as AF. For
the frequencies, f < fL, the gain increases till f = fL at a rate of + 20
dB/decade. Hence, the slope of the frequency response in stop band is
+ 20 dB/decade for first order high pass filter. The frequency response is
shown in the Fig. 2.80.

Note : As high pass filter is basically a low pass filter circuit with
positions of R and C interchanged, the design steps and the frequency
scaling method discussed earlier for low pass filter is equally applicable
to the first order high pass Butterworth filter.

Second Order High Pass Butterworth Filters:

The second order high pass Butterworth filters produces a gain roll off at
the rate of + 40 dB/decade in the stop band. This filter also can be
realized by interchanging the positions of resistors and capacitors in a
second order low pass Butterworth filters. The Fig. 2.81 shows the
second order high pass Butterworth filters.
The analysis, design and the scaling procedures for this filter is exactly
same as that of second order low pass Butterworth filter.

The resulting expression is given here for the convenience of the reader.
The voltage gain magnitude equation for the second order high pass
filter is

where

 f = input frequency in Hz
 fL = lower cut off frequency in Hz ≈1/2πRC
 R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C
 AF = passband gain
 = 1.586 to ensure second order butterworth response
and

The frequency response of this filter is shown in the Fig. 2.82.

Band Pass Filter Circuit Diagram:

A Band Pass Filter Circuit Diagram designed to pass signals only in a

certain band of frequencies while rejecting all signals outside this band.
There are basically two types of Band Pass Filter Circuit Diagram,

 Wide band pass

 Narrow band pass
A Band Pass Filter Circuit is defined as a wide band pass if its figure of
merit or quality factor Q < 10. While there is no firm dividing line between
the two, if Q > 10, the filter is a narrow Band Pass Filter Circuit Diagram.
Hence Q is a measure of selectivity meaning the higher the value of Q,
the more selective is the filter, or the narrower is the band width. The
relationship between Q, 3 db band width and the centre frequency f c is
given by

For the wide Band Pass Filter Circuit, the centre frequency can be
defined as

where

 fH = high cutoff frequency

 fL = low cutoff frequency of the wide bandpass
Figure 15.15, shows the frequency response of a Band Pass Filter
Circuit Diagram. This type of filter has a maximum output voltage V max at
one frequency called the resonant frequency, fc. If the frequency is
varied away from resonance, the output voltage decreases. There is one
frequency above fc and one below fc at which the voltage is 0.707 x
Vmax (3 db point). These frequencies are the high and low cutoff
frequencies. The band of frequencies between fH and fL is the band
width. Therefore the band width is given by BW = fH – fL.

A narrow band filter is one that has a band width of less than 1/10th the
resonant frequency (band width < 0.1 fc). A wide band filter has a band
width greater than 1/10th the resonant frequency (band width > 0.1 fc).

The ratio of resonant frequency to band width is known as the quality

factor Q.

Wide Band Pass Filter:

Band pass can be realized by a number of possible circuits. A wide band

pass filter can be formed by simply cascading high pass and low pass
section and is generally the choice for simple to design.
To obtain a ± 20 db/decade band pass filter, a first order high pass filter
and a first low pass sections are cascaded, for a ± 40 db/decade band
pass filter, second order high pass filter and second order low pass filter
are cascaded and so on for higher orders.

In other words, the order of the Band Pass Filter Circuit Diagram
depends upon the order of the High pass and Low pass sections.
Fig. 15.16(a), shows a circuit of a ± 20 db/decade wide band pass filter,
which is composed of a first order high pass and a first order low pass
filter. Figure 15.16(b) shows the frequency response.

Figure 15.16(c) shows a circuit of a ± 40 db/decade wide Band Pass

Filter Circuit Diagram.

Narrow Band Pass Filter:

The narrow Band Pass Filter Circuit using multiple feedback is shown in
Fig. 15.17(a). As shown in this circuit, the filter uses only one opamp.
This filter is unique in the following respects.

1. It has two feedback paths, which is why it is called a multiple

feedback
2. The opamp is used in the inverting mode.
Generally a narrow band pass filter is designed for specific values of
centre frequency fc and Q, or fc and band width.
Figure 15.17(b) shows the frequency response of a narrow Band Pass
Filter Circuit Diagram.

Mathematical Derivation for Narrow Band Pass Filter:

If we wish to realise a resonant Band Pass Filter Circuit having the

narrow band characteristic of a tuned circuit, we have to use a multiple
feedback network in conjunction with an opamp as shown in Fig. 15.17
(a).

The transfer function of a tuned circuit is given by

Now let us consider a CR network comprising C1 C2 and R3 as shown in

Fig. 15.18.

Referring to figure, the z-parameters or impedance parameters are

where

 Z11 = input impedance with output open for ac

 Z12 = reverse transfer impedance with input open for ac
 Z21 = forward transfer impedance with output open for ac
 Z22 = output impedance with input open for ac
The equivalent circuit for a narrow Band Pass Filter Circuit is shown in
Fig.15.19.

Referring to the figure,

Also due to virtual ground

But

The current flowing through R2 is given by

Now consider the mesh Vin R1 R2

But

Simplifying it we have

Therefore

We now calculate the values of Z11 and Z21. Referring to the figure for a
CR network we have

which reduces to

Similarly
Therefore

Substituting Eqs (15.38), (15.39) and (15.47) in Eq. (15.37), we get

Therefore, gain

Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by s/R1 R2 R3 C1 C2 we get

Let

Now comparing Eq. (15.41) with (15.33) we see that

But ωo = 2 πfc where fc = cutoff frequency.

Therefore Eqs (15.42), (15.43) and (15.44) now become

and with slight manipulations with Eq. (15.44) we get

But the gain AVo at fc is given by

which is derived from a slight manipulation of Eqs (15.45) and (15.46)

Another condition that the gain must satisfy is

Else we get R2 = 0 which is not possible.

Band Reject Filter Circuit:

In this Band Reject Filter Circuit, frequencies are attenuated in the stop
band and passed outside it, as shown in Fig. 15.20(b). As with band
pass filters, band reject filters can also be classified as (i) wide and (ii)
narrow band.

The narrow band reject filter circuit is also called the notch filter.
Because of its higher Q which is greater than 10, the bandwidth of the
narrow band reject filter is much smaller than that of the wide band reject
filter. The band reject filter is also called a band stop or band elimination
filter because it eliminates a certain band of frequencies.

Wide Band Reject Filter:

Figure 15.20 (a) shows wide band reject filter circuit using a low pass
filter, a high pass filter and a summing amplifier. For a proper band reject
response, the low cutoff frequency fL of the high pass filter must be
larger than the high cutoff frequency fH of the low pass filter. Also, the
pass band gain of both high pass and low pass sections must be equal.

Narrow Band Reject Filter:

The narrow band reject filter, often called the notch filter, is commonly
used for the attenuation of a single frequency. For example, it may be
necessary to attenuate 60 Hz or 400 Hz noise or hum signals in a circuit.
The most commonly used notch filter is the Twin T network, shown in
Fig. 15.21(a), which is a passive filter composed of two T shaped
networks.

One T network is made up of two resistors and a capacitor, while the

other is made of two capacitors and a resistor. The frequency at which
maximum attenuation occurs is called the notch-out frequency, given by

One disadvantage of the passive twin T network is that it has a relatively

low figure of merit, Q. As discussed earlier, the higher the value of Q, the
more selective is the filter. Therefore, to increase the Q of the twin T
network significantly, it should be used with a voltage follower, as shown
in Fig. 15.21(b). Figure 15.21(c) shows the frequency response of a
notch filter.

The Notch filters are used in communications, biomedical instruments,

etc. where the elimination of certain frequencies is necessary.