Dr. Embialle M.

October 2023
Hawassa University
Contents
 Part –I: Introductions to wastewater
 Background, History, impact of wastewater
 Part –II: Wastewater generation
 Source, type and quantity of wastewater
 Part –III: Wastewater collection
 collection systems, sewer types, pressure, sewer size
 Part –IV: Wastewater characterization
 Characteristics, parameters, analysis
 Part –V: Wastewater treatment
 Background, treatment systems, primary, secondary, tertiary treatment
 Part –VI: Sludge Management and effluent reuse
 Sludge management, effluent recuse and reclamation
 PART-I
IINTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER
1. Introduction
 Provision of a safe, potable water supply and an
adequate waste disposal system are of primary
importance in a city

 the obvious reasons, are, they contribute to

 well-being of humans and
 reduce the risks of infections and propagation of diseases
such as dysentery, gastro-enteritis and other water-borne and
food-borne diseases.
 …cont’d

 Most communicable disease in developing countries are caused due to

unsafe water and contaminated food.
 The main contaminants get to these sources through improperly managed
wastewater
 As development increase, the wastewater generated is increased, it
needs a great attention for its safe management
 At the same time it is also an expensive duty which needs great attention
to meet the need for the small communities of developing countries
Where does it all go!
When you flush the toilet
where does the contents go?

Where does the water

from the washer go? Where does the water
from Industries go?

By gravity flow, the waste is on its way to your local wastewater

treatment plant!
The rout of water in a city
 …cont’d

 Wastewater is not just sewage

 All the water used in the home that goes down the drains or into the
sewage collection system is wastewater
 This includes water from baths, showers, sinks, dishwashers, washing
machines, and toilets.
 Small businesses and industries often contribute large amounts of
wastewater to sewage collection systems;
 others operate their own wastewater treatment systems
 In combined municipal sewage systems, water from storm drains is also
added to the municipal wastewater stream.
 …cont’d

 Therefore, unmanaged wastewater of a city is a

major pollutant of
 water,
 air and
 soil environment

 which may be the main cause of communicable

disease unless treated accordingly before released
to the environment
Historical
 High level of water supply and waste water disposal in antiquity
 Romans: water pipes and aqueducts, Cloaca maxima
 Middle Ages: gullies, surface flow, health problems
 high mortality for the duration of the 19th century
 typhus, cholera, dysentery
 Development by dewatering = affiliated plots of land mortality
 Since the beginning of the 20th century development of clarification
process.
 Development started in England.
 Level of wastewater treatment developed parallel to cognitions in hygiene
3
Historical Overview

 4000 v. Chr. first sewer systems in Indus valley and in Mesopotamia

 500 v. Chr. Cloaca maxima in Rom (remarkable social hygienic development)
 Middle Ages till expiration of moral, waste water was thrown out of the window
14. century
 1340 purgation of streets in Prague
 14. bis 15. century decree to put the waste into the river (Munich)
 1810 first usable water closet
 1830 construction of canalization in London after cholera epidemic
 1842 building of canals and underground ducts in Hamburg
 1868 Rivers Pollution Commission (England)
 1902 first scientific foundation for the sedimentation treatment
 1904 foundation of the “Emschergenossenschaft” to build purification plants
 1926 first aeration tanks in Germany (Essen) Imhoff
4
 …cont’d

 wastewater – early modern times till industrial

revolution
 enlargement of the cities
 growing water demand
 increment of attacking waste water
 industrial revolution in the 19th century
 dramatical increase of problems related to wastewater

22
 …cont’d

 waste water – early modern

times till industrial revolution
golden buckets
 removal of faeces with peat
buckets

23
waste water – early modern times till industrial revolution

Waste water removal

24
waste water – early modern times till industrial revolution
invention of the WC

„water closet“

25
waste water – early modern times till industrial
revolution cholera epidemics in Europe cause the
problem of wastewater to be a main concern

26
Why bother about wastewater?
 Wastewater (raw, diluted or treated) is a resource of increasing global
importance, particularly in urban and peri-urban areas due to growing
wastewater volumes
 Wastewater is a source rich in nutrients and a highly productive resource, if
used safely- available 24/7
 Without proper management, wastewater use poses serious risks to
human health and the environment
 With proper management, wastewater use can contribute significantly to
sustaining livelihoods, food security and the quality of the environment
 Wastewater already irrigates approximately 20 million ha of cropland
 10 percent of the world's population would starve if they didn't have
access to food grown that way
Why bother about wastewater?

 In majority of the urban areas, the activities in the wastewater sector are
focused mostly on wastewater disposal than recycle and reuse recycle
 Benefits of wastewater farming far outweigh than the drawbacks
 Reuse of wastewater has not received much attention by the policy-
decision makers perhaps because of the lack of viable models with
necessary research and technology support,
 Strong policies and legal framework at the national and state levels and
sufficient trained manpower in the urban local bodies are required.
Freshwater Consumption and Wastewater Production

Fresh water withdrawals year - 3,928 km3

Water consumed (mainly by agriculture) - 1,728 km3 (44%)
Released into the environment - 2,212 km3 (56%)
(Municipal, Industrial and Agricultural Drainage Water)
 Upper Middle-Income
High Income Countries
Countries 80%
wastewater
70%
38%
is released to
■ Treatment of
the
wastewater environment
Lower Middle-Income
Low - Income Countries
without
Countries
8% adequate
28%
treatment
What is Sanitation?

 According to the WHO, 2015 (World Health Organization),

Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and
services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces.

 The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance

of hygienic conditions, through services such as
garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
The F-Diagram
Sanitation and Health

 Some 842,000 people in low and middle-income countries die as a result of

inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene each year, representing 58% of total
diarrhoeal deaths.
 Poor sanitation is believed to be the main cause in some 280,000 of these deaths.

 At least 10% of the world’s population is thought to consume food irrigated by

wastewater.
 Poor sanitation is linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea,
dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio.

 Poor sanitation also contributes to malnutrition.

Impacts of
releasing
untreated or
inadequately
treated
wastewater

Human health effects

Environmental effects
Economic effects

Sanitation transitions and associated reduction in diarrhoeal disease

Wastewater use- Impacts

Negative Impacts
 Health costs along the food-chain
 Environmental costs -water and soil contamination
 Water pollution
 Salinization

Positive Impacts
 Saves freshwater -reliable year-round source of water with high
nutrient value
 Nutrient source (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and organic matter) -savings in
fertilizer
 Saving in ground water pumping cost
 Ecological services
Justification for wastewater treatment:

 Pollution from sewage is a primary environmental health

hazard (wastewater effluent).
 The purpose of municipal wastewater treatment is to limit
pollution of the receiving watercourse.
 The receiving watercourse may also be a source of drinking
water.
Goals of wastewater treatment:

 Reduction of organic load of the wastewater

effluent to limit eutrophication (BOD, COD limits),
 Reduction of microbiological contamination that may
transmit infectious disease.
Introduction

 Sewage Disposal, or wastewater disposal: various processes

involved in the collection, treatment, and sanitary disposal of
liquid and water-carried wastes from households and industrial
plants.
 The issue of sewage disposal assumed increasing importance in
the early 1970s
 problem of pollution of the human environment, the
contamination of the atmosphere, rivers, lakes, oceans, and
groundwater by domestic, municipal, agricultural, and
industrial
Wastewater Management scheme
Wastewater Generation

Wastewater Collection & Conveyance

Wastewater Treatment
Safe Disposal of Treated effleunt
Sludge mgt and disposal
DEFINITIONS

 Wastewater
 domestic wastewater =sewage =all wastewater
 industrial wastewater = process wastewater
 Greywater
 domestic wastewater except toilet wastewater, or
 domestic wastewater except toilet & kitchen wastewater
 Blackwater
 is a relatively recent term used to describe water containing fecal matter and urine.
 It is also known as brown water, foul water, or sewage. It is distinct from greywater or sullage, the residues
of washing processes
 Reclaimed Water
 derived from sewage
 treated to a standard satisfactory for intended reuse
 Biosolids
 sludge
 not “solid waste”
Sources of wastewater

 The origin, composition, and quantity of waste are related to existing life
patterns
 When waste matter enters water, the resulting product is called sewage
or wastewater
 Wastewater can be classified according to their sources
1. Domestic/Sanitary wastewater/sewage

 Domestic wastewater results from people's day-to-day activities, such as

 bathing,
 body elimination,
 food preparation,
 recreation, commercial areas,
 Institutional areas

 averaging about 80-230liters (~60 gallons) per person daily

 Mostly contain organic matters which are putrescibles
 It also contain pathogenic micro-organisms
 Relatively homogenous in composition
2. Industrial wastewater
 …cont’d

 Sewage from different manufacturing process

 The quantity and character of industrial wastewater is highly varied,
depending on the
 type of industry,
 the management of its water usage,
 and the degree of treatment the wastewater receives before it is discharged

 A steel mill, for example, might discharge anywhere from 5700 to

151,000 liters (about 1500 to 40,000 gallons) per ton of steel
manufactured.
 Less water is needed if recycling is practiced
WW produced from different manufacturing process

Type of industry quantity of ww (m /tons of product)

3

Iron & steel 146,239

Food & beverages 1,795,252
Textiles 1,992,597
Leather & foot wear 1, 947,860
Wood 47, 805
Pharmaceuticals 50,089
Rubber 205,746
paper & printing 45, 967
Tobacco 31,080
Petrochemicals 11,421
Non ferrous metals 2,217
Soaps and detergents 1,098
 Characteristics of industrial WW is quite different from domestic and
other wastewater
 Poisonous chemicals
 Minerals
 Nuclear waste
 Radioactive wastes
 Less or non-biodegradable
 May be less in pathogens
3. Infiltration

 Infiltration occurs when sewer lines are placed below the

water table or when rainfall percolates down to the
depth of the pipe
 It is undesirable because it imposes a greater load on the
piping system and the treatment plant.
4. Storm water

 Storm water is a term used to describe water that originates during

precipitation events
 It may also be used to apply to water that originates with snowmelt or
runoff water from overwatering that enters the storm water system
 Storm water that does not soak into the ground becomes surface runoff,
which either flows into surface waterways or is channeled into storm
sewers
 Storm water is of concern for two main issues:
 one related to the volume and timing of runoff water (flood control and water supplies) and
 the other related to potential contaminants that the water is carrying, i.e. water pollution
 Because impervious surfaces (parking lots, roads, buildings, compacted soil do
not allow rain to infiltrate into the ground, more runoff is generated in
developed world than in the undeveloped condition
 This additional runoff can erode watercourses (streams and rivers) as well as
cause flooding when the storm water collection system is overwhelmed by the
additional flow
 Because the water is flushed out of the watershed during the storm event, little
infiltrates the soil, replenishes groundwater, or supplies stream base flow in dry
weather
 But at the same time increase the infiltration amount
Quantities of Wastewater
 The major wastewater producers are
-Cities [domestic, commercial, institutional, institutional, etc.]
-Industries
-Agricultural Operations
- Rain

 Generally, the waste stream are handled independently, although some industrial
wastes are transported and treated in municipal system.

The time variation of flow is an especially important consideration, since most

conveyance are gravity flow and must be able to accommodate minimum flows
at sufficient velocities mainly of self-cleansing, as well as handle peak flow events.
Quantities of Wastewater
 Municipal sewer flow consists mainly of community wastes plus
infiltration, although if there are illicit connections, or if the sewer is a
combined one, storm water must also be considered
Average Rates of Flow
The quantity of sewage generated by a community depends on
its population and thus the per capita discharge to sewer.

As in case of water use forecasting, population estimates

are a requisite for estimating wastewater flows.
Waste Flow from Urban Areas

 Average Rates of Flow

 The figure gives a comparison of water use and wastewater flow on days

Comparison of water use

(solid line) and waste water
flow (dashed line) on day
when little sprinkling occurred.
Waste Flow from Urban Areas

Average Rates of Flow

 It can be seen that domestic sewage flows are highly variable throughout the
day.
In case of hydrograph of water, there are 2 distinct peaks.
-the primary peak occurs early in the morning
-the secondary peak occurs about dinnertime and
maintains itself during the evening hours.
The extraneous flows resulting from infiltration or storm runoff tend to distort the
basic hydrograph shape.
Infiltration rates generally tend to gradually increase the total daily volume but
do not ordinarily alter the twin-peaked character of the hydrograph.
Estimation of the various components of the flow is essential for design
purposes.
Average Rates of Flow
 It is generally reported that about 60-80% of the total water supplied to a
community becomes wastewater.
 Low ratios generally apply to semiarid regions.

 Ordinarily, the annual variation in the ratio of sewage to water supply in a city
is not great, and thus the amount of water used by a city is a good indicator of
the amount of sewage that will be generated.
 Sometimes, illicit drains and water use from privately owned source produce
quantities of sewage larger than public water withdrawals.
 When such external factors are not present, sewage flows from residential
areas are often less than about 100 gpcd (378 liter).
Variability in Sewage Flows
 Sewage flow rates vary by source and with time.
In most municipalities, the sources may be
-Residences
-Institutions: hospitals, school, commercial establishments,
-industries.
 For institutions, flows may vary from as low as 10 gpcd (40 liter) for
schools to 175 gcd (660 liter) for hospitals.

 Hotel may produce flow of about 100 gpcd (378 liter), while small
businesses may generate only about 60 (225 liter) gal per day per
employee.
Variability in Sewage Flows
 Sewage flow patterns in residential areas closely resemble
water use patterns for those areas,
 Ordinarily, residential, industrial, and commercial sewage
flows are estimated for an area and then combined to
obtain the composite sewage hydrograph.
 In this way, detailed information regarding the nature of
each flow component can be introduced into calculations.
 Variability in Sewage Flows
 Residential wastewater flow as a ratios to the average.

Description of Flow Ratio to the

Average
Maximum daily 2.25:1
Maximum hourly 3:1
Minimum daily 0.67:1
Minimum hourly 0.33:1
The quantity of wastewater to be removed from any
community depends on :
 the number of population
 the water use pattern
 industrialization
 presence of recreational facilities
 swimming pool
 garden watering
 Topographic and climatic condition
Determination of quantity of wastewater

1. Domestic wastewater:
a) Residential districts:
for small residential districts:
 on the basis of population density and per capita contribution of ww 250-
450 lcpd western data and 65-125 lcpd in developing countries
for large residential districts
 develop flow rates on the basis of land use areas and anticipated population
density
 Where possible rates should be based on the actual flow data
from nearly located typical residential areas
 An estimate of 70-80% of the water supply may be used

b) Commercial districts
 Air ports
 Shopping center
 Hotels and bars, etc
 Flows are usually expressed in m3 /d
 Flows are determined based on existing or anticipated future development or
comparable data of other areas
c)Institutional facilities
 Schools
 Hospital
 Prisons
 Actual records are best sources of flow data
 Can be estimated based on data given in literature
d) Recreational facilities
Swimming pool
Theater
Visiting center, etc.
- Flow are highly seasonal
- Typical flow data can be estimated from literature and previous
design data
Approximate wastewater flows (lpcd):

Large single-family houses 120

Multiple family dwellings 60 to 75
Hotels and motels 50
Schools
 Boarding school 75
 Day school with cafeterias 20
 Day school without cafeterias 15
Hospitals 150 to 300
Offices 15
Approximate composition of average sanitary wastewater (mg/l)

Parameter Raw After settling Bio. RX.

TS 800 680 530
TVS 440 340 220
SS 240 120 30
VSS 180 100 20
BOD 200 130 30
Parameter Raw After settling Bio. RX.

Inorg N 22 22 24
Total N 35 30 26
Soluble P 4 4 4
Total P 7 6 5
2. Industrial wastewater

- Industrial waste volumes are highly variable in both quantity and quality
depending principally on the product produced
- Flow rates vary with
 the type and size of industry,
 the degree of water reuse,
 on-site wastewater treatment method used if any

- Probably 85-95% of the water used if there is no internal reuse program

- If there is internal reuse separate estimates must be made
- Flows must be expressed in m3/d and changed to per capita rate
Average characteristics of selected Industrial wastewater

Parameter milk proc meat packing textile

BOD (mg/l) 1000 1400 1500
COD (mg/l) 1900 2100 3300
TS (mg/l) 1600 3300 8000
SS (mg/l) 300 1000 2000
Nitrogen (mg/l) 50 150 30
Phosphorus 12 16 0
PH (scale) 7 7 5
3. Storm Water

Primary source: Rain fall & Snowmelts

 The quantity of storm that appears as flood depends mainly on the
following:
 Area of the catchment
 Nature of the soil and degree of porosity
 Slope and shape of catchments
 Steep: Infiltration is minimum Strom water is very high
 Obstruction to flow
 Smoothness,
 Presence of grass
 Initial stage of the catchments with respect to wetness
 Nature and size of ditches present in the area
 Except for large combined sewers, storm runoff should be excluded from
the sewerage system.
 Storm runoff may enter at manholes or through illicit roof drains connected
to the sanitary system.
 Quantities of flow that enter in this manner vary with
 degree of enforcement of regulations res taken

 Small sewers can be surcharged easily by very few roof drain connections.
 test of leakage through manhole covers show that
 -20-70 gpm may enter a manhole cover submerged by 1 in of water.
 -Rate of magnitude may be considerably in excess of average
wastewater flows.
Methods to determine storm water

i) Empirical formulae:
 Formulae are based on experience and observation of data
 Applicable only for that particular studied region

ii) Rational method

 Most common method
 The method relates the flow to:
 Rainfall intensity
 The tributary area
 A coefficient that presents the combined effect of ponding, percolation and
evaporation.
 Volume of rainfall upon an area, per unit time under a rainfall intensity I is

Q = A. I
where Q = volume of rainfall per unit time
 since a portion will be lost by evaporation, percolation and ponding
 the actual run off is calculated as
Q = CIA
where I = rainfall intensity
A= tributary area
C= Run off coefficient (Fraction which appears as surface flow)
For combined area with different surface characters, the equivalent run off
coefficient will be taken.

Ce = Cl Al + C2 A2 + ………+ Cn An
A1 + A2 + …………………+ An

Where
Ce= Equivalent run off coefficient
Surface C value
 Watertight roof 0.7 – 0.95
 Asphalted cement street 0.85 – 0.90
 Portland cement street 0.80 – 0.95
 Paved drive ways and walks 0.75 – 0.85
 Gravel drive ways and walks 0.15 – 0.30
4. Infiltration and Inflow

 Infiltration and Exfiltration are both functions of the height of

the groundwater table in the vicinity of the sewer, type and
tightness of sewer joints, and soil type.

Exfiltration is undesirable since it may tend to pollute local

groundwater.

Infiltration has the effect of reducing the capacity of the

sewer for conveying the waste flows for which it was
designed.
 Influence the over all amount of sewage (wastewater in the sewerage
system)
 Population increase in the future
 Life style changes and future development
 Allowance should be made during designing of sewer systems
 (E.g. 30-80m3/day/km of sewer line)

 Rate of infiltration increases for larger size of the sewer

Example
 A rainfall of 1 in/hr on a 1,000 ft2 roof area will contribute
flows in excess of 10 gpm. The average domestic sewage
flow from a dwelling with this approximate roof area
(consider 4 persons) would equal only about 1.5% of this.
Example 1
 Estimate the maximum hourly, average daily and minimum hourly
residential sewage flows from an area occupied by 1,200 people.
Consider the length of sewer and house drains equal to 1.2 mi.
Give result in gpd and lpd.
 Solution Based on previous water use data of 101gpcd and
assuming a return flow of 75%.
The average daily per capita flow = 101 gpcdx0.75
= 75.8 gpcd
= 286 lpcd
Thus, the total average daily domestic flow= 75.8x1,200
= 90,960 gpd
= 344,284 lpd
Infiltration = 30,000 gpd/x1.2 mi
= 36,000 gpd
= 136,260 lpd
Maximum hourly flow = 36,000+90,960 x3
= 308,880 gpd
= 1,169,111 lpd
Total average daily flow = 36,000+90,960
= 126,960 gpd
= 480,544 lpd
Minimum hourly flow = 36,000+90,960/3
= 66,320 gpd
= 66,320 gpd
= 251,021 lpd
Example 2

 Compare the maximum hourly domestic sewage flow from 10 houses (4

person per house) with roof drainage from these houses if the roof dimensions
are 60x35 ft and the rainfall intensity is 2.0 in/hr.

 Solution Assume a domestic sewage flow of 100 gpcd.

Referring to above table,
-the ratio of the maximum hour to the average is given as 3.
-The number of people is 4x10 = 40
The maximum hourly domestic sewage flow = 100x3x40
= 12,000 gpd
= 0.45 cfs
The roof drainage from the houses can be computed using the rational method
Q = ciA

Where
Q = flow (cfs)
c = runoff coefficient (c = 1 for impervious surfaces)
i = rainfall intensity (in/hr)
A = drainage area (acre)

The storm flow is thus

Q = 1.0x2.0x(21,000/43,560)=42,000
= 0.96 cfs
Where
the roof area is 10x60x35 = 21,000 sq.ft.
the number of square feet in an acre = 43,560
Example 3

Estimate the average hourly, average daily, and minimum hourly residential sewage
flows from an area serving a population of 1,200. Assume that the length of sewer and
house drains equals 4.0 km and that infiltration occurs.

Solution Assuming an infiltration rate 30,000 gpd/mi, and noting that 1 km = 0.6214 mi,
the infiltration in gph can be calculated

Infiltration = (4x0.6214x30,000)/24 = 3,107 gph

Assuming an average wastewater flow of 100 gpcd, the hourly sewage flow can be
estimated

Hourly sewage flow = 100x1,200/24 = 5,000 gph

Referring to above table, the maximum hourly flow is calculated as

Max hourly flow = 3x5,000+3,107 = 18,107 gph

The average hourly flow is

Avg. hourly flow = 5,000+3,107 = 8,107 gph

The minimum hourly flow is

Min hourly flow = 5,000/3+3,107 = 4,774 gph

Example 4

Given a 100-acre housing development with 280 houses (4 persons per house) and the
average annual rainfall of 32 in. Calculate the yearly volume of precipitation over the
area and compare it with the annual sewage flow from the area. Repeat the
calculation for an annual rainfall of 15 in and 10 in.

Solution The average annual sewage flow would be

= 4x280x100x365 = 40,880,000 g/yr

= 5,465,241 ft3/yr

For a 32 in rainfall over the area in one year, the volume would be

= (32/12)x 100x43,560 = 11,616,000 ft3/yr

For a 15 in rainfall over the area in one year, the volume would be

= (10/12)x 100x43,560 = 5,444,419 ft3/yr

For a 10 in rainfall over the area in one year, the volume would be

= (10/12)x 100x43,560 = 3,630,000 ft3/yr

This problem shows that in the amount of water sent to waste in an urban area can
exceed the amount generated in drier climates. The value of reuse is also illustrated by
the example.
Wastewater Collection System
The function of the collection system is to collect the
 wastewater from residential, commercial, and industrial areas within the service
area and
 Storm water from rain
 Transport it to the treatment plant or disposal area.

The system poses a different challenge than the water distribution system.
 Wastewater must be transported from the point of collection to the treatment
plant as quickly as possible to prevent septic conditions
 Waste flows are highly variable
 Waste flows contain cores solids
 System may carry storm runoff
Wastewater sewer systems

Domestic Storm
Depends on the sector!!!!
Solids
Organic matter (BOD, COD)
Acids and alkalies
Inorganic salts
Heated water
Colour
Toxic substances
Microorganisms
Foam producing substances
What is a Sewer System?
• A piped system to transport wastewater (and sometimes storm water)
from the source (households, industry, runoff) to a treatment facility.
• There are several designs, depending on topography, amount and kind of
wastewater, size of community, etc.

“Flush and forget”: in many cases,

sewers lead into surface water
sources without any treatment. Source: 83
STAUFFER (2010)
What Kinds of Sewer Systems Exist?
There exist several different sewer systems:

•Conventional Sewers
•Separate Sewers
•Simplified Sewers
•Solids-free Sewers
•Pressurised Sewers
•Vacuum Sewers
•Channels

Some of them require supporting elements such as:


•Sewer Pumping Stations
•Transfer Stations

84
Use a Sewer System
 In many countries around the world, flush toilets and sewer systems are the common
sanitary systems.
 However, there are several possibilities to keep your wastewater low and provide a
sustainable treatment:
Simplified sewer
system
Vertical constructed wetland
Urine diversion
flush toilet
Rooftop rainwater
harvesting as a
water source.

Urine fertilisation 85
Compost filter
(pre-treatment)
1. Conventional (combined) sewers
• Large networks of underground pipes, mostly in urban areas.
• Collection of blackwater, brown water, greywater and stormwater.
• The system contains three types of sewer lines:
o Main line (primary): the centre of the system, all other lines empty into it.

o Branch lines (secondary): extend from the main.

o House laterals (tertiary): bring wastewater from the

houses to the branch lines.

86
Master sewer system
Design

• Wastewater is transported to a centralised treatment facility by gravity.

• Depending on topography, sewer pumping stations are necessary.
• The lines are in a depth of 1.5 to 3 m and manholes proved access for
maintenance.
• It must be designed to maintain
“self-cleansing” velocity that no
particles accumulate

Cross-section of a
conventional sewer in a
common urban set-up.
Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008) 87
UK
Costs
Initial costs are high because:
• Excavation and refilling of trenches to lay the pipes;
• Requires specialised engineers and operators;
• Maintenance costs are high compared to decentralised systems;
• Extension of the system can be difficult and costly (redesign
of the whole system)

Maintenance and
operation of the City's
water system is quite a
costly task. Source: THE CITY OF
MADERA (n.y.) 89
Operation & Maintenance
• Maintenance should be done by professionals.
• Manholes are installed wherever there is a change of gradient or alignment and are used
for regular inspection and cleaning.
• It must be systematically planned and carefully implemented.
• Overflows are required to avoid hydraulic surcharge of treatment plants during heavy
rain events.

Sewer access manhole. Source: USAID (1982)

90
Applicability

• Suitable for urban areas that have the resources such a system.
• They only make sense if a centralised treatment system exists which is
able to handle big loads of waste- and stormwater.
• Sufficient water as a transport medium needs to be available.
• A professional management system must be in place.
• They provide a high level of hygiene and comfort for the user.

91
Pros and Cons
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Convenience (minimal • High capital costs
intervention by users)
• Need a reliable supply of piped water
 Low health risk
• Difficult to construct in high-density
 No nuisance from smells, areas, difficult and costly to maintain
mosquitoes or flies
• Recycling of nutrients and energy
 Stormwater and greywater can be becomes difficult
managed at the same time
• Unsuitability for self-help, requires
 No problems related to
discharging industrial wastewater skilled engineers and operators
 Moderate operation and • Problems associated with blockages
maintenance costs and breakdown of pumping
equipment
• Adequate treatment and/or disposal
required92
2. Separate Sewers
 In contrast to conventional sewer systems, wastewater (e.g. from
households or industries) and stormwater are transported
separately.

Source: LADEN (2010)

 During heavy rains, overflow contains no harmful blackwater.
 Stormwater in general is less contaminated. Source: UNEP and MURDOCH 2004 93
Problems in sewerages

Folie Nr.: 58
Inner view of sewer and shafts
paris
Costs

• Construction costs might be higher than for the combined sewer system
because two separated networks are necessary.
• They must also be maintained and operated separately.
• A replacement of a combined system by a separated system is very costly.

• Operation & Maintenance

• Same as conventional systems

• Health Aspect
• More secure than a conventional system, because blackwater
is transported in a closed network. 100
Applicability
• Suitable for urban areas that have the resources to implement, operate
and maintain such systems plus provide adequate treatment to avoid
pollution at the discharge end. UNEP (2002)

• Enough water for transportation must be available.

• Especially suitable during monsoon –> large amounts of stormwater can be
treated separately.

New construction of a separated sewer system in

Germany. Source: VILLINGEN-SCHWENNINGEN (2010)
101
Pros and Cons

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Surface run-off, greywater and • Supply of piped water
blackwater can be managed
separately • Difficult to construct in high-density
 Limited of sewage overflow areas, difficult and costly to maintain
 Low health risk • High capital costs
 No nuisance from smells, mosquitoes • Requires skilled engineers and operators
or flies
 No problems related to discharging • Problems associated with blockages and
industrial wastewater breakdown of pumping equipment
 Moderate operation costs • Adequate treatment and/or disposal
 Surface run-off and rainwater can be required
reused • Higher risk of water pollution by
accidents

102
3. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
 It is a simplified sewerage, which is technically and institutionally
feasible, economically appropriate and financially affordable sanitation
option.

Source: STAUFFER (2012), adapted from TILLEY et al. (2008)

103
Design Principle (

 It consists of:
• Small-diameter pipes (e.g. 100 mm).
• Inspections chambers (for maintenance).
• Every household should have a grease trap or an other appropriate
pre-treatment facility.
• Semi-centralised treatment facility or transfer/ discharge station.

104
 Sewers are laid on users property:
• Higher connection rates can be achieved.
• Fewer and shorter pipes can be used.
• Less excavation is required (reduced traffic load).
 g This requires careful negotiation between stakeholders (see stakeholder analysis),
since design and maintenance must be jointly coordinated.

A simplified sewer (condominal sewer)

network. Sewers are laid within property
boundaries rather than beneath central roads.
Source: EAWAG and SANDEC (2008) 105
Costs

 Costs are low (50 to 80 % less expensive than

conventional sewerage) because:
•Flattergradients
•Shallow excavation depths
•Small diameter pipe
•Simple inspection units

g The costs for emptying interceptors and pre-

settling units must be considered!
106
Operation & Maintenance
• All greywater should be connected to ensure adequate hydraulic loading.
• No solids should enter the system.
• The system needs to be flushed regularly.
• Interceptor tanks and pre-settlement units must be emptied periodically

A typical cleanout, also called

flushingpoint (right) and a
junction without a cleanout (left). 107
Source: MARA (2001)
Applicability

• Appropriate for dense, urban settlements

• If ground is rocky or the groundwater table is high
• Can be an alternative in areas with individual soakaways

Junction chamber for simplified

sewerage using larger diameter
concrete pipes, used in
Guatamala. Source: MARA and SLEIGH
(2001)

108
Pros and Cons

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Can be built and repaired with • Requires water for flushing
locally available materials • Requires expert design
 Construction can provide short- • Requires repairs and removals of blockages
term employment to local more frequently than a conventional sewer
labourers
• Effluent and sludge requires secondary
 Capital costs are between 50 and
80 % less than conventional treatment
gravity sewers • Overflow if not maintained properly
 Operating costs are low • Blockage because of illegal connections
 Can be extended as a community • Only suitable where there are interceptor
changes and grows tanks, septic tanks or other pre-treatment
systems
• Requires the involvement of a well-organised
109
sewerage department
4. Solids-free Sewers
 Solids-free sewer systems are similar to conventional systems,
but the wastewater is pre-settled and solids removed before
entering the system, e.g.:
•Septic tanks
•Biogas settlers

•Anaerobic baffled reactor

•The recommended pipe diameter is

75 to 100 mm and an depth of
at lest 300 mm.
110
Source: TILLEY et al. (2008)
Design Principle

 If well maintained, there is only little risk of clogging, thus

there is no need of self-cleansing velocity, i.e.;
•Shallow depths
•Small or even inflective gradients
•Fewer inspection points
•Can follow topography more closely

g This results in significantly lower investment costs due to the

simplified design!
111
Costs

• Solids-free sewers can be built for 20% to 50% less costs than conventional
sewerage.
• Repairs and removal of as well as costs for emptying the pre-settling unit
must be considered.

Costs for emptying the pre-treatment unit must be considered

(organisation and costs): a vacuum truck empties a pit in Bharakpur
near Calcutta. Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008)

112
Operation & Maintenance

• Pre-settling unit must be maintained and emptied periodically.

• Risk of pipe clogging is relatively low.
• Sewer should be flushed once a year.
• Sewers require a constant supply of water, although less water is needed compared to
conventional sewers.

Applicability
• Well suited for areas where leaching fields/soak pits are inappropriate due to
sensitive groundwater or lack of space for on-site infiltration in growing
communities.
• In areas with a high willingness to pay (for the operation and maintenance) and with
locally available expertise and resources.
113
• Users should receive some basic training.
Pros and Cons

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Can be built and repaired with • Requires repairs and removals of
locally available materials blockages more frequently than a
 Capital costs are less than for conventional gravity sewer
conventional sewers • Requires expert design and construction
 Low operating costs if well supervision
maintained • Requires education and acceptance to
 Can be extended as a community be used correctly
changes and grows
• Effluent and sludge (from interceptors)
 Appropriate for densely requires secondary treatment and/or
populated areas with sensitive
groundwater or no space for a appropriate discharge
soak pit or leaching field

114
5. Pressurised Sewers
• This system is not dependent on gravity to move wastewater
• Shallow trenches and relatively small pipe diameters
• Requires permanent electricity and grinder pumps

A pressurised sewer system is independent

from land topography and does not need deep
excavation work.

115
Design Principle

• Wastewater is collected by gravity in a collection tank.

• A grinder pump moves it to the sewer g this transfer of wastewater
pressurises the sewer.
• Various pumps along the sewer line move the wastewater progressively.

Source: (WERF 2010)

116
Design Principle – Pressure Sewer Unit
• Generally pre-fabricated products.
• A collection tank including grinder and pump, non-return valve (prevents
backflow from the pressure sewer).
• The grinding allows small pipe diameters.
• Wired to the household power supply and regulated by a control panel.
 Alternative to this unit: a septic tank situated outside in the ground or in
the basement.
 Effluent flows into an underground holding tank containing a pump and
control devices from where it is then pumped into the pressurised sewer.

117
 118
A prefabricated pressure sewer unit made out of plastic for outside placement. Source: SHOALHAVEN WATER (n.y.)
Costs

 Costs can be divided in two major components:

 On-lot costs: pump, basin, controls, building sewer, lateral
piping, electrical service, installation
 Collection network: includes all the piping in the utility
easements that directs the sewage to the treatment facility.

119
Operation & Maintenance
• Regular service is important for all system components.
• Electricity needs to be available all the time.
• Pumps should be checked regularly.
• Pipe connections should be controlled for leakages.

Three examples of damages on pressurised piping system. Therefore it is very important to inspect and
maintain the sewer system. This avoids high repair cost, environmental damages and public health
hazard. Source: WSAA (2003) 120
Applicability
• Basically, pressurized sewer systems have the same advantages as vacuum
sewers. Therefore they are used in similar surroundings;
• Flat or hilly topography: gravity systems demand installation at great
depths to maintain adequate flow or requires pumping and lift stations.
• Rock layers, running sand or a high groundwater table make deep
excavation difficult.
• High groundwater table.
• Densely populated areas.

121
Pros and Cons

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Effective wastewater • Needs expert design, high capital costs
transportation at minimum • Needs a permanent energy source
depth, minimising the
excavation for the piping system • A proper recycling of nutrients and energy
 Gravity free; independent from becomes difficult, because all kinds of
land topography wastes are mixed
 Lower costs compared to a • Unsuitability for self-help, requires skilled
conventional gravity sewer (pipe engineers & operators
size and depth requirements are • It is still a flushing system which transports
reduced and many small pumps wastewater away. If there is no treatment
are cheaper than some large-
capacity lift stations) plant and an unprofessional discharge it
can contaminate the environment
 Requires little water only for
transporting the excreta • Leakages may lead to contaminations
122
6. Vacuum Sewers
 A central vacuum source conveys sewage from individual households to a
central collection station

Source: ROEDIGER (2007)

123
Design Principle

• Use of differential air pressure (“negative pressure” or “vacuum”) to move

the sewage.
• A central source of power to operate vacuum pumps is required to
maintain vacuum.
• At each entry point (collection chamber), an interface valve is required to
seal the lines so that vacuum can be maintained.

Source: ROEDIGER (2007)

124
Design Principle – Transport of Wastewater

1. Gravity line carries wastewater from the source to the collection

chamber.
2. When a defined height is reached, the vacuum interface valves opens and
sucks the wastewater into the vacuum sewer main.
3. At the end of this main it is collected in a big tank.
4. After this tank is filled to a predetermined level, the wastewater is
transferred to a treatment plant via a conventional/separate sewer
system.

125
Design Principle - Piping
• Narrow and shallow trenches (1.0 to 1.2 m)
• Inspection points for pressure testing
• Small pipe diameter (80 to 250 mm)
• If a pipe is damaged, risk of leaking is low because of the negative
pressure.

Local workers at construction of

a shallow vacuum sewer 126
system.
Source: ROEDIGER (2007)
Costs
It is a high-tech system, thus it is costly. But in comparison
with a conventional sewer system, it is cheaper:
• Small Pipes (less material)
• Shallow trenches (no heavy machinery)
• Independent from topography
• Large amounts of flushing water can be saved (economical
and ecological reasonable)

g Permanent source of electrical power can increase the

costs!
127
Operation & Maintenance

• Risk of clogging is low; almost no cleaning/emptying

• Periodically pressure testing
• Complex and/or technical problems are in the responsibility of the
manufacturer.

Construction of
a sewer at the
left side and
pressure testing
at the right
128
side. Source: ROEDIGER
(2007)
Applicability
• Flat topography: gravity systems demand installation at great depths to maintain
adequate flow (pump stations, lift stations).
• Rock layers, running sand or a high groundwater table make deep excavation difficult.
• Areas short of water supply or poor communities that must pay for water, but cannot
afford great amounts of water necessary for operation of gravity systems.
• Areas that are ecologically sensitive.
• Areas where flooding can occur.
• Areas with obstacles to a gravity sewer route.
• Installation of a new fresh water network, allowing sewerage pipe installation in the
same trench.

129
Pros and Cons
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Requires less flushing water • Needs expert design
 Considerable savings in construction • Needs energy to create the permanent
costs
vacuum
 Shallow and narrow trenches, small
diameter pipelines, flexible pipeline • Relatively high capital costs
construction • Recycling of nutrients and energy
 Sewers and water mains can be laid in becomes difficult
a common trench
 Closed systems with no leakage or
• Unsuitability for self-help, requires
smell skilled engineers operators
 No manholes along the vacuum sewers • It is still a flushing system. If there is
 One central vacuum station can replace no treatment plant and an
several pumping stations unprofessional discharge it can
contaminate the environment
130
7. Open Channels and Drains
 Separately collected stormwater has high potential for increasing
agricultural production in rural areas. g The most basic way to
drain off rain and stormwater is via open channels.
 It consists of a secondary drainage system, with a network of small
drains attached (micro-drainage).
 Each serves a small catchment area that ranges from a single property
to several blocks of houses.
 The small drains bring the water to a primary drainage system,
composed of main drains (also called interceptor drains), which serve
large areas of the city.
 The main drains are generally connected with natural drainage
channels such as rivers or streams.

131
Design Principle Case
 ‘El Gran Canal’ in Mexico City used as primary drainage system. The water in this canal,
which also transports rain and stormwater, is heavily polluted with litter and untreated
wastewater.

Source: WALDWIND (n.y.)

132
Design Principle – Steep Terrain
 A return period of 5-years is widely used to design
primary drainage systems in tropical cities, for
micro-drainage 3-year or less.
 On steep terrain, uncontrolled velocities can lead to
erosion, therefore several designs exist:
a.Baffles
b.Steps
c.Checkwalls

 They are all built into the drain to slow down the
water flow for unlined drains. The water deposits
silt behind each checkwall, gradually building up a

Source: WHO (1991)§

stepped drain. The checkwalls should be buried well
into the ground.

133
Design Principle – Flat Terrain

 The central channel or “cunette” with a narrow bottom carries the flow in
dry weather and moderate rain.
 The outer channel facilitates for the occasional heavy flood flow. The
outer channel floor should preferably slope gently down to the central
channel.
 If not properly design or clogged g risk of puddling and mosquito breeding

Source: WHO (1991)

134
Design Principle – Transport of Wastewater

 Could be a temporary solution – but is NOT a

satisfactory technology:
 People can easily come into contact with the
wastewater, with its potentially high pathogen content.
 If there is a storm event, flooding and spreading of pathogens
and other pollutants can occur.(

 Very often open drains/channels are misused for depositing litter

and excrete. )

 Household sewer lines are sometimes illegally connected to open

drainage systems. )

135
Costs
• Compared to underground sewer systems.
• Price depends on:
o Steep terrain (extra construction to slow down velocity)
o Flat terrain (deep or wide excavation)
o Costs for material

• Consideration of community participation could have a positive

offset on the overall costs (O&M).
• A typical value for the annual cost of maintenance would be
about 8% of the construction cost of the system.
136
Operation & Maintenance

 The main duties and responsibilities for O&M are:

 Routine drain cleaning and repairs
 Semiannual inspection, reporting of defects and blockages
 Payment for maintenance
 Passing of by-laws regarding the use of drains
 Enforcement of by-laws.

Cleaning out open drains is difficult to organise but

utterly necessary. Blockages can cause spill-over and
cause flooding. A solution could be to cover it with
concrete slabs. :

137
Health Aspect

Open drains bear a high health risk, because water in open channels can contain all sorts of
contaminants and pathogens
 Ponding enforces mosquito breeding
 Illegal disposal of solid waste leads to clogging
 Defecation into these channels is not an unusual habit
 Children tend to play in such channels

Greywater from laundry (left)

and solid garbage which is
disposed in open drains (right)
pollute water and cause health
hazards. Bangalore, Nepal. Source:
BARRETO (2009) 138
Applicability
• It can be constructed in almost all types of settlements
(urban or rural), but enough land area is required to build
a reasonable construction.
• Scheduled maintenance is necessary to prevent clogging
• In general, they bear many risk for public health

 If possible, they should be applied only where an adequate

wastewater treatment and collection systems for sewage
sludge as well as a solid waste management are provided.

139
Pros and Cons
Disadvantages:
Advantages: • High health risk due to risk illegal
 Low-cost drain-off solution if discharge of wastewaters and solid
waste
drains already exist
• Blockages can cause spill-over and
 Simple to construct flooding
 Construction materials are • Foul odour source establishment
often locally available • Breeding ground for insects and pests
 Creates employment • Regular cleaning service required to
remove solids
(construction and
maintenance)

140
8. Sewer Pumping Stations
 They are used to move wastewater to higher elevations. In
general, the need for sewer pumping stations arises when:
 The existing topography and required minimum sewer grades create
deep sewers that have high construction costs. The sewage is raised
and then conveyed by gravity.
 Basements are too low to discharge sewage to the main sewer.
 Sewage must be conveyed over a ridge.
 The sewage must be raised to get head for gravity flow through a
treatment plant.
 Discharge outlets are below the level of the receiving body of water.
 An existing gravity system is not yet available. A pumping station will
enable development and growth in accordance with the applicable
community plan. 141
Design Principle
1. Sewage is fed into and stored in an underground pit (wet well).
2. When the level rises to a predetermined point, a pump will be started to
lift the sewage upward through a pressurised pipe system (sewer force
main or rising main).
3. From there it is discharged into a gravity manhole again.

A sewer pumping
station in Germany with
the pump shaft and the
142
electricity/control unit.
Source: MAW (2010)
Costs

A pumping station is always in

combination with a (on-site or
semi-centralised) treatment
plant and/or a sewer system.
• High costs for construction
material, electricity,
maintenance and of course
expert design.
• Construction and
installation costs are high.
A fibreglass tank for single households with an
integrated sewage pump The sewage is pumped up to
143
council sewer or on site treatment plant. Source: FTM (2010)
Operation & Maintenance

• The system is mostly computer- or electronically monitored.

• Sensors check the sewage level of the wet wells and start/stop
the pumps.
• The pumps and its monitoring unit should be maintained
periodically by the supplier.
• Overflows of wet wells should be avoided and it is important
that there is a treatment plant at the end of every sewer
system.

144
Applicability

 Pumping stations become necessary as soon as

sewage has to be lifted from a lower part to a
higher part.
 A well constructed piping system (e.g. conventional
sewer system) and a treatment plant is necessary.
 Construction material and spare parts is expensive
and might be difficult to acquire locally.

145
Pros and Cons

Advantages: Disadvantages:
•Very costly
 Sewage can be pumped
•Local availability of
automatically to higher construction material and
elevations spare parts
 No contact with •Needs expert design
wastewater is necessary

146