TRAFFIC LOAD

➢ Basic Empty Mass ( BEM ) / Tare Weight :

1. Unusable fuel and other unusable fluids

2. Lubricating oil in the engine and auxiliary units

3. Fire extinguishers

4. Pyrotechnics

5. Emergency oxygen equipments

6. Supplementary electronic equipments

❖ In case of fuel, the term unusable means the fuel that can not be drawn from the tanks to

operate the engine. The term other unusable fluids covers hydraulic fluid and cooling fluid. These must

be charged to their correct level . This does not include the potable water, drinking water or the lavatory

pre- charge.

❖ The engines and auxiliary units must be filled with their correct levels.

❖ The fire extinguishers (hand held) must be fitted at the designated location. All fire

extinguishers have to be correctly charged.

❖ Any pyrotechnics required to be carried or fitted as standard are correctly located.

❖ The emergency oxygen equipment is fitted.

❖ Any supplementary electronic equipment that is carried as standard is correctly fitted in the

given location.

❖ All weighing operations must be carried out in an enclosed building.

➢ Variable load : The total mass of

1. Crew and crew baggage

2. Catering and removable passenger service equipments

3. Potable water and lavatory chemicals

4. Food and beverages

5. The crew includes the rear crew for passenger operation

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6. The passenger service and catering equipment can vary depending on the role and passenger

configuration (e.g. VIP to charter)

7. Potable water is chemically treated (purified) water

8. Food and beverage vary dependent on role and length of flight

➢ Dry operating mass / Aircraft prepared for services ( DOM / APS ) : Is the total mass of

the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation excluding any usable fuel and traffic load. The mass

includes items such as

1. Crew and crew baggage

2. Catering and removable passenger service equipments

3. Potable water and lavatory chemicals

4. Food and beverages

BEM + Variable load = Dry operating mass

➢ Traffic load : The total mass of passengers, baggage, and cargo including any non revenue

load. The non revenue load includes items that the aircraft carries that are not used in flight or are part

of aircraft’s role equipment and financial charge is made. Frequently, air transport aircraft carry spare

wheels and brake units when making trips to airport where they do not have these items as standard

spares. On other occasions, the aircraft may require carrying ballast to balance out an item of freight.

Allowed traffic load : the maximum mass of traffic load that an aircraft can carry. Many aircrafts can not

carry their maximum fuel load and maximum passenger load at the same time due to structural limitation

or performance limitations, therefore a maximum limit is set.

Under load : This is the difference between the actual traffic load and the allowed traffic load. This is

the term given to the extra mass that the aircraft can carry if it is loaded to the allowed traffic load. For

example, if an aircraft has an allowed traffic load of 4000 kg but is only carrying a traffic load of 3500

kg, there is an under load of 500 kg.

➢ Pay load : This is defined as that part of the traffic load from which the revenue is earned.

➢ Operating mass (OM) : Is the DOM plus fuel but without traffic load. From DOM, the aircraft

can be brought up to OM by loading the Take - off fuel (TOF) but none of the passengers, baggage,

ballast and cargo.

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 DOM + TOF = OM

BEM + VL + TOF = OM

➢ Useful load / Disposable load : The mass of usable fuel and traffic load

TL + TOF = UL

Actual TOW = DOM + TOF + Payload

➢ FUEL DEFINITIONS

1. Start, Run up, and Taxi fuel : It is an allowance made for consumption of fuel in starting the

engines, running them up, and taxiing to the take off point. This is normally given by airport and depends

on the type of aircraft, its stand location and the runway in use.

2. Trip fuel : The fuel that is estimated to be burnt during the flight from the commencement of

the take off run to the completion of the landing run. In reality, this can vary due to unexpected

headwinds or tailwinds etc.

3. Alternate fuel : The fuel that is estimated to be burnt during the flight from the destination to

alternate aerodrome.

4. Contingency fuel : The fuel required for any unplanned events ( 5% of trip fuel )

5. Reserve fuel : The fuel which is being carried as a reserve as per law ( 30 min for jet engine

and 45 min for piston engine )

6. Holding fuel : The fuel which is being carried for holding of aircraft at 1500 feet.

➢ Block or Ramp fuel : Is the full fuel load put into the aircraft.

➢ Take off fuel (TOF) : Is the full load on board the aircraft at the start of take off run. Block fuel

less Start fuel equals Take off fuel.

➢ Landing fuel : Is the estimated fuel load on touchdown and contains the contingency and

reserve fuel elements. Take off fuel less Trip fuel equals Landing fuel.

STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS

➢ Maximum Structural Taxi Mass (MSTM) : Is the structural limitation on the mass of the

aeroplane at the commencement of taxi. This allows for the fuel that the aircraft consumes during engine

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start, run up, and taxi. This is also referred to as Maximum Structural Ramp Mass and can be shortened

to Maximum Taxi Mass or Maximum Ramp Mass.

➢ Maximum Structural Take off Mass (MSTOM) : The maximum permissible total aeroplane

mass at the start of the take off run. This is the heaviest mass at which aircraft can start the take off run

given the most favourable conditions anywhere in the world and is frequently referred to as Maximum

Take off Mass (MTOM). For an aircraft to actually start the take off run at this mass, it must have a

Maximum Ramp Mass above the MTOM that is equal to or greater than the start fuel requirement. If

the MTOM limit is exceeded, the aircraft can suffer structural damage and the take of distance required

increases.

➢ Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MSLM) : The maximum permissible total aeroplane

mass on landing under normal circumstances. This is the heaviest mass at which an aircraft can start

touchdown given the most favourable conditions anywhere in the world and is frequently referred to as

Maximum Landing Mass (MLM). If the MLM limit is exceeded, the aircraft can suffer structural damage

and the landing distance increases.

➢ Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZM) : The maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no

usable fuel. Because the mass of the fuel in the aircraft’s wing tanks is used to balance the internal

load, a limit is placed on how much weight may be put into the aircraft’s fuselage before fuel has to be

added into the wing tanks. If MZFM is exceeded, the aircraft can suffer serious structural damage. It is

considered for wingroot bending stress.

PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS : The limitation given in the structural limitations above defines the

maximum masses given the most favourable conditions anywhere in the world. The other factors that

must be taken into account are performance related. Some of these are

➢ The altitude of the airfield

➢ The air temperature, Density

➢ The length of the runway

➢ The topography of the area

This is not the complete list. Be aware that to meet the performance requirements, an aircraft’s mass

can be limited. These limits have to be taken into account not only for take off, but also for landing. In

4
these cases the conditions enroute may also become limiting factors such as flying over mountainous

terrain.

➢ Performance Limited Take off Mass (PLTOM) : Is the take off mass subject to departure

airfield limitations

➢ Performance Limited Laanding Mass (PLLM) : Is the mass subject to the destination airfield

limitations.

➢ Regulated Take off Mass (RTOM) : Is the lowest of “Performance Limited” and “Structural

Limited” Take off Mass.

The RTOM can also be referred to as Maximum Allowable Take off Mass (MATOM)

➢ Regulated Landing Mass (RLM) : Is the lowest of “Performance Limited” and “Structural

Limited” Landing mass. The RLM can also be referred to as Maximum Allowable Landing Mass

(MALM).

➢ Take Off Mass (TOM) : Is the mass of the aeroplane including every thing and everyone

contained within it at start of the take off run. The actual mass of the aeroplane at take off is called the

Take off Mass (TOM). This is the regulated mass.

➢ Landing Mass (LM) : Is the mass of the aeroplane including everything and everyone

contained with it at start of the landing run. The actual mass of the aeroplane at landing is called the

Landing Mass (LM). This is the regulated mass.

➢ Gross Mass : The mass at the given condition.

➢ Ballast fuel : Ballast fuel is sometimes carried to maintain the aircraft centre of gravity within

limits. In certain aeroplanes, a zero fuel weight above a defined threshold requires that a minimum

amount of fuel be carried in the wings through all phases of flight to prevent excessive wing bending.

In both cases, this fuel is considered ballast and, under anything other than emergency circumstances,

is not to be burned during the flight.

➢ Specific Gravity :

➢ A volume of fuel typically weighs about 70-80% of the equivalent volume of water.
5
 e.g. 100 litres of water is 100 kg but 100 litres of aviation fuel is 100x0.8 = 80 kg.

▪ The factor of 0.8 in the above example is called the specific gravity (SG) of fuel and is a

measurement of the relative density.

▪ Relative Density (SG) = Mass of a given volume of fluid / Mass of an equal volume of water.

▪ Thus, Litres x Specific Gravity = Kilograms

▪ Mean Aerodynamic Chord : A specific chord line of a tapered wing. At the mean aerodynamic

chord, the centre of pressure has the same aerodynamic force, position and area as it does on the rest

of the wing. The MAC represents the width of an equivalent rectangular wing in given conditions. On

some aircraft, the centre of gravity is expressed as a percentage of the length of the MAC.

It is important for longitudinal stability that the CG be located ahead of the centre of lift of a wing. Since

the centre of lift is expressed as a percentage of the MAC, the location of the CG is expressed in the

same term.

➢ Conversions

➢ 1 US Gallon = 3.7878 litres.

➢ 1 UK (Imperial) Gallon = 4.5454 litres

➢ 1 UK Gallon = 1.2 USG

➢ 1 KG = 2.2 Pounds (LBS)

➢ 1 litre of water = 1 kg

Fuel and oil (Propeller A/C)

A. When a destination alternate is required

i.Fuel to destination (includes one approach and a missed approach) ….A

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ii.+ fuel of specified diversion ….B

iii.+45 minutes

A + B + 45 Mins

B. When destination aerodrome is VMC or alternate not required

i.Fuel to destination ….A

ii.+45 minutes

A + 45 Mins

C. When a destination is isolated and no suitable destination alternate aerodrome is

available

i.Fuel to destination ….A

ii.+45 minutes +15% of cruising time or 2 hours whichever is less ….B

A+B

Fuel and oil (Turbo jets)

A. When a destination alternate is required

i.Fuel to destination an approach and a missed approach ….A

ii.Fuel to alternate aerodrome as specified in flight plan ….B

iii.+30 minutes holding at 1500’ at holding speed above alternate aerodrome in ISA

+ Approach

+ Land

Additional contingency fuel as specified by operator ….C

A + B + 30 Mins holding at 1500’ + Approach + Landing fuel + C

B. When destination aerodrome is VMC or alternate not required

i.Fuel to destination ….A

ii.+30 minutes holding at 1500’ at holding speed above the aerodrome destination in ISA ….B

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iii.Additional contingency fuel as specified by operator ….C

A+B+C

C. When a destination is isolated and no suitable destination alternate aerodrome is

available

i.Fuel to destination ….A

ii.+2 hours fuel at normal fuel cruise consumption ….B

A+B

CG and CP position and pitching moments :

➢ Centre of Gravity :

➢ Centre of gravity (CG) is the point along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, through which the

total mass of the aircraft acts.

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➢ It is the point where sum of the weight moment acting on the aircraft is zero.

➢ On the ground, CG should be between nose gear and main gear.

➢ The further aft the CG, the heavier the weight near the main gears. Same is true for forward

CG and nose gear. So strength of main gear and nose gear is a consideration when calculating CG

limits at Maximum Tae off Mass (MTOM).

➢ A CG too far aft will also make the nose wheel steering ineffective especially with underwing

engines that creates pitch up moments with increase in thrust.

➢ Datum or reference datum : (Relative to an aeroplane)

➢ It is that (vertical) plane from which the centres of gravity of all masses are referenced.

➢ The datum in aircraft is considered to be a vertical or perpendicular line or plane.

➢ The location of an aircraft’s datum is decided by the manufacturer and can be anywhere within

the fuselage, in front of it, or behind it. Wherever the manufacturer decides to locate the datum for the

aircraft. It is the point from which all balance arms are measured.

➢ Each component that is used to make up an aeroplane or item that is loaded into the aeroplane

has its own mass and center of gravity through which its mass is said to act.

➢ All these separate masses have balance arms, their distance from the datum.

➢ Sometimes datum is located by measuring from a fixed point on the aircraft called the

reference point.

➢ Balance arm (BA) : It is the distance from the datum to the cg of a mass.

➢ Moment :

➢ It is the product of the mass and the balance arm.

➢ A moment is a turning force created by mass acting over a distance or lever arm.

➢ Moments forward of the datum are negative and aft of the datum are positive.

➢ Moment = Mass x Arm

➢ Its metric units are kg force metres (kg m)

➢ Large numbers are divided by a constant to produce a moment index, which is without units.

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CG Position = Total moments divided by Total Mass

➢ Calculating CG shift

➢ Adding New Mass : Mass change / New total mass = Change of CG / Distance from old

mass to old CG

➢ Removing Old Mass : Mass change / Old total mass = Change of CG / Distance from

new mass to new CG

➢ Moving Total Mass : Mass change / Total mass = Change of CG / Distance moved

➢ The index system :

For large aircraft it is convenient to use an index to represent the large numbers involved and to

simplify the calculations.

Three types of index are defined :

▪ Loading index (LI) : It is a non dimensional figure that is a scaled down value of a moment.

▪ Dry operating index (DOI) : It is the index for the position of the CG at the Dry Operating

Mass.

▪ Loaded index : It is the index value at either the ZFM, the TOM or the LM.

Neutral Point : It is the point on aircraft’s longitudinal axis where aircraft is longitudinal neutral statically

stable.

Static Margin : It is defined as the distance between the center of gravity and the neutral point of the

aircraft expressed as a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing. The greater this

distance and the narrower the wing, the more stable the aircraft

➢ Effects of Forward CG (Nose Heavy) Position :

Even when CG remains within the allowable limit, the effects of a forward limit are:

▪ Increase in longitudinal static stability

▪ Increase in stall speed

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▪ Increase in drag

▪ Increase in stick forces

▪ Rotation and flare are more difficult

▪ Take – Off distances are increased

▪ V1, VR and V2 increased

▪ Landing distance is increased

▪ Vref is increased

▪ Increase in thrust and power required

▪ Increase in fuel burn

▪ Decrease in range and endurance

▪ Decrease in rate of climb

▪ Decrease in climb gradient

▪ Gliding range and gliding endurance decreases

▪ Manoeuverability decreases

▪ Service and Absolute ceiling decreases.

➢ Effects of Aft CG (Tail Heavy) Position :

▪ Stalling speed increases

▪ Drag increases

▪ Manoeuverability increases

▪ Stick forces decreases

▪ Stability decreases

▪ Range decreases

▪ Nose may lift before VR

▪ Risk of tail strike

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▪ Aircraft will be aerodynamically unstable

▪ Difficult to sustain a glide slope

➢ Effect of Increasing Mass (Overloading) of aircraft :

▪ TORR, TODR increases

▪ Take off speeds ( V1, VR, V2, Vmu, Vlof ) increases

▪ Vmd, Vmp increases

▪ LDR increases

▪ Landing speeds ( Vref, Vat ) increases

▪ Stalling speed increases

▪ Manoeuvering stick force increases

▪ Drag (ID and TD) increases

▪ Thrust and power required increases

▪ T/O performance, Climb performance decreases

▪ Best angle of climb and best rate of climb performance decreases

▪ Cruising range and endurance decreases

▪ Vmbe decreases

▪ Service and Absolute ceilings decreases

▪ Gliding range and gliding angle unaffected

▪ Vmcg, Vmca, Vmcl unaffected

➢ Effect of Gear and Flap Position :

▪ Main gear retracts sideways thus creates no change to CG position.

▪ Nose gear retracts either forwards or backwards so causes the CG to move in that direction but the

effect is negligible.

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▪ On a light aircraft, flaps will only change the CP

▪ On a transport aircraft the flaps are usually fowler flaps. These move forward and backward during

retraction and extension respectively

▪ Thus along with CP, CG position will also be affected.

PERFORMANCE RELATED TERMS

➢ ISA : International Standard Atmosphere assumes sea level temperature as 15˚C, pressure

1013.25 hpa, density as 1225 gm/m³ with a lapse rate of temperature of 1.98˚C per 1000 feet till 36089

feet beyond which it is assumed as constant at -56.5˚C.

13
 e.g. at 5000 ft above mean sea level (AMSL), in standard atmosphere conditions, temperature will be

5.1˚C, pressure will be 843.1 hpa and density will be 1.055 gm/m³

➢ OAT : Outside Air Temperature is the free air static ambient temperature.

➢ SAT : Static Air Temperature is outside air (ambient) temperature as computed by the air data

computer from TAT and presented on the static air temperature indicator. It is almost equal to OAT

➢ RAM RISE : It is an increase in temperature due to compressibility of the air at higher speed.

Higher the speed, higher the ram rise.

➢ TAT : Total Air Temperature as shown by the TAT gauge. It equals OAT plus Ram rise. The

higher the speed, the higher would be the Ram rise and so the TAT.

➢ RECOVERY FACTOR : It is the efficiency factor of TAT probe. TAT probe factor is 1 for B737.

➢ QNH : The barometric pressure at the aerodrome reduced to mean sea level as per ISA

conditions. When QNH is set on the subscale the altimeter reads height above mean sea level.

➢ ELEVATION : Elevation is the height above mean sea level of a place.

➢ PRESSURE ALTITUDE : Is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to the

outside pressure. In the aircraft it is obtained by setting 1013.25 hpa in the subscale of the pressure

altimeter. At standard atmospheric conditions, pressure altitude is equal to elevation.

➢ DENSITY ALTITUDE : Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere

corresponding to outside density. Density altitude and pressure altitude will be the same when standard

atmosphere is prevailing. When temperature is more than standard, density altitude will be more than

pressure altitude and vice versa.

➢ WIND VELOCITY : The direction from which the wind is blowing and its speed is called wind

velocity. Wind velocity reported at an airfield is generally the wind measured at 10 meter height at

control tower.

➢ LOAD FACTOR : The ratio of life generated by the wing to the weight of the aircraft.

➢ BUFFET ONSET CHARACTERISTICS : Buffet onset occurs when the airflow starts to

separate from the wing. This characteristic is a function of angle of attack and Mach number/speed.

➢ HIGH SPEED BUFFET : The maximum speed at which buffeting starts. It is a function of

weight and altitude. Higher the altitude and weight, high speed buffet occurs at a lower maximum speed.
14
➢ LOW SPEED BUFFET : The lowest speed at which buffet onset occurs. Higher the altitude

and weight, the earlier will be the buffet onset.

➢ CENTRE OF GRAVITY : The point through which the total weight of a body is acting. For the

same weight , centre of gravity may vary depending on the load distribution.

➢ MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD : It is the chord of a section of an imaginary airfoil on the

wing which would have force vectors throughout the flight range identical to the actual wing. The entire

lift generated by the wing is assumed to take place along the MAC. The aircraft C of G movement is

measured in terms of MAC.

V SPEEDS

➢ Vsmin : Calibrated stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is

controllable in specified configuration at zero thrust or idle thrust (if having no appreciable effect on stall

speed) and C of G in the most unfavourable position (forward). Stall speed varies with weights, flap

setting (configuration), bank angle and C of G. Stall speeds are based on the minimum speed in the

15
stall manoeuvre with an entry with speed reduction of 1 knots/sec. Full up elevator deflection is used,

and the achieved load factor is less than 1 G at the minimum speed.

➢ Vs1g : The 1 G stall speed is determined from the maximum lift coefficient (CLmax), corrected

for load factor (n) during the stall manoeuvre in level flight.

➢ Vs1 : It is the stalling speed at specified flap setting.

➢ Vs0 : It is the stalling speed at the most extended landing flaps setting.

➢ VA : Design manoeuvring speed. It is the maximum speed at which application of full available

rudder or elevator will not overstress the airplane. In the flaps up configuration, full aileron can be

applied at any speed.

➢ VB : Design speed for maximum gust intensity. It is used to establish the turbulent penetration

speed (Rough air speed)

➢ VC : Design cruising speed. The maximum design cruising speed shall be sufficiently greater

than VB to provide for an inadvertent speed increase likely to occur as a result of severe atmospheric

turbulence.

➢ VD/MD : Design dive speed.

➢ VDF/MDF : Maximum demonstrated flight diving speed.

➢ VF : Design flap speeds. Wing flaps and their supporting structure and operating mechanism

must be designed for the critical loads occurring during transition from one flap position and airspeed

to another. VF shall not be less than 1.6 VS1 in takeoff configuration at MTOW, 1.8 VS1 in approach

configuration at MLW and 1.8 VSO in landing configuration at MLW.

➢ VMO/MMO : Maximum operation limiting speed is a speed which shall not be deliberately

exceeded in any regime of flight. It should not be greater than the design cruising speed VC and

sufficiently below VD/MD or VDF/MDF

➢ VLO : Landing gear operating speed. This shall be established not to exceed a speed at which

it is safe to extend or retract the landing gear as limited by design or by flight characteristics.

➢ VLE : Landing gear extended speed. It shall be establish not to exceed a speed at which it

has been shown that the airplane can be safely flown with the landing gear secured in the fully extended

position and for which the structure has been proved in accordance with rules.

➢ VMCG : Ground minimum control speed. Is the minimum control speed on the ground at which

when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative it is possible to recover control of the airplane

with the use of primary aerodynamic controls alone ( without the use of nose wheel steering ) to enable

16
the take off to be safely continued using normal piloting skills and rudder control forces not exceeding

150 pounds.

➢ VEF : Critical engine failure speed. It is the speed at which the critical engine is assumed to

fail. It shall not be less than VMCG

➢ V1 : Action initiation speed. The maximum speed in the take off at which the pilot must take

the first action (e.g apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) to stop the airplane with in

accelerated stop distance. It also means the minimum speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the

critical engine at VEF at which the pilot can continue the take off and achieve the required height above

the takeoff surface with in take off distance.

➢ VMCA : Air minimum control speed. Airspeed at which when the critical engine is suddenly

made inoperative, it is possible to recover control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative, and

maintain straight flight either with zero yaw or with angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees towards

the left engine. VMCA may not exceed 1.2 VSmin or 1.13VS1G (stall speed determined at the maximum

sea level takeoff weight with maximum available take off thrust). Rudder force required to maintain

control may not exceed 150 pounds.

➢ VR : Take off rotation speed. It is the speed at which rotation is initiated to attain the takeoff

safety or climb out speed, V2, at 35 ft above the take off surface. VR must not be less than 1.05 times

VMCA nor less than V1.

➢ VMU : Minimum unstick speed. It shall be the speed at which the airplane can be made to lift

off the ground and to continue the takeoff without displaying any hazardous characteristics.

➢ VLOFF : Airplane lift off speed. The lift off speed is closely associated to the VR speed and is

dictated by that speed. The all engine operating lift off speed must not be less than 110% of Vmu

assuming maximum practicable rotation rate. The one engine inoperative lift off speed must not be less

than 105% of Vmu

➢ V2 : Take off safety speed. V2 is equal to the target speed to be attained at the 35 ft height

assuming recognition of an engine failure at or after V1. It must be equal to or greater than 113% of the

VS1G in the take off configuration or 110 % of the air minimum control speed.

AIRPORT :

➢ Runway : A rectangular area of defined dimensions on a land aerodrome prepared for landing

and takeoff run of an aircraft.

➢ Stopway : An area beyond the runway having the same width as the runway centrally located

about the extended centre line of the runway. Stopway must be able to support the airplane during an
17
aborted take off without causing structural damage to the airplane. It must be designated by the airport

authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during rejected take off.

➢ Clearway : An area beyond the runway not less than 500 ft wide (250 ft on either side of the

extended center line of the runway) and under the control of airport authorities. The clearway is

expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope

not exceeding 1.25% above which no object nor any terrain protrudes. However threshold light may

protrude above the plane if their height above the end of the runway is 26 inches and if they are located

to each side of the runway. Clearway cannot exceed 50% of runway length.

➢ Runway slope : It is the gradient of the runway surface from the beginning to the end of the

runway. An uphill slope is disadvantage for takeoff and an advantage of landing and vice versa. Aircraft

is generally certified upto +/- 2%.

➢ Apron : It is designated area of the airport where the aircraft parking bays are located. These

areas are used for embarking and disembarking of passengers, loading and offloading of cargo.

Refuelling and aircraft preparation for service are also done in this area.

➢ Threshold : It is the beginning of that portion of the runway available for landing. Generally

the beginning of the runway is the threshold.

➢ Displaced threshold : Sometimes threshold is advanced or displaced ahead of the beginning

of the runway due to presence of obstacle in the approach path for landing.

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