University M’hamed Bougara-Boumerdes

Faculty of Sciences

IT departement

Introduction to
databases
Course notes

Directed By :
Benabderrezak Youcef
-Phd student in Cyber security and future Pr-
[email protected]
Telegram : https://t.me/infoumbb2

2023 / 2024
Table of contents

1. Entity-Relationship Diagram ERD ...........................................................................4

1.1. Key components of an ERD: ..............................................................................4

a. Entity ................................................................................................................4

b. Attribute ...........................................................................................................5

c. Relationship .....................................................................................................6

d. Cardinality........................................................................................................6

e. Primary Key .....................................................................................................6

f. Foreign Key .....................................................................................................7

1.2. Transition of the entity- relationship diagram to the relational model ..............8

2. Database basic concepts ...........................................................................................9

2.1. What is Database ? ..............................................................................................9

2.2. Data types ............................................................................................................9

2.3. Database Management System (DBMS) ..........................................................10

2.4. Tables ................................................................................................................10

2.5. Schema ..............................................................................................................11

2.6. Primary Key ......................................................................................................11

2.7. Foreign Key .......................................................................................................12

2.8. Indexes ...............................................................................................................12

2.9. SQL (Structured Query Language) ...................................................................13

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 2.10. Normalization ................................................................................................13

2.11. Backup and Recovery ....................................................................................14

3. SQL .........................................................................................................................15

3.1. Origin and evolution .........................................................................................15

3.2. Organisation of SQL language .........................................................................16

a. DDL operations .............................................................................................17

b. DML operations .............................................................................................18

c. DQL operations .............................................................................................19

3.3. single and multi-relationship query ..................................................................21

a. Single-Relationship Query ............................................................................21

b. Multi-Relationship Query..............................................................................22

3.4. Nested queries ...................................................................................................23

3.5. Integrity Constraints ..........................................................................................25

a. Primary Key Constraint .................................................................................25

b. Foreign Key Constraint .................................................................................26

c. Unique Constraint ..........................................................................................26

c. Check Constraint ...........................................................................................27

d. Not Null Constraint........................................................................................27

3.6. Views .................................................................................................................28

a. Creating a View .............................................................................................28

b. Using a View .................................................................................................29

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 c. Updating Data through a View ......................................................................29

d. Benefits of Views ..........................................................................................29

4. Exercices .................................................................................................................30

4.1. Level 1: Basics ..................................................................................................30

4.2. Level 2: Joins and Aggregation ........................................................................30

4.3. Level 3: Subqueries ...........................................................................................31

4.4. Level 4: Advanced Concepts ............................................................................31

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1. Entity-Relationship Diagram ERD
 An Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) is a graphical representation of the
entities (objects or concepts), attributes (properties), and relationships
between those entities in a database.
 ERDs are commonly used during the database design phase to visualize and
communicate the structure of a database system.

1.1. Key components of an ERD:

a. Entity

 Represents a real-world object, concept, or thing with its own distinct

properties. Entities are usually nouns.

 For example, in a university database, "Student," "Course," and "Faculty" could

be entities.

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b. Attribute

 Describes a property or characteristic of an entity.

 Attributes are represented by ovals or ellipses and are typically shown as

adjectives.

 For instance, a "Student" entity might have attributes like "Name,"

"Student_ID", and "Date_of_Birth"

Student

- Name
- Student_ID
- Date_of_birth

Attributes can also have different types, such as:

1. Text/String Attributes: Attributes that store textual information, like names or

addresses.

2. Numeric Attributes: Attributes that store numerical values, like age or salary.

3. Date/Time Attributes: Attributes that store date and time values, like birthdates

or order dates.

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 4. Boolean Attributes: Attributes that store true/false or yes/no values,

representing binary choices.

5. Enumerated Attributes: Attributes that can take on a limited set of values from

a predefined list, like gender (male/female/other).

6. Composite Attributes: Attributes that can be subdivided into smaller sub-parts

with their own meanings. For instance, an "Address" attribute could be

subdivided into "Street," "City," "State," and "Zip Code."

c. Relationship

 Represents the connection or association between two or more entities.

Relationships are usually verbs.

 Examples of relationships could be "Enrolls In" between "Student" and

"Course," or "Teaches" between "Faculty" and "Course."

Student follow Course

d. Cardinality

 Describes the number of occurrences of one entity that are associated with a

single occurrence of another entity in a relationship.

 Common cardinality notations include "1" (one), "0..1" (zero or one), "0..n"

(zero to many), and "1..n" (one to many).

e. Primary Key

 An attribute (or combination of attributes) that uniquely identifies each instance

of an entity.

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 It ensures the integrity of the data and is usually depicted with an underline or a

bold font.

f. Foreign Key

 An attribute within an entity that refers to the primary key of another entity,

establishing a connection between the two entities.

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1.2. Transition of the entity- relationship diagram to the relational model

1. Entities become Tables

 Each entity in the ER diagram becomes a table in the relational model.

 The table's name corresponds to the entity's name.

2. Attributes become Columns

 Each attribute of an entity becomes a column in the corresponding table.

 The column's name reflects the attribute's name.

3. Primary Keys

 Identify a unique attribute for each entity (usually an ID) to be the primary key.

 The primary key uniquely identifies each row in the table.

4. Relationships become Foreign Keys

 For relationships between entities, add a column (foreign key) in one table that

references the primary key of another related table.

 This establishes a link between the two tables, representing the relationship.

5. Cardinality and Modality

 If a relationship has cardinality (such as "one-to-many" or "many-to-many"),

adjust the foreign key appropriately to represent this.

 If a relationship has modality (such as "optional" or "mandatory"), decide

whether the foreign key can be NULL or not.

6. Composite Attributes

 If an attribute has sub-parts (composite attribute), create separate columns for

each sub-part in the table.

7. Derived Attributes

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 Derived attributes (those calculated from other attributes) are usually not

included in the table. They can be calculated when needed using queries.

8. Normalization

 Ensure that each table represents a single, atomic piece of information to avoid

redundancy and anomalies.

 If needed, break down large tables into smaller ones using normalization

techniques.

9. Keys and Indexes

 Besides the primary key, consider adding indexes on columns frequently used for

searching or joining tables to improve performance.

2. Database basic concepts

 A database is a structured and organized collection of data that is stored,

managed, and accessed electronically.

 It serves as a central repository for storing various types of information, such as

text, numbers, images, and more.

2.2. Data types

 Databases store structured data, which can be text, numbers, dates...etc

 Here's a simple representation of common data types used in databases

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2.3. Database Management System (DBMS)

 A software system that provides an interface for users and applications to interact

with the database.

 The DBMS handles tasks like data storage, retrieval, modification, and security.

 Examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle Database, Microsoft SQL

Server, and MongoDB.

2.4. Tables

 Databases are typically organized into tables.

 A table is a collection of rows (records) and columns (fields).

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 Each row represents a single record, and each column represents a specific

attribute of the records.

2.5. Schema

 The structure of a database, including the tables, relationships between them, and

constraints, is defined by the schema.

 The schema specifies the data types, allowed values, and relationships between

different tables.

2.6. Primary Key

 A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in a table.

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 It ensures that each record is uniquely identifiable and helps establish

relationships between tables.

2.7. Foreign Key

 A foreign key is a field in one table that refers to the primary key in another table.

 It establishes relationships between tables and enforces referential integrity,

ensuring that data remains consistent.

2.8. Indexes

 Indexes are data structures that enhance the speed of data retrieval operations.

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  They provide a way to quickly locate rows based on the values in specific

columns.

 Indexes are especially useful for large datasets.

2.9. SQL (Structured Query Language)

SQL is a standardized language used to communicate with and manipulate databases.

2.10. Normalization

 A process of organizing data in a database to minimize redundancy and improve

data integrity.

 It involves breaking down large tables into smaller ones and establishing

relationships between them.

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2.11. Backup and Recovery

 Regular backups of the database are crucial to prevent data loss in case of

hardware failures, human errors, or other emergencies.

 Recovery mechanisms help restore the database to a consistent state after such

incidents.

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3. SQL
3.1. Origin and evolution

 The history of SQL begins with the development of the first relational database

system, which was created by Dr. E.F. Codd at IBM in the early 1970s.

 His paper titled "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks" laid

the groundwork for the relational database model.

 The relational model introduced the concept of representing data as tables

(relations) consisting of rows (tuples) and columns (attributes).

 Dr. Codd proposed a query language called "Structured English Query

Language" (SEQUEL) to interact with these relational databases.

 SQL, born from IBM's SEQUEL in the 1970s, evolved from an experimental

query language into a standardized and powerful tool for managing relational

databases.

 As ANSI established the first SQL standard in 1986, subsequent versions refined

syntax and added features, enabling users to create, modify, and query databases

consistently.

 Despite proprietary extensions by various vendors, SQL became integral to

database administration, data manipulation, and querying.

 Advancements introduced triggers, stored procedures, and views, while adapting

to changing data landscapes.

 The rise of NoSQL databases challenged SQL's dominance in diverse data

models, but its evolution remains emblematic of structured data management's

journey, continually accommodating new demands and innovations.

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3.2. Organisation of SQL language

 The SQL (Structured Query Language) is organized into several major

categories, each serving a specific purpose in database management and

manipulation.

 These categories cover various aspects of working with relational databases.

Here's an overview of the key organizational components of SQL:

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 a. DDL operations

1. CREATE TABLE

 This operation is used to create a new table in a database

In this example, we're creating a table named "Employees" with columns for

EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, and Department.

2. ALTER TABLE

 The ALTER TABLE operation is used to modify an existing table structure.

 This example adds a new column "Salary" to the "Employees" table.

3. DROP TABLE

 The DROP TABLE operation is used to delete an existing table along with all

its data. Be careful with this operation, as it's irreversible.

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 This example would delete the "Employees" table.

4. TRUNCATE TABLE

 The TRUNCATE TABLE operation removes all the data from a table while

keeping the table structure intact.

 It's faster than the DROP and CREATE combination.

 This example would remove all data from the "Employees" table

b. DML operations

 DML (Data Manipulation Language) operations are used to interact with and

manipulate data within a database

1. INSERT INTO

 The INSERT INTO operation is used to add new records into a table.

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 This example adds a new employee record to the "Employees" table.

2. UPDATE

 The UPDATE operation is used to modify existing data in a table.

 This example increases the salary of employees in the HR department by 10%.

3. DELETE

 The DELETE operation is used to remove data from a table.

 This example deletes the employee record with EmployeeID 1 from the

"Employees" table.

c. DQL operations

 DQL (Data Query Language) operations are used specifically for querying data

from a database.

 In SQL, DQL operations are primarily centered around the SELECT statement.

1. SELECT

 The SELECT operation is used to retrieve data from a table.

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 This example retrieves the EmployeeID, FirstName, and LastName of employees

who belong to the HR department.

Joins

 Joins are used to combine data from multiple tables based on related columns.

 This example retrieves the OrderID and CustomerName for orders, joined with

their respective customers using the INNER JOIN operation.

Aggregation Functions

 Aggregation functions are used to calculate summary values from data in a table.

 This example calculates the average and maximum salary for each department

using the AVG and MAX aggregation functions.

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 Subqueries

 Subqueries are queries nested within other queries.

 This example retrieves the first names and last names of employees who belong

to departments listed in the subquery result from the "Managers" table.

3.3. single and multi-relationship query

 Single and multi-relationship queries are commonly used when dealing with

relational databases and involve using SQL to retrieve data based on the

relationships between tables.

a. Single-Relationship Query

 In a SRQ, you're working with two tables that are related in some way,

usually through a foreign key in one table that references the primary key in

another table.

 Consider two tables, "Orders" and "Customers."

 Each order is associated with a specific customer through a foreign key

"CustomerID" in the "Orders" table that references the primary key

"CustomerID" in the "Customers" table.

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 In this example, we're retrieving the OrderID, OrderDate, and CustomerName

for orders made by customers in the USA.

 The JOIN operation combines data from both tables based on the common

"CustomerID" key.

b. Multi-Relationship Query

 In a multi-relationship query, you're working with more than two tables that are

related in a more complex manner.

 For example we have three tables: "Students," "Courses," and "Enrollments."

 Students can enroll in multiple courses, and the "Enrollments" table acts as a

junction table to represent this many-to-many relationship.

 In this example, we're retrieving the StudentName and CourseName for students

enrolled in courses within the "Computer Science" department.

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  The query involves two JOIN operations to connect the three tables.

3.4. Nested queries

 Nested queries (also known as subqueries) are queries that are embedded within

other queries.

 They allow you to perform more complex operations by using the result of one

query as part of another query.

Example 1: Subquery in WHERE Clause

 In this example, we're retrieving the names of employees who have a salary

higher than the average salary of all employees.

 The subquery (SELECT AVG(Salary) FROM Employees) calculates the

average salary of all employees.

 The main query then retrieves the names of employees whose salary is higher

than this calculated average.

Example 2: Subquery in FROM Clause

 In this example, we're retrieving the number of orders placed by each customer.

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  Here, the subquery (SELECT CustomerID, COUNT(*) AS OrderCount FROM

Orders GROUP BY CustomerID) calculates the number of orders for each

customer.

 The main query then joins this subquery with the "Customers" table to retrieve

the customer names and their corresponding order counts.

Example 3: Subquery with EXISTS

 In this example, we're retrieving customers who have placed at least one order.

 The subquery (SELECT 1 FROM Orders WHERE Orders.CustomerID =

Customers.CustomerID) checks if there is at least one order for each customer.

 The main query then retrieves the names of customers for whom the subquery

condition is true.

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3.5. Integrity Constraints

 Integrity constraints are rules defined on database tables to maintain the accuracy,

consistency, and reliability of the data stored in a relational database.

 They ensure that data remains valid and follows certain rules, preventing actions

that could compromise the integrity of the database.

 These integrity constraints help maintain data quality and consistency in the

database, preventing accidental errors and ensuring that the data adheres to the

specified rules.

 They play a crucial role in ensuring the reliability of a relational database

system.

a. Primary Key Constraint

 This constraint ensures that a column (or set of columns) uniquely identifies

each row in a table.

 It prevents duplicate or null values in the primary key column(s).

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b. Foreign Key Constraint

 A foreign key constraint establishes a relationship between two tables by

ensuring that the values in a column of one table match the values in a column of

another table's primary key.

c. Unique Constraint

 The unique constraint ensures that the values in a column (or set of columns)

are unique across the table, except for null values.

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c. Check Constraint

 The check constraint defines a condition that must be true for all rows in a

table.

 It restricts the values that can be inserted or updated.

d. Not Null Constraint

 The not null constraint ensures that a column cannot contain null values.

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3.6. Views

 In SQL, a view is a virtual table derived from one or more tables or other views.

 A view doesn't store data itself but provides a way to present data in a customized

manner without changing the underlying tables.

 Views are particularly useful for simplifying complex queries, restricting access

to certain columns, or aggregating data.

a. Creating a View

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  In this example, we're creating a view named "EmployeeDetails" that combines

data from the "Employees" and "Departments" tables.

 This view shows the employee's ID, first name, last name, and the name of their

department.

b. Using a View

 Once a view is created, you can query it just like you would query a regular

table:

 This query retrieves all columns from the "EmployeeDetails" view, effectively

showing the combined data from the underlying tables.

c. Updating Data through a View

 In some cases, you can even update data through a view, depending on the

complexity of the view and the underlying tables.

 However, there are limitations, and not all views are updatable.

d. Benefits of Views

1. Data Abstraction: Views abstract the underlying complexity of tables, allowing

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4. Data Aggregation: Views can be used to aggregate data and provide summarized
information.
5. Consistency: Views ensure that the same data transformation is applied consistently
across queries.

4. Exercices
4.1. Level 1: Basics

 Create a table named "Employees" with columns for EmployeeID, FirstName,

LastName, and Salary.

 Insert a few records into the "Employees" table.

 Retrieve all records from the "Employees" table.

 Retrieve the first and last names of employees with a salary greater than 50000.

 Update the salary of an employee with a specific EmployeeID.

4.2. Level 2: Joins and Aggregation

 Create a table named "Departments" with columns for DepartmentID and

DepartmentName. Insert a few departments.

 Create a table named "EmployeeDepartments" with columns for EmployeeID and

DepartmentID. Insert some records to indicate employee assignments.

 Write a query to retrieve the names of employees and their corresponding department

names using a join.

 Write a query to calculate the average salary of employees in each department.

 Write a query to find the employee with the highest salary.

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 4.3. Level 3: Subqueries

 Write a query to retrieve the names of employees who are in the same department as

another employee with a specific name.

 Write a query to find the employees who have placed orders, using a subquery.

 Write a query to find customers who have never placed an order, using a subquery.

 Write a query to find the courses that have the highest enrollment count, using a

subquery.

 Write a query to retrieve employees and the total amount of orders they've placed,

using a correlated subquery.

4.4. Level 4: Advanced Concepts

 Create a view that shows the names of employees and their department names.

 Write a query to calculate the cumulative salary for each department, ordered by the

cumulative salary.

 Use the CASE statement to categorize employees as 'Junior', 'Intermediate', or

'Senior' based on their salary.

 Write a query that retrieves the top 5 customers with the highest total order amounts.

 Use the JOIN, UNION, and EXCEPT operators to retrieve a list of customers who

have either placed an order or made a purchase directly.

References

1. https://www.shekhali.com/view-in-sql-server/
2. https://intellipaat.com/blog/tutorial/oracle-dba-tutorial/database-backup-restore-
and-recovery/
3. https://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_view.asp
4. https://www.javatpoint.com/view-in-sql-server
5. https://chat.openai.com/

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