Chapter 4

Rainfall Infiltration
When water falls on a given formation, a small part of it is first of all, absorbed by the top thin layer
of soil, so as to replenish the soil moisture deficiency. Thereafter, excess water moves down ward,
where it is trapped in void and becomes ground water.
This process, when by the water enters the surface strata of the soil, is known as infiltration.

Infiltration capacity

The ground water stored in the underground depends mainly upon the number of voids present in
the soil, which, in turn, does not depend upon the size of the soil particles but rather upon the
arrangement, shape and degree of compaction. Therefore, different soils will have different number
if voids, and hence, different capacities to absorb water. The maximum rate at which a soil in any
given condition is capable of absorbing water is called its infiltration capacity. It is generally
denoted by the letter fc.

Infiltration Rate

It is evident that the rain will enter the soil at full capacity rate (f) only during the periods when the
rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration capacity. When the rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration
capacity, the prevailing infiltration rate is approximately equal to the rainfall rate. Hence, the actual
prevailing infiltration rate may be equal to or less than the infiltration capacity. This actually
prevailing rate at which the water will enter the given soil at any given time is known as
Infiltration rate.

If the rain intensity (p) exceeds the infiltration capacity (f) the difference is called the excess rain
rate (pe), this excess water is first of all, accumulated on the ground as surface detention (D) and
then flows over land into the streams.

Soil Moisture

The water below the water table is known as the ground water and the water above the water table
is known as soil moisture. The region above the water table is divided into three zones:
(i) Capillary zone;
(ii) Intermediate zone, and
(iii) Soil zone
Extending above the water table, a distance usually ranging from about 0.3 to 3m, depending
principally upon texture, is a zone called the capillary zone or capillary fringe. Throughout this
capillary zone, the moisture content is maintained practically constant by capillarity.
Extending down from the ground surface, is the soil zone which is defined as being the depth of
overburden that is penetrated by the roots of vegetation. Throughout this root zone, the moisture
content varies tremendously, ranging from a partly saturated state during and immediately
following the periods of heavy rains, to a minimum content after a spell of long continued drought.

The region between the capillary zone and the soil zone is called the intermediate zone. Throughout
this zone, except during the period of ground water accretion from rainfall, the amount of water
contained within any given space is nearly constant throughout the year. In some cases, the height
of capillary fringe (or capillary zone) may be more, and may extend up to the soil zone. In that case,
there will be no intermediate zone.

Infiltration capacity curve

Infiltration capacity curve is the graphical representation of as how the infiltration capacity varies
with time during and a little after rain.
Infiltration capacity is generally very high at the beginning of a rainstorm that occurs after a long
dry period. During the rainstorm, the infiltration capacity is considerably reduced due to the various
factors, such as, surface detention, soil moisture, compaction due to rain, washing of fines, etc.
After a certain period of time (of the order of 1 to 3 hours) the infiltration capacity tends to become
constant.

Sometimes, the value of f is to be used for computing the surface runoff due to a given storm from a
given drainage basin; in that case, the value of f is so calculated as to include interception and
depression storage in itself, and it is general practice to include interception and depression storage
in the infiltration itself.

Infiltration Indices

In hydrological calculations involving floods, it if found convenient to use a constant value of

infiltration rate of the duration of the storm. The average infiltration rate is called infiltration index.

Two types of indices are in common use:

 - Index: The  index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall value is equal to the runoff
volume; the  index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the edge of the resulting runoff
volume. The initial loss is also considered as infiltration. The  value is found by treating it as a
constant infiltration capacity. If the rainfall intensity is less than , then the infiltration rate is equal
to the rainfall intensity; however, if the rainfall intensity is larger than  the difference between
rainfall and infiltration in an interval of time represent the runoff volume.

The amount of rainfall in excess of the index is called rainfall excess, The  index thus accounts of
the total abstraction and enables runoff magnitudes to be estimated for a given rainfall hyetograph.
W - Index: In an attempt to refine the  index the initial losses are separated from the total
abstractions and an average value of infiltration rate called the W- index is defined as:

W = P - R - Ia
te
where P = total storm precipitation (cm)
R = total storm runoff (cm)
Ia = initial losses (cm)
te = duration of the rainfall excess i.e. the total time in which the rainfall intensity
is greater than W (in hours) and
W = average rate of infiltration (cm/h)
Since In values are difficult to obtain, the accurate estimation of the W index obtained under very
wet soil conditions, representing the constant minimum rate of infiltration of the catchment, is know
as Wmin. Both the W-index and  index vary from storm to storm.

In estimating the  index for design purposes, in the absence of any other data, a  index value of
0.10cm/h can be assumed.

1) By Use of Infiltration Capacity Curve/ Infiltration Indices

Generally the runoff values for large catchments are computed using infiltration capacity curves
/infiltration indices.
Infiltration indices:
There are two types of indices in common use.
1) W-Index
2)  - Index
W-Index: - is the average infiltration rate or the infiltration capacity averaged over the whole storm
period and is given by
F P−Q
Windex = =
Tr Tr
where :F = total infiltration including initial basin recharge
P = total precipitation, in mm or cm
Q = total runoff, in mm or cm
Tr = duration of rainfall, in hrs
 - Index: - is defined as the average rate of loss, such that the volume of rainfall in excess of that
rate will be equal to the volume of direct run off or the rate of rainfall above which the rainfall
volume equals the runoff volume.
 Rainfall intensity, cm/hr Runoff

Infiltration

- Index
A2
TR = Period of rainfall excess
A6 = Tr1 + Tr2 + Tr3
A3 A4
A1 A5 A7

Tr1
Tr2 Tr3
Tr

Figure 23:  - Index: Infiltration runoff illustration

Total inf iltration during period of ra inf all excess A 2 + A 4 +A 6

 - Index = Period of ra inf all excess (T )

R = TR

Runoff
A 1 +A 2 + A 3 + A 4 + A 5 +A 6 + A 7 I
W - Index = Tr
Infiltration
W - Index ¿  - Index for non-uniform rainfall.
Time
W - Index =  - Index for heavy uniform storms.

P−W index

Runoff coefficient, K = P , P is intensity of rainfall, cm/hr.

Exercise for chapter 3 and 4

Example: The table below contains average monthly evaporation measured at a station near a
reservoir; the evaporation was measured in class “A” tank and the pan coefficient for each month
are given. Determine the average monthly evaporation water losses from the nearby of the
reservoir.

Month No of days in the Class “A” evaporation Pan coefficient Reservoir

month given in cm/day given evaporation cm/day
Jan. 31 0.6 0.70 0.42
 Feb. 28 0.65 0.95 0.62
March 31 0.70 0.75 0.53
April 30 0.75 0.70 0.53
May 31 0.65 0.60 0.39
June 30 0.75 0.65 0.49
July 31 0.65 0.66 0.43
August 31 0.60 0.68 0.41
Septem 30 0.55 0.70 0.39
ber
October 31 0.50 0.71 0.36
Novem 30 0.50 0.71 0.35
ber
Decem 31 0.45 0.70 0.34
ber

Month Area Given ha Reservoir Volume

evaporation ha-m/month
ha-m/day
Jan. 250 1.05 32.55
Feb. 255 1.57 44.09
March 260 1.37 42.32
April 265 1.39 41.74
May 270 1.05 32.64
June 275 1.34 40.22
July 240 1.03 31.92
August 235 0.96 29.72
September 235 0.90 27.14
October 240 0.65 26.41
November 240 0.84 25.20
December 245 0.83 25.03

Example: - Estimate the potential evapotranspiration for Alfa-Alfa crop at Prime Albert (50 0 N)
Canada with the mean monthly temperature given below.

Month Apr May June July August September October

 Temp (C0) 1.5 11.5 19.5 17.3 21.6 9.0 4.3

The growing season for Alfa-Alfa is from May 15 to September 15.

Solution
Month Temp (C0) PET Day light Adjusted PET
(1) (2) I= (3) (Cm) factor, given, (Cm) =(4) x (5)
(4) (5)
April 1.5 0.16
May 11.5 3.70 6.09 1.33 8.11
June 19.5 7.81 9.99 1.36 13.56
July 17.3 7.69 8.90 1.37 13.54
August 21.6 9.05 11.07 1.25 13.76
September 9.0 2.43 4.61 1.06 4.89
October 4.3 0.80

PET = 1.62
a = 67.5 X 10-8 I3- 77.1 X 10-6 I2 +0.0179I +0.4921
= 1.03 ≈ 1.00
Estimated evapotranspiration of Alfa-Alfa is
16?31(8.11) + 13.56 + 13.54 + 13.76 + 4.89/2 = 47.51cm.
Example: - Compute the irrigation requirements of wheat for the following season of wheat by the
Blaney Criddle method for the data with an average consumptive use factor for the season being 0.7
and irrigation efficiency of n = 0.75.

Month Tm (C0) % Annual Monthly Monthly rainfall

daytime hour consumptive use R (cm) given
(p), given factor (f), (cm)
Nov 18.3 7.10 11.86 2.08
Dec 15.1 7.14 10.73 0.00
Jan 13.6 7.30 10.47 11.17
 Fe b 14.2 7.03 10.20 0.23
F = ∑t =43.34 ∑R = 13.48

t=
CU for the growing season = KF = 0.7 X 43.34 = 30.24cm.

Irrigation requirement with efficiency n = 75% = =22.48 cm.

Exercise: Determine the evapotranspiration and irrigation requirement for wheat, if the water
application efficiency is 65% and the consumptive use coefficient for the growing season is 0.8
from the following data:
Month Mean Monthly Monthly percentage of Effective
temp, 0c sunshine hours rainfall, cm
November 18 7.20 2.6
December 15 7.15 2.8
January 13.5 7.30 3.5
February 14.5 7.10 2.0

Example: Assuming a growing season of 4 months, December - March for wheat, determine the
consumptive use of wheat in the month of January if the pan evaporation for the month is 9.5cm.
Take the consumptive use coefficient at 40% stage growth of the crop as 0.52.

Solution:
Et = k Ep
The crop season is Dec. to March i.e. 120 days. By middle of January the number of days of growth
is 47 i.e. 47/120 = 0.40 or 40% stage growth of the crop has reached and K for this stage is 0.52
and Ep for the month of January is 9.5cm.  Et = 0.52 x 9.5 = 4.94 cm. The daily consumptive use
for the moth of January. = 4.94/31 x 10 = 1.6mm/day

Example: A storm with 10.0 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm; Give the time
distribution of the storm as below, estimate the  index of the storm.
Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
in each hour (cm) 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5

Solution: Total infiltration = 10.0 - 5.8 = 4.2 cm

Assume te = time of rainfall excess = 8 h for the first initial
Then,  = 4.2 = 0.525 cm/h
8
But this value of  makes the rainfalls of the first hour and eight hour ineffective, as their
magnitude is less than 0.525 cm/h. The value of te is therefore modified.
Assume te = 6 h for the second trial. In this period,
Infiltration = ( 10.0 – 0.4 - 0.5 - 5.8) = 3.3 cm
  = 3.3 = 0.55 cm/h
6
This value of  is satisfactory as it gives te = 6h and by calculating the rainfall excesses
Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rainfall excess (cm) 0 0.35 0.95 1.75 1.25 1.05 0.45 0

Total rainfall excess = 5.8 cm = total runoff

Example: The rate of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are:
1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, and 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is estimated to
be 3.6 cm. Establish the  index. Also determine the W - index
Solution : Construct the hydrograph as shown in the attached normal graph paper.
(i - ) t = Pnet and thus it follows
(3.6 -) + (5.0 -) +(2.8 - ) +(2.2 -) 30 = 3.6
60
 (13.6 - 4 )½ = 3.6
or, 4 = 13.6 - 7.2 = 6.4
  = 6.4 = 1.6 cm/h
4
Precipitation, P = (1.6 + 3.6 + 5.0 + 2.8 + 2.2 + 1.0) 30 = 8.1 cm
60
W - index = P - Q = 8.1 - 3.6 = 1.5 cm/h
te 3
Example: The following are the monthly pan evaporation data (Jan - Dec) at a lake in a certain year
in cm.
16.7, 14.3, 17.8, 25.0, 28.6, 21.4,16.7, 16.7, 16.7, 21.4, 16.7, 16.7.
The water spread area in a lake nearby in the beginning of January in that year was 2.80 km 2 and at
the end of December it was measured as 2.55 km 2. Calculate the loss of water due to evaporation in
that year. Assume pan coefficient of 0.7.
Solution:
Mean water spread area of lake
 1
( A 1+ A2 + √ A 1 A 2) , coneform
Aav = 3
1
( 2 . 08+2. 55+ √ 2 .80 x 2. 55 )
3
2
==2 . 673 Km
Annual loss due to evaporation (adding up the monthly value) = 228.7 cm.
Annual volume of water lost due to evaporation
= (2.673 x 106) x 228.7 x 0.7
100
= 4.29 x 106 m3 or 4.29 Mm3
Example: Compute the daily evaporation from a class “A” pan if the amounts of water added to
bring the level to the fixed point are as follows:
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rainfall (mm) 14 6 12 8 0 5 6
Water added / removed (mm) -5 3 0 0 7 4 3

What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface area - 640 ha) in the vicinity,
assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?

Solution:
Pan evaporation, EP mm = Rainfall + water added or
- Water removed
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ep (mm) 14-5 = 9 6+3 = 9 12 8 7 5+4 = 9 6+3 =9
:

7
Pan evaporation =  Ep = 63 mm.
i-1

Pan coefficient = EL
EP
EL = EP x pan coefficient
= 63 x 0.75 = 47.25 mm
Water lost from the lakes = A x EL = 640 x 47.25
1000
 = 30.24 ha m = 0.3 x 106 m3 = 0.3 Mm3
Example: The total observed runoff volume during a storm of 6-hr duration with a uniform
intensity of 15mm/hr is 21.6 Mm3. If the area of the basin is 300 km 2, find the average infiltration
rate and the runoff coefficient for the basin.
Solution:
i. Infiltration loss, Fp = Rainfall (p) - Runoff (R)
= 15 x 6 - 21.6 x 106m s x 100
300 x 106m2
= 90 - 72 = 18mm
fav = Fp = 18mm = 3mm/hr
t = 6 hr
ii. Runoff yield = C A P
= 21.6 x 106m3 = C (300 x 106m2) x 90
1000
 C = 21.6 x 106 x 1000 m3 = 21.6 = 7.2
300 x 106 x 90m3 27 9
 C = 0.8