Math 3230 Abstract Algebra I

Sec 3.7: Conjugacy classes

Slides created by M. Macauley, Clemson (Modified by E. Gunawan, UConn)

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Abstract Algebra I

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 1 / 13

Conjugation
Recall that for H ≤ G , the conjugate subgroup of H by a fixed g ∈ G is

gHg −1 = {ghg −1 | h ∈ H} .

Additionally, H is normal iff gHg −1 = H for all g ∈ G .

We can also fix the element we are conjugating. Given x ∈ G , we may ask:

“which elements can be written as gxg −1 for some g ∈ G ?”

The set of all such elements in G is called the conjugacy class of x, denoted clG (x).
Formally, this is the set
clG (x) = {gxg −1 | g ∈ G } .

Remarks
In any group, clG (e) = {e}, because geg −1 = e for any g ∈ G .
If x and g commute, then gxg −1 = x. Thus, when computing clG (x), we only
need to check gxg −1 for those g ∈ G that do not commute with x.
Moreover, clG (x) = {x} iff x commutes with everything in G . (Why?)

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 2 / 13

Conjugacy classes
Proposition 1
Conjugacy is an equivalence relation.

Proof
Reflexive: x = exe −1 .
Symmetric: x = gyg −1 ⇒ y = g −1 xg .
Transitive: x = gyg −1 and y = hzh−1 ⇒ x = (gh)z(gh)−1 . 

Since conjugacy is an equivalence relation, it partitions the group G into equivalence

classes (conjugacy classes).

Let’s compute the conjugacy classes in D4 . We’ll start by finding clD4 (r ). Note that
we only need to compute grg −1 for those g that do not commute with r :

frf −1 = r 3 , (rf )r (rf )−1 = r 3 , (r 2 f )r (r 2 f )−1 = r 3 , (r 3 f )r (r 3 f )−1 = r 3 .

Therefore, the conjugacy class of r is clD4 (r ) = {r , r 3 }.

Since conjugacy is an equivalence relation, clD4 (r 3 ) = clD4 (r ) = {r , r 3 }.

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 3 / 13

Conjugacy classes in D4
To compute clD4 (f ), we don’t need to check e, r 2 , f , or r 2 f , since these all commute
with f :

rfr −1 = r 2 f , r 3 f (r 3 )−1 = r 2 f , (rf )f (rf )−1 = r 2 f , (r 3 f )f (r 3 f )−1 = r 2 f .

Therefore, clD4 (f ) = {f , r 2 f }.

What is clD4 (rf )? Note that it has size greater than 1 because rf does not commute
with everything in D4 .

It also cannot contain elements from the other conjugacy classes. The only element
left is r 3 f , so clD4 (rf ) = {rf , r 3 f }.

The “Class Equation”, visually: e r f r 2f

Partition of D4 by its
conjugacy classes r2 r3 rf r 3f

We can write D4 = {e} ∪ {r 2 } ∪ {r , r 3 } ∪ {f , r 2 f } ∪ {r , r 3 f }.

| {z }
these commute with everything in D4

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 4 / 13

The class equation
Definition
The center of G is the set Z (G ) = {z ∈ G | gz = zg , ∀g ∈ G }.

Observation
clG (x) = {x} if and only if x ∈ Z (G ).

Proof
Suppose x is its own conjugacy class. This means that

clG (x) = {x} ⇐⇒ gxg −1 = x, ∀g ∈ G ⇐⇒ gx = xg , ∀g ∈ G ⇐⇒ x ∈ Z (G ) .

The Class Equation

For any finite group G , X
|G | = |Z (G )| + | clG (xi )|
where the sum is taken over distinct conjugacy classes of size greater than 1.

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 5 / 13

More on conjugacy classes
Proposition 2
Every normal subgroup is the union of conjugacy classes.

Proof
Suppose n ∈ N E G . Then gng −1 ∈ gNg −1 = N, thus if n ∈ N, its entire conjugacy
class clG (n) is contained in N as well. 

Proposition 3
Conjugate elements have the same order.

Proof
Consider x and y = gxg −1 .
If x n = e, then (gxg −1 )n = (gxg −1 )(gxg −1 ) · · · (gxg −1 ) = gx n g −1 = geg −1 = e.
Therefore, |x| ≥ |gxg −1 |.
Conversely, if (gxg −1 )n = e, then gx n g −1 = e, and it must follow that x n = e.
Therefore, |x| ≤ |gxg −1 |. 

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 6 / 13

Conjugacy classes in D6
Let’s determine the conjugacy classes of D6 = hr , f | r 6 = e, f 2 = e, r i f = fr −i i.

The center of D6 is Z (D6 ) = {e, r 3 }; these are the only elements in size-1 conjugacy
classes.

The only two elements of order 6 are r and r 5 ; so we must have clD6 (r ) = {r , r 5 }.

The only two elements of order 3 are r 2 and r 4 ; so we must have clD6 (r 2 ) = {r 2 , r 4 }.

Let’s compute the conjugacy class of a reflection r i f . We need to consider two cases;
conjugating by r j and by r j f :

r j (r i f )r −j = r j r i r j f = r i+2j f
(r j f )(r i f )(r j f )−1 = (r j f )(r i f )f r −j = r j fr i−j = r j r j−i f = r 2j−i f .

Thus, r i f and r k f are conjugate iff i and k are both even, or both odd.

The Class Equation, visually: e r r2 f r 2f r 4f

Partition of D6 by its
conjugacy classes r3 r5 r4 rf r 3f r 5f

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 7 / 13

Conjugacy “preserves structure”

Think back to linear algebra. Two matrices A and B are similar (=conjugate) if
A = PBP −1 .

Conjugate matrices have the same eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and determinant. In

fact, they represent the same linear map, but under a change of basis.

If n is even, then there are two “types” of

reflections of an n-gon: the axis goes
through two corners, or it bisects a pair of
sides.

Notice how in Dn , conjugate reflections have the same “type.” Do you have a guess
of what the conjugacy classes of reflections are in Dn when n is odd?

Also, conjugate rotations in Dn had the same rotating angle, but in the opposite
direction (e.g., r k and r n−k ).

Next, we will look at conjugacy classes in the symmetric group Sn . We will see that
conjugate permutations have “the same structure.”

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 8 / 13

Cycle type and conjugacy
Definition
Two elements in Sn have the same cycle type if when written as a product of disjoint
cycles, there are the same number of length-k cycles for each k.
We can write the cycle type of a permutation σ ∈ Sn as a list c1 , c2 , . . . , cn , where ci
is the number of cycles of length i in σ.
Here is an example of some elements in S9 and their cycle types.

(1 8) (5) (2 3) (4 9 6 7) has cycle type 1,2,0,1.

(1 8 4 2 3 4 9 6 7) has cycle type 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1.
e = (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9) has cycle type 9.

Lemma 4 (One of the questions from HW3)

For any σ ∈ Sn , σ −1 (a1 a2 . . . ak )σ = (σ(a1 ) σ(a2 ) . . . σ(ak ))

This means that two k-cycles are conjugate!

Exercise: Show that x = (12), y = (14) ∈ S6 are conjugate by finding a permutation
σ ∈ S6 such that sigma−1 xσ = y .

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 9 / 13

Cycle type and conjugacy

Theorem
Two elements g , h ∈ Sn are conjugate if and only if they have the same cycle type.

Proof:

Big idea
Conjugate permutations have the same structure. Such permutations are the same
up to renumbering.

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 10 / 13

An example
Consider the following permutations in G = S6 :
g = (1 2) 1 2 3 4 5 6

h = (2 3) 1 2 3 4 5 6

r = (1 2 3 4 5 6) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Since g and h have the same cycle type, they are conjugate:
(1 2 3 4 5 6) (2 3) (1 6 5 4 3 2) = (1 2) .
Here is a visual interpretation of g = rhr −1 :
1 1
6 2 6 2

5 3 5 3
4
g =(12)
/ 4

 
r r
1 1
6 2 6 2

5 3 5 3
4 / 4
h=(23)

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 11 / 13

Conjugacy: elements vs. groups
Remark
We can conjugate elements, or we can conjugate subgroups.

Conjugating elements defines an equivalence class on G .

The equivalence classes have a special name (conjugacy classes) and notation,
clG (x) = {gxg −1 | g ∈ G }.
Conjugate elements “have the same structure”; in particular, the same order.
An element z has a unique conjugate iff z ∈ Z (G ), i.e., z commutes with
everything.

Conjugating subgroups defines an equivalence class on the set of subgroups of G .

The equivalence classes have a no special name or notation; we just call them
conjugate subgroups to H, and write {xHx −1 | x ∈ G }.
Conjugate subgroups have the same structure: they’re isomorphic.
A subgroup N has a unique conjugate iff N is normal.

In Section 5 (group actions), we’ll learn more about the structure of these
equivalence classes, such as how many there can be, and their possible sizes.

Sec 3.7 Conjugacy classes Abstract Algebra I 12 / 13

Conjugate subgroups
An an exercise, let’s try to partition the following subgroup lattices into (conjugacy)
equivalence classes.

Q8 Dic12

hai
hii hji hki
habi ha2 bi hbi

ha2 i
h−1i
ha3 i

h1i h1i

Q8 = hi, j, k | i 2 = j 2 = k 2 = ijk = −1i Dic12 = ha, b, c | a3 = b 2 = c 2 = abci

= ha, b | a4 = b 3 = 1, bab = ai

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