INDEX

S. No Topic Page No
Week 1
1 The Building Block of Yarns 1

2 The Building Block of Yarns (contd.) 33

3 Basic Characteristics of Yarns 50

4 Basic Characteristics of Yarns (contd.) 63

5 Basic Characteristics of Yarns (contd.-1) 79

6 Relations Among Yarn Count, Twist, and Diameter 83

7 Relations Among Yarn Count, Twist, and Diameter (contd.) 98

8 Helical Model of Fibers in Yarns 113

9 Helical Model of Fibers in Yarns (contd.) 126

Week 2

10 Helical Model of Fibers in Yarns (contd.-1) 137

11 Helical Model of Fibers in Yarns (contd.-2) 152

12 Mass Irregularity of Yarns 156

13 Mass Irregularity of Yarns (contd.) 170

14 Mass Irregularity of Yarns (contd.-2) 184

Week 3

15 Mass Irregularity of Yarns (contd.-3) 198

16 Radial Migration of Fibres in Yarns 213

17 Radial Migration of Fibres in Yarns (contd.) 227

18 Radial Migration of Fibres in Yarns (contd.-1) 242

Week 4

19 Yarn Shrinkage due to Washing 258

20 Tensile Mechanics of Yarns 273

21 Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.) 287

22 Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.-1) 294

23 Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.-2) 304

Week 5

24 Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.-3) 316

 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 01
Fiber : The Building Block of Yarns

Welcome to this MOOCS online video course, Theory of Yarn Structure. Today, we will start
Module 1 – Fibre : The Building Block of Yarns. In this module, we will define certain
characteristics of fibre and establish the relationships among those characteristics. Specifically,
we will talk about geometrical characteristics and mechanical characteristics of a single fibre.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:58)

What you see here is a single fibre, or correctly speaking a scheme of a single fibre. This fibre
has a length l. It also has a cross-sectional area s. So the volume of this fibre is cross-sectional
area*length. Let us assume that this fibre has a density, we use symbol rho to denote the density
of this fibre.
From definition, we know

where m is fibre mass. Well, if we substitute volume in terms of cross-sectional area*length,

then we obtain this expression. If we little rearrange this expression, then we obtain this
expression.

1
(Refer Slide Time: 03:07)

Now we introduced one more terminology, that is fibre fineness. Fibre fineness is t which is
equal to mass per unit length of the fibre. If we remember our earlier expression, that is, fibre
density equals to 1 divided by cross-sectional area, multiplied by mass per unit length. Now if we
substitute this mass per unit length by fineness, then we obtain this expression. If we little
rearrange, then we finally obtain this expression.

So what is this expression?

This is a very interesting expression.

That means, fibre fineness

Now what is interesting here you see that fibre fineness, that we often use to characterize the
fineness or coarseness of a fibre if not equal to the cross-sectional area only.

2
That means if we talk about fibre size or size of any geometrical object, we often use cross-
sectional area to denote the size of a material. Whether a material is thick or a material is thin, so
we use cross-sectional area to characterize the size of a fibre. It may so happen that a fibre being
heavier may have higher numerical value of t, that means this fibre fineness is not a very suitable
expression to denote the size of a fibre.

The fibre density is involved into that. We will come to this expression when we will solve some
numerical problem. There we will be able to find out that fineness of 2 fibres may be different

3
but there cross-sectional size may be practically same because their densities are different. So
geometrically 2 fibres having different values of fineness, may have same size. So the traditional
expression of fibre fineness is not able to recognize this fact.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:16)

Well, Now typically if we look at the values of say fibre fineness, then what we see that there are
micro fibres. Typically, the fineness is less than 1 decitex. There are also cotton or compatible
synthetic fibres, their fineness range typically 1.6 decitex. There can be wool or compatible fibre,
the fineness will be little high, say 2.3 decitex.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:48)

And there could be coarse fibre which are sometimes called as carpet fibre. Their fineness can be

4
greater than 2.7 decitex. So below the very practical values of fibre fineness, we typically deal
with such fibres. Now if you have probably noticed that so far we talked about a typical fibre.
We did not tell about the cross-section of this fibre. We have never mentioned that the scheme of
the fibre was considered to be cylindrical.

So it was a very general fibre. Now these general fibre has a cross-sectional area what we
consider s. Now in practice, a fibre cross-section may be circular, may not be circular. If it is
circular, like this, if this fibre cross-section has an area s, then we can simply write this cross-
sectional area

where this is d. Here d stands for fibre diameter. So practically how could you calculate fibre
diameter?

You will measure the cross-sectional area, then you will use this expression to determine
diameter of a fibre. As I told you, practically there can be many fibres which do not have circular
cross-section.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:53)

Suppose a fibre may have non-circular cross-section or say a fibre may have this type of cross-
section. How would you find out diameter? For such object, we introduce a term called
equivalent diameter. Let me define this term, what is equivalent diameter? Suppose this cross-

5
section has an area s, then what we imagine, let us have a circle which has the same cross-
sectional area s.

6
Then d is called equivalent diameter. That means if a fibre cross-section is circular, we use the
term diameter and if a fibre has a non-circular cross-section, then we use the term equivalent
diameter. And this is the way we practically determine equivalent diameter, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:43

Now we talk about fibre shape. How would you characterize the cross-sectional shape of a fibre?
Now it is well known that the perimeter of a non-cylindrical fibre is always greater than the
perimeter of a cylindrical fibre. Suppose we introduce a term fibre perimeter here p. So the
perimeter of a real fibre/perimeter of a circular fibre which is equal to pi*d is greater than equal
to 1.

This equal to sign will come if it is cylindrical fibre; the greater than sign will come if it is non-
cylindrical fibre.

Then we can further write,

7
Where this q is called fibre shape factor. This means this q can be used to characterize the cross-
sectional shape of a fibre. How would you find out q? So evidently, the value of q will lie from 0
onwards. When it is 0, let us explain that.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:46)

8
Let us consider a few shape and the value of q. If it is circular, ideal circular cross-section, then
the value of q=0. By the way, what is the dimension of q? Now if we use p in millimeter and d
also in millimeter, then this ratio is dimensionless, then q becomes dimensionless. Often in SI
system, a dimensionless quantity is either expressed by this or sometimes they are also expressed
by this.

Now one thing I must tell you that so far we have learnt a few expressions. All the expressions
can be expressed in terms of suitable units. For example, this particular expression we have
expressed in terms of practical units. You must practice all these expressions in terms of units.
We generally use this style to write a variable and its unit together. All the expressions we have
derived so far can be written in terms of units.

So sometimes we write while solving numerical problems, sometimes we do not write in terms
of units. If you practice writing all expressions in terms of units, it will help you while solving
numerical problems, right. So we go back to our fibre shape. If a fibre is ideally circular, its
shape factor is 0. But often in practice, we hardly see a fibre cross-section is circular. We see
little deviation from circularity.

For example, polyester fibres, man-made fibres, synthetic fibres. They are not ideally circular.
But we often say they are practically circular. So if you cut the cross-section of such real circular

9
fibre, you will see their value of q will lie from 0 to say 0.6, typically. Similarly, if a fibre is
triangular, ideally, that means if we consider an equilateral triangle, then you can calculate the
shape factor will come approximately equal to 0.29.

In practice, though we do not encounter with ideal triangular fibre, but there are triangular fibres,
practically triangular fibres. For example, trilobal fibre. So say practical, so the fibre typically
looks like this. The shape factor typically ranges from 0.12 to 0.2. What about cotton? What is
the value of fibre shape factor for cotton fibre?
(Refer Slide Time: 23:17)

Fully mature cotton fibre, you remember the shape of a cotton fibre. The typically shape factor
you can find out 0.2 to 0.3 in that range. Also there are many other fibres which are now, it is
available, deep groove fibres, 4 DG fibres, their shape factor is very large. As per this definition,
shape factor will come for 4 digit fibre around1.5.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:28)

10
So we can write perimeter,

If it is circular, then q=0, we obtain p=pi d. If it is non-circular, q will have a value, accordingly
we can obtain the value of p, okay. Now there are lot of properties of textile materials which are
dependent on the available surfaces of fibres. So fibre surface is often required to be
characterized.

How we characterize fibre surface? Fibre surface is typically characterized by fibre surface area,
say we use a symbol A to denote fibre surface area. You look at this scheme of a fibre. How will
you find out surface area of this fibre? Now surface area typically means this area + the top most
surface area + the bottom most surface area. But the top most surface area and the bottom most
surface area are much less than this surface area.

Therefore, we often neglect the top most surface area and the bottom most surface area while
calculating the surface area of a fibre.
Then we say that fibre surface area,

11
(Refer Slide Time: 27:25)

12
Length of a fibre is very easy to determine. In any standard textile laboratory, it is possible to
measure the length of a fibre. Diameter of a fibre is also possible to practically determine. Fibre
shape factor is also possible to determine practically. Any advanced structure laboratory will be,
where the cross-section, cutting, microtome, image processing techniques are available, you can
easily find out diameter and also shape factor.

Then you can find out the value of A. Now so this is the expression for fibre surface area. Often
you will see a term called specific surface area. What is specific surface area? Specific surface
area=fibre surface area per unit mass.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:43)

13
Let us look at this expression little deeply. Fibre surface area per unit mass depends on fibre
shape, fibre diameter and fibre density. That means because of the involvement of density, fibre
surface area per unit mass is not a purely geometrical variable.

But when we talk about fibre surface area, we imagine geometry. However, fibre surface area per
unit mass is not a geometrical variable because of the involvement of rho, fibre density. That is
why another terminology is often used to characterize fibre surface area that is fibre surface area
per unit volume. How this becomes a purely geometrical variable? Let us explain. We use a
symbol lambda to denote fibre surface area per unit volume.

Now,

What is fibre surface area? This. And what is volume?

14
See here fibre shape factor and fibre diameter, that is how lambda becomes a purely geometrical
variable.
Now,

What is lambda? Lambda is fibre surface area per unit volume. What is a? a is fibre surface area
per unit mass and rho is fibre density, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:48)

15
There is one more term regarding the geometry of fibre which you will use in this course, is
called fibre aspect ratio. What is fibre aspect ratio? Fibre aspect ratio=fibre length/fibre diameter.

Typically, for textile fibre, the aspect ratio is quite large in the order of 10 to the power 3.
Alright, so the basic geometrical characteristics of a fibre are explained. Now we will go to talk
about the basic mechanical characteristics of a fibre.

Fibre mechanical characteristic. Now how do we test the mechanical properties of a single fibre?
We have the jaws of a tensile tester and we mount a single fibre, right. Then we apply force.
Suppose, this force is F. Then what is the stress? Stress is force divided by cross-sectional area.
So that is called engineering stress. Let us use a symbol sigma* to denote engineering stress,
okay. So,

The problem applying this expression in textile is, it is very difficult to practically determine
cross-sectional area of a fibre because it is very small. So that is why we do not use this
expression to calculate stress. What we use is called some other expression for stress. So let us
come to that expression and we will show you how it comes.

16
(Refer Slide Time: 40:02)

17
So let us call this stress as textile stress. We use a symbol sigma which is equal to F/t and there is
called engineering stress which is very popular term, sigma*.

To denote the stress, also we use a few other quantities. We will come to that but this stress is a
general stress. When the stress at which a fibre breaks is called breaking stress which is related to
a term called tenacity of a fibre, right. Alright. We often use a term called breaking length to
characterize tensile stress of a fibre. What is breaking length? Breaking length is that length at
which a fibre breaks under its own weight.

Suppose the breaking length of a fibre is R, right. Then what is its mass? R*t becomes its mass.
Because t is mass per unit length. Length is R. So the mass is R*t. If we multiply this mass by g,
acceleration due to gravity, then we obtain force. So we can write

If we know R, we can find out sigma. So what do we see is that, all these terminologies, textile
stress, engineering stress, breaking length, what we often use to characterize mechanical

18
behaviour of a fibre are interlinked, right, okay. So these are the basic physical characteristics of
a single fibre which you will see often we will use in many modules in this course. Well in the
last class, we established relationships on geometrical and mechanical characteristics of a single
fibre.

Today, we are going to solve a few numerical problems on those characteristics in order to
understand them in a better manner. But before going there, let us recapitulate what we learnt in
the last class.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:24)

If you remember in the last class, we started with this scheme of a single fibre, L denotes the
length of the fibre, s denotes the cross-sectional area of the fibre, p denotes the perimeter of the
fibre, m denotes the mass of the fibre, V denotes the volume of the fibre and A denotes the
surface area of the fibre. Now the first important relationship what we established in the last
class was,

t denotes fibre fineness, s denotes fibre cross-sectional area, rho denotes fibre density. Then the
second important relation that we established in the last class was related to fibre diameter. Fibre
diameter,

19
 d denotes fibre diameter, t denotes fibre fineness, rho denotes fibre density. Afterward we
established a relationship on fibre shape factor, q=p, fibre perimeter/perimeter of a circle-1.

20
So q denotes fibre shape factor, p denotes fibre perimeter, pi*d denotes the perimeter of an
equivalent circle and if you remember well, q varies from 0 and onwards. 0 means circular fibre
and non-circular fibre, then q will be greater than 0. Then from this relation, we can find out the
expression for fibre perimeter, which is equal to this,

Then we established an expression of fibre surface area, A which was equal to perimeter*L. You
remember while deriving this relationship, we ignored the top most area and the bottom most
area of the fibre because these 2 areas were negligibly smaller as compared to the area available
on the surface. Then we established another relationship related to fibre surface area per unit
mass.

So here a denotes fibre surface area per unit mass, q denotes fibre shape factor, rho denotes fibre
density, d denotes fibre diameter. Afterwards we derived another relationship on fibre surface
area per unit volume which was equal to, d, that means gamma fibre surface area per unit
volume, q is fibre shape factor and d denotes fibre diameter. So the relationship between gamma
and a is this.

So here gamma denotes fibre surface area per unit volume, a denotes fibre surface area per unit
mass and rho denotes fibre density. Then we talked about aspect ratio of a fibre which is equal to
fibre length/fibre diameter. Then we established a few mechanical characteristics of a single
fibre.

21
Sigma* is the engineering stress of a fibre.What is sigma? Sigma is textile stress, that is
force/fineness of a fibre and rho is fibre density. One more relationship we have established

where sigma is breaking stress, force per unit fineness and R is the breaking length of the fibre, g
is acceleration due to gravity. So these all relationships we have established in the last class.
Today, we are going to use this relationship in order to solve a few numerical problems. Now let
us start with the first numerical problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:41)

22
The very first numerical problem is this. You will see there are 2 columns written. Column A
and column B. Under column A, certain characteristics of fibres are written. Under column B,
certain characteristics of fibres are written. You have to express each fibre characteristics into the
terms of the corresponding fibre characteristics along with units.

So this exercise is given to help you to write the correct expressions in terms of units. No doubt it
is a very simple exercise. However, very simple things we do mistakes sometimes. So what is the
first fineness? You have to express fineness in terms of mass and length along with suitable
dimensions. So what is fineness? Fineness we have used symbol t, is often used in terms of
tex=mass, let us express mass in terms of gram/length, let us express length in terms of meter.

So in order to balance both sides, you have to multiply by 1000. If you think length in terms of
meter, is not a suitable dimension. No problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:11)

23
Then you express length in terms of millimeter. So t tex mass in terms of gram/length in terms of
millimeter. Then you write this. So by using this expression, you will be able to calculate t.
Alright. What was the second expression? Second expression, fineness in terms of density and
cross-sectional area of a fibre. So you have to express fineness, fibre fineness in terms of fibre
density and fibre cross-sectional area.

How will you do? You have just now learnt fibre fineness often used in tex=fibre cross-sectional
area, say meter square, *density, kg/meter cube. In order to balance, you have to write 10 to the
power 6, okay. If you like to express in terms of millimeter square which is a more practical unit
to express fibre cross-sectional area, you accordingly change this numerical value.

Alright, simple, okay. We go to the third one. What is the third one? Fibre diameter in terms of
fibre density and fibre fineness. So we have to express fibre diameter in terms of fibre density
and fibre fineness along with suitable units. So what is diameter? Diameter is often expressed in
millimeter.

And we have just now learnt 4*t, t let us express in tex, /pi*rho, rho let us express in kg/meter
cube. You need not to multiply by any factor here. So this is a balanced expression. Fibre
diameter in millimeter=root over 4*t, t in tex, /pi*rho, rho in kg/meter cube, okay. What was the
fourth one? Fourth one, fibre shape factor in terms of fibre perimeter and fibre diameter. This

24
exercise we have already done once. Let us repeat it.
(Refer Slide Time: 58:02)

Fibre shape factor 1, dimensionless, =perimeter in terms of millimeter, -1. Fibre shape factor
which is non-dimensional=fiber perimeter in millimeter/pi*d, d is fibre diameter in millimeter, -
1, okay. Then we come to the next one. What was the next one? Next one was specific surface
area in terms of density, diameter and shape factor.

So we have already derived the expression, specific surface area, a, suitable unit is meter square
per kilogram=4*(1+q), q is dimensionless, /d in millimeter and rho kilogram per meter cube.
You have to balance. You have to multiply by 1000. So fibre specific surface area in terms of
meter square per kg=4*(1+q), q is fibre shape factor, dimensionless, /fibre diameter in millimeter
and fibre density in kilogram per meter cube.

You have to balance. You have to multiply by 1000, okay. Then we come to the next one. Fibre
surface area per unit volume. Diameter and shape factor. So we have already learnt meter
inverse=4*(1+q)/d; d if you write in terms of millimeter, then you have to multiply by 1000,
right. So gamma is a symbol for surface area per unit volume, q is fibre shape factor and d is
fibre diameter. If we use millimeter which is a practical unit to express fibre diameter, then we
have to multiply by 1000 to have a balanced expression, okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:01:28)

25
The last one is surface area per unit volume but in terms of density and specific surface area. So
what is fibre surface area per unit volume? No problem. a meter square per kg rho kg per meter
cube. It is already balanced, right. So this exercise was a simple exercise but you are supposed to
express all expressions in this course along with units. So start doing that. What will help you? It
will help you to solve numerical problems correctly and quickly. Now we will go to the second
numerical problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:02:47)

Second numerical problem reads as follows. Calculate the equivalent diameter of a non-circular
polyester fibre of 3 denier fineness and that of the polypropylene fibre of 2 denier fineness.
Comment on the results obtained. So you have to basically calculate diameter, equivalent

26
diameter of polyester fibre and equivalent diameter of a polypropylene fibre. So let us do that.
Diameter of polyester.

We even use millimeter as its unit. What is the expression? Root over (4t of polyester in unit tex/
pi*density of polyester in kg per meter cube). Now what are given? 4*fineness of polyester is
given, 3 denier. So in tex, it is 3/9, pi*density, density of polyester fibre, is a well known value,
1380 kg per meter cube. So if you find out this value, you will probably see 175, 0.0175
millimeter. Similarly, we can calculate the diameter of polypropylene fibre.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:05:01)

4*fineness of polypropylene in tex/pi*density of polypropylene in kg per meter cube, okay. Let

us see what are given. 4*fineness of polypropylene, 2 denier. 2 denier means? This much of tex,
pi*density of polypropylene. Typically, density of polypropylene is considered to be 910 kg per
meter cube. So if you calculate, you will find out this value will come around this.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:06:42)

27
Now what do we see is that the fineness of polyester fibre was given 3 denier. Fineness of
polypropylene fibre was given as 2 denier and we calculated diameter of polyester fibre as
0.0175 mm that is probably is equal to micrometer and diameter of polypropylene 0.0176 mm
which is equal to 17.6 micrometer. What we see is that, there is a significant difference in terms
of fibre fineness.

So based on these 2 values we will say that polyester fibre is coarser than polypropylene fibre.
But what we see is that their diameters are practically same. That means although there was a
significant difference in fineness, but their diameters are practically same. So fibre fineness does
not truly express fibre size. This is our comment on the results. Alright, now we will proceed to
problem number 3.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:08:47)

28
Numerical problem 3. It reads as follows. A shirt of 100 gram weight is made up of non-
cylindrical cotton fibres of 25.4 millimeter length, 3 decitex fineness and 0.05 shape factor.
Calculate the total surface area occupied by the fibres in the shirt? Okay. So what is given here L
25.4, t 0.3 tex, q 0.05 and mass of the whole shirt is given 100 gram, okay. You have to calculate
total surface area occupied by fibres in the shirt.

Now how will you find out the mass of 1 fibre, mass. Mass of a single fibre we need to find out.
How we will find out? t in tex, L in millimeter/1000. So if we substitute these values, what we
will see, 0.3*25.4*10 to the power -6, okay. Now how many fibres are present in the shirt?
Suppose N we use to denote number of fibres present in the shirt. So mass of the shirt say we use
M/Mass of a single fibre. So 100/this expression, 6, okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:12:14)

29
Now total surface area, let us express in terms of meter square=surface area of 1 fibre*number of
fibres. So how do we find out surface area of 1 fibre? Right, *number of fibres*10 to, in order to
balance, you will have this factor, okay. So 3.14*diameter, diameter is 4t/pi rho. What is t? t is
0.3, pi*rho, density of cotton fibre. Density of cotton fibre we can take as 1520 kg per meter
cube, *(1+q).

What is q? q is given 0.05*L. What is the length of the fibre? 25.4*number. We have obtained
this, 0.3*25.4*10 to the power -6*this 10 to the power -6. So if you calculate, you will obtain
this value as 17.4262 meter square. So the total surface area occupied by the fibres in the shirt is
17.4262 meter square. Alright, okay. Let us proceed to the problem number 4. So now let us
come to the fourth problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:14:44)

30
The fourth problem reads as follows. The tenacity of a polyester fibre is 0.43 Newton/tex.
Calculate the mechanical engineering strength expressed in mega Pascal of this fibre. Comment
on whether this fibre is stronger than the ordinary steel which has engineering strength of 500
mega Pascal, okay. So if you recall, we used symbol sigma to denote tenacity, tensile strength.
Say Newton per tex=breaking force F/tex, okay.

And we used sigma* to denote engineering strength, Newton per meter square. Breaking force
N, F and cross-sectional area meter square. So what, using these 2 expressions. Now what is s? s
is related to fibre fineness and fibre density.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:16:51)

31
So if we use this expression, then finally, you will be able to write sigma*, engineering strength
in mega Pascal, =sigma (Newton per tex)*density of fibre (kilogram per meter cube). Now what
are given? This value sigma 0.43 Newton per tex given, density of polyester fibre. Density of
polyester fibre we can assume as 1380 kg per meter cube. If we multiply these, we obtain 593.4.
So engineering strength of this polyester fibre=593.4 mega Pascal.

It is well known that steel has an engineering strength of 500 mega Pascal. So this polyester fibre
is more tenacious than ordinary steel. Alright, now we come to our last problem of this module.
This problem reads as follows.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:18:17)

The tensile strength of a cotton fibre is 0.32 Newton per tex. Find out the breaking length of this
fibre. We will first write the relationship between tensile strength and breaking length of a fibre.
Sigma is the tensile strength of a fibre. If we express it in centinewton per tex, then we write this
expression where R is breaking length in kilometer. So this expression is balanced in both sides.
So we need to find out R, breaking length in kilometer?

Sigma centinewton per tex/0.981. What is sigma? Sigma, 0.32 Newton per tex. So in
centinewton per tex, 32 which is equal to little higher than 32.6198. So the breaking length of
this fibre is 32.6198 kilometer, alright. So we have solved 5 numerical problems in this module.
Thank you very much for your attention.

32
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 02
Fibre - The Building Block of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to this MOOCS online video course, Theory of Yarn Structure. Today, we
will continue discussion about module 1. It is on fibre, the building block of yarns. If you
remember earlier in this module we talked about the characteristics of individual single fibre.
And also we solved certain numerical problems on individual characteristics of fibres. Today, we
will discuss about the characteristics of fibre blends.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:11)

What is fibre blends? Often we mix different fibres, say cotton and polyester fibres or polyester
and viscose fibres to produce yarns. When we mix 2 different types of fibres, the mix, the fibre
mix is often called as fibre blends. This fibre blends are important to achieve functional
properties, aesthetic properties, performance of the materials and also it is done to reduce the
cost of materials.

So blending of fibres is a very important component in yarn manufacturing process. How to

characteristics such fibre blends is basically the learning objective of this module. Let us
consider that there are m number of fibre components or types to be mixed. m subscript, let us

33
consider this as n, n number of fibre components to be mixed is a very general situation. Now the
total mass of fibre blend is m.

The mass of ith component in the blend is m subscript i. It is therefore evident that if we sum all
these ith component where i from 1 to i=n, individual mass of blend m, right. Now we will
consider certain characteristics of individual components and also we will try to derive the
expressions for those characteristics of the fibre blend. Whenever we will talk about certain
components, we will use the subscript.

In the symbols where you do not find any subscript, those indicate the characteristics of the
blend. So suppose L subscript i, this is the length of ith component fibre. When we will use L
without subscript, that will be denoting length of fibre blend. Now here this L subscript i actually
denote the average length of ith component fibre. To be very precisely speaking, this is the
average length of ith component fibre. Similarly, precisely l denotes the average length of fibre
blend.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:32)

Similarly, t subscript i will denote the average fineness of ith component fibre and t will denote
average fineness of fibre blend or fibre mix. Similarly, rho subscript i denotes average density of
ith component fibre. Whereas rho denotes average density of fibre blend. Similarly, s subscript i
denotes average cross-sectional area of the ith component of fibre. Similarly, s denotes average

34
cross-sectional area of fibre blend. This is how we will use the symbols. First we talk about mass
fraction of fibres in the blend.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:43)

Sometimes we call it as mass proportion. The mass fraction of ith component of fibres is denoted
by g subscript i. How do we define g subscript i? g subscript i is defined by the mass of ith
component fibre/total mass of the blend, right. And the total mass of the blend can be written as
this. So what will be summation of all mass fractions? Will be equal to 1. Often in textile
industries, we mix fibres in terms of mass fraction or mass proportion.

Also it can be expressed as percentage say for example g subscript i when we wish to express it
in terms of percentage, then suppose this is your kg, this is your also kg, multiplied by 100. So in
textile industry, we sometimes hear 67% cotton fibres and 33% polyester fibres are mixed. That
means here g for cotton fibre is 67% and g for polyester fibre is 33%. As mass or weight is easy
to measure, we often in industry go by mass fraction or mass proportion.

However, there could be possibility of volume fraction, length fraction, number fraction. We will
discuss them in this module.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:42)

35
Now we will discuss one important characteristics of blend that is known as mean fibre density,
that is rho of blend. It is known that volume of ith component fibre V subscript i=mass of ith
component fibre/density of ith component fibre. What is m subscript i? m subscript i is m*g i. So
the total volume of fibres in the blend=V which is equal to summation of V subscript i when i=1
to n that is equal to m*gi/rho i.

m is a constant. It can come out of the summation. So we obtain m subscript gi/rho i. Please
remember that this subscript starts, this summation starts from i=1 to i=n. So we can now the
mean fibre density we can write of the blend is total mass of fibres in the blend/total volume of
fibres occupied in the blend. So V=m*the summation. So what we obtain? We obtain
1/summation of (gi/rhoi) where i varies from 1 to n.

What we see is that the density, the mean fibre density of the blend is not an arithmetic mean, not
a geometric mean. However, it is the harmonic mean of the individual component fibre densities
weighted by mass fraction of the fibres in the blend. Now we talk about volume fraction.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:45)

36
We know about mass fraction. Now we talk about volume fraction. Volume fraction is defined by
the volume of ith component of fibres/the total volume. Now what is the volume of ith
component fibre? We have just now derived this expression. What is the volume of all fibres?
That also we have just now derived, m*summation of (g i/rhoi). So what we obtain? We obtain
gi*rho/rho i.

So if we write in terms of percentage, we can also find out similar expressions. So this is the
expression for volume fraction of fibres in the blend. So by now we know about 2 fractions or 2
proportions. One is the mass fraction. Second is the volume fraction. Now we come back to
another important characteristics of the blend is the mean fibre fineness. How to find out the
mean fibre fineness of the blend?

Suppose the total length of fibres of ith component is L i. So Li denotes total length of all fibres of
ith component. So what is this total length, Li? Total mass/fineness of individual component
fibre. So the total mass of ith component is m subscript i and the fineness of ith component is
this. Now what is m subscript mi? m*g i. So m*gi/ti. What is the total length of all fibres in the
blend? L without subscript that is equal to summation L subscript i, where i from 1 to n.

So summation m*gi/ti, i=1 to n. This m is a constant. So we write gi/ti. Now what is the mean
fibre fineness, t? What is fineness? Mass per unit length? What is the total mass? m. What is the

37
total length? L. So t=m/L. What is your L? L is m, gi/ti. So gi/ti, i=1 to n. So here again we see
that the mean fibre fineness of the blend is the harmonic mean of the fineness of individual
components weighted by mass fraction of the blend, fibres in the blend. Now we go for another
characteristics that is mean fibre cross-sectional area.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:29)

Mean fibre cross-sectional area. Now we have just now obtained t=g i/ti. If you remember from
this module 1, fineness is related to cross-sectional area and density of fibre. How is the relation?
The relation is fineness=cross-sectional area*density. So we can write this, this we can write in
terms of volume fraction, *rho i/rho. So this rho is going there and then this gets cancelled. So
what we obtain volume fraction/cross sectional area of ith component.

So what is mean fibre cross-sectional area? Mean fibre cross-sectional area=t/rho. What is t? t is
mean fibre fineness of the blend. What is rho? Mean fibre density of the blend. Now if we
substitute rho/volume fraction/cross-sectional area and what as rho? Keep it as rho. So this rho
and this rho will cancel out. What we will have? We will have 1/, si. So here again the mean fibre
cross-sectional area=the harmonic mean of the individual components cross-sectional area
weighted by the volume fraction, not by the mass fraction.

Now we come to mean equivalent fibre diameter. We will use this expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:33)

38
We have just now derived that the mean cross-sectional area of fibres in the blend is 1/volume
fraction by the individual cross-sectional area. What is this s? s we can write as pi d square/4,
where d is the mean equivalent fibre diameter in the blend which is equal to 1/volume fraction
and si, pi di 2/4. So we can write down that d square=1/summation of (volume fractioni/di 2).

So square of mean equivalent fibre diameter=1/summation of volume fraction of ith

component/square of fibre diameter of ith component. If we take the square root, we obtain mean
equivalent fibre diameter, 1/di2. So this is the expression for mean equivalent fibre diameter in
the blend. Now we come to length fraction of fibres in the blend.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:34)

39
Earlier we came to know about 2 fractions. One is mass fraction, second is volume fraction. This
is the third fraction, length fraction. If length can be characterized not only by mass fraction
which is typically done in industry, but also by volume fraction, length fraction, number fraction
and so on. What is length fraction? Length fraction we denote by this symbol which is equal to
total length of all fibres of ith component/length of fibres in the blend.

What is L subscript i? mgi/ti and what is L, mgi*ti, right. So this is your t. So we write down g i t/ti.
So if we know mass fraction of ith component, if we know fibre fineness of ith component, if we
know the fineness of fibres of the blend, we will be able to know about the length fraction. So
this is how we can also obtain about the length fraction. Now we discussed about another
important characteristics of the blend that is mean fibre length.

What is the mean fibre length of fibres in the blend? Mean fibre length, to derive mean fibre
length, we have to know about number of fibres of ith component. Let us configure n subscript i
denote number of fibres in ith component of fibres, right. How we can find out n subscript i?
This is equal to total length of all fibres of ith component/length of 1 fibre of ith component. So
total length of all fibres of ith component/length of 1 ith component fibre, Li/li.

What is Li? We have derived m*gi/ti and this li will be there. So we can further write m/l i*gi/ti.
What is gi/ti? Look at this expression. gi/ti=lambda i/t. So m/l subscript i, gi/ti is lambda i/t. So

40
what is total number of fibres available in the blend? N=Ni. Remember this summation is from
i=1 to n. So what is n subscript i? m/l i lambda i/t. This m and t are related to the fibre blend. So
this can be coming out of the summation.

Lambda i/li, okay. Then what is mean fibre length? Mean fibre length is total length of all fibres
in the blend/number of fibres in the blend. What is total length of all fibres in the blend? Is L.
What is total number of fibres in the blend? Is N. So now we substitute L. L is m/t, m is mass of
all fibres in the blend. t is average fineness of fibres in the blend; /N. We have to write this
expression. So m/t lambda i/li. So this m/t cancels out.

What we have is 1/lambda i/li. So if we know mass fraction of ith component fibres, if we know
fineness of ith component fibre, if we know the average fineness of fibres in the blend, we can
find out length fraction. If we know length fraction, if we know individual length of ith
component fibres, we will be able to find out mean fibre length, right. Then we come to another
important fraction which is number fraction.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:10)

This number fraction is often termed as relative ν frequency. It can be asked like this, what is the
relative frequency of cotton fibres in the blend of polyester and cotton fibres? That means you
are required to find out the number fraction of cotton fibres in the blend of cotton polyester
fibres. This number fraction we can use a symbol nu i=N subscript i/N. Number of fibres of ith

41
component/total number of fibres in the blend, that is number fraction by definition.

Now what is Ni, N subscript i we have derived here. m/t lambda i/li, we write it here, m/t lambda
i/li. And what is N? N is summation Ni. So summation m/t lambda i/li. This m/t can be cancelled.
So lambda i/li. L if we substitute lambda i L/li. Well, so in this way we obtain the number fraction,
relative frequency of fibres in the blend. So what we have used here? We used the expression
from the last page, L=mean length fibre, Length=total length of all fibres in the blend/total
number of all fibres in the blend.

This L=mass of all fibres in the blend/fineness of a fibre in the blend. So m/t. This N we derived
from here. So this m/t and m/t cancel out, we obtain, this summation should be there. So lambda
/l . So this we substitute here to obtain this expression. So if we summarize, by now we obtain
i i

expressions for 4 fractions. One is mass fraction, gi. Second is volume fraction, Vi. Third is
length fraction. Fourth is number fraction, nu i.

Although typically in textile industries we talk only about mass fraction. Because simply mass or
weight is easy to measure. you require simple a weighing balance. However, theoretically it is
possible to calculate volume fraction, length fraction, number fraction as well. We have just now
seen these fractions are important to find out mean characteristics of fibres in the blend. What are
the main characteristics of fibres in the blend we have obtained? Starting from mean fibre
density we obtained. So this was the expression for mean fibre density.

So this was related to fibre blend. So this is a characteristics of fibre blend, mean fibre density.
So we obtained an expression for mean fibre density. Then we obtained expression for mean
fibre fineness. This was the expression for mean fibre fineness. Mean fibre fineness. Then we
obtained expression for mean fibre density. This was the expression, mean fibre density is
already obtained. Mean fibre fineness is obtained. Then we obtained expression for mean fibre
cross-sectional area. All are the harmonic means of individual component.

The difference is here. It is volume fraction, not mass fraction. So mean fibre cross-sectional
area was the third characteristics of the blend we obtained. Afterwards, we obtained another

42
characteristics of fibre blend, mean equivalent fibre diameter. So this was the expression for
mean equivalent fibre diameter. Here also it is the volume fraction.

Mean equivalent fibre diameter and the last one we obtained is mean fibre length. So mean fibre
length is this expression. But here this is length fraction. So you see all the fractions are
somehow important to derive the characteristics for fibre blend. Mean fibre length. so we
obtained 4 fractions and we obtained 5 characteristics of blend.

So a blend can be characterized comprehensively in terms of these 5 characteristics, mean fibre

density, mean fibre fineness, mean fibre cross-sectional area, mean equivalent fibre diameter and
mean fibre length as well as in terms of these 4 fractions, mass fraction, volume fraction, length
fraction, number fraction. Now what we will do? We will now apply whatever we learnt by now
with the help of one numerical problem. In that way, we will characterize comprehensively a
fibre blend.
(Refer Slide Time: 39:54)

So we have our sixth numerical problem. Consider a bi-component fibre blend. Bi-component
fibre means it consists of 2 components. Tri-component means 3 component. Mono-component
means 1. So it is a bi-component fibre blend which consist of 40% cotton fibres by weight. So g 1
if we consider 1 stands for cotton, 2 stands for polyester, then g1 is 0.4, g 2 is 0.6. You see g1+g2,
it must be equal to 1 and it is 1. The average properties of individual fibre components are

43
mentioned below. Let me tell you the average characteristics.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:03)

Say fineness cotton and polyester. Cotton is fineness in terms of decitex, 1.5 and polyester 1.7.
Then we talk about length. Length in terms of millimeter. Cotton, the length is 28 mm, polyester
you consider 40 mm. Density in terms of kg per meter cube. Cotton you consider 1520, polyester
you consider 1360. So these 3 characteristics let us consider, these 3 are the basic characteristics
which are often known in practice.

When we mix 2 fibres, say cotton polyester, we generally know their length, we generally know
their fineness. Their densities are also well known. Based on this and also given is mass fraction.
It is dimensionless. It is given here 0.4 and this is 0.6. These 4 data are given. What we have to
find out? You have to find out these characteristics of the blend. Average fineness of the blend,
average length of the blend, average density of the blend, average cross-sectional area of the
blend, average diameter of the blend.

Five characteristics I told you earlier and mass fraction is given. So remaining 3 characteristics
of fractions, volume fraction, length fraction, number fraction. So let us solve this problem.
Whatever formulas we learnt, we will use them directly.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:27)

44
So we start with fineness of blend, t. We have learnt that t is related to individual component/this
expression. Now all values are given in this table. g1 is 0.4, g2 0.6, t1 1.5, t2 1.7 decitex. So 1/gi is
0.4 and t1 is 1.5+g2 is 0.6 and t2 is 1.7. So this value will come in decitex. What will be the value?
This can be calculated as decitex. So we obtained our first answer. The mean fineness of fibres in
the blend is 1.614 decitex.

Now we calculate mean length, l. What is the formula we have learnt? Mean length of fibres in
the blend is 1/length fraction/individual component length fraction. Now what is lambda i?
Lambda i is gi t/ti, right. So lambda 1 for cotton, g 1t/t1. What is g1 given? g1 is 0.4*t is 1.614 and
t1 is 1.5, dimensionless. What will be its value? Its value will be 0.43. Lambda 2 will be of course
1-0.43, so 0.57.

It can also be calculated in another way, lambda 2 g2 t/t2. What is g2? 0.6*t is 1.614 and t2 is
1.7. You will see it will also come 0.57. So this is your lambda 1, lambda 2. Now we will use this
formula directly. 1/, lambda 1 0.43 and what is the length of fibre given? Cotton l1 28, polyester
l2 40 mm. So 28+0.57/40. This unit will be in mm. So this value will come approximately 33.77
mm. Now we will calculate mean fibre density, rho.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:30)

45
What is Rho? Rho is 1/summation of (g i/rho i), we have derived this expression, 1/. What is g 1?
0.4. 1520, cotton fibre density, polyester 6. What is this value given? It is given 1360 kg per
meter cube. Sure. We substitute 1360 kg per meter cube. What will be the unit? Kg per meter
cube. If you calculate, you will obtain 1420 kg per meter cube. So this is our third one. Now we
calculate the fourth one, mean fibre cross-sectional area, s.

What is s? s=1/summation volume fraction/individual this. Now what is volume fraction?

Volume fraction=mass fraction, mean fibre density, individual fibre density. Now, so let us
calculate v1 first. g1 is 0.4 cotton, this is 1420 and cotton fibre individual density is 1520. So what
is the volume fraction? Volume fraction is 0.37. This is the volume, v1, right. Now
v2=0.6*1420/1360.

So this will be coming roughly equal to 0.63. So we have already now calculated this volume
fraction, right. We need to calculate now s subscript i. What is s subscript i? s subscript i is ti/rho
. So what is s1? s1 is t1/rho 1. Now t1 is given. t1 is given as 1.5 decitex, t1. t2 is 1.7 decitex and rho
i

1 is given 1520 kg per meter cube, rho 2 is given 1360 kg per meter cube. So if we use this
expression, then and if we make the unit balance, then you will see the value will come
somewhere 98.7*10 to the power -6 mm square.

Similarly, for s2, t2/rho 2. So if we use t2 1.7 decitex, rho 2 1360 kg per meter cube and make

46
the unit balance, then this value you will get as 125*10 to the power -6 mm square. Now we
know all 4 quantities. We will be able to calculate s. Let us do that.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:18)

So s=1/v1 0.37, /area 98.7*10 to the power -6+v 2 0.63 and 125*10 to the power -6. What will be
the unit? Unit will be mm square. So if you calculate, you will say this value will come mm
square. So this is the fourth important characteristics of the blend. We are remaining with the last
one, mean equivalent diameter. So mean equivalent diameter is 1/square root of vi/di square. So
this is known but di is not known.

What is di? di is root over 4ti/pi*rho i. Suppose d1=4t1/pi rho 1. So let us calculate this, 4. What is
t1? t1 is 1.5 decitex. So 0.15 tex and rho 1 1520 kg per meter cube. So this unit will come in
millimeter. So what will be the value of d1? 0.011 millimeter. So 11 micrometer. So this is d 1.
What is about d2? d2, similarly, 4t2/pi rho 2. So 4*1.7 decitex is t2. So 0.17 decitex pi*1360
millimeter. So this value you will see as 0.0126 millimeter. So 12.6 micrometer. Now you know
all 4 quantities, v1, v2, d1, d2. You will be able to calculate d.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:38)

47
d will be = 1/square root of v1. v1 was 0.37, d1 square. d1 square is 0.011 square+v2, 63, d2 square
0.0126 square come in millimeter. So this value will come 0.0119 millimeter, that is equal to,
roughly equal to 11.9 micrometer. So this was our fifth characteristics. We obtained about the
fractions, mass fraction and volume fraction. Also we obtained about the length fraction. Length
fraction was here.

So we are remaining with the only 1 fraction, that is your number fraction. Number fraction, we
use the formula nu. We know length fraction*L/individual length. So nu 1=lambda1 L/l1. You
remember lambda 1 was 0.43. Here, lambda 1 0.43, lambda 2 0.57, we use these 2 values,
0.43*mean length. Mean length was 33.77 millimeter and l 1, cotton fibre length was given as 28.
So this value will come 52.

Similarly, nu2 lambda2 L/l2. Lambda 2 was given as 0.57, was obtained as 0.57. This is 33.77 and
length of polyester fibre was given 40. So this value will come 0.48. This was our last one. So
mass fraction was given, we obtained length fraction, volume fraction and number fraction. And
we obtained mean fibre diameter, mean fibre cross-sectional area, mean fibre density, mean fibre
fineness and mean fibre length.

All characteristics we obtained. So in this way we can characterize a fibre blend

comprehensively. So this completes module 1. Thank you. Thank you very much for your

48
attention.

49
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 03
Basic Characteristics of Yarns

Welcome to you all to these MOOCS online video course; theory of yarn structure, we have
completed module 1; today we are going to start module 2. Module 2 speaks about basic
characteristics of yarns like module 1; in this module also we are going to established a few
basic characteristics of yarn. Let us start this module with this image.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:51)

What you see is a staple fiber yarn or precisely a portion of a staple fiber yarn as you know, a
staple fiber yarn is a twisted fibrous assembly where the fibers are inclined at different angles
from the axis of the yarn, so in this image also you see a small portion of yarn, the length of this
portion is l and the mass of all fibers is small m and you see another symbol capital D that
denotes diameter of yarn.

So, let me repeat, this is a scheme of small portion of a yarn, l denotes the length of that portion
of a yarn which is equal to fiber length, m denotes the mass of all fibers in this portion of the
yarn and capital D denotes diameter of yarn. So, the first characteristic what we are going to
speak on is yarn fineness, we use a symbol T to denote yarn fineness. So, as you know yarn
fineness is yarn mass per unit length of yarn.

50
So, here m denotes the mass of all fibers that means mass of yarn and l denotes length of this
portion of the yarn which is incidentally is also equal to fiber length, so we have selected the
portion accordingly so, m/l. Now, there are different units to express yarn fineness, the one of
the very common unit is Tex, what is 1 Tex; when the mass of yarn is 1 gram and length of yarn
is 1 kilometer, we obtain 1 Tex.

And similarly, there are different units available to express yarn fineness, another common unit
which is available to denote yarn fineness or yarn count is Ne, so is called English cotton count
when now, what is Ne? In Ne, length = 840 yard and mass = 1 English pound, so if we would
like to convert English count to Tex then, we use this expression, this all you perhaps known.
There is another count; unit of count available which is called metric count.

What is metric count? In metric count, length is 1 kilometer and mass is 1 kilogram so, if you
wish to convert this metric count to Tex, you use this conversion as you know Tex falls under
direct system of counting and English cotton count and metric count fall under indirect system
of counting, there are many more expressions units available to denote count, right. Let us now
go for the second expression which is little unknown.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:28)

So that expression is related to substance cross section of yarn, is a very interesting and
important expression which we do not usually follow in practice however, for theoretical
understanding this expression is extremely important. What is substance cross section of yarn?
Yarn consists of fibers and the fibers are twisted, so they are not straight, they are not parallel to
the axis of the yarn rather they are inclined to certain angles from the axis of the yarn.

51
So, if we cut a cross section 90 degree, at an angle 90 degree from the yarn axis, cross section
of a yarn then, if we put that cross section under light microscope probably we see an image
like this what is shown here, what you see in this image; there are certain fibers let us assume n
number of fibers, each fiber has a sectional area remember, it is not cross sectional area of fiber
as the fibers were inclined, we cut a cross section.

So, these areas what you see are not cross sectional area, they are sectional area, it creates a
huge difference you will see subsequently. Now, we denote we use a symbol star as a
superscript to denote the sectional area, s superscript start subscript 1 that means sectional area
of first fiber similarly; there will be second fiber whose sectional area will be denoted by this
expression.

Similarly, there will be many n number whose sectional area will be denoted by this symbol, so
in general, what we see is that there will be many section area let us denote a generalized
sectional area by this symbol, right, okay. So, if we sum all these external areas then we get a
quantity, we will denote capital S to express that quantity, so what is capital S? Capital S is the
summation of all sectional areas of the fibers in the yarn cross section okay, right.

Now, what is the volume occupied by one single fiber, so the length of this infinitely small
section is dl and capital D is yarn diameter, so the volume occupied by general ith fiber section
is * dl, so what is the volume occupied by all fibers in these infinitely small cross section of
yarn; dV which will be very small summation dl, this dl is constant, so we can write S * dl now,
what is the fineness of this yarn?

Yarn fineness we assume to be same in all cross section, so yarn fineness is mass per unit
length. What is mass? Mass is density dl, so we obtained this expression, so what we obtained
is S = T / rho, so if we know fineness of yarn, it is very easily determined in a standard textile
laboratory, fiber density is also possible to determine experimentally, we will be able to find out
substance cross sectional area capital S, right.

Now, what is the use of the substance cross sectional area? We need to understand this, to
answer this question we have to little go back to the definition of yarn fineness, you remember
we define yarn fineness by this T = mass per unit length right, now what is mass of yarn;

52
volume occupied by fibers say, capital V * density / L, so this T / rho = V/L now, this
expression gives a very important message to all of us. What is that message? We generally
perceive that yarn fineness talks about size of a yarn.

How much fine is the yarn, how much course is the yarn imaginatively, we think yarn fineness
talks about the size of the yarn but this is not correct, why it is not correct because of this
expression, if you look at this expression very carefully then, you will see that volume/length,
this is an expression which generally denotes the size of an object which is not equals to T
rather which is
= T / rho that means, it is possible that a yarn of same fineness; a yarn of a given fineness T
prepared from lighter fibers say, polypropylene whose density is relatively low.

So, a yarn of a given count prepared from lighter fibers may be larger than a yarn of same count
prepared from heavier fibers say, viscose whose density is higher than the density of
polypropylene. I repeat if V / L denotes the size of yarn then it might be possible that a yarn of
a given count T prepared from lighter fibers say, polypropylene may be larger than a yarn of
same count prepared from heavier fibers say viscose.

That means, these 2 yarns; their fineness or count are same but their size will be different, one
will look larger, one will look smaller but the traditional expression of yarn fineness capital T is
not able to talk about this that means, when we compare the size of yarns, it is better we use this
expression V / L not T, what is V/L? V / L = T / rho that means, if 2 yarns are given if we know
their fineness and also if we know the fibers which were used to prepare those yarns, so we will
calculate this ratio very simple T / rho.

Then numerically, higher value of this ratio, size of that yarn will be higher, larger and just
now, you have seen that this S = T/ rho and T / rho = V / L that means, substance cross
sectional area is a very important quantity which we will talk about yarn size or size of yarn in a
geometrical manner, so that is the importance of substance cross section area of yarn that
means, if somebody will ask there are 2 yarns which size is larger?

Quickly, you need to calculate capital S, how; T / rho then the yarn which will have higher
value of capital S will be larger than the yarn which will be having smaller value of capital S
which will be smaller, so what we learnt now is that yarn fineness is probably not a good

53
characteristic to compare size of yarns, substance cross sectional area is a better quantity to
characterize the size of yarn.

So, by now in this module, 2 characteristics we have discussed, 1; yarn fineness, second;
substance cross sectional area of yarn, third we are going to speak about substance diameter
here D is not substance diameter but D is yarn diameter then what is substance diameter?
(Refer Slide Time: 21:45)

So, we are going to speak about substance diameter, these 2 terms substance cross sectional
area of yarn, substance diameter of yarn, these 2 terms were probably first coined by Johansson,
he was a scientist devoted his life in solving problems relative yarn structure, he coined for the
first time these 2 terms, these 2 terms we often do not speak about however they are very, very
important for theoretical understanding of yarn structure.

So, let us come back to this what is substance diameter, you see here 2 images; one, the typical
cross sectional; cross section of yarn whose diameter is capital D, so capital D is yarn diameter
okay. Now, let us compress this yarn from all sides, isotopically, so that the air which was
present inside the yarn is completely removed, so we are going to compress this cross section.
so that the air is completely removed.

Then probably, we will find out an image which will be looking like this, so there is no air, all
fibers are touching each other here, the image is circular and the diameter of the circle is Ds, so
here Ds is called substance diameter. How will you find out substance diameter, what is the

54
area? This area = capital S, substance cross sectional area and the circle so, pi times Ds square/
4, so Ds is root over 4 times S/ pi and what is S?

S is T / rho, so all are measurable quantities, capital D yarn fineness is very easy to measure,
rho; fiber density is also possible to measure, so Ds is possible to determine substance diameter,
right. Now, in all practical purposes substance diameter of yarn is smaller than yarn diameter
really on diameter in all practical cases, right. So, we will now introduce a relatively new term
called relative fineness.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:05)

Fineness, everybody knows, what is the relative fineness; relative fineness, we define by the
ratio of yarn fineness by fiber fineness, so yarn count direct system divided by fiber linear
density, some of you may think at this moment that capital by; T/ small t is the number of fibers
present in n cross-section is not it, probably during your undergraduate course, you have
learned this expression.

Number of fibers present in yarn cross section is equal to yarn count direct system in tex
divided by fiber fineness in tex, is not it, this is not correct, why, they are not; why it is not
correct? Because fibers in yarn are not straight, they are inclined at some angles so, if you
calculate number of fibers from this expression and if you measure actually number of fibers in
yarn by using some cross section cutting technique, you will find that this number will be
always higher than experimentally determined number of fibers in yarn cross section.

55
We will speak about this today in a little deeply, so that is why we call this expression by
relative fineness now, let us further work on this expression in order to know more about this.
What is capital D? Capital D is substance cross sectional area into fiber density, we have just
now derived and in the last module, we have derived that small t fiber fineness is fiber cross
section area into fiber density.

So, what do you obtain; capital S/ small s, now what is capital S; pi D 2/ 4 divided by pi d2 / 4,
what is D; substance diameter of yarn and what is small d; diameter of fiber, so we finally
obtained this expression, right, okay. We will answer to this question, if this is not true then
what is true that means, how do we find out number of fibers present in cross section of yarn,
we are going to answer this question.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:35)

But before that we need to understand about one more important characteristic of yarn structure
which is known as coefficient Kn, it is another relatively new term probably for you, coefficient
Kn, what is coefficient Kn? Kn is a coefficient we define it by a ratio of fiber cross sectional
area, small s is area, this you know from first module and what is this term; this is mean
sectional area of fiber.

How to find out it, what was the total sectional area, capital S divided by n, what was capital S;
we have already derived it, is not it, so the definition of coefficient K n is probably clear, it is a
ratio of cross sectional of a fiber to the mean sectional area of fiber, how to find out mean
sectional area; substance cross sectional area of yarn divided by number of fibers present in
yarn, this we do not know yet.

56
Well, now let us find out an expression for Kn, what you see here; 2 images is not it, this image
what is this; this is basically scheme of a fiber which is inclined at an angle theta I from yarn
axis, there could be n number of fibers we are talking about one general fiber that is why we use
this subscript I, I can be 1, I can be 2, I can be n, I can be any number, so this general fiber; ith
fiber is inclined at an angle theta i from yarn axis okay.

Now, this fiber has a sectional area S subscript i superscript star and we use 2 quantities, dl is
this length and dxi is this length, what is this image; in this image, we express the cross
sectional area of the fiber that is s, so if the fiber is inclined if you cut along this you get
sectional area but if you cut perpendicularly along this, you get cross sectional area s, is that
clear.

Now, what is the volume of ith fiber; volume of ith fiber is section area * perpendicular height
this is = the cross sectional area * perpendicular height, these 2 will be equal because both are
volume of the same fiber, so s * dxi/dl, what is this? This is equal to cos theta i, so this cos theta i
= dl/dxi, right then, what is capital S? Capital S is the sum of all these areas for n fibers, so
summation of i = 1 to n s/ cos thetai, s is a constant; it can come out of the summation, right.

Now, so we come back to this expression now, s star is s/n, so this is s divided by n, right so
what is Kn? Kn is from here, s/ s star bar, so if we substitute s star bar here, this s and this s will
be cancelled out and as a result, what we will obtain is 1/1/ n summation 1 /cos theta i right, so
this is the expression for Kn, let us learn more about this expression. So, the quantity K n is the
harmonic mean of the inclination angle theta, right.

Well, second; if theta is 0 for all fibers in the yarn that means all fibers are parallel to the axis of
the yarn, then it is not a yarn, it is the parallel fiber bundle, so if theta is 0 for all fibers then it
becomes a parallel fibre bundle in that case K n will be = 1, so Kn will be = 1 for parallel fibre
bundle. In all other practical cases K n is <1, right. Now, just to tell you a few facts, K n is
typically = 0.95 for cotton ring yarn and kn = typically, 0.8 for rotor yarn okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:24)

57
So, coefficient Kn is clear now, now we come to another characteristic of yarn that is related to
number of fibres in yarn, number of fibres present in yarn cross section, I told you a few
minutes before n is != this, then what is the correct expression for n? Let us find it out, n is S/
this, how; we have already used this expression, so n is this, let us now write capital S/ small s *
small s / small s star bar, right, you can write it.

Now, what is this capital S/ small s? Capital S/ small s you remember tau is capital T / small t
that = (capital S * rho)/( small s * rho), so capital S/small s, so this = tau and what is this small s
/ s star bar? Kn, so n = Kn times capital T / small t, it is not because Kn is < 1 for yarn, if Kn = 1
for parallel fiber bundle then, this expression is correct, right. So, I told you if you use this
expression to find out number of fibers present in yarn cross section, you will get a higher
value.

Then the number of fibers present in yarn determined experimentally right, so now this
expression can also be used to find out Kn experimentally, how? Kn is n / this, if you use; if you
cut a cross section of a yarn by using microtome and all other apparatus and put that cross
section under microscope, you will be able to find out, you will be able to count how many
fibers are present.

So, n you will be able to determine experimentally, capital T, yarn count, yarn fineness, you
will be able to determine experimentally, small t, fiber fineness you will be able to determine
experimentally that means, these 3 quantities are possible to determine experimentally then by

58
using this relation, you will be able to find out K n, right, so in this manner we will be able to
find out coefficient kn and also number of fibers present in yarn cross session.

As I said you typically, Kn is very close to 0.95 in case of cotton ring yarns however, because of
the disordered arrangement of fibers in rotor spun yarn, kn is equal to; roughly = 0.8, okay. So,
now we will go to discuss another important, another very important characteristic of yarn
structure that is called packing density.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:37)

Now, probably I told you that yarn; in yarn structure, we study the arrangement of fibers in
yarn, this arrangement is generally expressed, either expressed by fiber packing arrangement as
well as fiber directional arrangement. Fiber directional arrangement means fiber inclination
from yarn axis, this coefficient Kn will be able to speak about fiber directional arrangement,
fiber orientation in yarn.

How do we find out fiber packing arrangement, how to characterize fiber packing arrangement
in yarn? By using packing density, we can characterize fiber packing arrangement in yarn, what
is packing density? We use a symbol mu to denote fiber packing density, fiber packing density
is a very, very important characteristic of yarn, we will use in many modules this term, packing
density.

Packing density is defined by volume occupied by all fibers in the yarn divided by volume of
the yarn, so packing density is a ratio which is defined by volume occupied by all fibers in the
yarn to the volume occupied by the yarn itself. Now, what is your V; volume occupied by all

59
fibers in the yarn, in this module we have already learned V / L = T / rho, so V = T times L /
rho and what is Vc?

Vc is pi D2/ 4 * L, if we consider yarn is cylindrical, we often consider it right now, what is T/

rho; T / rho = capital S, also we have learned, so T* L / rho is capital S * L, so this L, L will
cancel out, we will obtain S/ (pi D2 / 4) now, what is S? S is T / rho, so T /(pi D2/ 4 * rho) right,
so mu = S/ pi D squared further, we can write it as (pi Ds square/ 4)/( pi D square/ 4), so Ds/ D
whole squared, so this is an expression for Mu.

So, Mu; Mu is defined by this expression, volume occupied by all fibers in the yarn divided by
volume of the yarn, we can; if we know this expression Ds and D, we also will to find out what
is Mu. Now, we would like to learn packing density a little more, this is a very important
characteristics of yarn structure we are going to use it in many modules, we should have a more
feeling for this term packing density.

Now, let us learn this term a little more now, in fact this term packing density is probably very
important for almost all textile materials be it a monofilament or Sliver or yarn or woven fabric
knitted fabric, normal fabric very important term.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:19)

So, this table gives you an idea of the level of packing density in different textile materials, in
monofilament there is no air practically, there is no air so, packing density of monofilament is
1, limit structure we will come a little later, combed cotton yarn; packing density range is from

60
0.5 to 0.6, carded cotton yarn; packing density ranges from 0.38 to 0.55, what is the packing
density of roving; cotton roving?

Lot of air is present, packing density ranges from 0.1 to 0.2, what about sliver, what is the
packing density of sliver, a very porous object, packing density is typically around 0.03 for
roving, what is about Woven fabric; packing density of woven fabric is 0.15 to 0.3, knitted
fabric typically ranges from 0.1 to 0.2, cotton wool is a medical product, we often used to cover
a wound, packing intensity ranges from 0.02 to 0.04.

Some other materials just to compare where our textile material falls, Earthenware; 0.2 to 0.23,
Wood; 0.3 to 0.7, Animal leather; 0.33 to 0.66, so this is a table which gives you ideas about the
packing density in different materials. Now, packing density now if somebody will tell you
packing density of this yarn is around 0.5, what do you infer from this information, you will tell
that from definition, 50% of the volume is occupied by fibre, 50% of the volume is occupied by
air very good, correct.

Can you speak something more on this, can you talk about the arrangement of fibers inside the
yarn, a little difficult, let us a bit try, what do you see, meaning of; structural meaning of
packing density? Now, probably you have heard during your undergraduate course, hexagonal
packing arrangement, hexagonal model of fiber packing arrangement in yarn, so we will use a
model of fiber packing to know more about this term packing density.
(Refer Slide Time: 56:20)

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So, circular fibers, let us assume, let us imagine that circular fibers are arranged in an hexagonal
manner in a yarn so, this is typically hexagonal arrangement and its unit cell is a triangle which
is shown here now, what is the packing density of this structure, if we are able to find out the
packing density of the unit cell that will be equal to the packing density of this structure
because this structure consists of this unit cell, so is an equilateral triangle.

So, this equilateral angle packing density you will be able to find out area occupied by the
fibers by area of the triangle, what is the area occupied by the fibers? So, this is the area of this
sector, there are 3 sectors, so this is the area occupied by the fibers and what the formula of
equilateral triangle * (d + h), this is the base, so you see that square, right yeah, so what is h; h
is the distance between 2 fibers and d is diameter of fiber.

Now, so this is the expression for packing density in hexagonal packing arrangement now, in
the next class we will find out 4 variants of this arrangement by considering different values of
h, we will try to find out packing density of those 4 variants and then we will be able to find out
which is typical variant for yarn because we know yarn packing density ranges from roughly
0.4 to 0.6.

So, which of these variants follow yarn structure we will be able to know also, we will be able
to know what is the meaning of packing density 0.5 or 0.4 or 0.6, so in the next class, we will
do that thank you, thank you very much for your kind attention.

62
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 04
Basic Characteristics of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all today, we will continue with our last class on module 2, basic
characteristics of yarns, we will start with packing density. In the last class, we started with the
definition of packing density, if you remember well packing density is defined by the ratio of
volume of fibers occupied in the yarn to the volume of the yarn itself.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:10)

Now, it is possible also to interpret packing density in Arial terms that is the ratio of area
occupied by fibers to the area of the yarn now, packing density is a dimensionless quantity
theoretically, it varies from 0 to 1, suppose if we say packing density of this air is 0.5, what do
we interpret; we interpret that 50% of the volume of this yarn is occupied by fiber and the rest
50% is occupied by the air, this is correct.

Can we infer more information about the yarn structure? The fiber packing arrangement inside
the yarn structure is characterized by packing density that means, packing density gives certain
ideas about the packing arrangement fiber; packing arrangement inside the yarn structure, so
how it gives certain arrangement about the fibers in the yarn structure that we will discuss
today. Let us take the model which is often used in case of yarn, hexagonal packing model.

63
So, in this model fibers are packed in an hexagonal manner, you can see this hexagon now, we
need to find out packing density of this model structure now, this model structure is a repetition
of one unit cell that unit cell is shown here, it is basically a triangle, in this triangle, free spaces
there and also some areas are occupied by fibers. Now, how much is the area occupied by the
fibers?

So, packing density is defined by area occupied by fibers to area of the triangle, then in
yesterday's class itself, we derived this expression; Mu is the packing density 1 divided by 1 +
h/d whole square, where h is the distance between 2 fibers and d stands for fiber diameter. Now,
we will study 4 different variants of this model, we will use this equation, is a generalized
equation to find out packing density of those 4 different variants.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:19)

Let us start with the first variant so, first case; tightest structure, how we define tightest
structure? The structure where distance between fibers = 0 that means, fibers are touching each
other. So here you see in this image, the fibers are touching each other, very little white spaces
you can see that is basically air, occupied by air. Now, we need to find out packing density of
this structure.

So, what is the packing density of the structure; very similar unit cell is shown here, there is the
fibers are touching each other, so h = 0 here then, what is the packing density of this structure,
the packing density of this unit cell? In general, for hexagonal packing arrangement, this
relationship is valid, let us put h = 0 here, so what we will obtain; we will obtain = pi/(2 root
3). 1 divided by ( 1 + 0/ d) whole square.

64
So, this term is 0 and 1 + 0 is 1, 1 divided by 1 is 1 that means this whole term becomes equal
to 1, so this becomes pi/ (2 root 3), this is roughly = 0.91, so what we infer is that in case of
tightest structure according to hexagonal fiber packing arrangement, the packing density = 0.91
that means 91% of the volume or 91% of the area is occupied by fibers, rest 9% is occupied by
air only.

Now, what will be the behaviour of this structure; no doubt this structure will be mechanically
very strong but this structure is less porous that means, fluid transmission properties air
permeability for example, will be very less for this kind of structure, so this kind of structure is
mechanically enough stable. However, it is not very soft, it is not very porous and its fluid
transmission properties will be less.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:10)

So, this was the case 1, now we will proceed to another case that is case 2 that this is your case
2, we call it as tight structure or compact structure. How we define this structure? In this
structure, the distance between fibers is small, it is not equals to 0 however, it is small, how
much small; it varies from 0 to 1/2 of the diameter of fiber so, 0 to d/2, so scheme of this
structure is shown here, you can see little gap is there between fibers, unit cell of this structure
is shown here where there is a value of h, which is very small.

Now, what is the packing density of this structure? Mu for general hexagonal structure, this
relationship we have already derived if we put h = 0 here, we obtain Mu = 0.91, just now we
have seen. If we put h = d/2 here, what will be the value of Mu; you can try this value will be

65
roughly = 0.4 that means, the packing density of this structure will be somewhere ranging from
0.4 to 0.91.

What will be the behaviour of the structure, this structure is a tight or compact structure, then
the little space available in between fibers, so this structure will be mechanically strong at the
same time, it will be porous, it will be soft so, fluid transmission it will have quite okay fluid
transmission properties, so this will be the behaviour of tight structure. Now, to give you a note
you remember what was the packing density of; typical packing density of yarn?

It is; it varies from say 0.38 to 0.55 that means our yarn is very similar to this kind of structure;
tight structure, it is mechanically strong at the same time, it is quite soft porous and
exhibit quite okay fluid transmission properties, so that is the beauty of yarn structure so, now
we will proceed to the third case that is intermediate structure case 3.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:22)

How we define intermediate structure? In intermediate structure, the distance between fibers is
higher, then that in case of tight structure so, you can see here fibers are more spaced as
compared to earlier tight structure, so the unit cell is shown here first, what is the packing
density of the structure? The packing density of this structure can again be found out from our
known relation if you put h = d, we will obtain Mu is equal to roughly = 0.40.

If you put h = d/2, half of diameter then you will find out Mu = 0.23 that means, for this
structure, packing density will vary in this range 0.23 to 0.4 well, there is one small mistake is
here, in place of d, it will be d/2 and here in place of d/2, it will be d, so when h = d/2, you will

66
get Mu = 0.4, when h = d, you will get 0.23, so in case of intermediate structure, packing
density ranges from 0.23 to 0.4, how will be the behaviour of the structure?

This structure will be quite soft quite, white porous, it will have good fluid transmission
properties but this structure will not be mechanically as strong as earlier structures, so this is
intermediate structure.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:24)

Now, we will proceed to the last variant that is loose structure, scheme of the loose structure is
shown here. Here, the distance between fibers is too large; you can visualize it, what is the
packing density of this structure? This is the general formula for packing density of hexagonal
fiber packing arrangement, if you put this condition then you will find out packing density of
the structure will be < 0.23.

So that means < 23% of the area is occupied by fibers, more than 77% of the area is occupied
by air that means, this structure will exhibit very good fluid transmission properties, air
permeability for example and it is very soft, very much porous structure but from mechanical
point of view, it is not as strong as our earlier structures, just to tell you that in textiles, non-
woven materials generally exhibit packing density in this range.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:36)

67
So that is why non-woven materials are known to be very porous, very soft kind of materials, so
if we now summarize these 4 structures what we see is that the first one is the tightest structure,
distance between fiber is 0, packing density will be roughly = 0.91, tight structure where
distance will be vary from 0 to 1/2 of the diameter accordingly packing density will vary from
0.40 to 0.91.

Most of our yarns generally fall in this packing density range, intermediate structure; the
distance between fiber ranges from 1/2 of the diameter to diameter accordingly packing density
ranges from 0.23 to 0.40, for loose structure distance between fiber is much greater than fiber
diameter itself accordingly, packing density will be very low < 0.23, so this completes our
discussion on packing density.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:50)

68
Now, we will proceed to yarn diameter, a very important characteristics of yarn; yarn diameter.
How we find out yarn diameter, no; in the last class we have already derived yarn diameter =
4S/ pi times Mu, now what is S; S is; D is yarn diameter, S is substance cross sectional area of
yarn, Mu is packing density of fibers in yarn and also in the last class, we derived this S =
capital T / rho.

So, if we substitute that for 4T / pi Mu rho, so T is a yarn fineness in direct count, rho is a fiber
density, so yarn diameter = root over (4 * T / ( pi * Mu * rho)), you can see that capital T,
yarn
fineness is easy to measure, fiber density is also possible to measure, packing density is
also possible to measure that means, all 3 quantities on the right hand side are possible to
measure experimentally accordingly, D can be determined, right.

Now, so again if we write this into this, so then we can write this equal to Ds/ Mu, what is Ds;
in the last class if you remember Ds stands for substance diameter, so we talked about 2
diameter; one is yarn diameter, second is substance yarn diameter, how they are related? Yarn
diameter = substance diameter root over packing density, so if we know packing density, if we
know yarn diameter we can find out substance diameter.

Now, let us rewrite our expression of yarn diameter, T, this let us say K, then we can write D =
K root T, what is K? K is called coefficient of yarn diameter, now let us point out one
interesting fact.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:34)

69
So what we learnt, D = K * root T, what is K; K is coefficient of yarn diameter which is = root
over 4/ pi Mu rho, K depends on Mu and rho suppose, you produce yarn, ring spun cotton yarn
of different say, counts, do you think packing density will be same; packing density will not be
same that means, a group of that means all ring spun cotton yarns do not have same value of K
then you remember this expression which is very popularly used in our branch, cannot be
applied for all yarns even if they are prepared by using same fibers.

Because packing density is not constant as packing density is variable, this relationship is not
true for all yarns, even if they are prepared by using same fibers, this is a very popular error that
we commit right, now we go back to our relationship of substantial diameter Ds is root over 4S/
pi, right * S, okay so this is a constant let us say Ks, then we can write this expression is Ks root
S, this Ks, okay then what is Ks?

Ks, we will call coefficient of substance yarn diameter, right if you read this equation Ds
substantial diameter = Ks root over capital S; capital S is substance cross sectional area of yarn
and what is Ks, Ks is coefficient of substance yarn diameter. What do you observe? Generally,
in practice we work with K not with Ks, right but what is interesting in this expression is that
Ks is dimensionless why; simple.

Because if S is a millimeter square area, Ds diameter is millimetre, this is square root, so this
millimeter and millimeter will cancel, so Ks will become dimensionless generally, speaking
these dimensionless quantities are very, very important they give lot of internal information
about yarn structure, so for theoretical research work, scientists prefer to work with Ks because
it is dimensionless quantity, it gives you lot of information.

There are many dimensionless quantities probably, we have learnt already and we are going to
learn many in the subsequent modules, one dimensionless quantity is packing density, right, it
is a ratio of volume to volume and by now, you know the importance of packing density, it talks
a lot about the internal structure of yarn, right. So, we have learned about yarn diameter,
substance yarn diameter and also the coefficient of yarn diameter, capital K and coefficient of
substance yarn diameter capital K subscript s, okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:20)

70
The; yes, now we will proceed to yarn twist, another important characteristics of yarn, yarn
twist as known, the traditional staple yarns are strengthened by means of twisting although too
much twist is not good from mechanical point of view of yarn now, this twist is characterized
by number of coils inserted in a given length of yarn divided by length of the yarn, so Z we
denote yarn twist, Nc; number of coils inserted, L; length of the yarn.

So, how many coils are inserted in a given length of yarn that is basically untwist, Nc is a
number, dimensionless, L the length quantity, it has the length dimension that is why this yarn
twist will have inverse length dimension, you will see sometimes inch universe or meter inverse
like that this will be the units of Z, right. Now, we will talk about another interesting character
of a yarn, twist intensity.

Look at this quantity, capital D multiplied by capital Z, what is capital D; yarn diameter, what is
capital Z, yarn twist. What is interesting about this quantity? This quantity is dimensionless,
right if we multiply this quantity by pi, we obtained twist intensity, so twist intensity is
characterized by symbol Kappa = pi times D times Z, so twist intensity = pi DZ. Now, there is a
very interesting physical meaning of this parameter, twist intensity we will come to that.

But before that look at the dimension as I told you probably, in the first class that in the course
of theory of yarn structure, you should always look at the dimensions of the quantities; if you
find out any dimension any structure, any dimensionless quantity thinks about it, what does it
say? Generally speaking, dimensionless quantities are very important to develop to think about
yarn more deeply.

71
Here again we come across with another dimensionless quantity that is twist intensity now,
what is the meaning of twist intensity? Let us learn about the meaning of twist intensity.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:43)

What you see in this image is that a cylindrical yarn of diameter D, capital D then you see a
fiber this on the surface, so you see it then it goes inside, you do not see it by dotted line and
then again it comes to the surface you see it so the thick bold line you see, dotted line you do
not see again, thick line you see, fiber starts from surface goes inside then it comes back to the
surface, so this is one coil.

So, what is the length? Length is 1/Z, Z is yarn twist right, all right, there is one more
information that is this surface fiber makes an angle beta times D from the yarn axis, so surface
fiber twist angle is beta D, please note that beta D is not the twist angle of all fibers, it is the
twist angle of one surface fiber right. Now, imaginatively let us unroll this cylinder along its
axis.

So, you unroll and you obtain this image; a triangle, this angle is beta D, this length is pi times
D, let us find out what is this angle and this height is 1/ Z, so tangent of beta D, tangent of this
angle, this divided by this, so pi D divided by 1/ Z, so pi D Z, what is pi DZ; twist intensity just
now we learnt, Kappa so, what we see that twist intensity = tangent of the surface fiber twist
angle, so this is the physical meaning of twist intensity.

72
Twist intensity means tangent of the twist angle that a peripheral fiber makes from yarn axis
later on you will see that this variable pi DZ is very important from physical behaviour point of
view of yarn, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:26)

So, now we will come to our last characteristic of yarn that is twist multiplier or twist
coefficient sometimes, we use this word, this phrase twist multiplier or sometimes we use this
phrase twist coefficient, they mean same now, what is twist multiplier or twist coefficient?
Alpha is Z T to the power q, later on we will speak in some of the models, we will speak about
this relation.

This alpha is twist multiplier or twist coefficient, Z is yarn twist, T is yarn fineness in direct
count, we have defined throughout this model yarn fineness in direct count, so even if I tell or I
do not tell capital T denotes mass per unit length of yarn, q is important, is a coefficient is an
exponent right now, this exponent has different numerical values.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:04)

73
In India and probably in major parts of the world, we use this exponent q = 1/2 for the first time
there was one scientist whose name was Koechlin, he for probably for the first time thought q =
1/2 why he thought about this that we will discuss in module 3, next module, so that is why
when we write alpha = Z root T, we talked about Koechlin’s twist coefficient, right but in some
parts of the world especially, Eastern European countries, q is not taken as 1/2, q is taken as 2/3.

So that is often called as Phrix coefficient of twist multiplier in that case we obtain Z T to the
power 2/3, in India all industries, all universities this relationship is generally taught however, if
you visit Eastern European countries, if you visit some of the spinning companies, you will see
they use some different twist multiplier, do not get surprised, there are many different values of
this exponent q are available in the world, in third module we will speak more about them.

So, it is not only 1/2 it is not only 2/3, there are many more so similarly, if we use substance
cross sectional area, we can find alpha s will be = Z * S to the power q, right and if we use
Koechlin then we will use alpha s = Z root S, when we consider Phrix coefficient then we will
write alpha = Z S to the power 2/3, as I told you sometimes in theoretical work, we often work
with these expressions.

But probably for practical purposes in industrial practice, we use alpha but for theoretical work
many times we prefer to use alpha subscript s, so that is why it is probably better for you to
know about alpha as well as alpha s, right. So, I think all the characteristics of; all the basic
characteristics of yarn are now known to you.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:20)

74
We summarize, we talked about substance cross sectional area capital S in the last class then,
we talked about substance diameter of yarn, we defined it in the last class and also we
continued in today's class then, in the last class we talked about third important characteristics
of yarn relative fineness, we use this symbol to denote relative fineness, then we talked about
very important coefficient; coefficient Kn which generally talks about orientation of fibers
inside the yarn structure.

Then we spoke about number of fibers in yarn cross section then today, we discussed about
packing density Mu, here we used n then today, we talked about yarn diameter and also partly
talked about substance diameter again then, we talked about yarn twist we use the symbol
capital Z for that then, we talked about twist intensity pi times T times Z, we use symbol Kappa
for that.

Then at last, we talked about twist multiplier or twist coefficient, we use alpha, alpha s, right so
these are the basic characteristics of yarn that we have discussed so far now, what we will do;
we will solve a few numerical problems on this module, so that you will have further better
understanding of this module. So, we will start with our first numerical problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:40)

75
(Refer Slide Time: 48:46)

So, this numerical problem we will start first, so how it reads; state the expressions along with
the physical dimensions for the yarn characteristics given in column A in terms of the fiber and
yarn characteristics given in column B a very similar problem we solved in module 1 that
means, in this column, yarn characteristics are mentioned, in this column fiber as well as some
the yarn characteristics are mentioned.

You need to express the variables in column A in terms of the variables in column B for
example, count of yarn you need to express count of yarn in terms of mass of yarn and length of
yarn along with unit, right so, let us start, count of yarn say, capital D tex = mass per unit length
mass you will express in say gram, L; length of yarn if you wish to express in meter, you have
to multiply by 1000, right.

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Because tex 1 gram; 1 tex is 1 gram power 1 kilometer, so if you express here L in terms of
millimeter you have to change this accordingly okay, first is done, second; count of yarn
density of fiber and substance cross sectional area of yarn; substance cross section area of yarn,
so capital D tex = rho * S, if we express rho in kg per meter cube and if we express S, substance
cross sectional area of yarn say, in meter square then, you need to multiply by 10 to the power 6
in order to balance both side, so this was the second.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:56)

Third; diameter of yarn in terms of count of yarn, density of fiber, packing density in yarn, so
let us write next page, diameter of yarn D, suppose in millimeter in terms of count of yarn
divide by pi times Mu packing density is dimensionless into rho kg per meter cube, you can
verify this is a balanced expression, so diameter in terms in unit millimeter = square root of 4
times T, T is yarn fineness in tex pi Mu, dimensionless packing density rho fiber density in kg
per meter cube.

So, this is over, we will go to the next one; number of fibers in cross section of yarn in terms of
coefficient kn and relative yarn count, relatively easy, number of fibers in yarn cross section
dimensionless and relative yarn fineness also dimensionless, capital D / small d and coefficient
kn is also dimensionless, very easy expression. So, you go to the next one; diameter of yarn
diameter multiply yarn and count of yarn.

So, this you need to be little careful, diameter of yarn in millimeter K times root T; T is tex, so
what will be the unit; millimeter * tex to the power – 0.5, right, so diameter; yarn diameter in

77
millimetres, coefficient of yarn diameter K unit is millimeter * tex to the power – 1/2 * root
over T; T is yarn count in tex, okay. Then we go to the next one; twist intensity of yarn in terms
of diameter of yarn and twist of yarn.

So, twist intensity of yarn, Kappa dimensionless pi times diameter * Z; Z let us write in terms
of meter inverse, so you have to divide by 1000, okay then the last expression twist of yarn, in
terms of twist multiplier and count of yarn, so twist of yarn Z let us assume its unit is this alpha,
alpha unit will be into meter inverse divided by root over T tex, so twist of yarn in terms of
twist multiplier alpha and count of yarn; count of yarn T tex and this is unit of alpha, twist
multiplier has unit.

So this completes our numerical problem 1, thank you very much for your kind attention.

78
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 05
Basic Characteristics of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all, we will continue with module 2, basic characteristics of yarn, in the last
class we established the important characteristics of yarn and we have solved one numerical
problem now, we would like to solve a few more numerical problems on module 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:09)

So, numerical problem number 2 is in front of you; a ring spun yarn of 30 tex count is prepared
from cotton fibers of 3 deci tex fineness, so what information is given to you; capital T is given,
30 Tex right and also fiber fineness, small t also given to you, 3 deci Tex, estimate the number
of fibers present in the cross section of the yarn, so you need to find out n, what is given more,
assume Kn, coefficient Kn is 0.95.

So, this is basically the problem, you need to find out n, these 3 values are given right, so how
will you find out this, we know n = Kn times capital T/ small t, we have already derived, so now
Kn is given 0.90; 0.95 and what is capital T; 30 Tex, small t, 0.3, so it will be the value, 95, so
this is the correct answer 95 to give you a small note, if you calculate many people do, n = 100
since you know n is capital T / small t which will be wrong.

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Because this formula is valid for parallel fiber assembly not for yarn because yarn is a twisted
fibrous assembly for yarn, you have to multiply kn; kn has a value != 1, 0.95, this we have
already spoken all right, okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:18)

So, then we proceed to numerical problem 3; calculate the diameter of a cotton yarn of 50 Tex
count and 0.40 packing density, so what is given; capital T is 50 Tex, Mu is 0.4, consider that
the diameter of the yarn is directly proportional to the square root of the count that means,
Koechlin formula, we have to use so, diameter of the yarn in millimeter is directly proportional
to square root in tex, this is given.

That means, D millimeter K * root T; T is in Tex, so you need to basically find out K, so K in
this unit millimeter tex to the power 0.5 D, let us rewrite it by root T tex, right, so what is D? D
is not given, D you need to calculate, T is given; 50, okay no problem, let us calculate D, (())
(06:42) it, so 4 capital T; 50 divided by pi * Mu (0.4) * density of cotton fiber which we can
take 1520 kg per meter cube, so what will this value?

If you calculate you will get this value as 0.3237, this value if you substitute here, square root
of 50 will give you a value, 0.0458, so these all numbers are practical numbers that means, this
constants of proportionality, the coefficient of yarn diameter, for this yarn is this value right,
okay. So, now we will proceed to the last problem, numerical problem 4.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:19)

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Consider in a yarn that a set of circular fibers are arranged according to the tightest hexagonal
packing arrangement in different layers such that the number of fibers in the first layer is 1, the
number of fibers in the second layer is 6 and so on, find out the total number of fiber that the
structure has if it consists of 9 layers, so it is a problem on hexagonal packing arrangement
tightest structure.

You can find out if you study the structure a little more, you can find out that number of fibers
in a layer = 1, you can derive this formula, number of fibers in a layer = 6 * layer number - 1
except when layer number is > = 2, so number of fibers in a layer = 6 times layer number – 1,
this formula is true when layer number > = 2, so that means for the first layer it is not true valid,
for second layer onwards, this formula is valid, you can find it out, you can derive it.

Now, so number of fibers in second layer = 6 * 2 - 1 that = 6, already given, number of fibers in
a second layer is 6 similarly, number of fibers in third layer; 6 * 3 - 1 that is 12, number of
fibers in fourth layer; 6 * 4 – 1, 18 and so on so, what will be total number of fibers?
(Refer Slide Time: 11:42)

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Total number of fibers will be; first layer it is 1, second layer it is 6, third layer 12, fourth layer
18, fifth layer 24, sixth layer 30, seventh layer 36, eighth layer 42, ninth layer 48, till ninth
layer, so what will the value? 217 that means, total number of fibers of the structure; if it has 9
layers, this will be the distribution of number of fibers in each layer, the total number will be
217.

So, this is the answer to this problem number 4, so this was our last numerical problem on
module 2, so we have completed module 2, we will now proceed to module 3, thank you, thank
you for your attention.

82
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 06
Relations among Yarn Count, Twist, and Diameter

Welcome to you all to this MOOC’s online video course theory of yarn structure. Today, we
will start module 3, relations among yarn count, twist and diameter. As you all know, the
relations among yarn count, twist and diameter are related to specific geometrical and
mechanical properties of yarns. The basic quantity which is underlying this relationship is
called packing density.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:04)

The fibre packing density in yarn basically decide this relationship among yarn count, yarn
twist and yarn diameter. The first traditional model regarding this relationship was
established by Koechlin in the year 1828. So you can imagine this concept is quite old. Now
in the year of 1828, the specific regulations in yarn structure especially the mechanics of
fibrous assembly inside the yarn was not well known.

The specific tensors, stress tensor in yarn were also not well known. So Koechlin introduced
a few basically two important assumptions. As those relationships were unknown in the year
of 1828, Koechlin introduced two assumptions. The first assumption packing density is a
function of twist intensity only. So this was the first assumption of Koechlin. Packing density
is a function of twist intensity only.

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So symbolically mu packing density is a function of yarn twist intensity kappa where kappa
is=pi times D times Z. So this was the first assumption of Koechlin. Now let us analyze the
consequence of this assumption.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:24)

Consequence of first assumption, we will discuss with twist coefficients or twist multiplier
and diameter multiplier. So the question is what are the consequence of Koechlin’s first
assumption on twist coefficient or twist multiplier and diameter multiplier. So we will answer
to this question now. First, let us start with twist coefficient. First, twist coefficient as we
know that alpha S Z root over S and alpha is=Z root over T.

So these two relationships we learned in module 2 right. Now what is S? S is the substance
cross-sectional area of yarn. So that is (pi D square/4*mu). This relation also we learned in
module 2. So let us write this expression pi right. Now this pi DZ, this quantity is equal to
kappa twist intensity. So we can write this expression further as kappa *√(mu) /(2√pi). Now
look at this carefully.

Twist intensity kappa 2 root over pi is a constant. This is a constant right and root over mu.
Now we assume packing density is a function of twist intensity only, so we can write
kappa*√(f(kappa)) / 2 /√pi, this function f is right now unknown okay. So this was related to
twist coefficient. Second twist coefficient, let us see Z, now T we know that T=( D 2 pi mu
rho)/4 right.

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So we can further write pi DZ. Pi DZ is kappa. So we can write kappa*√(f(kappa)*rho) / 2
/√pi okay. So these were the consequences of Koechlin’s first assumption on twist
coefficient. Now we will analyze the consequence of first assumption on diameter multiplier.

But before that what we see here is alpha subscript is a function of kappa only right and alpha
is also a function of kappa only because fibre density is assumed to be constant because
Koechlin studied yarns produced from same fibrous material using same technology for
analogical end users. So that is why rho same fibrous material was used so rho is constant
here.

So that means what we see is that alpha S as well as alpha both twist coefficients are
functions of kappa only. Now let us proceed to the consequence of first assumption on
diameter multiplier.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:46)

Now diameter multiplier, two relations we learned in module 2 regarding diameter multiplier
D is=K√S. Second, what we learned is D is=K√T. So these two relations we already learned
in module 2 right. So what we see here K S= D/√ S. What is S? Let us substitute S with pi
D2/4*mu right. So this D & D will cancel out and what we will see is 2 /√( pi*mu) right.

Now mu is a function of twist intensity only. So we write 2/√( pi* f(kappa)), look 2 is a
constant, pi is a constant, function of twist intensity that means KS is a function of twist
intensity only. What happens to K? So K is D/root T, is not it? Now what is T? Let us write 4

85
so what we see here is 2 this DD will cancel out and as a result you will get this expression, is
not it? Now 2/√( pi* f(kappa) rho).

So what we see here, 2 constant, pi is another constant, rho same fibrous material so rho is
constant. So diameter multiplier D is also a function of twist intensity only.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:27)

So if we summarize these two results then what we obtain is twist coefficients as well as
diameter multipliers are functions of twist intensity. So this statement is the consequence of
Koechlin’s first assumption alright. Now we introduce Koechlin’s second assumption and the
very interesting assumption was introduced by Koechlin, what was that? The twist intensity
of yarns with different counts is same.

Look at this second assumption of Koechlin. The twist intensity of yarns with different
counts is same.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:52)

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That means and as I told you earlier Koechlin used same fibrous material. He used same
technology for yarn production and those yarns were of same analogical end use, apparel end
use right and Koechlin’s second assumption was the twist intensity of yarns with different
counts is same. So that means twist intensity is same. Then, what happens to our
consequences let us see now.

So this was the consequence of first assumption and now we will analyze the consequence of
both assumptions. Alpha S was a function of twist intensity only and twist intensity of yarns
with different fineness is same, so alpha S is same for all yarns. Similarly, first assumption
told alpha is a function of twist intensity only and second assumption told twist intensity is
same for all yarns, so alpha is same for all yarns right.

Then, what happens to diameter multiplier? K S is a function of twist intensity only and twist
intensity is same for all yarns. So KS is same for all yarns. Similarly, K is a function of twist
intensity only and twist intensity is same for all yarns, so K is same for all yarns.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

87
That means what we see is that alpha S is a constant, alpha is a constant right, K S is a
constant, K is a constant. They are same for all yarns. That means finally if they are same for
all yarns, then mu packing density for all yarn is same. Packing density is same for all yarns.
This is not correct. Why? Because we know packing density ranges from 0.38 to roughly
0.55, so packing density is not same for all yarns.

Experimentally, we have analyzed it and we observed that packing density ranges from 0.38
carded yarn to 0.55 for combed yarn. Why is it so? What went wrong in Koechlin’s
assumption? Let us now analyze these two assumptions once again. Koechlin’s second
assumption twist intensity of yarns with different count is same.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:56)

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That means kappa is pi times D times Z is constant right. Now as for our experience on yarn
manufacturing is concerned, this assumption is probably not too far from reality. When we
insert higher twist, yarn becomes more compact and diameter reduces. So Z is increasing, D
is decreasing, pi is constant. So probably kappa is constant is not a too bad assumption. Then,
what went wrong?

Let us then come back to first assumption. Koechlin’s first assumption packing density is a
function of twist intensity only. Twist intensity is not a function of packing density only. It
depends on yarn count too. So probably this assumption Koechlin’s first assumption was not
too real. So that is why empirical corrections to Koechlin’s equation were necessary and
many scientists, researchers worked on yarn structure proposed different corrections to
Koechlin’s expression. Let us see those empirical corrections to Koechlin’s expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:19)

So now we would like to see empirical corrections to Koechlin’s theory. Now if we

generalize those corrections, then we will see that suitably yarn twist as per those scientists
who proposed different corrections, Z alpha/Tq. So this must twist is required to give yarn. Now
alpha you know twist coefficient or twist multiplayer T to the power q. Now the scientists
who proposed different corrections empirical corrections to Koechlin’s theory, they proposed
different values of q.

Say let us summarize those. Say author Koechlin himself first and probably in the year if you
look at 1828, he proposed the value of q 0.5 right. Then, there was another researcher who
worked on yarn structure Staub; in 1900 he proposed a value 0.6. Remember these values

89
came from experimental results. They are empirical. Then, there was another scientist
Johansen in 1902 he proposed a value 0.644.

Then, there were many important Phrix in 1942 he proposed 2/3 this. Then, Neckar in 1971
he published research article where he mentioned the value of q ranging from 0.577 0.6 like
that, so there were many, we could list 5 here. So what we see is that there are two trends, the
first trend is different researchers proposed empirical corrections to Koechlin’s theory. So the
value of q is different according to different researchers.

Second which is interesting all the values of q, if you look at them, you will see that all the
values are >=0.5. Not a single value till date proposed by any researcher falls below 0.5. So
they are higher than 0.5 or else Koechlin proposed it is equal to 0.5. It is a very interesting
trend. As a student of theory of yarn structure, you should basically look at those results and
then start thinking why is this happening, why all the values are >0.5, why not a single value
falls below 0.5.

So this gives you inspiration for future research. So you have to think critically and
analytically alright. So these were the empirical corrections to Koechlin’s theory. Now
problem with empirical corrections is that if we use different yarns say yarns from different
fibres or say yarns with different technologies, ring spinning technology, rotor spinning
technology, air jet yarn manufacturing technology.

So if we use different technologies or different fibrous materials, the value of q will be

different but this value of q is required for yarn production, is not it? Then, how will you
predict before producing the yarn what should be the value of q? Accordingly, I will set the
yarn manufacturing technology process parameters. So it is very much necessary to predict
the value of q in this case before production of the yarn.

But all relations are empirical, so that was probably the necessity of a theoretical model
which can propose a theoretical scientific relation among yarn count, yarn twist and yarn
diameter. Such a model exists, so but it is a theoretical model. As typically happens, every
theoretical model is based on certain assumptions, certain hypothesis. Then, the equations are
derived and then finally final results are compared with experimental ones.

90
So here we will describe one theoretical model which accounts for a relationship among yarn
count, yarn twist and yarn diameter. So we will start with certain assumptions. We will
develop mathematical equations until we achieve the final one and we will show you the
comparison of the final theoretical expressions with experimental results. So it will take quite
a long time.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:13)

Let us name this model as a simple mechanical model. This model is based on a few
assumptions. The primary assumptions, the 4 primary assumptions I will write down, also
while deriving relationships we will introduce a few more assumptions. First assumption, all
fibres have helical shape. So yarn consists of many fibres and inside the yarn, the fibres
follow helical pattern, helical shape, all fibres follow helical pattern.

Second assumption, all helixes have a common axis, that is yarn axis. So all helixes have a
common axis that is yarn axis. Third, all helixes have same sense of rotation, same direction
of rotation. So they are not randomly follow rotation. They have a same sense, same direction
of rotation. Fourth, basically it is a direction of twist. Fourth as a result of helical path fibre
coil will be developed.

So each fibre coil has same height right. These are all primary assumptions. The fifth
assumption is a very important one. This assumption is packing density is same at all places
inside a yarn. Look at this fifth assumption, what we say? We say that in one yarn packing
density is same at all places. Mind it we do not say that packing density of all yarns is same,
we are not saying that.

91
What we are saying is that in one particular yarn, packing density will be same at all places
inside the yarn right. So these 5 are the initial assumptions. Now we will start developing this
model.
(Refer Slide Time: 36:32)

Look at this image. A cylindrical yarn, one fibre coil is shown here, this on the surface so you
see it, inside dotted you do not see and then again it comes on the surface you see it right. D
is the diameter of the yarn and r is the radius at which the fibre is present and if we draw a
tangent along this line, this tangent makes an angle beta from yarn axis. So beta is twist angle
of a general fibre right.

Now if you unroll this cylinder, the thick cylinder then what you will see is that this distance
will be 2 pi r, this will be 1/Z because Z is the number of coils per unit length. So the length
will be 1/Z and this angle is beta, so you can understand tangent of beta is=2 pi r Z okay.
Now this fibre trajectory is a basically curve. So what will be the first curvature? We know
from simple mechanics, the first curvature k1 is=(sin2 beta)/r right.

2
Then, what will be radius of curvature? Radius of curvature is 1/curvature right. So r/sin
beta right. So this expression you will recover later on, radius of curvature is=r/sin 2 beta.
What is the beta? Beta is the twist angle at radius r and r is radius okay. Now let us because
of the twist a lot of forces are generating. Some forces are acting along the fibre; some forces
are centripetal in nature. So we would like to study the centripetal force per unit volume of
fibre.

92
(Refer Slide Time: 40:09)

So what is the amount of centripetal force which is generated because of twist or twist
insertion per unit volume of fibre? So we would like to find out this amount. So what do you
do for that we take one small element of fibre UV. This is U, this point is V. So we take a
small element UV. The same element is shown here, U and V this element, we are talking
about this element okay.

Now so this is fibre element, so there is one force which is acting along the fibre, that force is
F. So UV is basically fibre element, a small element UV. We would like to derive an
expression for centripetal force per unit volume of this UV and what is F? F is fibre axial
force okay and what is d phi? d phi is the elementary angle. So here you can see d phi is the
elementary angle and rk is the radius of curvature right.

So d phi is elementary angle okay. What more you see in this image? Yarn diameter D, now
one interesting you can see that there is something gray color. So this gray color cylinder
basically a cylinder where we will see later on some significant compression of fibrous
assembly happens because of twist. So this cylinder is situated at a distance from r+a/2 and r-
a/2, these two ready right okay.

Beta you already know twist angle alright. Now yeah one more symbol is not known to you
that is called dP, dP look at this direction of the force dP is acting here towards S. So dP is
the centripetal force, dP is we need to find out centripetal force per unit volume of fibre. So

93
first we have to find out dP, then we have to find out the volume of UV, then we will divide,
we will find out dP by that volume ratio right. So we will achieve our target.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:28)

Now what is dP? If you look at this one, then what you see is that dP is=2 *F*sin (d(phi) /2).
If you analyze this simple mechanical analysis, you will find out dP is=2 *F*sin (d(phi) /2).
Now is that elemental angle, d phi is an elemental angle? It is very small, so when theta is
small, sin theta is=theta. So when d phi is small, sin(d(phi) /2) is= d(phi) /2. So if we write
that 2F d phi/2 finally we find out F*d phi.

So centripetal force is equal to fibre axial force multiplied by elementary angle okay good.
Now find out the volume because what is our target, our target is to find out an expression for
centripetal force per unit volume. So if we find out volume and if we divide this expression
by that volume, we will obtain our result. So volume of UV we need to find out. How will
you find out volume?

Volume is simple. Radius of curvature* d(phi) *s, s is fibre cross-sectional area, is not it? So
radius of curvature we have already known from our earlier one that is r/sin square beta. So if
we write r/sin2beta*d(phi) and s is fibre cross-sectional area right. So let us write s here okay.
Remember s small s is fibre cross-sectional area, we learnt it in module 1 right. So now
centripetal force per unit volume let us write P1 centripetal force per unit volume, so P1 is
defined by dP/this volume we can write it as dv small volume dv right.

94
So what is dP? dP is F d phi here and what is dv? dv is here, r d(phi) *s/sin 2 beta right. So if
we rearrange it, then what we see is that let us do it once again.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:26)

P1 is=F sin2 beta* d(phi) /r*s* d(phi) right. So d(phi) & d(phi) will cancel out and we obtain
F sin2beta/r*s right. So we wanted to find out an expression for centripetal force per unit
volume of fibre and we obtained it. So this is our desired expression P1 centripetal force per
unit volume of fibre is=fibre axial force sin 2beta. What is beta? Beta is twist angle, r is the
radius of yarn and s is fibre cross-sectional area okay right.

Now this model what we are going to study is based on idea of compressing zone. When we
insert twist fibres in certain region inside the yarn are significantly compressed. Why certain
region? Because same amount of compression is not happening throughout inside the yarn.
Why? Think about. Around yarn surface, packing density is very small; number of fibre to
fibre contact is very small, frictional forces are very small.

So F will be very small, so P1 will be very small. So what we say is that there will be one
significantly compressed zone inside the yarn structure. Where is that? Where is that located
at? That is our question now. Around yarn surface it cannot be. This cannot be present around
yarn surface why? Because packing density, number of fibre to fibre contact, frictional forces
are small.

So F is small, so P1 is small, so this compressing zone cannot be present around the yarn
surface. Can it be present then around yarn core? Around yarn core, it also cannot be present.

95
Why? Around yarn core, fibres are more or less straight. So beta, angle beta is very small. As
a result curvature is also very small. So P1 is small. That means around yarn core, beta is too
small, so P1 is very small.

So this significantly compressed zone can neither be present around yarn core nor be
presented around yarn surface, so where it can be located at?
(Refer Slide Time: 53:29)

Let us assume that this significantly compressing zone what we are talking about is present
somewhere in between yarn core and yarn surface. So let us then say that this gray color
region is the region of cylinder where significantly compressing zone is present. It is not at
core nor at surface it is in between. So we assume that because of twist fibres will be
significantly compressed and this significantly compressing zone is present at a distance from
yarn.

As a distance in between r+a/2 and r-a/2, these two ready. Length of the cylinder is still
remains l, so what is the cross-sectional area of this compressing zone? Look at this gray
color region, this is equal to pi r+a/2 square-pi r-a/2 square, is not it? Okay so this pi is
common, pi now expand it r2+r a+a2/4-r2+r a-a2/4. So what we see is that this r2 and r2 cancel
out.

Then, this a24 and a2/4 cancel out. So we find a and r a. So that is equal to (2 pi r a) right, very
simple expression. So what is the cross sectionality of the compressing zone is 2*pi*r*a, a is
the thickness of the compressing zone okay. Then, what is the volume of this compressing

96
zone? Simple, what is volume? Cross-sectional area*length, length is l, cross-sectional are is
2 pi r a.

So volume is (2 pi r a l). Now this is the volume of compressing zone. What is the volume of
fibre in this compressing zone? Volume of fibres in the compressing zone/volume of the
compressing zone is equal to packing density right. So volume of fibres in the compressing
zone will be (2 pi r a l*mu), mu is the fibre packing density in yarn right. So what will be
total centripetal force?

The total centripetal force will be say P, let us use the symbol P is=P 1 *V. So let us write this
volume as Va, so Va okay. So this will be total centripetal force.
(Refer Slide Time: 58:40)

So P is=P1*Va. What is P1? P1 we have probably derived earlier right, (F sin 2 beta/r*s )that
is P1 and what is Va? Va is 2 pi r a l*mu. So this is the total centripetal force right. If we write
it as F this r & r will be cancel out, so what we obtain,) F*sin2(beta) 2 pi a l mu/s) okay. Now
we need to find out the, so we have found out the total force. Now we stop here. In the next
class, we will start from here and try to find out the pressure developed in this compressing
zone okay. Thank you for your attention.

97
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 07
Relations among Yarn Count, Twist, and Diameter (contd.,)

Welcome to you all. So in the last class, we started module 3, relations among yarn count,
twist and diameter. So as I told you in the last class, the relations among yarn count, twist and
diameter are related to specific geometrical and mechanical behavior of yarns. The
underlying variable which governs this relation is packing density, fibre packing density in
yarn.

Now the very first traditional model on the relations among yarn count and twist was found
by Koechlin in the year 1828 he based on two important assumptions proposed the
relationship; however, experimentally we observed that Koechlin’s model was not too
precise. Then, many researchers in the area of yarn structure proposed many relations related
to yarn count, twist but all relations were empirical only.

The question that remained is, is it possible to theoretically derive a relation among yarn
count, twist and diameter so that we can predict beforehand and then accordingly we can set
our yarn manufacturing process parameters. So with that aim we started a model, simple
mechanical model. In the last class, you learned that this model was based on 4 primary
assumptions and one important assumption.

Then, we derived an expression for centripetal force per unit volume of the fibre. Then, we
were analyzing where the compressing zone is situated inside the yarn. That we have
analyzed in the last class and then we also analyzed the total centripetal force in the
compressing zone. So that was the final results in the last class.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:17)

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Now we assume that this centripetal force P acts on a cylinder which is situated at radius r.
That means what we do, all the partial centripetal forces we centralized at one particular
cylinder that is situated at radius r where the centripetal force P acts. What is the surface area
of that cylinder? Surface area A=2 pi r*l.

So what is the pressure developed in the compressing zone? This pressure P is=the total force
capital P by this area, so this force is this, area is this. So let us write it F sin 2 (beta) 2 pi a
*l*mu/(2 pi r l s) right. So this 2 2 cancel out, pi also, l also. So what you obtain is that F sin
square beta a*mu/r*s. So F sin 2 beta/(r*s a*mu )okay. So this is the expression for the
pressure developed in the compressing zone.

Now what is difficult to obtain is the F. That is the axial force on the fibre. So we have to find
out a suitable expression for the axial force acting on the fibre capital F. So because of the
insertion of the twist, fibers are inclined.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:12)

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So if this is the yarn axis, let us think a fibre which is inclined at an angle beta. So along the
axis of the fibre force F is acting, along the axis of the yarn a force F a is acting and this is the
transverse force Ft right and what is this area? This is not cross-sectional area. This is
sectional area. Sectional area we denote by s superscript star right. Now what is your relation
between this star and s, cos beta.

This we have already derived in module 2 okay and what is the relation between F a and F? Fa
is F times cos(beta). So what is the normal stress? (()) (08:39) sigma, sigma is F a/s* right. So
what is Fa? F cos(beta)/s/cos(beta), so F/s cos2(beta) right. So what is F? F is sigma times
s/cos2(beta) okay. Then, we come back to our original expression of pressure. So this pressure
was F sin2 (beta)/(r*s)* a*mu.

We substitute F from here, so what we obtained is sigma s/cos 2 (beta) sin2(beta)/(r*s) a*mu
right. So only this s is probably getting canceled out. So as a result what we obtain is sigma a
mu tan2(beta) right. Now what is tan(beta)? to work on this expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:30)

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P is= sigma a mu (2 pi r Z) 2okay. Let us write it in this manner, 2 sigma a u/D*2r/D that
means this cancel out into pi DZ this into 2r/S square right, 2 sigma a mu*D/(2r/D) (pi DZ) 2
(2r/D)2. So what do we see here? So this is the expression for P. Now what we see, this D
is=Ds/√mu, 2r/D let us remain this is equal to kappa okay.

Then, your kappa2 and 2r/D, is not it? Okay 2 sigma mu/(Ds/√mu ) kappa 2 2r/D. Further we
write it as 2 sigma a (2r/D) √mu then 1/Ds kappa mu kappa 2/4 pi*4 pi. Why do we write in
this manner? Because this is equal to alphas2 so that is why we write in this manner. So finally
what we see, 8 pi sigma a 2r/D root over mu alphas 2/Ds is not it? Right by Ds so now this a
so let us write this expression in an another form.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:57)

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So what we obtain? P=, 8 pi sigma a 2r/D root over mu alpha s 2/Ds right Ds, we obtain this
now, 8 times pi*sigma. Then, this a/small d, so introduce small d. Then, 2r/D root mu now
this alphas2 Ds/small d okay. Now what is Ds/small d? This is equal to tau, relative fineness
tau. So finally we obtained 8 pi*sigma a/d 2r/D root mu 2/tau right, 8 sigma this a/d 2r/D mu
alphas 2Ds/this tau.

So we obtained √tau okay. Now let us consider this ratio is equal to capital C. So we can then
write pressure capital C √mu alpha s 2/√tau, where C is 8 times pi sigma a/d 2r/d okay clear.
Now let us learn about this ratio C.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

C is 8 times pi rho a/d 2r/D. What does it indicate? What is the physical meaning of C? That
is what we need to learn okay. Now what is this 2r/D? 2r/D we assume it is constant because
if D is increasing let us assume r is also proportionally increasing. If D is decreasing, then R
is also proportionally decreasing, so that this 2r/D remains constant okay. Sigma is the axial
stress in yarn cross section.

Axial stress in yarn cross section can also be a constant because the centrifugal force in
spinning is perhaps the same. The centrifugal force in spinning is perhaps the same, so sigma
can also be considered to be a constant. Then, you have a/d, what is this a/d? a/d is the
relative thickness of the compressing zone, relative thickness of the compression zone right.
Let us assume this is also a constant.

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In that case, your C will be a constant too right. So C is a constant. It is very difficult,
probably impossible to measure experimentally the value of C right. So what is our result?
Our final result is P is=C root mu 2/tau right. So important relation P is the pressure in the
compressing zone. How much pressure is developed in the compressing zone because of twist
which is related to packing density alpha S twist coefficient or twist multiplier right.

And tau relative yarn fineness so yarn tex/fibre tex. Now if that means what, if you try to
increase twist multiplier then your pressure will be increasing and vice versa right. So this is
a very important relation. We need to work on this relation later on okay. Now we think
about a very similar situation which is often talked about in the book of mechanics.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:22)

Two-dimensional homogenous stress, so these fibres in the cross section of yarn and the
pressure is acting on all directions. So the homogenous stress, then it is possible to derive that
this pressure P is a coefficient kP b mu3/(1-(mu/mu maximum ) 2+a )3. So it is possible to derive this
relation. We are not going into the detail of this derivation.

It is possible to derive this expression. So P is k times P, it is basically a coefficient, b is

another coefficient, mu is packing density, mu m is the maximum packing density. Typically,
in yarn mu m is considered to be 0.8. Practically, we have seen this. So mu m is considered to
be 0.8 and a is found to be 1, so this relationship we can later on think about that, mu m is 0.8
and a is 1.

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Now we will compare this equation with our earlier derived expression. Our earlier derived
expression was C times mu alphas 2/root over tau right. Now what we will do? We will make
these two equations equal.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:39)

So kP b mu3/(1-(mu/mu maximum ) 2+a

)3is=C √mu alphas 2/√tau right. These two are equal to
pressure, so they are equal. Now what is your alpha S? C times mu alpha S is=Z root S so Z
root S squared right that is your alpha S and what is tau? Tau is your root over yarn
fineness/fibre fineness. These two expressions we learned in module 2 okay. So this is equal
to C mu.

Now Z root S so okay let us write it small t/capital T. Now Z root S? What is S? S is root
over T/rho. This also we learned in module 2, square okay. Now C root mu t/capital T Z
square T/rho okay. So what we see is that C root over mu small t, small t is fiber fineness.
Now that is equal to d squared then pi rho/4 that is your fibre fineness and Z square root
T/rho okay.

So what we see is that root over mu then your C right, then this d will come out, let this d
come out of the square root. Then, root pi will remain there and 4 square root that will be 2
and 1 root rho will remain here into Z square root T okay. Now we will substitute this
expression here and make these two equal.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:46)

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So how will you do that, kP*b mu cube/1-mu/mu m 2+a 3 is=root mu*C d root pi/2 root rho
Z T 1/2 to the power 4 squared okay. So what we did, we have derived this right hand side
equal to this and then we substituted this in place of here and we obtained this expression.
This is T to the power 1/4 okay. Now if we little make it in a better manner say mu to the
power this square root 2.5/1-mu/mu m to the power 2+a cube is=C d to the power pi/2 root
rho and this kP and b will come, kP and b, this is one Z T to the power 1/4 squared okay.

Now let us consider this is equal to Q. Now what is Q? Q is a parameter. Parameter depends
on C, d fibre diameter, rho fibre density, kP coefficient of compression and b another
coefficient. So Q depends on material and technology. Why material because D is fibre
material, rho fibre density and why technology, kP will be influence of technology, b will be
influence of technology, capital C will be influence of technology.

So basically Q depends on material and technology. As of now, it is impossible to find out

the value of Q experimentally because lot of parameters are unknown, kP is unknown, b is
unknown, C is also not well known. So it is not possible to determine experimentally the
value of Q; however, it is possible to find out value of Q by some other means. That we will
discuss today. Well then we will write the final expression here.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:44)

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Mu to the power 2.5/1-mu/mu m 2+a 3 is=Q Z T to the power 1/4. This is the very important
one of the two final expressions, one of the two final expressions right. Now let us talk about
these parameters mu m and a. Typically, maximum packing density practically in a yarn
is=0.8. We are not talking about theoretically maximum packing density, that is 1 but
practically maximum packing density in a yarn in one of the region is 0.8.

And this a is typically 1, so then this relationship will become this okay. Now Q is a
parameter for different technology, the value of Q will be different, for different fibres, fibre
materials, cotton fibre, polyester fibre, viscose fibre within same technology say carded ring
yarn Q will be different. So we will inform you about the value of Q for different fibres,
different technology.

Suppose now if you know the value of Q, you know which count you have to produce, capital
T and you know your targeted packing density mu. Then, if you solve this equation, you will
be able to know how much twist is required capital Z right. Say this equation can also be read
in a different way. The value of Q will be given to you, Z suppose how much twist has been
inserted to the yarn you know, what is the count of the yarn you know.

So if you find out this value and if you solve this equation, the root of the equation you will
find out mu, so packing density will be known to you. So this equation can be practically
applied for different purposes but before going to that let me tell you the value of Q. As far as
the experimental results were concerned, the value of Q were obtained.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:44)

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Value of Q, what is the unit of Q? This is the unit of Q okay. Now say fibre and then we will
talk about the density of fibre, density of fibre we will talk about in this unit and then
spinning technology. Spinning technology, we will talk about combed, we will talk about
carded and we will talk about rotor yawn okay. Fibre say cotton, typically the density of
cotton fiber we considered 1520 kg per meter cube.

Then, viscose, viscose fibre density we considered 1500. Polyester, polyester 1360 kg (())
(39:29) and then wool 1310. This is the value of Q for combed ring yarn cotton, for carded -8
and for rotor 8 right. So this is the value for viscose. Now let us start with viscose, the value
for viscose is viscose is same basically because we do not comb viscose, so 1.76*10 to the
power -7 for viscose right.

For polyester, when you consider 1360 kg per meter cube density. Then, polyester also will
be same value for carded and combed for obvious reason. For rotor yarn this but for wool -7,
1.20*10 to the power -7, 6.49*10 to the power -8 right. Now so this table suppose you have
now you know the value of Q for different fibre material and for different spinning
technologies.

What is the value of Q when we produce rotor yarn using polyester fibre, this value 1.29*10
to the power -7. What will be the value of Q when you produce carded cotton ring yarn?
9.61*10 to the power -8 okay. So if you know the value of Q, you will be able to find out the
expression mu to the power 2.5/1-mu/0.8 3 power cube is=Q Z square T to the power 1/2
okay.

107
Now so as I told you before starting before at the beginning of this module that in any
theoretical work the final expressions are often compared with the experimental results. You
have obtained this final result. Obviously, this final result is based on certain assumptions.
When you compare this expression with experimentally obtained results, if they are matching
probably our assumptions were close to reality.

If they are totally different, then probably one or more of the assumptions was were not close
to reality. So we have to change those assumptions, we have to modify them and we have to
again rebuild the model, we have to find out the final expressions once again and we compare
with the experimental results. So that is how the theoretical, this is a typical character of any
theoretical work.

So now we obtained the final results, now we would like to compare with the experimental
results. This is the comparison between theory versus experiment.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:26)

So a lot of yarns also rovings were prepared by using different by yarns are produced. Those
yarns were carded ring yarn, carded cotton ring yarn showed the value of Q 9.61*10 to the
power -8 meter square tex to the power -0.5. Now those yarns twists were given, so value of
the twist were known, fineness of the yarns were measured and also those yarns the cross-
section of those yarns were analyzed to find out packing density mu, average packing density
mu okay.

108
Then, those experimental results were plotted in a graph. This graph is shown here. Along the
x axis, Z T to the power 1/4 is plotted, along the y axis mu is plotted. So for different
experimentally obtained results you see hollow circle, positive sign right. So all these are
experimental results for yarns were produced. Then, using this value of Q, using the value of
Z experimentally measured and also the experimentally measured value of T, the right-hand
side was calculated for different yarns.

Then, this equation was solved and we found out different values of mu. This solid line, thick
black one obtained from theory. So this line was obtained from theory and all these are
experimental points. So how we obtained this line? We solved this equation, Q we considered
9.61*10 to the power -8, Z we measured the yarn count, we measured the yarn twist. So for
one yarn, this value was known.

We solved this equation, we found out mu for different values of Z, for different values of T,
we found out many values of Q, mu. We plotted all those values and we obtained this thick
black line curve that is from theory and they are the experimental values. What we see is that
this curve matches quite well with the experimental results. So that means this equation what
we derived what it talks about relation between yarn twist, yarn count and packing density is
probably a very well expression.

We can use it in practice right. Then, how do you find out diameter. Now diameter is known
by this form rho. If we obtain mu, if we substitute mu here, T is already known, fibre density
is known, we can find out D. So how we can use these equations in practice, now this we
have to learn because we have to finally apply this equation. Suppose we have to produce a
cotton carded yarn of given fineness.

So capital T is known, cotton carded yarn and if it is cotton fibre we will know and it is
cotton fibre so we know value of Q, some of the packing density is targeted 0.46. So the left
hand side will come to know, right hand side Q is known, capital T is known, we will find out
Z, so that much of twist we will insert okay. Also for research purpose you can use it in other
way how is this cotton carded ring spun yarn.

You have produced by giving say certain amount of twist and yarn fineness is also known, so
capital Q is known to you, capital Z is known to you, capital T is known to you, so right hand

109
side you will be able to find it. You solve this equation, you find out mu, that mu is substitute
here, you find out capital D diameter. So the relation among yarn twist, yarn count and yarn
diameter you can find out.

So as I told you at the beginning of this module, packing density is the variable which
governs this relation. You see in both relations packing density is significantly present. So
basically packing density is the variable which governs these two relations, relation among
yarn count, yarn twist and yarn diameter. Now let us solve a numerical problem to understand
it in a better manner.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:56)

This numerical problem reads as follows. A cotton carded ring spun yarn of 29.5 tex count.
So capital T is given 29.5 tex and twist is also given meter inverse is prepared. Estimate the
packing density and diameter of this yarn? So we will now demonstrate you how we can use
this the previous equation to solve this problem okay. Now it is cotton carded ring yarn right,
so cotton carded ring yarn using this table we can find out cotton carded ring yarn the value is
this okay.

So Q we will consider 9.61*10 to the power -8 meter square tex to the power 1/2 okay. So
mu to the power 2.5/1-minus mu/0.8 cube whole cube is equal to Q Z square T to the power
1/2. Q you will substitute this value, Z you will substitute 719.43 meter inverse and T you
will substitute 29.5 tex. So as a result what you obtain is 0.2702. So you will obtain this
value, 0.2702. So this expression is equal to 0.2702.

110
How will you find out mu? Mu can be found out by two ways, one numerical method. You
can find out the value of mu from this equation by using a suitable numerical method.
Otherwise, you can also find out mu by already prepared table. What does that mean?
Suppose beforehand you will prepare a table where mu and this will be known to you.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:49)

Suppose mu 0.38 okay, you substitute mu 0.38, 0.38 here you will find out the value 0.1251.
Similarly, 0.39 you will find out 0.1374, 0.40 you will find out 0.1511, 0.41 you will find out
0.1661, 0.42 you will find out 0.1827, 0.43 you will find out 0.2012, 0.44 you will find out
0.2217, 0.45 you will find out 0.2446, 0.46 the value you will find out 0.2702, 0.47 you will
find out this value 0.2989, 0.48 you will find out this value 0.3312, 0.49 you will find out this
value 0.3678, 0.50 you will find out this value 0.4094.

Suppose you produce this table beforehand, now what was the value, 0.2702, so this is the
value 0.2702. You will find out where this 0.2702 comes here you see, 0.2702 has come.
What is the corresponding mu? Corresponding mu is 0.46.
(Refer Slide Time: 57:10)

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So you come back to this chart and then write mu is 0.46, so you find out the packing density
right clear. Now how will you find out diameter? Diameter is root over 4T/pi mu rho right.
Now what is your 4*29.5 tex/3.14*0.46*1520 right. So you will find out this value as 0.2308
millimeter clear. You will find out 0.2308. So in this way this problem can be solved. I hope
it is clear to you.

In the next class, we will continue with this module and solve one more numerical problem.
Thank you very much for your attention.

112
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 08
Helical Model of Fiber in Yarn

Welcome to you all to this MOOC online video course Theory of Yarn Structure. In the last
class we started module 3 relations among yarn count, yarn twist and yarn diameter. If you
remember, we first started with Copeland’s theoretical concepts on how to twist a staple fiber
yarn. Then we started with a simple mechanical model and we established a very important
relation on packing density, yarn twist and yarn count so today we will start from there.

When we measure twist angle surface fiber twist angle that is angle beta D then it is probably
not correct to consider diameter D. It is better to consider the diameter at which the axis of
the surface fibers lie.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:58)

So in this image what do you see is that yarn diameter is capital D however when we make a
twist angle then we look at this surface fibers at that time it is better to consider diameter D’
prime. D’ is a diameter constituting the axis of the surface fibers. Then we talk about one
ratio CD which we define by D’ /D this C D is well known as Schwarz constant right. So C D=
D ‘/D is known as Schwarz constant.

We need to find out a value for Schwartz constant. This ratio is not sufficient to determine

113
Schwarz constant because it is very difficult to measure D prime. We need to have an
expression for CD Schwarz constant so that we can determine practically and easily. So we
need to first find out an expression for that so that is our first aim of this lecture. For that
purpose we consider theoretical limit structure.

Theoretical limit structure we talked in module 2 hexagonal packing with closest packing. So
distance between fiber H=0 and then we derived the packing density of this limit structure
0.91. This we have done in module 2. So in this limit structure what we see that the distance
between the yarn diameter and D’=D so that is basically the distance in case of theoretical
limit structure then how we can find out now C D.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:31)

So CD D’/D right and we know that for theoretical limit structure D-D prime is small d. So we
can write down D’=(D-d)/D see all are measurable quantities. Capital D yarn diameter
possible to measure small d is fiber diameter also possible to measure so then we can write
this=1-d/D right. Now this small d we would like to write as 4 t/( pi * rho) this we learnt in
module 1 fiber diameter= square root of 4 times fiber fineness/(pi time rho fiber density) and
what is capital D.

Capital D also we learned in module 2 4 times capital T/(pi mu limit) because it is theoretical
limit structure*rho right. So what we see that this 4 and 4 cancels out this pi and this pi cancel
out and this rho and this rho cancel out. And then as a result we find 1-√ (t/T* mu limit )right.
Now if we substitute the value of mu limit then we obtain 1-√ (t/T* 0.91 ) this ratio you will
see as 1-0.95*-√ (t/T).

114
Now you see Schwarz constant for theoretical limit structure=1-0.95 very close to 1 square
root small t/capital T small t is fiber fineness capital T is yarn count in tex. So both are
measurable quantities small t and capital T so we can determine it. However, this 0.95 is very
close to 1 so we can write this expression as (()) (09:16) right. So this is the expression for
Schwartz constant in case of theoretical limit structure.

What happens to practical yarn structure? In practical yarn structure capital D is higher than
that of theoretical limit structure. Also D’ in practical yarn structure is proportionately higher
than the theoretical limit structure as a result of this Schwarz constant remains practically
same as it is in case of theoretical limit structure. So the value of Schwarz constant does not
deviate too much in case of practical yarn structure as compared to that in case of theoretical
limit structure right then we try to find out modified angle.

So angle at D’ the surface for the twist angle at yarn diameter D or beta subscript. Now what
is the angle at diameter D prime.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:01)

So this angle let us say modified angle we name it as beta prime. So tangent of beta prime is=
pi D’Z okay. Let us write this in simple different little different form pi DZ D’/D. Now you
see what is pi DZ pi DZ is twist intensity that is=kappa so this is= kappa and what is your D’/
capital D that is=Schwarz constant . So this expression tangent of beta prime is= kappa
multiplied by Schwarz constant right.

115
Then what happens to our last class expression mu 2.5/( 1-(mu/0.8)3)3=Q Z2T 1/2
. Remember
this expression from previous class. Now if we need to change this expression we need to
work with Z why because this Z is involved in tangent of beta prime is not it so let us do that.
So let us write this expression Q instead of Z we would like to write pi DZ/ pi D that is
basically Z square and T to the power 1/2 we do not want to change this yarn fineness okay.

So what we can write in the next step is Q what is pi DZ kappa and what is pi D pi times D.
D is your square root of 4 times T pi mu rho that is your D now this square T to the power ½
okay. So Q kappa 2/ (4 T pi) * mu rho*T ½. No we did a mistake here this will come here yes
this will come here right.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:31)

Then we will further work on this expression mu 2.5/( 1-(mu/0.8)3)3=Q then your kappa2/(4 pi
T) mu rho T 1/2. Now what is kappa we know that tangent ( beta’) =kappa *Schwarz constant
then we can substitute Q tan 2 (beta’)/(Schwarz constant 2 4 T) mu rho T 1/2 right. Now what is
CD? CD is 1-we have derived it earlier 1-this is not it that is your CD.

So we substitute this CD with (1-√(t/T)). So this T and this square root will cancel out we will
find out capital T *rho okay. So we write it little different from Q tan 2 (beta’)*rho/(4 pi) let us
club them together *1/ √(T) *1/(1-√(t/T)) 2 mu okay. So this mu should come to the left hand
side then we will be obtaining an expression for mu.

So if it comes to the left hand side then what we obtain is mu to the power 1.5 right not 2.5
because this 2.5-1 so 1.5. 1-mu so this is the left hand side. Right hand side let us write this as

116
a parameter capital R we will discuss about this little later.

2
What is R? R is Q tan (beta’)*rho/(4 pi). This 4 pi is constant and Q is a parameter rho is
constant for a given fiber and tan square beta prime. Now it is generally seen our practical
experience say that R is typically constant for all yarn counts and all yarn technologies and
there is an R varies for different fibers because of the involvement of rho and also other
parameters. So it is necessary for us to know the value of R for different fiber.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:22)

So fiber and R by the way what is the unit of R unit of R will be this cotton long staple. We
generally find the value of R for cotton long staple as 2.145 cotton fiber medium staple the
value of R we found little higher 737. Similarly, for viscose this value we found much higher
4.589 what is the value of R for polyester 3.563 and also a value of R is reported for Wool

117
fiber what is the value 2.341. So these are the values of R reported in literature so now finally
we will come to application point of view. Now we have 2 important equations.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:27)

First equation what we derived in the last class Q right so this was let us write our first
expression and what is the second expression second expression we derive today this is our
second expression all right how we can use these 2 equations for practical application so this
is our question. Now when practical application comes that time we generally know the
desired yarn count in a spinning industry we have to produce yarn.

So generally what is the count of yarn that we have to produce this information is generally
known. So capital T is generally known before production of yarn. Yes, which fiber I have to
use whether it is cotton or it is polyester, or it is viscose if it is cotton then it is long staple
cotton or short staple cotton and what is its fineness. This information is also known prior to
yarn manufacturing that means small T is also known.

The moment you know about fiber whether it is cotton fiber or polyester fiber or viscose fiber
that means you are aware about R how because you know about this value so you know about
R that means the right hand side of second expression you will be able to calculate the value.
So you will be able to calculate the right hand side of equation 2 then you will be able to
solve this resulting second expression you will able to find mu.

You can use a suitable numerical method interval splitting method or you can already prepare
table like in the last class we demonstrated you for solving one numerical problem so you

118
will be able to find out mu. So the moment you find out about mu that mu that value of mu
you will substitute in left hand side of equation one. So the value of mu you obtain from
expression 2 you will substitute that value to the left hand side of expression 1 right.

Then which yarn technology we have to use this information is also well known before yarn
production it is ring spin technology or rotor spinning technology. So that means the value of
Q is known to you before yarn production and value of T is also known to you. So left hand
side is known Q is known capital T is known what is unknown only one variable that is yarn
2 is DZ so if you solve this equation you will find out Z yarn twist.

So that twist you have to insert to yarn is that clear. Let me repeat it again so we need to learn
how we can use these 2 equations for practical application. When the question of yarn
manufacturing comes into picture we know about fiber fineness, we know about yarn count
and also we know about which type of fiber we have to use R. So first we need to find out
this expression right hand side of equation 2 then we have to solve for mu.

The value of mu what we obtain we will substitute in left hand side of equation 1 before yarn
production Q is known capital T is also known what is unknown only Z. So one expression
one unknown you will find out the value of Z so that much of Z that is yarn twist you have to
insert to the yarn. So that is what is called suitable yarn twist how much twist you need to
insert to yarn. You remember when you started module 3 such type of question came.

So by using these 2 equations we can find out how much twist is required to be inserted to
yarn. Let us now solve 2 numerical problems this part then we will be very clear. So we will
solve first this problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:18)

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In the last class we solved one numerical problem numerical problem 1. Now we will solve
we will solve 2 more numerical problem number problem 2. A carded ring spun yarn of 11
tex counts is prepared from long staple cotton fibers of 0.13 tex fineness typical practical
problem. We have to produce a carded ring spun yarn count of that yarn is given 11 tex
which fiber we have to use long staple cotton fiber what is its fineness 0.13 tex.

Estimate the packing density and diameter of this yarn also estimate the twist required to
produce this yarn right. So we have to solve this problem. Now we will use these 2 equations
for solving this problem. First we find out this so we start from here. It is long staple cotton
so what is the value of R for long staple cotton 2.145 how I find this value from this table
2.145 this value.

Now what is yarn count 11 tex where from I find this already given in this problem 11 tex.
What is fiber fineness 0.13 tex already given so 1-0.13/11 square. So you can find our this the
right hand side of expression 2. What will be the value? This value will be 0.8141 okay. So
this expression is=this what is the value of mu how you can find out as I told you 2 ways.
One you can adopt a suitable numerical method maybe interval splitting method or you can
already prepare a table before hand and from that table you can find out the value of mu.

So we will start with the second case let us prepare a table.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:48)

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Table mu and mu to the power 1.5 like previous class 1-mu/0.8 cube to the power cube. So
the value of mu is 0.38 you substitute mu 0.38 here and also 0.38 here then use a simple
calculator and find out this value you will find out this value will be 3291 right. In earlier
case what was the value the value was 0.8141 and this is 0.3291 so mu is not=0.38. Then you
find out 0.39 you substitute 0.39 here you substitute 0.39 here what will be the value you
obtain 0.3524 is that the value no.

Then 0.40 what will be the value of mu 0.3776 similarly 0.4051, 0.42, 0.4350, 0.43 0.4678
0.44, 0.5038, 0.45, 0.5435, 0.46 this value will be 5873 0.47 this value will be 0.6359, 0.48
this value will be 0.6901 0.49 this value will be 0.7507, 0150, this value will be 0.8187. And
what was earlier 0.8141. So mu is approximately=0.50. If you use a suitable numerical
method, you will find out the exact value right.

So come back to this problem if you solve then you will find out mu is 0.50 okay because this
expression=0.8141 and when mu=0.50 this expression becomes 0.8187 right. So mu is
roughly= 0.50 okay. This value of mu now you have to substitute here so if you substitute mu
0.5 here and also 0.5 here what you will obtain. You will obtain a value of this expression
what will be this expression value now in the last class we solved one table.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:32)

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So now if we substitute 0.50 here to the power 2.5 1- 50.8 Q Z square T to the power1/2. So
this value will be=0.4094 okay so 0.4094=Q what is the value of Q which yarn is this. Carded
ring yarn for carded ring yarn what was the value of Q in the last class we discussed these
values. Carded ring yarn cotton Q is 9.61*10 to the power -8 Z we need to find out T what is
yarn count yarn count is given 11 tex right.

So 11 tex now this you will be able to solve and you will find out the value of Z so in this
manner you will be able to solve this problem. So Z you will find out 1133.41 twist per
meter. So basically Z is your 1133.41 meter inverse right. So in this manner you will be able
to find out suitable yarn twist. Would you like to do one more exercise let us do it so it will
be fully clear then.

Numerical problem 3 the last numerical problem of this module numerical problem 3 very
similar problem, very relevant for practical application right.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:35)

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A carded ring spun yarn of 29.5 tex count so what is capital T 29.5 tex to be produced by
using medium staple cotton fiber medium staple cotton fiber so the value of R is 2.737 of
0.16 tex fineness. So fiber fineness how much twist is required to be inserted while
production of this yarn very typical industrial problem. You need to find out Z okay and the
value of Q is also given is not it the value of Q is= carded ring yarn so 9.61*10 to the power -
8 meter square right.

So this was the value of Q is also given you need to find out Z. So how we can find out Z.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:45)

First we have to work with this expression okay. So what are the values given the value of R
is given 2.737 value of capital T and also value of small t are given what is the value of
capital T capital T is 29.5 tex is not it and what is your small t, small t is 0.16 okay. So what

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will be this value this value will be= 0.5872 then you find out the table again already
prepared this table where is the value lying 0.5872, 0.5873 is very nearby right.

So the value of mu is 0.46 so then we write the value of mu 0.46 all right then we solve our
first equation 2.5 1-0.8 cube to the power 3. Q Z square T to the power ½. If we now
substitute mu 0.46 here.
(Refer Slide Time: 49:30)

Then we will find out this value=0.2701=Q what is the value of Q here in this problem the
value of Q is 9.61*10 to the power -8 Z square and what is the value of T, T is 29.5 okay. So
if you solve you will find out Z=719.38 meter inverse. So roughly 720 turns to be inserted per
meter of this yarn so if we summarize module 3 the target or the aim of this module was to
find out a relation among yarn twist, yarn count and yarn diameter.

As I told you fiber packing density in yarn basically dictates this relationship. We started with
Copeland’s theoretical model which we did not find too much precise then we discuss certain
empirical corrections to Copeland’s model however they are empirical. Thereafter we started
with a simple mechanical model and we derived 2 important relations.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:45)

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One relation was mu this relation where mu is packing density Q is a parameter for different
fiber, for different technologies the values of Q will be different and we have already told
about those value Z is yarn twist capital T is yarn fineness then we talked about one more
equation where mu is again packing density R is a parameter which depends on fibers for
different fibers the values of R will be different.

We have already told about those values capital T is yarn count small t is fiber fineness then
we have discussed how these 2 equations can be used to solve practical application. For
example, typically in practice we need to know how much twist needs to be inserted so that is
the purpose then first the right hand side of this expression 2 we need to find out generally
capital T is given small t is given R is also given so we will be able to find out this value.

We will solve this and we will find out mu that value of mu we will substitute here we will
find out this expression Q is generally known from the table T is already given so we will
find out Z so we will find out suitable yarn twist. So that is how these 2 expressions can be
used in practice and also we have shown how this expression falls in front of experimental
results.

And we have found out that this expression can explain the yarn twist, yarn count and yarn
diameter satisfactorily so this completes module 3. Thank you for your attention.

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 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology– Delhi

Lecture - 09
Helical Model of Fibers in Yarns (Contd.,)

Welcome to this MOOC online video course Theory of Yarn Structure. Today, we are going
to start module 4 Helical Models of Fibers in Yarns. As you are aware of Helical Model of
Fibers in Yarns is a very popular model and often quoted in research articles. It is relatively
old concept in Theory of Yarn Structure started from Cook Lyn 1828, then Muller, then
Marchief, Giggof, Swargch, Brassler, Budnikov, Neskerds, Trailor many scientists worked on
Helical Models of Fibers in Yarns.

Today this model is well established. The importance of Helical Model of Fibers in Yarn lies
in 3 distinct cases. This model helps us to calculate number of fibers present in cross-section
of yarn. This is a very big importance of this model second another very important
application of this model is it explains yarn retraction. What is yarn retraction? When we
twist a yarn the length of the yarn shortened this phenomenon is called yarn retraction.

In some books you will find out yarn contraction that basically denotes the same phenomenon
however little difference exist between them. Why it was important to understand yarn
retraction because what governs yarn retraction. If we do not know about this, we will not be
able to control the shortening of yarn so it was necessary to understand the phenomenon of
yarn retraction.

This model Helical Models of Fibers in Yarn explains yarn retraction phenomenon
scientifically. Third important application of this model lies in yarn twisting. What happens if
we go on increasing the twist in yarn after the so called saturated twist if we still increase the
twist then the coils do not go inside the yarn and we obtain a very undesired structure of yarn.
So we should not go to that level of twisting that means in practically also there is a limit of
twisting what is that limit of twisting we must know beforehand.

We should not reach to that twist then we will spoil yarn structure. So basically these 3
phenomena are well explained by Helical Model of Fibers in Yarns. In this module we will

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study these 3 phenomena under Helical Models of Fibers in Yarns. So first let us clarify this
concept what is Helical Model of Fibers in Yarn. The Helical Model of Fibers in Yarn is
based on 4 important assumptions.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:31)

First 3 are very general assumptions and the fourth one very important is a very special
assumption. The first assumption fibers follow helical path in yarn. So you see it is a yarn
cylindrical yarn and this fiber follows helical paths here you see thick portion of the fiber
which comes on the surface then the fiber goes inside dotted line you do not see them then
again it goes to surface so you see them thick black line. So the fibers follow helical path
second all the helixes have a common axis of rotation that is yarn axis okay.

Third all coils it seems to be a coil so all coils have same height. So little elaborate the first
assumption fibers follow helical path with same sense of rotation let us write in this manner.
So as I told you helical model is based on 4 assumptions the first 3 are very general
assumptions. First assumptions fibers follow helical path inside the unstructured with a same
sense of rotation so the direction of rotation is same.

Second all helixes have a common axis that is your yarn axis. Third all helixes have a
common height; coil height is same. Fourth the very, very special assumption packing density
is same at all places inside yarn. Packing density is same at all place inside yarn. So actually
the first 3 are quite general assumption, but the fourth one is a very special assumption why?
In practice you know mu packing density is not constant however it is a function of R.

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So this is the practically we see this kind of behavior the real behavior. This probably goes a
little low something like that, but here the assumption is same that means what we think is
that you probably think in this manner this is the difference right. So the red is indicating the
real behavior however the blue indicate this assumption. Now this helical model is based on
this 4 assumptions right.

Now this image you see it is basically a yarn cylinder, it has a diameter capital D and the
inside this cylinder or diameter D there is one small cylinder of radius r where a fiber helix is
shown. This helix makes an angle beta from yarn axis if you unroll this cylinder make it
flatten then you will obtain this triangle where the base of the triangle=2 times pi times small
r.

R is yarn radius D is yarn diameter and this beta is the twist angle. The height of this triangle
is 1/Z, Z is number of turns per unit length of the yarn so this length is 1/Z and this angle is
beta. So what do you obtain is tangent beta is 2 pi R Z right we obtain this 1 tangent beta is 2
pi RZ so this is the concept of helical model. Now we will find out number of fibers present
in yarn cross-section.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:28)

So our aim is to determine a relation which will predict number of fibers in yarn cross-
section. You will ask me what is the need to predict we know that n is this, this is true.
Capital T is very easy to find out small t is also very easy to find out, but kn coefficient kn is
relatively difficult to determine experimentally why because you require microtome
apparatus, you require suitable utensils for cutting cross-sections of yarn, you require a light

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microscope.

So many common textile laboratories may not have this facilities that is why it become very
difficult to find out number of fibers experimentally, but often we need to predict it for
theoretical research or for some empirical research we need to find out what is the value of n
how we find out that is why it is necessary to find out a relation theoretical relation that
predicts number of fibers in yarn cross-section right.

So our aim is to find out a relation that predicts number of fibers in yarn cross-section and we
will use helical model for that purpose. What do we see here in this image it is this is the
cross-section of the yarn lot of fibers are present say n numbers of fibers are present? This is
yarn diameter and we see one thick annular ring which is situated at a distance r from yarn
center and the thickness of this annular ring is d times r right.

That means first we will find out how many fibers are present in this annular ring then if we
integrate that expression from r=0 to r=d/2 we will find out number of fibers in yarn cross-
section right. So let us follow the same strategy. Now what is a area of this ring 2 pi r dr so
this is the area of ring what is the area of fibers in the ring this is the area of the ring what is
the area of fibers in the ring if we multiply this by packing density we will find out because
packing density one of the interpretation is area of fibers/area of yarns right.

So 2 pi r mu dr mu is packing density which is constant at all places packing density here is

mu, here is mu, here is mu, here is mu everywhere packing density is same that was our
fourth assumption of helical model right. Let us think that this area is=this. You remember
the symbol capital S substance cross-section area of yarn which basically consists of sectional
areas of fibers so ds okay. Now you will continue with this image with one more additional
image here it is shown.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)

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So what we found ds is 2 pi r mu dr. This image is basically the image of a fiber inclined
fiber because of the twist fiber is not straight they are not parallel along yarn axis they are
inclined at an angle. This angle is beta so this area is a sectional area s* and if we go along
this axis at cross-section we will find out cross sectional area this is your this S okay. Now
what is the relation between these 2 areas.

This we have already found out in module 2 s*= s/ cos beta okay. Now you tell me how
many fibers or fiber sections precisely are present in this annular ring that is small in
numbers. How many fibers or how many fibers sections are present in this small ring how
will you find out. Suppose that number is dn total area/mean sectional area is not it. So total
area is your 2 pi r mu dr/sectional area s* is not it.

So if we substitute dr if we substitute s* then we find out this expression right. So what was
our target our target was to find out an expression for n how will you find out n, if you
integrate (2 pi/s mu r cos(beta) dr) where r varies from 0 to D/2. Now beta is a function of r
is not it how they are related. Okay before going to that this 2 pi is constant small s is fiber
cross sectional area also constant mu we assumed constant because of fourth assumption. So
then r is a variable and beta is also a function of r.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:41)

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Let us write cos(beta) as 1/sec(beta). Now basically what we want to convert this as a
function of r what is sec(beta) square root of 1+tan2 (beta) dr what is tan beta we have already
derived it dr. Now we will be able to write it in a better manner 2 pi/s * mu this we assume to
be a constant integration r dr square this integration we have to solve. We will follow method
of substitution for this.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:58)

So what we will consider 1+(2 pi rz)2= you will consider x 2. Okay so r dr= 1/(4 pi2 Z 2) x dx
this substitution we will consider okay. So then what we will write n= 2 pi/s * mu this limit
now we will change. When r=0 then what will be x=1 when r=D/2, x will be root over (1+(pi
DZ)2) okay.

So then become simple 2 pi/s mu integration <r varies from 1 to root of (1+(pi DZ) 2 )> 1/(4

131
pi2 Z2 )dx. So this 4 pi2Z2 is also constant it can come out of this integration. So 2 pi mu /(s 4
pi2Z2, dx integration of dx=x; 2 pi mu/( s 4 pi 2 Z2 ).

Now let us make it little simple so now what do we see here is that this 2 and this 2 this pi
and this pi square pi. So what we do n is= let us write it here as (pi DZ) square if we write in
the denominator (pi DZ) square then what will be in the numerator. In the numerator it will
be mu pi D2 right because one pi was already there. So pi 2
D2 Z2 pi Z square all right and
then you will have this 2 times s okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:47)

Now n is= this in the numerator what we will do we will write 2* pi D 2/4 *mu* 1/s*(root
over (1+(pi DZ )square)-1) right. Now what is pi D square/4 *mu that is= capital S so we can
write 2* capital S/small s /(pi DZ)square * (root over (1+(pi DZ) square))-1) okay. What is
capital S substance cross sectional of yarn what is small s cross sectional level of fiber So this
ratio capital S/small s we have already derived that this=capital T/small t right so that is=
relative fineness tau.

You remember in module 2 this relationship we have already derived in module 2 relative
yarn fineness tau= capital T/small t yarn count in tex/fiber fineness that is= substance cross-
section area capital S/fiber cross-section area small s. So we can now write down 2* tau/( pi
DZ)*(square root over (1+(pi DZ )square)-1). This relationship is what we were looking for.
So we have now got a relation for n tau relative fineness capital T/small t very easy to
determine practically.

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Pi DZ also possible to determine because Z is already known to you or using module 3 we
will be able to determine Z and capital D also root over 4t/pi mu rho so we will be able to
determine capital D. So n is now possible to calculate using this expression right. Okay let us
now proceed a little further this is your n and what we know n is kn* tau this is true always
whether it is helical model or not does not matter this expression is true always.

Then what is your kn? kn is n/tau this expression we have already derived in module 2 n/tau
so if we substitute n from here what we see is 2/(pi DZ)( square root over( 1+(pi DZ) square)-
1) right. So we can also find out the value of kn we can calculate the value of kn also we can
find out the value of small n number of fibers in yarn cross-section. Now this is also another
important expression so let us put a star mark here okay. It is also possible to express n and
coefficient kn in a different manner so let us do that.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:34)

What is your kappa pi DZ and what is your pi DZ tangent of beta D surface fibre twist angle
okay then if we substitute here first let us find out for kn, kn is 2/ ( tan 2 (betaD))( root (1+ tan2
(betaD))-1).
So 2 /tan2 (betaD) *(sec (betaD)-1) what is sec (beta D) =1/cos (beta D) so 2 and tan2 (beta D) is
sin2 (beta D) /cos2 (beta D). So 2 cos2 (beta D)/ /sin2 (beta D)(1-cos (beta D))/ /cos (beta D)right.
Further 2 cos (beta D)(1- cos (beta D)/( 1- cos2 (beta D)). Further we can write 2 cos (beta D)(1-
cos (beta D))/((1+ cos (beta D)) (1- cos (beta D))). Now what we see is that here these 2 terms
are cancelling out.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:33)

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So what do we obtain kn= 2 cos (beta D)/(1+ cos (beta D)) is not it simple expression. Hence it
is more acceptable. So we found quite simple expression for coefficient kn. D it can be made
further simple you can try for that. Now what do we see is that if we know kappa pi DZ. If
we know diameter pi mu rho for that you need to know mu. So this mu and this Z this we can
know from module 3 right.

So by using those 2 expressions of module 3 we can find out mu and Z remember those 2
expressions. So by using these 2 expressions we can find out mu and Z how first we will find
out this value then corresponding mu value we will find out this mu value will substitute here
then corresponding Z value we will find out. So theoretically we will be able to determine mu
and Z then we will be able to determine D then we will be able to determine pi DZ kappa.

So if we know that is= your tangent of beta D so we will be able to determine beta D if we
know beta D we will be able to find out kn. So by using this what we describe just now we
will be able to determine the value of coefficient kn and if we know coefficient kn then we
will be able to find out n because coefficient kn is known capital T/small t are very well
known quantities for yarn.

We will be able to find out this small n number of fibers present in yarn cross-section right.
So now you will go and talk about this behavior of this expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:28)

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What expression kn= 2 times cos beta D/1+cos beta D. So this expression is graphically
plotted here along the x axis beta D in degree is plotted then we calculate kn from here and
we plotted kn along this y axis and this is the curve of kn for different value of beta right.
Generally, this angle beta D for common yarn will lie from say 20 degree to 30 degree so for
common yarns this angle beta D lies from 22 to 30 degree.

When beta D is 20 degrees, beta D is 10 degree here corresponding kn is 0.97 is not it

corresponding kn is 0.97 and when beta D is 30 degree corresponding kn will be close to
0.93. So=kn 0.97. So for ring spun yarn this kn lies from 0.93 to 0.97 what is the average,
average is 0.95. So average is somewhere here 0.95 that means somewhere here right. So that
is why you remember in module 2 when we define coefficient kn that time we told for ring
yarn kn is typically 0.95 and for rotor yarn kn is typically is 0.80.

That 0.95 is basically coming from here, but in practice the value of kn is little higher for ring
yarn then that predicted by the model little higher that is what we observe why is it so
probably our fourth assumption packing density is same at all places in yarn is the reason for
this behavior. However, packing density is a function of R and what is that function is still
unknown.

So unless and until we characterize this function properly and put it mathematically inside the
integration and solve for that. This can be done possibility exist, but before that we have to
solve for that function right. In any way so we have demonstrated you how this helical model
can be used to find out the number of fibers present in yarn cross-section as well as how to

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determine coefficient kn in a yarn.

So as I told you this has been a very important contribution from Helical Model of Fibers in
Yarn. Another important contribution of Helical Model of Fibers in Yarn lies in explaining
the phenomenon of yarn retraction. When you insert twist the length of yarn shortened this
behavior is known as yarn retraction. What is the fundamental principles lying behind yarn or
underlying yarn retraction can be understood from helical model? This we will talk in the
next class. Thank you for your attention.

136
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 10
Helical Model of Fibres in Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to these MOOC’s online video course theory of yarn structure. In the last
class, we started with module 4 helical model of fibres in yarns. As you know, helical model
is a very popular and (()) (00:38) models in the theory of yarn structure. This model basically
explains the number of fibres present in the cross-section of yarn. It also explains the
phenomenon of yarn retraction.

And finally it talks about limit of twisting. After insertion of certain amount of twist, if you
still go on increasing your twist then this twist do not go inside the structure. So it gives a
very different kind of structure, so there is some certain twist called limit of twisting. So this
model also explains that. Now in the last class, we talked about how to determine number of
fibres in yarn cross-section based on helical model.

Today, we will continue with helical model and we will study yarn retraction. What is yarn
retraction? Yarn retraction refers to shortening of yarn length due to twist. You might have
observed that if you twist a parallel bundle of fibres, then after insertion of twist the length of
the resulting yarn decreases. So this phenomenon is called yarn retraction. Today, we will
learn the principles, what governs yarn retraction and the associated relationship on yarn
retraction. So let us start yarn retraction. Yarn retraction is schematically shown in this figure.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:45)

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This is a parallel fibre bundle or non-twisted fibre bundle. So let us write here non-twisted
bundle and this is the result after twisting. So this is twisted bundle. Now these two bundles,
non-twisted as well as twisted they have certain characteristics. Let us establish those
characteristics first. The first characteristic is length. What is the length of this bundle is zeta
0. What is the length of this twisted bundle?

This is the length is zeta right. So what is yarn retraction? Yarn retraction is defined by
change in length/original length. So what is the change in length, zeta 0-zeta and what is the
original length, zeta 0. So if we simplify, we obtain this expression. Let us use a symbol delta
to denote yarn retraction right. Then, we come back to our characteristics of the bundles.
Second characteristics is number of fibres.

Suppose there are n number of fibres here in the non-twisted bundle. After twist also there
will be n number of fibres because fibres cannot fly out of yarn. So n number of fibres right.
Then, volume of fibre, suppose initially the volume was V0 and after twisting fibre volume in
yarn may change, may not change we will see what will happen V right. Then, mass of fibres,
suppose initially fibre mass in the non-twisted bundle was m.

This will remain same in twisted bundle. So this will remain same okay. Then count, what is
the count of this non-twisted one? Mass per unit length and this count will change because
length is changing right. What is the relation between T 0 and T? T is mass/length, let us write
this as, so what is this, this is T0 and what is this, this is 1-delta, is not it? So T is=T0/(1-delta).
So this is the relationship between counts of non-twisted bundle and twisted bundle.

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Twisted bundle is yarn okay. We will continue with this further in order to establish a few
more characteristics.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:46)

Number of coils, number of coils initially here is 0 and here it is suppose Nc right. Now
actually let us imagine that this number of coils was also present here but in a latent manner
right. So what we think that these number of coils are present also here, so number of coils let
us write here as Nc. You can write here imaginatively these number of coils was latent. They
were expressed later on right.

So then latent yarn twist, yarn twist is Z0, number of coils per unit, number of latent coils per
unit length okay and here it is real yarn twist. Z is Nc/this, now we can write it as Nc/this
manner. What is this? This is your Z0 and what is this? You remember yarn retraction was 1-
final length/original length. So 1-delta, so this is the relationship between two twists. Now
this is imaginative because it is parallel fibre bundle, it should not have any twist.

However, we imagined that this was latent twist. This twist will be expressed after in the
yarn. So that is why we use this word latent yarn twist and here we used real yarn twist okay.
Then, similarly if twist is there twist coefficient will be there. Latent twist coefficient, what is
twist coefficient? Alpha0=twist*initial count and here real yarn twist coefficient in alpha is
equal to Z root T okay.

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What is the relation between latent twist coefficient and real twist coefficient? What is the
relation between alpha0 and alpha? Let us establish that. So alpha is Z root T. Let us
substitute. What is Z? Z is Z0/(1-delta) here and what is your T? T was expressed earlier, T
was you remember T0/(1-delta), so alpha= (Z0 root (T0))(1-delta) to the power 3/2. So you
remember these three relations that we will use later on.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:11)

First was T=T0/(1-retraction), second was Z=Z0/(1-retraction), third was c. So these 3

relations we have derived and you will use them in this module subsequently right. So we
have established all characteristics in a non-twisted bundle as well as in a twisted bundle
right. So now what we will do, now we will have one important assumption.

What is this important assumption? The important assumption is that the relation between V
and V0. You remember what was the relation between V and V0?
(Refer Slide Time: 15:24)

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Relation between V0 and V. What is V0? V0 is the volume of fibres in a non-twisted bundle
and what is V? V is the volume of fibres in a twisted bundle. How is the relation? Let us
assume they are equal; we will see later on the consequence of this assumption. So our
assumption is V0 is=V right. So what is now V0? V0 is the volume of all fibres. How many
fibres in and what is the volume of one fibre? What is volume? Cross-sectional area*length.

They are parallel fibre bundle, so what is cross-sectional area? Small s and what is length?
Zeta0. So this is V 0 right and what is V? V is the volume of fibres in the twisted yarn. They
are not parallel right. So if they are not parallel, then that is the total substance cross-sectional
area capital S*length. What is length? Zeta right. Then, we can write that s/(S/n) is=
zeta/zeta0, is not it? And what is capital S/n?

Total substance cross-sectional area of the yarn/number of fibres that is equal to mean
sectional area of fibre. You remember in module 2, we discussed about that. So this is equal
to this right and what is this expression s/s*bar? This is coefficient kn. All we discussed in
module 2, module 3 and what is this? This is 1-retraction. Why? You know the definition of
retraction, change in length/original length.

So this is this. So a very important relation we obtained here, coefficient kn is=1-retraction

right or we can write retraction is=1-kn right. So retraction is 1-kn alright.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:16)

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Now kn was derived by this form right, sorry 1-kn lambda, so this kn we derived in the last
class okay. Now we need to work on this expression, so that we find a measurable expression
for delta yarn retraction. How we do it? Let us see. (Root(1+(pi D z) 2)+1-2/(pi D z)2*(root(1+
(pi D z)2)-1)* (Root(1+(pi D z)2)+1))/ (Root(1+(pi D z)2)+1). So what we did basically? We
basically multiplied and divided by this expression.

Here we cancel so on will come minus here this will cancel, so this expression will come
okay right. Let us see the consequence of this. This will remain as it is square+1-2/pi D z
square. What will be this? This will be 1+pi D z square-1, is not it? So this 1 1 will cancel, pi
D z pi D z square will cancel, this -2 will be there, +1 is here. So what we will obtain?
(root(1+(pi D z)2)-1)/ (root(1+(pi D z)2)+1), nice form is not it? Right.

Let us make it more nice. How we can do? What is pi D z? Pi D z is tangent of (beta D)-, so if
we continue root(1+tan2(betaD))-1, here it is root(1+tan2(betaD))-1. So write (sec(betaD)-1)/
(sec(betaD)+1) and sec(betaD) is 1/cos(betaD).
(Refer Slide Time: 25:09)

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So what we obtain is delta is=(1-cos(beta D))/(1+cos(betaD)) right. We can further work on it.
What is 1-cos(betaD)? 2 sin 2(betaD/2) What is 1+cos(betaD)? 2 cos 2(betaD/2), so tan2(betaD/2),
very nice expression, tan square beta D/2. So this is the expression for yarn retraction. Now
what we learned? We learned that yarn retraction is related to the coefficient kn which is
further related to twist angle of surface fibres.

How is the relation? Yarn retraction is tangent square half of twist angle of surface fibre. So
basically this is how twist dictates retraction because of twist length shortens. So this is yarn
retraction. So once the twist is inserted, finally it is the angle of surface to each fibre that
finally determines yarn retraction. This is what we understand okay. Now as I told you helical
model explains 3 important things.

One, it helps us to determine number of fibres present in yarn cross-section. Second, it

explains the phenomenon yarn retraction. Third, very important from practical point of view,
it gives us an idea of limit of twisting. Have you ever tried experimentally to find out whether
limit of twisting exists or not? You can do it easily. Go to a textile testing laboratory, there is
yarn twister, mount on yarn and try to increase the twist.

Have a magnifying glass and look at the structural change in the yarn. After insertion of
certain more twists, you will see the fibre coils are not going inside the yarn rather they
basically bulge, so yarn structure bulges. So there is a limit of yarn twisting. Beyond that the
structure does not absorb the twist. So it basically goes outside that is why you will see
certain destruction of yarn structure, certain bulging of yarn structure.

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So that is limit of twisting. That means practically it exists. Can it be explained scientifically?
Yes, it is possible. Today, it is possible to explain scientifically. By using helical model, we
can explain this phenomenon scientifically. So that is our third objective under this module to
know about limit of twisting. So we will now proceed towards that. So we will continue with
that in order to find out a limit of twisting but we will take a different strategy.

What is our strategy? We know that twist intensity kappa is=pi D times z right. Now what is
D? D we know root (4 times T/(pi mu rho)). We already learned in module 2 and what is z? z
is alpha/root T, is not it? So finally what we obtain is that we obtained this 2 root pi
alpha/root(mu*rho) right. So this is another expression for kappa. Now we will substitute this
expression into the expression of yarn retraction.

So you remember we already derived this expression (root(1+(pi D z) 2)-1)/ (root(1+(pi D

z)2)+1). So this is our starting expression in order to derive a condition for limit of twisting.
We substitute kappa from here to here pi D z. So what we obtain, (root(1+4 pi
alpha2/(mu*rho))-1)/ (root(1+4 pi alpha2/(mu*rho))-1) right. We obtained this expression.
Now this alpha twist factor is also related to yarn retraction.

How? You remember, alpha is=alpha 0/(1-yarn retraction)3/2, so that means in this expression
in one side retraction is present; also in the other side yarn retraction is hidden. So we need to
take it out and put it in all in one side, then we will be able to solve for retraction, is not it?
We have to basically do that. So let us do that. You do it step by step, you will make it correct
1, is not it? Do it slowly step by step? okay sure. Now what is our goal? Our goal is very
clear. We need to find an expression for delta. Now this delta is here also, here also. So we
need to put all these delta in one side, so that is our aim and we will do it slowly. So then our
next step we can write in this manner.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:57)

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Delta*1+4 pi is=-1 right okay, so then we can write 1+4 pi this/1-this p+this 1+4 pi this. It is
a quite long expression, you do it slowly but steadily step by step, you will get the answer
okay. Now what do we do? This-1 does not good to write in this way, it is called so 1+delta
is=1-delta this right. So what we did, we basically put this 1 in this side and we take this to
this side.

Now we have to get rid of this square root. So we have to make square both sides. So let us
do that, is not it? Right, so now what you see is that here it is 2, here it is 3, 1 can be
canceled. We did a mistake; here is a mistake we did. This is 1+, this is also 1+, this is also
1+ is not it? So we have to write it in a different way. So basically 1-this square+4 pi this
square 1-delta mu*rho correct.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:02)

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Then (1+del)2-(1-del)2=4 pi alpha02/((1-del)mu*rho) right. So what is this then? 1+2
delta+delta square-1+2 delta-delta squared 4 pi squared 1-delta*mu*this. So what we see
here? Here these terms are cancelling out, so what we obtain is 4 delta is=4 pi alpha 02/((1-
del)mu*rho). This 4 4 will cancel out and we can write now all one side, pi alpha 0
squared/mu*rho okay.

Then, we can write delta squared-this+this=0, so we finally obtained a quadratic expression.

So what is the root of this quadratic equation? Root of this quadratic equation is 2, so this is
the root of this quadratic expression right. So step-by-step we derived this expression. What
does this expression say? This expression is your yarn retraction. Delta is=1+-root over 1- 4
pi alpha 0 square/packing density mu*rho and whole divided by 2 okay.

Now let us see, this discriminant cannot be negative right. So it must be >=0. So let us now
write that. So 1-(4 pi alpha 0 2/mu*rho) must be >=0 because this cannot be negative.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:38)

In that case, 1-4 pi square this must be >=0 right. So this alpha 0 2 /(mu*rho) must be <=1/4
pi. If we take the root, must be alpha 0 /root(mu*rho) <=1/root (4 pi). What is this value?
This value is=0.281 right. Now if we now substitute 0 then what we will get? We will get let
this quantity is=0, it can be 0 or >0. Let us say the minimum value, let us work on the
minimum value because we have to find out one limit of twisting right.

So this is equal to 0 minimum value. Then, what you will get? 1/2, so this is the limit of
retraction okay. Now this is the limit of retraction.

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(Refer Slide Time: 46:03)

And we have already found out that tan square beta D/2 and if the limit of retraction is 1/2, so
tan square beta D/2 is=1/2. Then, what will be beta D? Beta D will be 70.5 degree. That
means the twist angle of surface fibre there is a limit and that limit is 70.5 right and then what
is your twist intensity? Twist intensity is pi D z that is equal to tangent of beta D. Now if you
substitute tangent of this what you will find out? 2 root 2.

So there is a limit of twist intensity also okay. So what we found is that there is a limit of
retraction that is 1/2. Accordingly, there is a limit of twist angle of surface fibre that is 70.5
and also then there is a limit of twist intensity that is 2 root 2. So theoretically also limit of
twisting exists. As I told you, you can determine it practically. It was done in a laboratory.
Let me show you the image, very nice interesting image.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:18)

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So this is the actual yarn, actual twisted yarn. What we do? We put in the twist tester and we
try to increase the twist of the yarn. After a few rotations, what you will see is that you will
see this kind of image. So the axis of the yarn will not be straight first. It will happen
gradually. First it will be straight almost straight. Then, the axis deviates from linearity
significantly. After a few insertions, you will suddenly see that the structure collapses.

So the fibres, the coils are not absorbed by the yarn rather they are deposited onto the surface.
If you still go on increasing twist, then you will see total destruction of the yarn structure. So
it is also possible to determine limit of twisting experimentally and by using helical model
also we have learnt how to explain it scientifically. Now as we did every theoretical work
must be compared with the experimental results. In this case also the theoretical results were
compared with the experiment and this is the comparison between theory and experiment.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:15)

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Theory versus experiment, a lot of yarns were studied and along the x axis alpha 0/square
root of mu*rho is plotted, along the y axis retraction is plotted and all these points are
basically the experimental results for different yarns and this line you see, there is a
continuous thin line going on, that is basically coming from theory. What is this line? You
have just now derived root over 1-4 pi alpha square/mu*rho right.

So this line is the theoretical line and all other experimental results. What we see is that
throughout this region, this theory explains the experimental results quite well, is not it? So
this basically completes the lecture part. Now we will solve a few numerical problems so as
to understand the whole theory in a little better manner. Let us start with the first numerical
problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:53)

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A carded ring spun yarn of 29.5 tex and 719.43 twist is prepared from cotton fibres of 25
millimeter length and 3 decitex fineness. Estimate the value of coefficient kn and the number
of fibres present in the cross-section of the yarn. This you have to solve. How will you solve
this problem? Now what is coefficient kn? Coefficient kn we have learned using helical
model. The coefficient kn is 2/pi D z square square root 1+pi D z square-1.

This is your coefficient kn. So what you have to determine? In order to find out coefficient
kn, you have to determine D and you have to determine z. Z is given 719.43, so simply you
have to determine D yarn diameter. How to determine yarn diameter?
(Refer Slide Time: 54:52)

Yarn diameter is 4T/pi mu rho. That is your yarn diameter, T is given. What is T? 4*T is your
29.5 tex/3.14, mu is not given and it is a cotton fibre this millimeter. So mu is not given, how
will you find out mu? Mu you have to come back to your module 3 in order to find out mu.
You remember this formula in module 1, module 3. Now Q carded ring spun yarn 9.61*10 to
the power -8.

We have already solved this problem there. What is z? Z is your 719.43 and what is your T?
T is your 29.5 tex. If you solve this, you will find out mu is=0.46 right. Then, you substitute
mu here 0.46, so you will find out diameter is equal to millimeter. This will lead to 0.2318
millimeter. So you obtained diameter, you know twist, you will obtain twist intensity.
(Refer Slide Time: 57:35)

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So kappa is pi D z 3.14*diameter 2318 millimeter*z, z is your 719.38 this is in one meter so
this is in millimeter. So you will obtain kappa right. What will be this value? 0.5236. Then,
you will go back and you will find out coefficient kn is=2/kappa square 1+kappa squared-1.
So if you substitute kappa from here, you will find out the value 0.9395 right. So in this way
you obtained coefficient kn.

The second part of the problem is number of fibres present in the cross-section of the yarn.
Now if you know kn, number is kn times capital T/small t, so what is your kn? 0.9395. What
is your capital T? Capital T is 29.5 and what is your small t? Small t is your 0.3. So if you
solve how much fibre you will obtain? You will obtain in this case it will be approximately
equal to 93 clear.

So this is how you will solve problem number 1. So we are left with two more problems. We
will discuss those two problems in the next class. Thank you for your attention.

151
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 11
Helical Model of Fibres in Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to this MOOC’s online video course theory of yarn structure. We were
discussing module 4 in the last tw o classes. Module 4 speaks on helical model of fibres in
yarn. So in the last two classes, we tried to solve 3 problems on yarn structure under helical
model. The first problem was associated to how to determine number of fibres present in yarn
cross-section.

So that we have solved and then second problem was to explain the phenomenon of yarn
retraction scientifically. So we developed and studied a theoretical model for that purpose and
also third important how to find out limit of twisting theoretically, so that also we have
solved. Then, we continued with one numerical problem that we learned in the last class.
Today, we will learn two more numerical problems on module 4.

Then, however this module will be completed. So let us start with the numerical problem 2.
So numerical problem 2 reads as follows, a cotton carded ring spun yarn of 29.5 tex count
and 719.43 meter inverse twist is prepared. Estimate the retraction of the yarn right. So we
have to estimate retraction of the yarn.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:04)

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What is yarn retraction? Yarn retraction we have already learned in the previous class 1-2/k
square 1+kappa square-1 right. So this is yarn retraction, this is kappa yarn twist intensity;
this is also kappa yarn twist intensity. So we have to determine yarn twist intensity. Then, we
will be able to solve the problem, pi D z okay. Twist is given 719.43, D is not given, so we
need to calculate D, z pi is well on 3.14, capital T 29.5 tex is given, rho cotton fibre, so 1520
kg per meter cube, z is given, mu is not given.

Rest all are given, so we need to find out mu. How will you find out mu? You will use the
formula learned in module 3. So cotton carded yarn 9.61*10 to the power -8, z is given
719.43 square and T is also given 29.5 (()) (04:32). So this we have already solved. You will
find out if you solve mu is=0.46. So this mu you will substitute here.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:50)

So then we will find out kappa 4 T is 29.5/3.14*mu we determined 0.46 and cotton fibre 1520
kg per meter cube. So this will give you in millimeter and then 719.43/1000 will also give
you in millimeter inverse, so if you solve you will find out this value 0.5236 right. So if you
know kappa, you will be able to determine yarn retraction 2/kappa square 1+kappa square-1.
So you substitute this value of kappa, then you will find out the value will be 1-0.9395.

This will be equal to 0.0605, so 6.05% will be the retraction. So this is the answer. So what
we did let me tell you once again. We know yarn retraction is equal to this expression where
kappa is pi times D times z yarn twist intensity. Now what is D? D is square root of 4T/pi mu
rho. Now in this expression capital T is given, rho is given, z is also given, mu is not given.
So we determine mu from this expression that we learnt in module 3.

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Q is given cotton carded ring spun yarn so 9.61*10 to the power -8, z is already given 719.43,
T 29.5 so if you find out then you will solve for mu, you will get mu is=0.46. This mu is
substituted here. So you substitute mu here and then finally obtain kappa, yarn twist intensity
0.5236 and then finally yarn retraction is 1-this so kappa you substitute you will get 0.0605 as
the answer for yarn retraction right. Now the third problem is related to two terminologies.
Let us tell you this.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:22)

Yarn retraction and yarn contraction, actually what happens is that though we prefer the
phrase yarn retraction, some authors prefer the phrase yarn contraction. They are not same
but they are related. So let it be clarified what is yarn contraction and how is yarn contraction
related to yarn retraction. Yarn contraction is defined by length of zero twist yarn/length of
twisted yarn.

So let us use the symbol C for yarn retraction. Now if you go back to our symbolism in this
module, length of zero twist yarn zeta 0 and length of twisted yarn zeta. So as per this
definition, yarn contraction is related to this and what is yarn retraction. Yarn retraction is 1-
final length/original length right. So what is the relation between yarn retraction and yarn
contraction?

So this is the relation between yarn retraction and yarn contraction. Let us write it in some
other form. So yarn contraction is=1/1-yarn retraction right. Now we come back to our
problem 3.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:03)

Derive C is equal to this. What you know, given by now you know that C is equal to this and
also what you know is not it? So what do you do? Let us substitute delta in this expression.
So C=1/1-1-cos beta D/1+cos beta D, so 1+cos beta D/2 cos beta D right, so this 1/2*1+1/cos
beta D sec beta D clear. So this problem 3 was basically to understand the relationship
between yarn contraction and yarn retraction.

Why we need to understand because although in this module we preferred yarn retraction;
however, many authors in many books use the term yarn contraction. So it is necessary for us
to also learn yarn contraction and their relationship. Now yarn contraction is defined by
length of zero twist yarn/length of twisted yarn. So there is as per our symbolism capital C
yarn contraction=zeta 0/zeta.

Now we know yarn retraction is 1-zeta/zeta 0. So if you substitute then finally we obtain yarn
contraction is=1/1-yarn retraction. Then, we solved the problem number 3, derived this
expression. We know C is equal to this and delta is equal to this. Then, by substitution we can
obtain C is equal to this, so this is the answer to this problem alright. So we have solved 3
problems in this module and this module 4 ends here. Thank you for your attention.

155
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture – 12
Mass Irregularity of Yarns

Welcome to this MOOCs online video course theory of yarn structure. Today we will start
module 5. Module 5 discusses about mass irregularity of yarns. Any longitudinal fibrous
assembly like sliver roving yarn, they are produced by certain technological processes,
therefore it is evident that those technological processes will impart certain natural
irregularity in the yarn or in the sliver or in the roving.

This irregularity is natural so what are the reasons of this irregularity or how do we discuss
about this irregularity. This irregularity can be associated with any attribute of the assemblies,
for example, this irregularity can be related to mass or this irregularity can be related to
diameter or this irregularity can be relate to volume or this irregularity can be related to
packing density that means let us take sliver.

If we divide the sliver into some equal parts then we measure the mass of those parts, we will
see that the masses will be different. The same situation will happen in case of volume of
sliver or packing density of sliver, diameter of sliver like that. So irregularity can be
associated with any attribute of the material. In this particular module we will focus on mass
irregularity, that means the mass or the weight of slivers at different positions along the sliver
is different and we will talk about the natural causes of irregularity.

Say for example irregularity can be generated by also say poor fiber material or it can be
generated due to some faults in the machines, they are preventable irregularity. We will not
discuss them in this module; however, we will talk about the natural mass irregularity in yarn.
Probably the first theoretical concept about mass irregularity of sliver or yarn was introduced
by Martindale in the year of 1945.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:32)

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So Martindale tried to analyze the mass irregularity of sliver and Martindale’s model is also
applicable to yarns. Martindale thought about a sliver which is prepared of fibers. Then he
introduced certain basic assumptions. First assumption what he thought is all fibers have
same length. This was his first assumption. Second assumption, fibers are straight and
parallel to the axis of the sliver.

Third assumption was fibers are deposited individually to form the sliver. What does this
mean? You have seen a drafting system, so the third assumption indicates that the fibers
move individually in the drafting system to form a sliver that means no 2 fibers are together
or no 3 fibers are together that means fibers move individually or they are deposited
individually to form the sliver.

So these 3 were Martindale's basic assumptions apart from that he also introduced one
important assumption that we will discuss later on, before that we would like to see how he
imagined about the formation of sliver.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:46)

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So this picture depicts the formation of sliver according to Martindale’s model. What you see
in this diagram is, there is a length capital L, we will consider this as sliver length in this
length capital L, there are many fibers present. These are the fibers. Each fiber has length
small l, all fibers have same length, so all fibers have length equal that is small l. The
downward arrow indicates the deposition of sliver.

So here imaginatively slivers will fall at the bottom and they will form the sliver. We
consider a small point A, on this point we draw a line, dash line, what is the probability that a
fiber is passing this line at A. Now if your fiber is passing this line at A that means the right
end small circle of the fiber must be lying within a length small l. If a fiber is passing this line
that means the right end must lie within small l.

Otherwise they will not be passing this line. So for example this fiber is passing, so it is right
end is lying within this l, this fiber is passing so it is right end small circle is lying within this
length right, this fiber is passing, so it is right end is lying in this length small l. This fiber is
passing so it is right end is lying within this small length l and what is the total length? Total
length is capital L that is the sliver length.

So this probability, the probability that a fiber is passing this line refers to the so-called
geometric probability. This probability must be = small l/L. So what is the probability that a
fiber is passing the line at A. This probability is = small l/capital L, because the right end if a
fiber is passing this line then it is right end must lie within a small length l and what is the
total length possible is capital L. So small l/capital L is the probability, right.

158
Now suppose total number of fibers in the sliver = capital N, right, so number of fibers per
unit length of sliver is = say small n1, that is = capital N/capital L right.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:12)

Then the probability that small n, this small n is much < capital N fibers passing the line at A
follows binomial distribution. This binomial distribution, the probability of this is capital NCn
times probability to the power n times failure to the power capital N – n, right. This binomial
distribution has certain parameters, for example mean value small n bar is capital N * P,
right. Variance is N * P 1- P should be the variance of binomial distribution.

Then coefficient of variation is = square root of variance that is standard deviation/mean. So

root ( NP * (1-P))/(NP) show root over (1-P)/root over( NP). Further we can write root over
((1-P)/(NP)) is here, n bar, right. By the way we often abbreviate coefficient of variation by
CV. So CV stands for coefficient of variation. You might have noticed that in this expression
CV coefficient of variation is dimensionless.

It can be expressed in percentage if we multiply this by 100 right. So theoretically we deal

with dimensionless CV; however, it is possible to deal with CV also in percentage in that
case we have to multiply by 100 okay. So this is basically the coefficient of variation of
number of fibers present in the cross section of sliver, right. Now we will talk about
coefficient of variation of mass irregularity.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:42)

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There are small n number of fibers present. We denote each fiber by a subscript I where I will
be = till n. Similarly, fiber fineness we will denote by t 1 fiber number 1, t2 is the finest of fiber
number 2. Similarly, tn is the fineness of fiber number n. Coefficient of variation of fiber
fineness we denote by V(t). Again it is dimensionless. Now we will consider a very short
length in a sliver.

Say we come back to our sliver formation diagram, here you see a small length dx. So what is
the mass of sliver in this small length dx. So the mass will be obviously very small because
the length is very small. So let us denote this small mass by dm. So what will be the mass of
sliver of this small length dx. So the mass dm can be 0 if there is no fiber when n is = 0,
otherwise this dm can be, mass will be summation of all fiber mass.

So what is all fiber mass, that is fiber fineness * length. Mass per unit length * length and the
summation i = 1 to i = n, when n = 1, 2 like that so this is the mass of sliver element. Small
element of sliver right. Now what will be local sliver fineness. Local sliver fineness means
fineness of a small element of sliver, T this is mass/length, dx is the length and dm is the
mass. It can be 0, even n = 0.

Fineness is 0 which is little odd to hear that is why we use the word local. If we choose a very
small element of a sliver, there can be no fiber. So in that very small element fineness can be
0, that is why we use the word local sliver fineness, otherwise this T = dm/dx, what is dm?
dm is your summation of ti * dx/dx = summation ti because dx is constant and the summation
will vary from i = 1 to i = n, when n = 1, 2 like that, right.

160
Now, so what do we see is that sliver fineness can be 0 if there is no fiber, but if there is a
fiber then sliver fineness = summation of fiber fineness. Now fineness of sliver is different at
different positions along this sliver because the number of fibers will vary in the cross-
section. Some parts number of fibers cannot be equal to the number of fibers in other parts
because of the technological operations. So sliver fineness capital T is the random variable
right and how this is related?
(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

This is related with T can be 0 when n = 0 else T will be summation of ti, 1 to n, when n = 1,
2 and others. Now we have to find out the coefficient of variation of sliver fineness that is v
of capital T. What is the expression of coefficient of variation of sliver fineness? When these
2 equations are weld.

Now we will now go back to mathematical statistics and review the part of mean variance,
standard deviation all those things. So if you take any standard handbook on mathematical
statistics you will see this part. Suppose Y is the random variable which is = 0 for m = 0 or y
= summation of xi, i = 1 to m for m = 1, 2 and others. Here M is a discrete random variable,
is a number, whose mean we denote by expectation of m.

E stands for an operator of expectation and variance we denote by D(m). D stands for the
operator for variance and we know variance is related by this. So this is the definition for
variance okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:44)

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Then what we think is that each xi is a random variable with common mean and common
variance. If we consider this, then mean expectation of xi becomes common. Similarly,
variance of xi becomes common. Similarly, coefficient of variation of xi becomes common.
So this is your mean, this is your variance and this is your CV coefficient of variation, right.
Then we can write variance of Y, what is Y? Y is 0 when m = 0, y is summation of xi.

When m is 1, 2 and so on, it such is the definition of random variable then its variance,
variance of Y can be written as follows. Expectation of m, variance of x. No square of CV of,
square of variance, ( CV of x +(variance of m/expectation of M)). This derivation you will
see in a standard handbook of mathematical statistics. So if this is how we define Y, then the
square of CV of Y is (1/expectation of m * (square of CV of x random variable + (variance of
m/ expectation of m))).

Now we compare this with our expression of fineness 0 when n = 0 and capital T = t i when i
is 1 to n, n = 1, 2 and… right, then variance square of CV of this is = 1/expectation of n.
Expectation of n is mean of n. So 1/n bar * (square of CV of fiber fineness + (variance of
n/expectation of n right)). We will now work with this expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:18)

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So the square of CV of sliver fineness is = 1/(n bar) (v square t + sigma n square/(n bar))
okay. We substitute variance and mean from binomial distribution. What was variance? this
was the variance and what was the mean? N*P(mean). So if we substitute what we get is. So
if we assume that the number of fibers in the cross section of sliver follows binomial
distribution then the square of CV of sliver fineness can be expressed by this form right okay.

So in order to find out square of CV of sliver fineness you need to know mean number of
fibers present in the cross-section of sliver. You need to know the square of CV of fiber
fineness and most importantly you need to know the probability P. What is this probability,
this probability is small l/capital L, which is often difficult to find it out? So we introduce
now an alternate assumption.

What is that? that is number of fibers in the cross section of sliver follows Poisson
distribution. Number of fibers in the cross section of sliver follows Poisson distribution. This
infers L limits to infinity. So N, total number of fibers also limits to infinity, when L limits to
infinity the probability tends to 0. So under the assumption of Poisson distribution the
probability becomes 0. Then we can write in this expression if you substitute P = 0, then we
can write.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:08)

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V2 (T) = 1/(n bar)(v2 (t) + 1), then V(T) is the CV of sliver fineness, root over(1/(n bar)(v 2 (t)
+ 1)), and what is n bar? All fibers are parallel, they are straight, so n bar is capital T
bar/small t bar, means sliver fineness/mean fiber fineness. If we substitute here, then we
obtain root (t bar/capital T) bar* root(v 2(t) + 1). So this is the most important equation till
now. So this expression is developed based on 4 assumptions.

First assumption, all fibers have same length. Second assumption, fibers are straight and
parallel to slavery axis. Third fibers are deposited individually and of course randomly then
only this statistical distribution comes into picture. To form the sliver, you remember these 3
were the basic assumptions of Martindale’s model and the fourth assumption number of
fibers in sliver cross-section follows Poisson distribution.

So this expression is true under these 4 assumptions. Now often in textile, books, research
articles this V(T) is known as limit irregularity and it is expressed as follows.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:02)

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CV limit is equal to root (t bar/capital T bar) * root(v 2(t) + 1). So CV limit stands for limit
irregularity. So this is the expression for limit irregularity right. Suppose v(t) = 0, what does
that mean. Fibers are uniform, they are fineness at different positions along a fiber are same,
so there is no irregularity on fiber fineness. So the CV of fiber fineness is 0, if we substitute
v(t) = 0 here then, what you will find, CV limit will be this.

This expression also you will see in many books. So in this case one more assumption is
considered that is v(t) = 0. So often it is said that this expression is true for sliver prepared
from synthetic fiber and suppose v(t) = 0.3516, so that is basically 35.16 %. So if you
substitute this value here then you will find CV limit = 1.06/ (root n bar) often said this is the
limit irregularity of sliver prepared from cotton fibers.

By the way, if we express in terms of percentage then this is dimensionless. So, these
expressions are quite well-known in traditional textile literature and this is how these
expressions are obtained. So if we summarize Martindale’s model. Martindale’s model is
based on 4 important assumptions, the basic assumptions are sliver is prepared from fibers,
all fibers have same length.

All fibers are straight and they are parallel to sliver axis. The fibers are deposited individually
and randomly to form the sliver and the special assumption is the number of fibers in the
cross section of this sliver follows Poisson distribution. Under this 4 assumptions it is
possible to derive this expression for limit irregularity, it is a quite general expression, if you

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know the CV of fiber fineness and you know the mean number of fibers present in the cross
section of the sliver you will be able to calculate limit irregularity for that sliver.

Two special cases we considered. If we consider there is no irregularity of fiber fineness, then
this limit irregularity becomes this. Often it is said that this expression is true for the sliver
prepared from synthetic fibers. If we consider cotton fiber fineness CV = 35.16% then you
will obtain CV limit = 106 /(root over n bar). Often said these expression is valid for the sliver
prepared from cotton fibers. So this was Martindale’s model. Now we would like to discuss a
very interesting problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 47:31)

The problem is the relation between CV of fiber fineness and CV of fiber diameter. This
problem comes from typically wool fiber. This size of wool fiber is often expressed by their
diameter in the unit of micrometer. If we know the CV of fiber diameter is it possible to
know CV of fiber fineness so that we can use Martindale’s equation to find out the mass
irregularity of the sliver prepared from such fibers.

So this is the origin of this problem. What is the relation between CV of fiber fineness and
CV of fiber diameter? Now if we go back to our module 1, where we discussed about basic
fiber characteristics, in that module we derived a relation of fiber diameter. Where d stands
for fiber diameter, t stands for fiber fineness, rho stands for fiber density right. Then we can
write fiber fineness = pi times rho/4 * d2.

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For a given fiber rho is constant and obviously pi/4 there are also constants. So this becomes
a constant. Suppose we write this constant by k, then we write kd square where k is a constant
right. Then we differentiate t with respect of d then we obtain 2 kd, okay. Now we need to
find out an expression for fiber fineness around mean value d bar.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:55)

That means fiber fineness around mean value d bar. This can be obtained using Taylor series.
What does this Taylor series say? This t = k times (d bar) 2 + 2 k* d bar/factorial 1 * (d-d bar)
+ other terms. So what do we obtain K times (d bar) 2 + 2 kd d bar - 2 k (d bar)2, that is = 2 kd
(d bar) – k(d bar)2right. Approximately we can write taking the first 2 terms of Taylor series
what will be the mean and variance of t.

Mean of t = expectation of t, that is = expectation of (2k d (d bar) – k (d bar) 2), k is the

constant and d bar is also constant. So we can write (2 k (d bar) * expectation of (d) – k(d
bar)2), then we can write 2 k d bar expectation of d is d bar - k d bar square. So 2k d bar
squared - k d bar square = k (d bar) 2. So this is the expression for mean fiber fineness and
what will be the expression for variance?
(Refer Slide Time: 54:09)

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Variance is (sigma t 2 )right. So what is this sigma t 2? sigma t 2 is expectation of( t - mean of
t)2. So this is the definition of variance. We often write, so this we substitute, what is your t? t
is your 2k d (d bar) – k (d bar) 2– mean of t. What was mean of t, k (d bar) 2. So what we
obtained expectation of 2k d (d bar) - 2 k (d bar) 2. So here 2k (d bar) is constant. So (2k d
bar)2 * expectation of (d - d bar)2.

So (2k d bar)2 * is sigma d 2 okay. Then coefficient of variation of t is sigma t / (t bar). What is
sigma t? Sigma t is 2 k (d bar) * sigmad by what was t bar? t bar was k d bar square. So 2
sigma d/d bar. What is sigma d/d bar? Standard deviation of d/mean of d show 2 v(d). This is
cv of d, so vt = 2 * vd, this is another important relation. So if we substitute these 2
Martindale's expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 57:05)

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V(T) =root(t bar/T bar (v 2(t) + 1)), so t bar/capital T bar, v 2( t) is 4v2(d) right. In terms of
unit CV limit = 100 * (1 + 0.0004 CV 2 (d) in terms of %) / root over n bar right. This
expression also you will see in many standard textbooks. We will stop here now in the next
discussion we will talk about very interesting fact when the fibers are inclined then what will
be the irregularity and also the doubling. Thank you for your attention.

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 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture – 13
Mass Irregularity of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to this course, theory of yarn structure. In the last time we started module 5, mass
irregularity of yarns. So in that lecture we talked about Martindale's model. Martindale's
model was based on 4 assumptions. So Martindale considered a sliver which was prepared
from many fibers, all fibers were straight parallel to sliver axis, all fibers had same length, the
fibers deposited individually and randomly to create the sliver.

And the number of fibers present in the cross section of the sliver follows Poisson
distribution. Under these 4 assumptions we derived a relationship of sliver fineness.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:24)

Which was equal to root(mean fiber fineness / means sliver fineness) * root ( (CV of fiber
fineness)2+1). So this derivation we completed in our last lecture. Also we established a
relation between CV of fiber fineness and CV of fiber diameter which is often valid in case of
wool fiber. So in that case the relation was CV of fiber fineness was equal to 2 times CV of
fiber diameter.

Then if we substitute then we obtained +1. So often you will see in many articles and also
books this expression you used for to find out the CV of sliver prepared from wool fibers. So

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in this lecture we will first discuss about the effect of doubling on mass irregularity. So what
is the effect of doubling on mass irregularity of sliver. Almost all of us knows about
doubling.

Doubling is basically combination of slivers. So when you combine or when we put one
sliver beside another sliver we call doubling is = 2. When we place 3 slivers side-by-side we
say doubling = 3. So doubling basically refers to combination of slivers. Now often we see in
draw film in roller drawing machine we feed 6 to 8 slivers that is doubling = 6 to 8 and we
obtain a drawn sliver. Why do we do that?

In a simpler form to say doubling reduces mass irregularity of sliver. How it is done? So in
this lecture we are going to learn about that. So what is the theoretical basis that doubling
reduces mass irregularity of sliver that is what we would like to learn today.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:23)

What we see here is m number of slivers. This is sliver number 1, sliver number 2 and
likewise till mth sliver. This sliver fineness is denoted by T 1 of course T1 is random variable.
Second sliver, the sliver fineness T2 is also another random variable, amid sliver fineness T
subscript m which is another random variable. Now each sliver is different.

They are different in terms of fibers, fiber parameters. They are different in terms of fineness.
They are different in terms of their irregularity. Sliver 1 has a mean fiber fineness t 1 bar.
Coefficient of variation of fiber fineness v (T 1). Mean sliver fineness capital T1 bar and

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coefficient of variation of sliver fineness v (T 1), v (T1) can be obtained by using Martindale’s
model, v (T1)=root( t1 bar / T1 bar *(v2 (t1) + 1) ) right.

Now we come to second sliver. The mean fiber fineness t2 bar cv of fiber fineness v (T1),
mean sliver fineness capital T2 bar and cv of sliver fineness v (T2), this expression also can be
obtained similarly by using Martindale’s model. Now we come to m’th sliver. Mean fiber
fineness small t subscript m bar, cv of fiber fineness v (T subscript m), mean sliver fineness
capital T subscript m bar and cv of sliver fineness v capital T subscript m.

This can also be found out by using Martindale’s model in a similar manner right. Now so if
we double then we will obtain 1 sliver that is called double sliver okay. So let us first
characterize these individual slivers. So we can now consider one particular sliver say j ’th
sliver.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:50)

So what will be the mean value? Mean sliver fineness is this and the CV will be this. So these
are the and also the variance will be is equal to this right, because CV square = variance/mean
square. So variance = CV square * mean square, okay. Now what about the doubled sliver?
For the double sliver, so if we combine all these individual slivers, we will form a double
sliver.

That double sliver will also have a mean of sliver fineness that mean T bar will be =
summation of all means right and it will also have a variance D(T). These variances will be
all additive, also it will have a coefficient of variation, this. So left hand side are the

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characteristics of individual slivers. Right hand side are the characteristics of double sliver.
We need to find out the expression for CV of fineness of double sliver.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:15)

So T bar = this j = 1 to m, okay, and D(T) = summation D (T j), all variances are additive in
nature. Now V2 (Tj) * Tj2 bar. We will substitute this from Martindale’s model right. So this is
the expression for variance of the double sliver then the CV of fineness of double sliver will
be.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:17)

VT = root(D(T))/(T bar) or we can square it, D(T)/(T bar) 2 right. So we can write summation
j = 1, j = m, ((tj bar) (Tj bar) this (v2(tj)+ 1)/T2 bar ) and if we take the root then square. Also
we can write this expression in this manner and j = 1 to m right. So this is the most general

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expression for the CV of fineness of double sliver summation this is the fineness of
individual, fiber fineness of j’th sliver.

This is the mean fineness of the double sliver. This is the fineness of j ’th sliver. This is the
mean fineness of double sliver. This is the square of CV of fiber fineness of j ’th sliver +1.
Now look at this fraction. Mean fineness of j sliver / mean fineness of double sliver. So this is
the mass fraction of j’th sliver. So this is the mass fraction of j’th sliver right. So this is the
most general expression. Now we will consider a very special case.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:12)

Let, us assume that all fibers are same that means t 1 bar = t2 bar = t bar. Then their CV will
also be same. So they become constant right also we consider that the fineness of all slivers
are same that means T1 bar, T2 bar, Tm bar, which is = capital T bar/m right why because
capital T bar was this okay. Then what we obtain is let us rewrite. Here we will write T
bar/m, so this is your t bar, this is your this, this is T bar by m and T bar is there already okay.
We can write this as, so summation of (1/m (t bar /T bar) (v2 (t) +1)) okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:20)

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So further we can write it as V(T) = root(1/m (t bar) / (T bar) * (V 2 (t) + 1)). So this becomes
constant. So we can write V(T) double sliver is the CV of individual sliver divide by root
over m right. So you have often seen this expression CV of double sliver = CV of individual
sliver /root of number of doubling. So this expression is a very special case, not true always.
It holds to only in one case when all fibers are same, their mean fineness same.

CV coefficient of variation of fiber fineness same, and also all individual slivers have same
mean fineness, then only this expression is true. Otherwise, if all individual slivers are very
different then you will find out the CV of double sliver by using the most general form that
we derived few minutes before right. So this was about effect of doubling on mass
irregularity.

Now we will consider very interesting situation. Suppose fibers are not parallel to the axis of
the sliver. Suppose the fibers are inclined at an angle from the axis of this sliver, what will be
about the regularity of that sliver. Why we think about this it is a very special abstract case.
We would like to learn the effect of fiber inclination on mass irregularity of sliver. So what is
the effect of fiber inclination on the mass irregularity of sliver.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:25)

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This we would like to learn now. Effect of fiber inclination on the mass irregularity of sliver.
Suppose let me draw 2 slivers. This is one, second is this, this is the axis and here also this is
the axis. This is suppose sliver A, this is suppose sliver B, which of these 2 slivers will have
higher mass irregularity? and why? So this is our basic question. What do you think so?
Sliver A will have higher mass irregularity than sliver B or the mass irregularity of sliver B is
higher than that of sliver A. So let us solve this abstract case now.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:19)

So what do you see is that, this is a diagram of a sliver with oblique fibers. So all fibers are
inclined at an angle theta from the axis of sliver. In that case what will be the CV of fineness
of this sliver. Now in order to solve this problem let us imagine a simple situation. What do
you see here a fiber of length L which is also inclined at an angle theta from the axis. What
do we do, the cross-sectional area of this fiber is S.

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But the sectional area perpendicular to the axis of this sliver is S*. Obviously S star is greater
than S. Now what we do, imaginatively we divide this l into many segments, many
infinitesimally small segments, then we drop each segment along the axis of the sliver. So,
we obtain a fiber what we call as obviously an imaginary fiber. So this is called as effective
fiber, as a result we obtain an effective fiber, of course this is imaginative.

This fiber will have a length l*. So the inclined fiber has a length l and this effective fiber has
a length l*, what is the relation between l * and l, * cos(theta) right. This oblique fiber has a
cross-sectional area S. This effective fiber has a sectional area S *. We refer to our module 1
where we defined and derived this relation. What is the relation between cross-sectional A of
a fiber and sectional area of a fiber which is inclined at an angle theta.

So this relationship we derived in module 1 then what is the fineness of this effective fiber t *.
We know from again module 1 this is the expression for fineness s/cos(theta) * rho. So s *
rho/cos theta. What is s * rho? s * rho is t, t is the fineness of oblique fiber * cos(theta) right.
So fineness of the effective fiber or imaginative fiber is = the fineness of oblique fiber / cos of
the angle of inclination.

When theta = 0, cos theta = 1, t star = t, when theta is > 0, then cos theta is < 1, so t star is > t.
So the effective fiber will be coarser than the oblique fiber when they are inclined at an angle
theta. What will be the mean? This mean will be cos theta is the constant and expectation of t
will be t bar right. So t bar by cos theta, this is the mean. What will be the variance?
(Refer Slide Time: 36:21)

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Variance of this is, this is the definition of variance t *, t* is t/cos (theta), expectation of t* that
is t* bar, t* bar is by cos(theta). Now cos(theta) is the constant, so the constant will come this.
So what is this? this is the variance of t, right. Then what will be the CV of t*.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:17)

So coefficient of variation, that is = this. What is this? This is variance of t * / mean of t*.
Variance we have just now derived 1/cos 2(theta) * variance of t, mean of t star, mean of t/cos
(theta). So this cos theta, cos theta will cancel out as a result what is left is variance of t /
mean of t that is = coefficient of variation of t. So this is a very interesting result. What we
see is that whether a fiber is inclined it does not matter so far, CV of fiber fineness is
concerned.

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So CV of an incline fiber and CV of fineness of an inclined fiber and CV of fineness of a
straight fiber is same that is what we obtain from here right. This we substitute in original
Martindale’s equation.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:35)

So v (T) = t* bar /T bar * (v2 (t *) + 1). This will be the CV of fineness of sliver with inclined
fibers. Now we substitute t* bar with (t bar /cos (theta)). This does not change this so what
we see is that 1 right. So what we see is that because of the inclination the sliver, the CV of
sliver fineness is higher. So if theta increases V(T) increases. Higher is the inclination of
fibers higher is the mass irregularity of the sliver.

So if we come back to our starting question which of these slivers will have higher mass
irregularity? Of course sliver B is the answer and why this complete derivation answers this
question why, right. Further what we see is that when theta tends to pi/2 that means fibers are
perpendicular to the axis of the sliver, right. In that case cos (theta), theta tends to pi/2, this
tends to 0.

This is very small when this is very small this fraction is very high. So V (T) tends to infinity.
So the mass irregularity of this sliver theoretically tends to infinity when the angle of
inclination tends to pi/2. So when all the fibers are parallel to the axis of the sliver, the sliver
will exhibit enormously high mass CV. So this very interesting however, abstract situation
gives us some interesting information. Now we will discuss a few important attributes of
mass irregularity of sliver.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:11)

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The first of it is limit irregularity. There exists a concept of limit irregularity. This limit
irregularity is often expressed by I, is defined by actual experimental mass CV/limit CV that
means CV actual / CV limit. Now there is a testing instrument so called Uster tester, Uster
evenness tester, which measures the mass irregularity of sliver, roving, yarn and it actually
measures, so we obtain actual CV from experiments.

CV limit we can calculate using Martindale’s model. The CV limit and if we divide CV
actual by CV limit we obtain limit irregularity. So we do not limit irregularity, it is index of
irregularity I am sorry. This is index of irregularity. So index of irregularity I is defined by
actual CV / limit CV. Uster tester measures actual CV, limit CV can be obtained from
Martindale’s equation. If we divide, then we obtain index of irregularity.

What we observed is that index of irregularity I is too high sometimes. For yarn this index of
irregularity found to be this range. What infers is, if we consider index of irregularity is say
2.58 which is often found, then actual CV is 2.5 times higher than limit CV. This clearly
indicates that Martindale’s model is not too precise, had it been precise the index of
irregularity would have come close to 1.

But it is 2.58 times higher, actual CV is 2.58 times higher than limit CV that means there is
something imprecise in Martindale’s model. There exist a few corrections in literature. One
of the corrections empirical has been given by the company Uster. They have given this
collection as CV limit = this a and b are parameters. So this empirical correction was

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suggested by the company Uster. If we write this so V (T) = a/T b bar okay. Then is equal to a
by b okay. Then what happens is that.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:03)

If we take logarithm both side right, so if we plot this along y-axis, this along x-axis, we
obtained a linear curve. This so called Uster statistics. How does this curve looks like?
(Refer Slide Time: 52:06)

This curve looks like this Uster statistics. So ln(V(T)) = ln(a) – b ln (T bar). This is y, this is
x. We obtain a linear curve. So if T bar is this, it transforms here to here. So from here to here
and we look from this side to this side it is basically any and 5% of the textile companies
considered by Uster and shows this trend, 25% of the companies in the world surveyed by
Uster shows this trend, 50% of the companies worldwide surveyed by Uster shows this trend,
75% of the companies surveyed by Uster shows this trend.

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And 95% of the companies worldwide surveyed by Uster showed this trend. So this is how
you should read Uster statistics curves. So this is linear because of this function. So this is
one of the empirical corrections of Martindale's model; however, it is completely empirical, it
does not give any insight of what is not to correct in Martindale's model. Probably a better
formulation was given by Bornet.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:43)

Bornet’s idea was also empirical; however, he tried to analyze Martindale's assumptions little
deeply. What he thought is that Martindale’s model had 4 assumptions. Fibers have same
length, it is acceptable, all fibers are parallel (()) (55:30) to sliver axis and they are straight,
also to some extent acceptable. Fiber numbers in the cross section follows Poisson
distribution is okay.

Fibers deposit individually to form a sliver, this assumption was questioned by Bornet. What
Bornet thought that when fibers in a drafting system, when fibers move they move together in
clusters. So some fibers agglomerate, they form a cluster, that cluster moves to form a sliver.
So that was Bornet’s idea. So what you see in this image is, it is a Martindale’s model, 1 fiber
and then sliver, here it is cluster and then sliver.

So he probably, Bornet probably thought this is not correct; however, this is correct that is
what Bornet thought. Then he empirically suggested one relation. This is the mean fineness
of cluster by mean fineness of fiber 1/4. (Mean fineness of sliver/ fineness of fiber) 1/3, this

182
relation was empirical. So he proposed this relation. This is the mean fineness of cluster,
mean fineness of fiber, mean fineness of sliver, mean fineness of fiber.

Then we can write that tc bar/t bar = 1/4 (t bar / T bar) to the power 2/3. In Martindale’s
expression if you substitute this, if you substitute small t bar by capital T bar by this then you
will get this from. So in Martindale's model small t bar/capital T bar this expression you
substitute by this form.

Then you will obtain this expression and this value is numerically higher than that obtained
from Martindale. So this empirical correction he suggested. So these 2 empirical corrections
are existing in textile literature; however, Bornet’s idea of this expression has a serious
problem. If I try to obtain this graph say this value is 64, then what will obtain this value will
be = 1.

If this is < 64 then this is not possible because this will be imaginary part. The fineness of
cluster cannot be < the fineness of fiber; however, this is the real part. So if one has to use
this expression you need to be sure that the cross section of the fibre, in the cross section of
sliver or yarn, number of fiber must be > 64, then only you should be able to use this
expression.

If a yarn is having < 64 numbers in the cross section then this expression cannot be used
because this expression has a serious problem, it does not define when number of fibers is <
64. If it is more than 64 you can use this expression. So we stop here, in the next class we will
further discuss about mass irregularity of sliver. Thank you very much for your attention.

183
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture – 14
Mass Irregularity of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to this MOOCS online video course theory of yarn structure. In the last two lectures
we discussed about module 5 mass regularity of yarns we started with Martindales basic
assumptions then through mathematical derivations we reach to Martindales formula which is a
well known to us then we found that Martindales formula would not explain the mass irregularity
of sliver or yarn very well.

Two empirical corrections we discussed one was given by Worcester company which was purely
empirical. Second empirical correction was given by GM bonnet which was also empirical
however it was based on a very nice idea of fibres forming clusters those clusters forming sliver.
However, GM bonnet model has a problem it could not explain the sliver or yarn formation
when the number of fibres in the cross section is < 64.

That was the problem with bonnets empirical correction. Today we are going to critically review
Martindales assumptions and then we need to discuss a mathematical model on mass irregularity
of sliver or yarn after incorporating corrections to Martindales Luther model. So, we will now
discuss about Martin dale’s assumption.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:40)

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First he thought that fibres forming slivers are straight and parallel to sliver axis. Of course this is
an idealized one however it is acceptable but dominant tendency of fibres in the sliver are
parallel to silver axis. Second assumption of Martin rule was fibres have same length again this
is an idealized one however acceptable though we know that in case of cotton fibre have a
significant variation in terms of length.

However, in case of synthetic fibres we can assume that fibres have same length third
assumption of Martin dale was fibres deposit randomly do form the sliver which is also correct.
This assumption has an extension also that is fibres move independently move individually fibres
move individually to form the sliver. This is not correct GM bonnet already proposed that fibres
form clusters they have a tendency to form clusters.

And those clusters are ultimately form sliver. So, this assumption we will modify today and we
will discuss about a new theory Neckar’s theory.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:56)

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This is also known as bundle theory sure this theory modifies the individual assumption of fibres
in this sliver and it imagines that a sliver is formed from aggregates of several units typically
these aggregates are hierarchical fibre aggregates the lowest unit is fibre which is shown here a
single fibre this unit is given a number 4 this lowest unit fibre form bundle.

So, 2 or 3 or 4 fibres aggregate and they form a bundle this bundle is given a number 3 unit
number 3 several bundles form a cluster. So, these clusters are given unit number 2 several
clusters form the ultimate sliver. So, the sliver unit is given 1 so fibre unit number 4 bundle unit
number 3 cluster unit number 2 sliver unit number 1. So, fibres form bundles form cluster
clusters form sliver.

Now in a bundle a few fibres are present it is almost impossible to open the bundles into single
fibre stage. Because you can imagine imaginatively fibres are having glued or they are forming
some knots to form the bundle. We know that cotton fibres have honeydew so they have a
tendency to stick to each other right and also during processing during mechanical processing
several fibres agglomerate and they form a bundle.

It is almost impossible to separate individual fibres from a bundle. Those bundles form a cluster.
So, cluster consist of several bundles and it is possible by technological ways to separate those
bundles from cluster. By opening process, it is possible to separate those bundles from a cluster

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and ultimately several clusters form a sliver So, this is the hierarchical fibre agreement that this
theory considers.

Now the creation of higher units from lower unit suppose from fibre to bundle the lower unit is
fibre higher unit is bundle. So, fibres create bundle this creation is random and independent so
similarly bundles from cluster lower unit is bundle higher unit is cluster. So, the formation of
clusters from bundle is random and independent similarly clusters from sliver here the lower unit
is cluster higher unit is sliver.

So, the conversion from lower unit to higher unit that is from cluster to sliver is random and
independent. So, we write that the formation of lower units to higher unit is random and mutually
independent. Now we would like to know about the numbers of lower unit in a higher unit.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

So, number of lower units in higher units how many fibres form a bundles how many bundles
form a cluster how many clusters form a sliver right? So let us write in this column unit number
and also in this row unit number now unit name so 2 unit number 2 means cluster 3 bundle 4
fibres. So we write here cluster, we write here bundle, we write here fibre and here we write 1 2
3 1 is silver 2 is cluster 3 is bundle.

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Now how many cluster form silver these we denote body by symbol q 2 1 this 2 stand for cluster
1 stand for silver. So, number of clusters in silver is denoted by the symbol q subscript 2 1 here
the 2 denotes the unit of cluster that is 2 and a 1 denotes the unit of silver that is 1. Similarly,
how many cluster form a cluster it must be 1 how many clusters form a bundle from higher unit
to lower unit not possible then how many bundles are present in a silver q first subscript is for
stands for bundle.

Second is stand for the higher rate q 31 so q31 is the number of bundles in sliver. Similarly, how
many bundles form cluster q first subscript lower unit second subscript higher unit and how
many bundles form the bundle must be 1 then the lowest unit fibre how many fibres are present
in a sliver q first lowest unit 4 then 1 so q4 1 denotes the number of fibres in a sliver.

That is basically in number of fibres in a sliver? now how many fibres from a cluster q first
subscript is lower unit 4 second subscript is higher unit 2 q 42 how many fibres form a bundle q
the first subscript lower unit the second subscript higher unit so this is how we denote the
number of lower units in higher units. Now we will discuss about the mean numbers of lower
units in higher units what is the mean number of fibre in sliver?

What is the mean number of fibre in sliver? this must be =mean number of fibres in bundle
multiplied by mean number of bundles in cluster multiplied by mean number of clusters in sliver
so mean number of fibres in bundle multiplied by mean number of bundles in cluster multiplied
by mean number of clusters in sliver right? Because these units consist only of fibrous material
similarly what is the mean number of fibres in cluster.

So, fibres form bundle bundling form clusters so many number of fibres in cluster = the mean
number of fibres in bundle and multiplied by mean number of bundles in cluster right? Similarly,
what is the mean number of bundles in sliver mean q 31 bar mean number of bundles in silver
this bundle must be=mean number of bundles in clusters multiplied by mean number of clusters
in sliver.

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Right similarly there could be maximum number of lower units in higher units what is the
maximum number of fibres in silver? this must be =maximum of 3 units that is maximum of
fibres in bundle multiplied by maximum of bundles in cluster multiplied by maximum of clusters
in sliver. Similarly, what is the maximum of fibres in cluster. So, this must be =to maximum of
fibres in bundle multiplied by maximum of bundles in cluster q4 3 max*q 2max.

Similarly, what will be q let us write here maximum of bundles in sliver so maximum of bundles
in cluster* maximum number of clusters in sliver right? So this is about the number of lower
units in higher units and maximum number of lower units in higher units right now we will
discuss about fineness of these different units what is the fineness of bundle? What is the
fineness of cluster? What is the findings of silver? These we are now going to discuss.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:52)

So, fineness of different units let us first write unit number 2 3 4 then unit name must be 1 1 2 3
4. So, the first unit is sliver this is the highest unit second cluster third bundle fourth fibre
fineness so finest of sliver let us write t subscript 1, t stands for finest and 1 stands for unit. So,
basically finest of sliver we generally denote it by capital T so t1 is capital T here. Fineness of
cluster how to denote t stands for finest and unit number is 2 so t2.

T2 denotes the fineness of cluster similarly how to denote fineness a bundle t is a symbol for
fineness and 3 is the same unit number for bundles. So, t subscript 3 similarly fibre the lowest

189
unit t is the fineness 4 is the unit number so t subscript 4, t subscript 4 denotes the fineness of
fibre what is t substitute 4 that is = t because we generally denote by fineness of fibre right. Then
we will talk about CV of fineness.

We generally denote it by v(t1)=V(T) same symbol then t2 is the fineness of cluster. So, CV
v(t2)similarly v(t3) is CV of fineness of bundle and v(t 4)which is =v(t) which is the fineness of
CV of fineness of fibre right? Now let us define them t 1 what is the expression for sliver
fineness? local sliver fineness it can be 0 locally if there is no fibre or no bundle no cluster so it
is 0 for q 2 1 number of cluster in sliver=0.

If there is no cluster fineness is 0 if there are clusters, then it must be = summation of fineness of
clusters. So, i=1 i= number of clusters in sliver for q 21 =1 2 and right you remember in the last
two last modules this type of random variable we discussed either type y variable y type of
random variable and remember this is the definition of a random variable what will be the
expression for its CV? We will discuss that later on.

Now we are interested to define t2. t2 can be 0 if there is no bundle t 2 will be summation of t3 i if
i=12 q 32 for again this is also y type random variable and we have discussed what will be the
coefficient of variation of fineness of such random such quantity. Similarly, t 3 bundle it can be 0
if there is no fibre in the bundle right? But if there are fibres then it will be summation of fibres
right this is also type y random variable right?

So, this is how we define the fineness of the higher units. So, fineness of bundle fineness of
cluster fineness of sliver these all are type y random variable. Now we considered that the
number of lower units in the higher units follow binomial distribution.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:02)

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So, number of fibres in bundle follows binomial distribution number of bundles in cluster
follows binomial distribution number of clusters in silver follows binomial distribution so there
are 2 binomial distributions earlier we have discussed that in case of binomial distribution. So,
number of fibres in bundles follows binomial distribution number of bundles in cluster follows
binomial distribution number of clusters in sliver follows binomial distribution.

So, there are 3 binomial distributions. Earlier we have discussed that in case of binomial
distribution the fineness of sliver = (1/mean number of fineness in sliver)*(v 2(t)+1-(n bar)/Nmax)
you remember this formula we have discussed in the first lecture of this module so what is this.
This basically mean number similarly this is also mean number and n is the maximum number
remember we have discussed this formula 1/n bar*(v 2 (t) +(1-p)) this p is basically probability
small n/capital N n bar/N right now this we will use in case of bundle cluster and sliver. So, we
can write v2 (t3) square of CV of fineness of bundle=1/ Mean number of fibres in bundle q 43
bar*(v2(t)+1-(q43 bar)/ q43max). Here, t4 is basically ‘t’ . Similarly, we can write that v 2 (t2) square
of CV of fineness of clustre=(1/ Mean number of fibres in bundles in clusre q 43 bar)*(v2(t3)+1-
(q32 bar)/ q32max). . Similarly, we can write that v2 (t1) square of CV of fineness of sliver=(1/ Mean
number of bundles in sliver q21 bar)*(v2(t2)+1-(q21 bar)/ q21max). Here, t1 is basically T, that is,
fineness of sliver. So the expression for square of CV of sliver fineness can also be written in a
different form. Let us do that.

191
(Refer Slide Time: 36:01)

So, we write it again V 2 (T) what is1/q21 bar (v2(t2)+1-( q21 bar)/ q21 max). Now we will substitute
here in terms of t3 right so if we substitute alright this 1/q 21 bar ((1/q32 bar (v2(t3)+1-( q32 bar)/ q32
max ))+1-( q21 bar)/ q21 max) expression will be longer further because we are now going to substitute
here.

In terms of t4 so 1/q21 bar ((1/q32 bar ((1/q43 bar (v2(t4)+1-( q43 bar)/ q43 max))+1-( q32 bar)/ q32 max))+
((q32 bar)(1-( q21 bar)/ q21 max))). Then finally we write this expression (1/(q43bar q32bar q21bar)
*(v square t4 plus (1-(q43 bar/q43 max))+(q43 bar (1-(q32 bar/q32 max))) +((q43 bar* q32 bar)
(1-(q21bar/q21max)))). Right? This is quite long expression. Now we can substitute here v
square t square of CV of fibre fineness.

And look at this q43 bar mean number of fibres in bundle* mean number of bundles in
cluster*mean number of clusters in sliver which is = mean number of fibres in sliver which is
further =n bar right then we can rewrite this expression by changing this.
(Refer Slide Time: 42:29)

192
So, v square t=1/n bar ( v 2 (t)+(1- q43 bar /q43 max)+q43 bar (1- q32bar /q32 max)+q43 bar q32 bar (1-q21
bar/q21 max)) we close the square bracket okay. Now what we do we rewrite this expression in a
little different manner n bar this one we write here v square t+1 this 1 is here right -instead of 1
you write it as +q43 this q43 let us take it common and q43 also here so we write 1-1/q43 max
right – this bracket close.

Okay now what is this mean numbers of fibres in bundle* mean number of bundles in cluster.
So, that is =mean number of fibres in cluster mean number of fibres in cluster right. We now
assume that this mean number of fibres in cluster is =some factor*mean number of fibres in
sliver. So, this p is a measure of fibre individualization p is a measure of individualization and of
course p must be <1.

Then we substitute here this quantity and we would like to rewrite what it becomes 1/n bar*(v 2(t)
+1+q43 bar(1- 1/ q43 max – q32 bar/ q32 max) +p n bar (1- q21 bar/q 21max)). =A. So, this part we
consider v2(t)+1+q43 bar(1- 1/ q43 max – q32 bar/ q32 max) =A and the remaining p n bar (1- q 21 bar/q
21max)=B. So, that is we write next.
(Refer Slide Time: 49:16)

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So this expression becomes v2 (T)=( A+B times n bar)/ n bar. So, if we write in a standard form
v2 (T) is )=( A+B times t bar/T bar)/ t bar/T bar. So this bundle theory under the assumption of
binomial distribution leads to this expression A and B are two parameters right what is A? A is
v2 (t)+1+q43 (1-1/q43 max-q32 bar/ q32 max) and B=p times (1- q21 bar/ q21 max )right. Now a small note
here if these two maximum quantities are very large in number.

Then this fraction becomes small this fraction becomes small so there is problem in A however,
this is small then this fraction is very large if this is very small then this fraction is very large
2
quantities is subtracted from 1 so this whole can be negative. So, v (t)+1 can be <A right.
Alright so this is the final expression for sliver irregularity based on bundle theory under the
assumption of binomial distribution. What will be the form of this under Poisson distribution?
So, now we will discuss about Poisson distribution.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:59)

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So, finally we come to Poisson distribution of our assumption is the number of lower units in
higher units follow Poisson distribution. So, in Poisson distribution the maximum number of
lower units in higher units tends to infinity what does that mean q 43 max q32 max q21 max tends to
infinity and q42 max, q41 max and q31 max tends to infinity right. Now we will come back to our
previous one q43 max tends to infinity this then very small. Similarly, q32 max tends to infinity.
Therefore, 1/q43 max and 1/q32 max become very small so these two fractions we can neglect.
2
So, A becomes v (t)+1 + q43 bar. Similarly when q21 max tends to infinity, 1/q21 max
becomes very small. Therefore, B becomes equal to p. So, in Poisson distribution, this A
becomes v square t+1+q43 bar and B becomes p. So the final equation is this but A is this and
B=p right. So, we obtained two important expressions up;-nder bundle theory. One based on
binomial distribution and the other based on Poissonian distribution.
(Refer Slide Time: 56:53)

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Now what we will discuss we will discuss this theory with the view of Uster statistics data. So,
Uster statistics 1997 so you know Uster conducted a huge amount of trails in different spinning
companies around the world and they collected the data of massive regularity versus count skull
and the they plotted graphs called USTER statistics curve very similar curves are here. So, this
was in the case of Carded cotton yarn.

So, along the x axis fineness yarn this was in case of yarn to along the yarn and along the x axis
yarn fineness in Textile product along the y axis CV of yarn fineness dimensionless is plotted.
Here you see there is one for each one there are 2 dotted lines. So, if you remember in Uster
statistics curve is a thick red line? This thick red line has one top surface and also one bottom
surface and one middle one.

The top and bottom are denoted by the dotted lines here and the fine line is the middle of Uster
statistics curve and the thick line is obtained from bundle theory statistical regression technique
was used to obtain the thick line that is from bundle theory and as you know Uster defines
irregularity in this manner a and b are parameters and this bundle theory V(T)= root(t bar/T bar
(A+B T bar/t ba))r this right for the bundled theory.

Then for different curves 5% of the of this spinning companies worldwide follows this curve
25% follows the next one 50% of followers the next one 75% of the spinning companies

196
worldwide follow the next one and 95% follows this one. So, these curves were used to find out
these parameters small a and small b for USTER. And capital A and Capital B for bundled
theory.

So, you see that for 95% for this parameter a was 0.35340 and b was 0.0419 however A 2.30832
and B was 0.01615. Similarly, for different curves these values are given what we can all
observe is that the value of B is very small it is in the order of 0.001 to 0.01 and the value of A is
little more than 1 1.56 1.74 1.99 2.12 2.31 it is like that. So, this is what we obtained in case of
Carded cotton yarn.

How this bundles theory behaves or how these bundled theory is compared with Martindales
theory that we will discuss in the when we will talk about the numerical problems thank you,
thank you for your attention.

197
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 15
Mass Irregularity of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to these MOOCS online video theory of Yarns structure in the last 3 lectures
we were discussing about mass irregularity of yarns though we majority spoke about slivers
however the basic concepts of marginal theories as well as bundles theories are also valid for
yarns so the same expressions we can use for mass irregularity of yarns also now we will discuss
about some numerical problems based on what we learned so far in this model. So, we start with
our first numerical problem 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:23)

So, consider a sliver which is prepared from cotton fibers of 25 millimeter mean link and 0.16
tex mean fineness. The counts (in ktex) of the sliver measured at 5 different places are 5.9, 5.5,
5.7, 5.6 and 5.8. Determine the coefficient of variation of number of fibers in the cross-section of
the sliver. Coefficient of variation of number of fibers in the cross-section of this sliver so if you
study module 5.

Then you will realize at 1 point of time we have derived that coefficient of variation of fiber

198
number = under poisson distribution this so we need to basically find out n bar and then square
root so what are the data given T kilo tex 5.9, 5.5, 5.7, 5.6, 5.8 and we need to find and we need
to see fiber fineness is also given 0.16 and same for all 5 readings then we need to find out
number t *1000.

So, 5.9 ktex means 5900 tex/0.16 this will give you this number then 5500/0.16 will give you
34375 then 5700/0.16 will give you then 5600/0.16 will give you very nice number 35000 last 1
5800/0.16 will give you this so 5 readings of number we can find out average this will be equal
to 35625 so this is the average number of fiber present in the cross – section of the sliver then vn
= 1/ square root of this will give you 8.

So, this is the answer if you wish to express it in terms of % then 0.5298% so the coefficient of
variation of number of fibers in the cross-section of sliver = 0.5298 percent so this was your
numerical problem 1 and solution now we proceed to numerical problem 2 so this is your
numerical problem 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:10)

Calculate the co-efficient of variation of count of cotton sliver of 0.10 Ne mean count so 5.905
kilo texs and fiber mean fiber fineness is given tex coefficient of variation of fineness of fiber is
also given in terms of dimension less it is 0.35 now you are asked to calculate the coefficient of

199
variation of count of cotton sliver so martindales formula so this formula if you substitute the
data it will give you the required value right.

So, this will lead to dimension less if you wish to express in terms of %55 right so this is the
required answer the coefficient of variation of count of flavor is 0.55% now we will go to
problem number 3.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:54)

The Coefficient of variation of count of cotton slivers is often expressed as CV limit = 106 root /
N bar this expression is often found in textile literature while deriving this relation how much is
the coefficient of variation of fineness of cotton fiber considered so you are asked to calculate
coefficient of variation of fineness of cotton fiber if this is the expression for coefficient of
variation of count of cotton fiber.

So, we rewrite this expression in our symbols VT = dimension less given write the formula used
to calculate this was this so if we equate we have to find out the small t so square so 0.3516 so
you see that this particular expression is valid for cotton sliver and when coefficient of variation
of fiber fineness is 35.16% but often we think that this expression is valid for all cotton fibers
irrespective of the variety of cotton fibers used to produce those flavors which is not correct.

200
So, this expression is true if this is the CV of fiber fineness changes of course this value will not
be 106 instead of 106 it can be some other value however there is a tendency among us to use
this expression for all cotton flavors or all cotton yarns which is not correct so you have to 1st
find out reality in practice you have to 1st find out the coefficient of variation of fiber fineness
then you have to use martindales expression then you have to find out CV limit.

Similarly there is another problem associated with wool fiber based on that problem number 4 is
designed.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

The coefficient of variation of count of woolen slivers or woolen yarn also is often expressed as
CV limit 112 root of bar n bar in case of yarn it will be yarn cross section right then you are
asked to find out the fineness of wool fibers so we write this expression using our symbols right
square which is = 2544 then 0.5044 so also we have observed that this expression is frequently
used for all woolen flavor which is not correct.

Because this expression is valid only when wool fiber has a mass CV of around 50% if this
number changes then this number will change so what we have to do in practice when you need
to find out the limit CV of woolen slab or woolen yarn you have to first find out the fineness of
CV of fineness of wool fiber then you have to use martindales formula then you have to find out

201
the correct quantity here. Right in this way you need to do in reality now we can come to
problem number 5.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:33)

It is quite long problem consider that a draw firm is fed with 6 cotton carded sliver of the
following specifications sliver number 1 mean fiber fineness 0.15takes sliver finest fiber fineness
35% and mean sliver fineness is 5.90 kilo tex 2 nd slabber is different from 1 st mean fiber
fineness 0.16 tex CV of fiber fineness 35.16 percent and mean sliver fineness 5.91 takes 3 rd
slabber is different from 1 and 2 mean fiber fineness 0.20 tex.

CV of fiber fineness is 34.10 percent and means fiber fineness 5.95 to x similarly all other
slabbers are different so these 6 different flavors are fed in it often and as a result we double it
we obtained 1slabber double slabber you need to find out the CV of count of the double flavor
right so how do you find out this problem so let us solve this problem. What we have to do is that
we have to find out the variance of the double sliver.

Mean of the double sliver and from their CV but before that we have to use Martindales formula
find out the CV of individual slivers is not so let us do that.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:00)

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Now sliver number this was given this was given this was given 1 2 3 4 5 6 sorry so we have to 1
st find out this dimension less using martindales formula what is martindales formula right so
using this formula t bar is given 0.15 capital T bar is given 5.90 kilo tex you have to convert in to
index that is multiplied by a 1000 and VT is given in % so dimension it will be 0.35 square + 1
so this value will obtained as 53 let me write it in terms of unit.

This is dimension less this is in tex given and this is kilo tex given so you have to multiply by
1000 then V square t in % given so root square quantity right abra square +1 so the 1 st reading I
will tell you .15/5.90 * 1000 * 35 square /10000+1 this will lead to .0053 similarly for the next 1
roughly same reading 0061 then you will get 0058 then you will get 0063 and the last 1 you will
get this so this is the individual you will get then you have to find out the variance.

So, from this table you will find out the variance precisely now how to find out variance square
so for the first 1 square up 0.0053*5900 5.90 square its unit will be kilo tex square so this
reading you will see you will get this value for the second flavor 0.0053 square multiplied by
5.91 square this will give you little different for the 3 rd 1 0.0061 square multiplied by 5.95
square.

You will get this value for the 4 th 1 0.0058 square multiplied by 5.93 square which will lead to
for the 5 th 1 0.0063 square * 5.98 square for the 6 th the last 1 0.0057 square * 5.93 square this

203
then what you have to do you have to basically sum all this so if you sum of all these readings all
the 6 readings what you will get is 70.21* 10 to the power - 4 kilo tex square and also you have
to sum the means fiber fineness.

This will give you 30.5, 35.6 kilo tex so you know variance you know mean you will be able to
find out CV how you will find out CV. Let us go to next page.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:59)

So, double sliver / this so this is your 70.21* 10 to the power – 4and t bar is here 35.6 okay so
you will see this will probably come this so 0.0024 so in terms of % if you wish to write 0.24
what is interesting you see not a single individual sliver has < 0.0024 so all individual sliver had
a higher mass irregularity because of doubling the CV becomes 0.0024 which si why doubling is
cut out right. So, this was the solution of problem number 5. Now we proceed to problem
number 6.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:54)

204
Consider that a draw fame is fed with 8 cotton carded slivers each carded sliver has 4 kilo tex
mean count and 6% coefficient of variation of bound so what is given here is 4 kilo tex and is
given doubling is 8 okay so what will be the variance of individual 1 this will be the unit kilo tex
square and right what will be the summation of all variance is basically which is = 0. Square and
what is the finest of double slaver 32 ktex.

So, you know variance you know mean you have to find out CV this will give you 0.0212 if you
wish to express in terms of % 2.12 percent so the coefficient of variation of count of double
sliver is 2.12 percent so this was your problem number 6 now we proceed to problem number 7.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:28)

205
A cotton sliver of 5.9 kilo tex mean count is prepared from fibers of 25 millimeter length 0.16
tex mean fineness and 35% CV of fiber fineness so let us see what is given this is given tex this
is also given as I mean all fibers are inclined at an angle of 5 degree from the axis of the sliver
calculate the coefficient of the count of the sliver so you remember the theory when theory of
CV of sliver fineness when all fibers are inclined.

At a same angle from the axis if the sliver we derive this relation VT = small t bar by capital T
bar cos theta v square t+1 this theory we have derived so if you substitute T/ is also given tex so
of you substitute capital T /0.16 5900 cos 5 degree 0.35 square + 1 this you will see value will
come up approximately = 0.0055 so if you wish to express in terms of % 0.55. This problem
seems to be very similar to the problem number 2 except the fact that the angle is 5 degree.

In problem number 2 angle is 0 degree we found this value when the angle is 5 degree we found
the value remains the same instead of 5 degree this value would have been little higher 15 degree
20 degree then this value would have been higher as the angle is very small near to 0 sp it is
impact on the mass CV of the sliver is not seen however if the angle will be higher than this
value will be higher will be different from 0.55. So, problem number 7 is completed now we
proceed to problem number 8. This is problem number 8.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:00)

206
A cotton sliver of 5.9 kilo tex mean count is prepared from fibers of 25 millimeter mean length
0.16 tex mean fineness and 35% coefficient of variation of fineness these sliver exhibits uster CV
of 4%. Determine the index of irregularity of this sliver comment on the results obtained. So, this
is your problem number 8 let us see what is given so capital T bar is given tex small t bar is
required tex Vt is given and actual is given you have to find out index of irregularity alright.

Index of irregularity actual/ limit in terms of our symbol by limit so this value is given this value
is not given so you have to find out this value using martin dales model right this is given 0.16
this is given 5900 this value is given squared this value is given so this will be = we have already
solved this problem 0.0055 so if we substitute 0.04/0.0055 which will be = 7.27 it should have
been near to 1 if martindales theory was correct.

But it is becoming 7.272 high index of irregularity that is the comment right let us apply 40.46
and we would like to find out this value using bonnets expression and also index of irregularity
using bornets expression and you would like to see if using bonnets empirical correction index of
variability will be less than this or what so let us continue.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:10)

Bornets empirical correction so what was bonnet 1/ 2 t bar / T bar 1/3 t+1 to the power ½ this
was the expression given by bonnet so we use the data given in the problem T bar 0.16 and 5.9
kilo tex so 5900 tex and 0.35+ 1 to the power ½ so this value you will get 0.0165 see limit

207
irregularity is > 0.0055 this came from martindales theory right now index of irregularity V
effective / bornet show these value 0.04 0.165 so what will be this value 2.42.

And what was the value using martindales 7.27 so index of irregularity is remarkably less we
found using bornets theory 2.42 and here it is 7.27 right so this was the solution of problem
number 8 now we proceed to problem number 9.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:25)

A yarn of 29.5 tex mean count is prepared from fibers of 0.17 tex mean fineness and 18%
coefficient of variation of fineness so what is given here is T bar 29.5 tex t bar 0. this Vt 0.18 and
also 9 actual measurement measured CV of yarn is given as I told you earlier all the expressions
what we found for sliver they are also valid for yarn so practice Martindales formula, Bornets
formula, bundle theory formula are applied in case of yarn also.

So, we will use those formulas for yarn as well and 2 parameters are given A from this and B
from this these parameters are obtained from uster statistics data these 2 parameters were
obtained based on uster statistics data so here actually we have to compare these 3 theories
martindales model bornets empirical collection and Neckars model so these 3 theories what we
have learned so far will be compared in this numerical problem so let us do that 1 by 1. First let
us find out Martindale.
(Refer Slide Time: 46:59)

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Martindales formula as we know right so fiber fineness is 0.17 tex and yarn fineness 29.5 tex and
your CV was 0.18+1 okay so this will lead to 0.0771 then index of irregularity using Martindale
2.45 significantly higher than 1 okay let us use Bornet’s expression Bornet’s VBT B stands for
Bornet and M stands for Martindales which was not 1/2 t bar by this to the power 1/3 * V square
t +1.

That was Bornets right sure 1/2 what is T bar 0.17 and this 29.3 to the power 1/3 squared +1 so
this will lead to 0.0927 then index of irregularity using bornet V effective by V bornet there is
equal to 0.189/0.0927 which = 2.04 this value is less than this value so the Bornets idea of
clusters forming sliver is probably correct now we have to use neckars model bundle theory.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:51)

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So, what was this bundle theory data so it has right VN T you remember t bar by this A+B that
was the formula so what is T bar given this by this and what is the value of A given 1.36+ B is
0.028 * 29.5/0.17 right so this will lead to 0.1893 and then index of irregularity using Neckars
theory by this so 0.189, 0.1893 close to 1 right. So if we compare this
(Refer Slide Time: 52:58)

Idea or model and index of irregularity I and I means – Martindales Bornets idea and Neckars
model so Martindale it was 2.45 this was 2.04 and this was 4 so what we see is that this index of
irregularity is list in case of neckars bundle theory and highest in case of Martindale’s theory so
probably these Neckars theory is quite well so problem number 9 is over now we proceed to last
problem number 10.

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(Refer Slide Time: 54:21)

Determine the mean number of lower units in the higher units in problem number 9 so it is a
continuation of problem number 9 so let us see what is given this was given and also A and B
given right now we use Poissonian sliver so 1st we find out this value from the given data this is
basically 173.53 so this is our 1 value right 2 nd as it is poisson distribution that we remember
this becomes = to this so by q41.

And this value = 0.028 so this leads to the value of 4 2 2 8 * 173.53 which will be = 4.86 we get
the 2nd reading right then we will find out the 3rd 1 by using this formula *q21 right so q21 will
be = 41/4241 is 173.53 and 42 is 4.86 right so this value will be = 35.71 okay then we use this
expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 57:55)

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A = 1+ V squared T +q43 now A is given and A is your 1.36 1 V squared t is also given in this
problem 0.18+q43 this will lead to q43 = 1.36- this and this so 0.3276 so we get the another 4 th
reading okay then we use this expression q43 q32 q21 then q32 will be = 41/43 21 now what is
41 is we have calculated for 1 is 173.53/43 we have calculated 0.3276 and 21 also we have
calculated 35.71 so this ratio will give you 14.83.

So, this is our another unit we found okay then we use another expression q31 = q32 q21 then
q32 is 14.83 and q21 is 35.71 529.58 so large number at first sight this seems to be improvable
however there could be many bundles that are empty look at the value of q43 is 0.3276 is very
less value so that means in the sliver there are huge number of bundles but the number of fibers
in the bundle is very less.

So, there are very few fibers there could be possibility that many bundles are empty that is why
you get so large reading so now if we summarize all links we have 41 is 173. this 42 we have
4.86 43 we have 32 this then we come to 32 we have 14.83 31 we have 539.58 and also we have
21 we have calculated this so this is the mean number of lower units in the higher units this is the
answer to the problem.

This ends the numerical problem 10 and also this ends module number 5. Thank you very much
thank you for your attention.

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 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 16
Radial Migration of Fibres in Yarns

Welcome to you all to this MOOC’s online video course theory of yarn structure. Today, we
will start module 6. This module deals with radial migration of fibres in yarn. Radial
migration of fibres discusses about the movements of fibres radially in order to develop the
structure of a yarn. This module is very important because due to radial migration of fibres
yarn structure is developed.

So this phenomenon decides many physical as well as mechanical behaviors of yarn and
radial migration of fibres generally happens during manufacturing of yarn particularly in a
ring spinning frame for example at the neap of the (()) (01:26). There is a significant radial
migration of fibres happens because of that finally yarn structure is developed. Now before
going to this phenomenon, we would like to discuss first about the general fibre path in yarn.

How we can discuss about the general fibre path in yarn, then we will discuss about the fibre
elements, we will talk about some specific angles. Those angles, some of those angles, some
of those functions are basically related to radial migration of fibres. Then, we will discuss
about this phenomenon. So first let us talk about the general fibre path in yarn.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:15)

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So this picture talks about general fibre path in yarns. Fibre path means fibre axis. In this
diagram what you see is that there is a thick curve which starts from A and ends at B. This
thick curve denotes a fibre. So A to B this distance basically represents fibre length. We
denote it by lF, F stands for fibre okay. This fibre housed inside the yarn. This yarn resembles
a cylinder.

So this is a cylinder, basically it indicates the yarn body and the yarn axis is basically the zeta
axis is the yarn axis. Now there are two more perpendicular axis x and y along with zeta
represents a Cartesian system. So the fibre path inside the yarn can be represented by
Cartesian system; however, we prefer to describe the fibre path using a cylindrical coordinate
system.

This cylindrical coordinate system is often used to describe the fibre path or a specific point
along the fibre. Let us take a specific point C. This point the distance from the starting
position this point has a length zeta along the zeta axis. From yarn axis, we obtain radius r
and from x axis we obtain an angle phi. So r, phi and zeta represents the coordinate of a point
along the fibre path.

Now at point A it will be (rA, phi A, zeta A) at point A and the coordinates at point B will be rB,
phi B and zeta B. So this three, this triplet represents any point along the fibre path inside a
yarn body. Let us think that the distance between A to C is l, so l is a length along the yarn
body. So this length l is always increasing, so this point rA is basically is a function of length.
Similarly, phi is also a function of length and zeta is also a function of length.

Now if we differentiate ‘r’ with respect to ‘l’, we obtained r dash as function of ‘l’. Similarly,
d phi/dl we obtained phi dash as function of ‘l’, d zeta/dl we obtain zeta dash as function of
‘l’. So these 3 differentials or these 3 differential functions can be used to obtain the fibre
path. If we know the starting point as a boundary condition, then by using these differentials
will be obtained the fibre path along the fibre inside a yarn body.

So in order to create, in order to know the fibre path we must know about these differentials
and also the starting position, here it is A. Then, we discussed about one fibre element, one
small fibre element.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:24)

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dl is the length of the fibre element and d zeta is the increment along the yarn axis. Similarly,
d phi is the angular increment and dr is the radial increment. So r*d phi is the width of this
dimension. So the starting position of this fibre element U and end position is V. So this three
d phi, d zeta and dr are basically those differentials. They denote the increment. These
increments are so small that they form an elementary prism which is shown here.

So there are three axes, x subscript r, x subscript phi and x subscript zeta. So this is the radial
increment dr, this is the axial increment d zeta and this is the width increment in width r d
phi. Now also the fibre path can be characterized by using 3 important angles.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:22)

These 3 angles are given as theta r is this angle, so this is again the fibre element UV, length
is dl and this angle theta r and theta phi is this angle from this axis and from this axis the

215
angle is theta zeta. So these 3 angles also characterize the position of this fibre element. So
now if we use basic trigonometric relations then we will be able to find out this 3 cos
functions.

Now so if we use now rule of directional cosines what is that rule? That rule is cos 2(thetar) +
cos2(thetaphi) + cos2(thetazeta) is=1. So this is the rule of directional cosines. If we substitute
these 3 expressions here, then what we obtain (dr/dl) 2+(r d phi/dl)2+(d zeta/dl)2 is=1. So what
is the length of this fibre element dl? dl is = the square root ( dr2+(r d phi)2+d zeta2 ).

Now these 3 functions can have negative values as well. Negative means actually decrement,
positive means real increment with respect to certain directions. These directions we
generally take positive when the direction is towards the yarn twisting direction and we take
negative when it is in the opposite side. So we can now dl is always positive; however, dr, r d
phi, d zeta can also be negative because of this.

They can be decremented also as well. Therefore, it is also possible to write the negative
values. So it is always better to write in terms of absolute value. So we write in terms of
absolute value cos (theta r)= dr/dl, cos (theta phi )= r d phi/dl and absolute value of this is
equal to absolute value of this/dl, dl always stands for positive right. These expressions we
will use later on.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:22)

Now sometimes also the projection of the fibres element onto the walls of the elementary
prism are also used to denote the path of the fibre. So 3 angles are very important in this case,

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one is this alpha, alpha is here from this axis alpha, beta and gamma. These 3 angles are very
important when these projections are considered. If we apply trigonometric relations, then we
will see tan (alpha) will be dr/d zeta, tan (beta) will be r d phi/d zeta and then tan (gamma)
will be dr/r d phi.

So these 3 relations can be obtained from this. Now we see that tan (alpha) is dr/d zeta, dr/d
zeta can also be written as (r d phi/d zeta)*(dr/r d phi). This r d phi and this r d phi will cancel
out, so it will remain dr/d zeta, dr/d zeta. So what is this? This is your tangent of beta and this
is tangent of gamma. So these angles are also related. In the earlier slide, what we observed is
cos square theta zeta is=d zeta square/dl square, now d zeta square/dl square.

What was dl square in the last slide you derive? ( dr2+(r d phi)2+d zeta2 ).
(Refer Slide Time: 19:21)

So 1/cos2 (theta zeta)=(dr2+(r d phi)2+(d zeta)2)/(d zeta)2 right, so we can write this (dr/d zeta)2+
(r d phi/d zeta)2+1 right. Now what is dr/d zeta? This is your tan (alpha). So this is your tan 2
(alpha) and what is r d phi/d zeta is tangent (beta), so tan 2(beta)+1 right and what was your
cos2 (theta zeta), that was your dl/d zeta right.

So this expression can also be obtained. Similarly, in the earlier slide what we wrote
cos( theta r) is dr/dl. Now dr/dl can also be written as dr/d zeta*d zeta/dl right. Then, what is
your dr/d zeta? Tangent of alpha and what is your dl/d zeta is tan 2(alpha)+ tan2(beta)+1. So dl
is=square root of tan2(alpha)+tan2(beta)+1)/angent(alpha)*dr. This relation is important. We
will use this relation when we will discuss the theory of radial fibre migration in yarn right.

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Now there are two functions which are very important. So far the path of fibre inside the yarn
is concerned.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:10)

One function is d phi/d zeta. It is basically related to twist. Second function is dr/d zeta which
is equal to mi(zeta). This i represents i-th fibre. There are many fibres inside the yarn. Let us
talk one general fibre say i-th fibre. So this i-th fibre will have these two functions in order to
describe its path. So these two functions are very important to describe the path of fibre
inside the yarn.

Even using these two functions very interestingly we can classify the models of yarn
structure. How we do that? So these two functions, this can be equal to 0, this can be equal to
constant, this function cannot be constant, three possible situations. Similarly, this function
for i-th fibre can be equal to 0, may not be equal to 0. So if these two situations happen, so
there is no twist in the fibrous assembly and there is no radial movement.

There is no twist, there is no angular movement. That means all fibres are straight. That
means we talk about parallel fibre bundle. So when these two situations are valid, these two
conditions are valid, we talk about parallel fibre bundle. Now we talk about these two
situations. There is no twist; however, there is a radial movement of fibres.

That means fibres are, there is no twist and there is radial movement of fibre that means
fibres are probably entangled. In that case, we talk about entangled fibre bundle. Now we

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come to these two situations, zi constant and mi 0, what is the meaning of this? So there is a
twist and the constant amount of twist is given; however, there is no radial movement of
fibres 0. That means we talk about helical fibre model.

This model we have already discussed in probably module 4. Now we come to this situation,
constant amount of twist is given in the yarn and there is a possibility of radial movement of
fibres. That we talked about radial migration of fibre. Radial migration, this is basically the
theme of this module radial migration. This we will discuss in detail in this model. Fifth
situation, twist is not constant.

Different fibres can have different amount of twist but there is no radial movement. This is
called as twisted migration and the last situation, different fibres will have different amount
of twist and there is a possibility of radial movement of fibres. These we talked about general
migration, so general migration is this. Just to give you a note, there is lot of knowledge
available in yarn structure regarding parallel fibre bundle, helical model, radial migration.

In some literature also, certain ideas are available on entangled fibre bundles and twisted
migration. In this particular module, we focus on radial migration of fibres in yarn. So in
order to fibres move radially, two conditions are very important. One twist at i-th fibre is
constant and this twist is of course a function of zeta and radial movement must be there. So
mi so this for i-th fibre is not equal to 0, so tangent of alpha.

This is equal to dr/d zeta that is equal to tangent of alpha. So tangent of alpha is not equal to
0. So if these two situations happen, then there is a possibility of radial migration of fibres. So
this is basically the theme of this module. Now we will discuss about radial migration of
fibres.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:11)

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Model of radial migration of fibres in yarn, probably the first theoretical concept on radial
migration of fibres in yarn was given by L.R.G. Treloar. This model was published in the
year of 1965. We will first discuss about Treloar’s model. This model is based on 4 important
assumptions. Out of these 4 assumptions, first assumption is basically related to the definition
of radial migration.

So the first what is the definition, the definition of radial migration is z this is equal to
constant and this dr/d zeta m is not equal to 0, so this was the first assumption which is
correct because it is the definition of radial migration. Second assumption of Treloar is
packing density of fibres at all places inside the yarn is constant. That means mu is constant.
This was the second assumption in Treloar’s model of radial migration of fibres in yarns.

Third assumption, a little critical, the absolute value of this function which denotes the radial
migration is same for all fibre elements lying at same radius r. What does that mean? Inside a
cylindrical yarn, take any radius, at that radius there are many fibre elements available. The
absolute value of this dr/d zeta for all fibre elements which are lying at that particular radius
is same.

Mathematically, this function its absolute value this is equal to this is same for all fibres in
the yarn. So this is a very crucial assumption. The fourth assumption of Treloar’s model, we
will introduce it later on in this module, when it will be required we will introduce it. Now
based on these 3 assumptions, it is possible to derive certain theoretical relations. We are
interested to find out those relations at this moment of time.

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(Refer Slide Time: 36:16)

For that purpose, let us think about the cross section of a yarn. It is a typical cross section of a
yarn cylindrical body. There are many fibres present. The diameter of the yarn is D. D is the
diameter of the yarn. We consider a small length of yarn; say elementary length delta zeta is
the length of yarn, small length of yarn delta zeta. Now how many fibres are present in the
cross section of yarn?

Let us think n, small n denotes number of fibres in yarn cross-section and capital N denotes
number of fibre elements intersecting this differential layer at a particular radius say r. What
does that mean? Inside the yarn, we think about a differential layer, it is kind of ring. There
could be many fibre segments which will intersect this differential layer. This differential
layer is situated at a radius r and its thickness is dr.

So there is a differential layer inside the yarn which is situated at a radius r and this
differential layer has a thickness small dr. Now there could be many fibre segments which
will intersect this differential layer. For example, you see here this segment, this segment,
likewise there could be many segments large number which will intersect this differential
layer, that number we think about capital N.

Now we need to find out the packing density of fibres in this differential layer. So what is the
packing density layer? This we need to find out. Now based on assumption to this packing
density is same at all places inside this yarn. How to find out this packing density? Packing
density is defined by the ratio of fibre volume to yarn volume. If we consider fibre length and

221
yarn length same, then packing density can be interpreted as area occupied by fibres/area
occupied by the yarn.

We are talking about this differential layer, so here area occupied by yarn that means area
occupied by this differential layer and within this differential layer what is the area occupied
by the fibres. So area occupied by fibres in the differential layer/area of the differential layer
that is the packing density. Area occupied by fibres in the differential layer/area of the
differential layer.

Let us find out first the numerator. Area occupied by fibres in the differential layer, how
many fibre elements are present here? Capital N. What is the length of each segment? Dl.
What is the cross-sectional area of fibre? Small s. So what is the total area occupied by the
fibres in the differential layer N number of fibre segments, each segment has a length dl and
s. So this is basically the volume and this is volume.

So U is the definition of mu, volume occupied by fibres in the differential layer, volume of
the differential layer. So this N, capital N is the number of fibre elements available in the
differential layer. Each element has a thickness, elementary thickness, elementary length dl
and cross-section area of each element is small s, so this gives the total volume occupied by
fibres in the differential layer.

Now we will come to the denominator. Volume of the differential layer is equal to area of the
differential*length. What is the length? Length is given and what is the area? 2 pi r dr. So the
volume is 2 pi r IdrI length, let us think dr in terms of absolute value. So this is the volume of
the differential layer, Now we multiply and divide the entire expression by small n, so we
multiply by small n, we divide by small n. What is n? Small n is number of fibres in yarn
cross-section.

Also we multiply and divide by yarn twist z here and z here right. Then, 2 pi r z is tangent of
beta, so this is equal to tangent of beta. Look at this expression, the whole expression capital
N/(small n*delta zeta). What is this? Number of fibre elements intersecting the differential
layer at radius r for one fibre per unit length of yarn. That means this ratio gives you the
number of fibre elements intersecting the differential layer of differential layer at radius r per
one fibre per unit length of yarn.

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This is let us say a function nu of radius r. This we consider as a function of r because if r will
change, this number will of course change. So this we will substitute by nu*r right and what
is your dl/dr, dl/dr we have already derived, root(tan 2(alpha)+tan2(beta)+1)/absolute value of
tangent of alpha right. So we substitute this all relations to find out another form of mu. So
what will be that form?
(Refer Slide Time: 47:15)

Mu is=nu ® n s z/tangent of beta*root(tan 2(alpha)+tan2(beta)+1)/absolute value of tangent of

alpha right. So (mu/nu r n s z) 2 is= root(tan2(alpha)+tan2(beta)+1)/tan square beta, absolute
value always will be a positive quantity, when it is positive tan square alpha. Now radial
migration, which parameter is very important? Tangent of alpha. So we need to express these
in terms of tangent of alpha.

That means tan2 (alpha) we have to take one side left hand side, rest all in other side right
hand side. So let us do that. So (mu/nu*n s z)2 tan 2
(beta) tan2 (alpha)= tan2 (alpha)+tan2
(beta)+1. Then, tan2 (alpha)=(tan2 (beta)+1)/((mu /nu r n s z)2 tan2 (beta)-1).

This is a very important equation because it characterizes radial migration of fibre in yarn.
What we can learn from this equation is tan alpha dr/d zeta m is a function of radius r because
tangent of beta is also a function of radius, tangent beta is=2 pi r z and nu r is also a function
of radius, so tan alpha radial migration is a function of radius, it must be that is why it is
called radial migration right.

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Now this is the very important equation for radial migration of fibres. Now we introduce
Treloar’s fourth assumption. You remember I already told you there were 4 assumptions.
First 3 we have already talked about. The fourth one we did not say. Now we are introducing
fourth assumption which will be required now. This nu r is a constant. What does that mean
and what is its physical significance?

Meaning is very simple, number of fibre segments intersecting a cylinder at radius r per fibre
per unit length of yarn is same at all places inside the yarn. Number of fibre elements
intersecting a cylinder of radius r per fibre per unit length of yarn is same at all places inside
the yarn. This is the simple meaning of this statement. What is the significance of this? This
can be understood from this diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:00)

What you see is that a fibre and this is a cylindrical body, diameter is D. Now this fibre starts
from here, it intersects the center at this point, then it goes outside the yarn, it touches the
surface here, then again it goes inside the yarn, it touches the center here, then it goes here.
That means this path of fibres is same for all fibres. So nu r is a constant, this means all fibres
have same path.

Typically, what is the path? Imaginably, let us say fibre starts from here, it touches the axis
here, then it goes out toward it touches the surface here, then it goes inside it touches the axis
here, then it goes. So if we imagine this is the path of fibres inside the yarn, then all fibres
must have the same path, then only this assumption is valid. So this was Treloar’s fourth
assumption.

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Now in this diagram, you see a small p is written. What is the small p? Small p stands for
period of migration. This period is basically the distance between two points touching the,
two adjacent points touching the yarn axis. So this is the definition of period of migration p.
Now how many fibre segments intersect at these two points? Two fibres. If we consider one
fibre, then capital N is 2, small n is 1.

So capital N/n if you think about 1 fibre then what is capital N? Capital N is 2 because two
times it will intersect, then only the definition of period of migration will come into play. So
N is 2 right. Delta zeta is p okay, so what is your nu r? Nu r was capital N/( small n* Delta
zeta). So that is equal to 2/p. This value is constant. All fibres will have same period. This is
the interpretation of this assumption.

Of course, it will be because we assume all fibres have same path. Then, we come back to our
equation.
(Refer Slide Time: 58:14)

tan2 (alpha) is =(tan2 (beta)+1)/((mu /nu r n s z)2 tan2 (beta)-1). We substitute nu(r) with 2/p,
so tan2 (alpha) is =(tan2 (beta)+1)/((mu p/2r n s z)2 tan2 (beta)-1). This can be further written as
where K is (mu p/2r n s z). This expression is very important expression. This expression is
known as fundamental equation of ideal migration or Treloar’s vision. Why this ideal is there
because of fibre path.

225
We have idealized a fibre path. All fibres have same path, so the fibre path is ideal and it will
intersect with same frequency. Then only nu r will be constant. So the fibre path is idealized
in Treloar’s model and this is the fundamental equation of ideal migration. We will stop here.
In the next lecture, we will first start with this equation and we will discuss about the
meaning of this parameter K and then we will proceed to establish to know more about this
radial migration. Thank you very much for your attention.

226
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 17
Radial Migration of Fibres in Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to this MOOC’s online video course theory of yarn structure. In the last
lecture, we started module 6 on radial migration of fibres in yarns. So we have talked about
general fibre path in yarns, how to characterize this fibre path that we have discussed. Then,
we talked about a fibre element, how to characterize this fibre element, we used cylindrical
coordinates.

And also we derived certain basic relations among the angles to characterize the fibre path
inside the yarn. Then, we classified yarn structural models based on 2 differential equations
and then from there we defined what is radial migration of fibres and we started Treloar’s
ideal migration of fibre model. We introduced 4 assumptions of Treloar’s model and based
on those 4 assumptions, we derived the fundamental equation of ideal migration.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:38)

The fundamental equation of ideal migration took this form; tan 2(alpha) is 1+tan2 (beta)/(K2
tan2 (beta)-1). This was the fundamental equation of ideal migration or fundamental equation
of Treloar’s model. Now we will discuss about K, what is the meaning of K? We would like
to know more about this K. K was equal to p period of migration*packing density/ (2 times n

227
number of fibres in yarn cross-section), s is the cross-sectional area of a fibre; z is twist which
is constant.

So this was equal to K. Now let us think about this quantity n times s, this one. What is this
quantity? Number of fibres in yarn cross-section*cross-sectional area of a fibre, so this is the
cross-sectional area of all fibres when they are parallel. That means this is basically the
substance cross-sectional area of a parallel fibre bundle. The concept of substance area we
introduced in module 2.

So this n is we can write as substance cross-sectional area of the non-twisted fibre bundle. In
module 2, we used capital S to denote substance cross-sectional area. Here we use the same
symbol with subscript 0 to denote the initial non-twisted fibre bundle and also in module 2
we have introduced this relation where capital T0 denotes the fineness of the bundle, parallel
fibre bundle and rho is fibre density.

This T0 is related to final yarn by this relation where this denotes yarn retraction. Yarn
retraction was discussed in helical model of fibres in yarn. That was probably module 4 right.
So this n is T0/rho that is=T/rho*(1-retraction) right. Capital T is yarn fineness. We know the
basic relation between diameter and fineness of yarn. That is your D 2 is=4 times capital T/(pi
mu rho).

This is yarn diameter D capital D, T is yarn fineness, mu is packing density, rho is fibre
density, so T/rho = pi mu D 2/4. If we substitute here T/rho then what we will obtain, pi mu
D2 (1- retraction)/4, that is your ns right. This ns we substitute here, so what you obtain is p
period of migration*packing density/2 pi mu D square 1-retraction/4. This is your ns and this
is your z right, so k=2 p mu/(pi mu D2 (1-retraction)).
(Refer Slide Time: 07:21)

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Let us write it further, K is=2 p mu/(pi mu D 2 (1-retraction)z) right. Now this mu mu cancel
out right, where is z, z must be here. This z was missing from earlier. This we can further
write 2 p/(pi D z (1-retraction)*D). In a nice form, (2 p/D) (1/(1-retraction))*1/(pi D z), yarn
twist intensity, so, (2 p/D) (1/(1-retraction))*1/( tan (beta D )) right.

So this is what is K period of migration has a dimension of length millimeter. Yarn diameter
has also having length dimension millimeter. So these two length dimensions cancel out.
Yarn retraction dimensionless, p D z kappa twist intensity is also dimensionless, so K is a
dimensionless quantity. Often said in theoretical research work, dimensionless quantities are
very important.

They signifies something about the structure right. Now we come back to the fundamental
equation of radial migration and we would like to know the domain of that expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:47)

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So fundamental equation was tan2(alpha)=tan2 (beta)+1/(K2 tan2 (beta)-1), where K is already
mentioned earlier. Left hand side is a square quantity that means this denominator must be
>0. So (K2 tan2 (beta)-1) must be >0. Therefore, ((2 p/D) (1/(1-retraction))*1/( tan (beta D ))2
tan2 (beta)-1) must be >0What is tangent of (beta D) That is equal to pi D z and what is tangent
of beta? 2 pi r z.

So what we see is that this pi cancel out, z cancel out, so 2r/D, so basically 4. So what we are
left with, (4pr/D(1-retraction))2 -1>0 right. So (4pr/D(1-retraction)) 2 >1. So r must be greater
than (D/2)2/P*(1-retraction). So r must be greater than a small quantity, D is very small, p is
small, retraction is also small. So this expression gives you a very small value; however, it is
the value and r greater than this.

That means there is a problem. What is the problem? Problem is the fundamental equation is
not defined for a small value of r. So there is some problem in this expression. What is the
meaning of this?
(Refer Slide Time: 15:41)

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Meaning of this is something like this. This is the radius and this is the axial length of yarn r
zeta. Fibre is not starting from 0 because r is greater than a small value. So probably the
migration starts from here. So it goes there, come back, it is not touching the axis. A small
distance is left; this distance is this (D/2)2/p (1-retraction). Again, it goes, come back. So in
this gray color region, migration is not taking place.

This is the meaning of this. So what is the fibre path? According to this, tan 2 (alpha)=tan2
(beta)+1/(K2tan2 (beta)-1). Now what is tan(alpha)? (dr/d zeta) 2. What is tan(beta)? 2 pi r z;
(2 pi r z)2 +1/(k2 (2 pi r z)2-1). So dr/d zeta is +-root((2 pi r z) 2 +1/(k2 (2 pi r z)2-1)), so dr
is=+- root((2 pi r z)2 +1/(k2 (2 pi r z)2-1)) d zeta. So if we integrate dr or else d zeta is +-
1/root((2 pi r z)2 +1/(k2 (2 pi r z)2-1)) dr.

So if we integrate this, then we will be able to obtain the path of a migrating fibre; however,
this integration does not have an analytical solution. It is elliptical integral. This is one
problem. Problem number two, fibre path is not defined at a very small radius. So this so far
the fundamental expression of radial fibre migration as per Treloar’s model have two
problems.

One, it is not possible to obtain the fibre path of a migrating fibre analytically. Second, fibre
path is also not defined at a too small radius. That is why we introduced two approximations.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:04)

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So we introduced two approximations so that there will be an analytically possible fibre path
and it will be defined at all radius. So the first approximation, period of migration is very
long. We think that so let us assume that period of migration is very long. What does that
mean? Slow migration. If period of migration is very long, K is proportional to p, so K is
very high, so this is our first assumption.

Second, we introduced we assumed that tan2 (beta) is much<1, a very small value, much<1
for all radii r. So we here introduced two approximations and we will like to know what is the
implication of these approximations. So we come back to the original fundamental equation,
tan2 (alpha) is=(tan2 beta+1)/(K2 tan2 (beta)-1) okay. Tan 2 (beta)+1 is sec2 (beta), sec2 (beta)
is 1/cos2 (beta).

So 1 so we can write 1/(K2 sin2 (beta)-cos2 (beta)). Sin2 (beta) is=1-cos2 (beta) right. So 1/(K2-
(K2+1) cos2 (beta)). K is very high, so K2 is very high, K2+1 is very high quantity+1 remains
very high approximately equal to K2. Then, it becomes1/ (K2*(1-cos2 (beta))), so 1/(K2sin 2

(beta)). So we used here first approximation.

Now we would like to use second approximation somewhere, let us write 1 as sin 2 (beta)
+cos2 (beta). Then, you see tan2 (alpha) is=1/K2 1/(1+cot2 (beta)). Let us go to the next page.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:26)

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Now, tan2 (alpha) is=1/K2 1/(1+ (1/tan2 (beta))) . Now you see tan2 (beta) is much <1, 1/tan 2

(beta) is much >1 right, very large quantity+1 remains that large quantity. So this becomes
1/(K2 tan2 (beta)), so tangent alpha is=+-1/(K tan (beta)). This is known as approximated
equation of ideal migration. This equation is defined for all radii, so one problem is over.

This expression is defined for all radii. What was the second problem, second problem of the
fundamental equation? The analytical solution of the integral was not possible. Let us see if it
is possible here. So tangent alpha is=+-1/K times tangent beta. What is tangent alpha? dr/d
zeta and tangent beta is 2 pi r z. So we can write dr/d zeta is=1/(K times 2 pi r z) right. So d
zeta is=+-K times 2 pi r z*dr right. Now if we integrate this what you will obtain?
(Refer Slide Time: 29:50)

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You will obtain zeta is=+-K 2 pi z*r 2/2+c where c is an integral constant right. So zeta is=+-
K pi z r2+c. So this integration is possible. So the two problems associated with the
fundamental equation, one was analytical solution was not possible, second it was not defined
for very small radius. So in order to avoid those two problems what we thought we
considered two approximations.

2
One is K value is very high, slow migration, period of migration is very high. Second, tan
(beta) much <1. Based on these two, we obtained we found that it was defined the
approximate equation was defined for small radius and also analytical solution is possible. So
we are in this way by introducing two approximations we could solve the problem associated
with the radial migration of fibres.

But this equation gives additional problem. What is that problem? Let us see. Let us consider
r is=D/2, so +-K pi z D2 /4+c. Now look at this equation, when r is=0 this must be equal to 0,
so c is=0, so this is equal to 0. So what we find is that +-K times pi z D 2/4. What is K? K was
2p/D*1/(1-retraction)*1/tangent of beta D, tangent of beta D is pi D z. so, 2p/D*1/(1-
retraction)*1/(pi D z) *pi z D2/4. Now this pi is cancel out, z cancel out, this D this D and D
square cancel out.

This two this two, so what we obtain is that p/(2*(1-retraction)). This is a problem because at
D/2, this value must be equal to p/2. Why? Because if this is r, this is zeta, if this is your D/2,
then this distance is p/2. So at r is=D/2, zeta D/2 must be=p/2; however, it is not so. So we
need to correct the approximated equation.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:10)

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So correction to approximated equation, let us say tangent of alpha is=+-1/(K prime tangent
of beta), instead of K we consider K prime. How is the relation between K prime and K? K
prime is=K*(1-retraction). So K was 2 p/(D (1-retraction) 1/tangent of beta D*(1-reraction),
so 2p/D 1/tangent of beta D right. So then what will be your tangent alpha? So by using this,
we are able to solve which is now defined at this p and this when r is=D/2, so let us say zeta
value.

So dr/d zeta is=+-1/( 2p/D* 1/tangent of beta D*tangent of beta) okay. So let us see what is
happening in the right hand side, 1/( 2p/D* 1/(pi Dz)*2 pi r z) okay, that is equal to this. So
now this z z cancel out, pi pi cancel out. So what we see is +-this D square will be in the
numerator, so +-(D/2)2/(4pr), that is all.

D square/4p, so then this r will be there, yes so r dr is+-(D/2) 2/(p)*d zeta. So let us integrate
now.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:43)

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Integrate r dr, integrate +-(D/2)2/(p) d zeta right. So this integration will give you
r2/2=+-(D/2)2/(p) zeta+c, c is constant. Integration of d zeta is zeta+say constant integral
constant right. So what is zeta? Zeta is=+-4p/D 2r 2/2-c. Further we can write is equal to +-
2p/D2*r 2-c. This is an equation of paraboloid. So the corrected form of approximated
equation fibre path is parabolic inside the yarn.

So according to Treloar’s vision, ideal fibre migration approximation and corrections after
doing this we obtained that the fibre path inside the yarn is a parabola. How it looks like
imagination, imaginatively this is what is happening as per Treloar’s model.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:50)

Suppose a fibre starts from here, it touches the axis red color, then it comes out to the surface
dotted line you can see, from the surface it again goes inside, then it touches the surface, it

236
comes to the surface, goes inside, then it touches the axis again. Then, it goes out so this path
of fibre is parabolic one and this distance is p/2, this distance is p/2, so this is the total period
of migration p.

So as per Treloar’s model, you can imagine how is the fibre path inside the yarn. It basically
resembles a parabola. So what was the form? Form was this=+-2p/D 2 r2-c. This infers c is=0,
so equal to +-2p/D2 r2. Now as you can see, this is a very symmetric one. So that is why we
can take for calculations either + or -, + is outward inward. As it is a symmetric, so probably
in order to establish the characteristics of migration we can take one, any one positive.

So this equation let us take the positive quantity only because it is a symmetric one, r square.
This we can further write p/2 r2/(D/2)2. This r2/(D/2)2 let us consider this as capital Y because
you can measure this. D is measurable and r is also measurable by tracer fibre technique and
all. So then what do you find zeta is=p/2*into Y.

Now we introduce characteristics of migration. How we can characterize migration

experimentally? Generally, Treloar and his co-worker they used 3 characteristics for radial
migration. One fibre mean position; second is the amplitude of migration, third is the
intensity of migration. How intense is the migration, whether it is slow or fast how? We
would like to discuss about these 3 characteristics now. First start with fibre mean position.
(Refer Slide Time: 47:29)

Fibre mean position is defined by Y bar is=(limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of Y times d
zeta)/ (limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of d zeta). This is 0 to p/2. Y was zeta is=Y times

237
p/2. So Y is=2 zeta/p. This is how fibre mean position is defined. If we substitute Y 2 zeta/p.
Y bar is now=(limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of (2 zeta/p) times d zeta)/ (limit varies
from 0 to p/2 integration of d zeta). So( 2/p limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of zeta
times d zeta)/( limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of d zeta)

So 2/p*[p 2/8-0]/ [p/2-0], Y bar is=1/2, mean fibre position is 1/2. As it is a symmetric
migration, there is an ideal fibre path, regular fibre path, so mean fibre position is equal to 1/2
in Treloar’s model ideal migration. Second characteristics is amplitude of migration.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:55)

Amplitude of migration is discussed in terms of rms deviation. What is rms deviation? Rms
deviation is defined by root((limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of (Y-Y bar 2) d
zeta)/( limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of d zeta)). This is the definition of rms
deviation. So what is your Y? Y is your 2 zeta/p. What is Y bar? 1/2 . So if you integrate this,
you will get this value. D is=0.289 in case of this. There is amplitude of migration. The last
characteristics is intensity of migration.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:47)

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Intensity of migration is root((limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of (dY/d zeta) 2 d
zeta)/( limit varies from 0 to p/2 integration of d zeta)). So if you take the first derivative,
substitute, solve this integration, you will see that this value you will get as 2/p. You can try
this. What we see is that if period of migration is high, J is less, slow migration. When p is
very high, migration is happening very slow rate, intensity also indicates the rate of
migration.

So the rate of migration is slow. You remember when we used approximations, two
assumptions we considered, one is tan square beta much <1 and the second was about p is
very high, then we talked about slow migration because of this. When p is very high, the
migration is very slow. So these 3 characteristics can be obtained from Treloar’s model of
migration. Now the very important question.

How is the correspondence between Treloar’s migration model and reality experimental
results? Is it so that Treloar’s model explains the experimental results very well or is it so that
Treloar’s model fails to explain the experimental results? In order to find out this answer, lot
of experiments were carried out and the comparison between theory and experiment is shown
here.
(Refer Slide Time: 55:54)

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This region is the experimental region. Lot of yarns were tested by using tracer fibre
technique, migration characteristics were measured and in this region all experimental results
fall right and what you see here, tangent beta is plotted here 2 pi r z and this is tangent
alpha*tangent beta. Two curves you see, one is the thick continuous curve, one is the dotted
curve. Thick continuous curve is original expression, fundamental expression.

What was that? Tan alpha was=+-square root of tan square beta+1/K square tan square beta-
1, is not it? That was your original expression. Now if we take the absolute value*tangent
beta is equal to what, tangent beta*this, so this is basically the original. So the thick line
denote this expression original for different value of K. K is=20 this curve, K is=30 this curve
and K is=50 this curve, K is=100 this curve.

So it is decreasing then increasing, decreasing increasing, decreasing increasing, decreasing

slowly increasing this original and approximated equation is shown by the dotted line. What
was the approximated relation? You remember tangent of alpha+-1/K prime tangent of beta.
So tangent alpha*tangent beta and if we take the absolute value then it becomes this. So this
was the approximated one K prime.

So obviously this is constant because K prime is constant, so this expression is constant. That
is why you see line parallel to x axis. This is a line parallel to x axis for K prime is=30, K
prime is=50, K prime is=100. So this is about this curve and the experimental results were
obtained using tracer fibre technique, Morton’s tracer fibre technique. What we see that?
There is a complete mismatch between the theoretical results and the experimental results.

240
So for the experimental results are concerned when tangent of beta is increasing, this function
is increasing; however, the theoretical results original one decreasing then increasing and
approximated is constant. So there is a complete mismatch between theory and experiment,
totally different trends. So conclusion is Treloar’s model could not explain the experimental
results. They are totally different.

Why is it so? Is there any possibility to correct Treloar’s model and check with experiments?
Is it possible to obtain a more precise model to explain radial migration of fibres in yarn?
This we will discuss in the next class. Thank you very much for your attention.

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 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture - 18
Radial Migration of Fibres in Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to the MOOC’s online video course theory of yarn structure. In the last
lecture, we started with module 6 radial migration of fibres in yarns. We have covered about
general fibre path in yarn, how to characterize this. Then, we talked about fibre element, then
we talked about some angles to define fibre path in yarn. Then, we discussed about Treloar’s
ideal fibre migration model.

And at the end we observed that Treloar’s ideal fibre migration model is not able to explain
experimental results of radial migration of fibres in yarn. So we start from there in this
lecture. So the obvious question is that why Treloar’s ideal migration model does not explain
the experimental results of migration. We observed totally different trends.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:39)

So we wish to critically examine the assumptions of Treloar’s ideal migration model. If you
remember, the first assumption was related to definition of radial migration which is no doubt
valid. Second assumption of Treloar’s model was packing density constant at all places inside
the yarn. This assumption although we know it is not experimentally fully correct; however,
this is an idealized situation, so we can to some extent agree to this.

242
Third assumption was the absolute value of this is same for all fibres present at radius r. This
assumption is idealized and is acceptable. The fourth assumption was nu r is constant, nu r if
you remember, it is the number of fibre segments intersecting cylinder at radius r per fibre
per unit length of yarn. This assumption is probably not correct. Why do we feel so?

We feel so because if we imagine the inside of a cylindrical yarn, then we see that at the core
the volume of yarn is very less because radius is very less, so fibre to fibre contact is very less
there. At the same time, if you think about the surface of the yarn where packing density is
very less. If the packing density is very less, then the fibre interaction is also very less.
Therefore, we feel that this number of fibre segments intersecting a cylinder at any radius r
per fibre per unit length of yarn is probably not constant, it varies.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:27)

Here you see a cylindrical yarn. Near to this region near to the core in this region, the volume
of the cylinder is very less because it is very close to center of the yarn. So its radius is very
small, so fibre intersections must be small here. If you think about a cylindrical region near to
the surface, say this region near to this region as we know packing density of actually yarn is
very less at the surface.

So the packing density is less, so fibre volume is also very less, number of fibre is very less,
as a result interaction among fibres must be less too. Somewhere inside the yarn in between
these two cylindrical surfaces, packing density is significant. So number of fibre intersections
must be very high somewhere near to this cylindrical region because number of fibres is too
high here.

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So fibre to fibre interactions, fibre to fibre contact, packing density all are very high in this
region. So therefore it is felt that the packing density in this region is high, fibre to fibre
interaction is very high, as a result it is thought that this nu r number of fibre intersections is
not same at all places inside the yarn, wherever fibre volume is too high it is very high, so
assumption 4 is modified.

So in this model, assumption 4 is modified. What is this assumption 4? Assumption 4 is

modified in this way. Number of intersections, number of fibre to fibre interactions must be
proportional to the fibre volume in a cylindrical region. So what is fibre volume? What is the
volume of the cylinder? 2 pi r*dr*zeta. This is the volume of the cylinder and what is the
fibre volume, multiplied by packing density.

Because as you know, packing density is defined by the ratio of fibre volume to yarn volume.
When the yarn volume is 2 pi r dr times delta zeta*packing density will give you the fibre
volume. So nu r is=Capital C 2 pi dr delta zeta is proportional to 2 pi dr delta zeta*r*mu. If
you look carefully, this quantity within the parenthesis is a constant. This is same for all radii.
So we can write nu r is a constant*r*mu where C is a proportionality constant.

So this way we modify the fourth assumption of Treloar’s model. So we are now discussing a
new theory which is known as model of equidistant radial migration of fibres in yarns. So in
this model assumption 4 is modified in this manner.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:30)

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So it is evident that the model path of fibres if we imagine then in this model, model of
equidistant fibre migration model, it starts somewhere here, then it has very less intersections
near to the surface, maximum intersection fibre to fibre intersections happening over here at
the core also is very less; however, if you remember Treloar’s model this fibre intersections
was same was considered to be same at all places.

So in Treloar’s model, the path was assumed to be like this regular fibre path but in this
model fibre path is random. So this is the basic difference between Treloar’s model and
model of equidistant radial migration.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:33)

Now if you look at what will be the value of period of migration, it is definitely varying in
this model. This period of migration can be written by 2 because you remember nu r was
defined by this so when small n is=1, how many fibres or fibre segments will intersect the
axis in order to get a period p? 2 so is nu r/2 right. So you can write period is here, now
varying, now what was nu r, nu r was capital C r*mu right.

We consider this 2/C is a constant because capital C is a constant, we can write as a small c.
So we write small c*r*mu right. So nu r is=2/p and p is=small c/r*mu. So 2 r mu/small c. So
this is the expression for nu r. You see here if r varies nu r will vary because c is a constant
and mu is also assumed to be constant in this model too. So this is how this model is different
from Treloar’s model.

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Now we will go back to the fundamental equation of radial fibre migration. We will
substitute nu r there and we would like to see what is the expression comes out and what does
that expression tells to us.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:25)

So if you remember the fundamental equation of radial fibre migration, mu/nu r-1, this was
the fundamental equation of radial fibre migration. Now we substitute nu r this and tangent
beta 2 pi r z. We will make these two substitutions into this expression and we would like to
see what it comes out. So tan square beta let us write as tan square beta here. We will
substitute in the denominator mu/2 r nu/small c*n s z square tangent beta 2 pi r z square-1.

So what it becomes is 1+tan square beta/mu*2 pi r z*c/2 r mu n s z square-1 right. So we

would like to see what it comes out. Numerator we do not change; denominator you would
like to see what is coming out. These two and these two cancel out. This mu this mu cancel
out. This z this z cancel out. This r this r cancel out. So we are left with a simple form
pi*c/n*s square-1.

Pi is a constant, small c is a constant, n number of fibres in the cross-section of the yarn is

constant, small s is fibre cross-sectional area that is also constant. So pi c/ns is a constant. Let
us assume this is equal to capital Q which is a constant. Then, we write as Q squared-1. This
is a very important expression. This expression is known as fundamental equation of
equidistant migration.

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Last expression is known as fundamental equation of equidistant migration. If you like to
know how to find out Q, then we can do one thing.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:53)

So Q is=pi times small c/n*s. Now what is ns? Number of fibres in the cross-section of
yarn*cross-sectional area of one fibre, so this is the cross-sectional area of all fibres,
substance cross-sectional area S0. What is S0? S0 is capital T0/rho is the starting fineness of
parallel fibre bundle which is equal to fineness of the yarn*1-retraction. We discussed this in
helical model of fibres in yarn.

Now we know yarn diameter square take this form, so T/rho is=pi mu capital D square/4. If
we substitute this here, then pi mu D square/4*rho 1-retraction right. Then, if you come back
here in Q, so pi times small c/pi mu D square/4*rho 1-retraction. What we see that this pi and
pi will cancel out, so sorry this rho will not be here. So we can write it further small c/D/2
square mu*1-retraction.

So this is about capital Q okay. Now we would like to derive the expression for fibre path at
different radius, so zeta versus small r. So we go back to our fundamental equation of radial
migration.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:54)

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Tan2(alpha) is=(tan2 (beta)+1)/(Q2-1), so tan (alpha) will be equal to +-root((1+tan 2
(beta))/(Q2-1)). So what is tangent of alpha? dr/d zeta from definition and tangent of beta is=2
pi r times z. dr/d zeta=+-root((1+ (2 pi r times z) 2)/(Q2-1)). So we can write further dr/
root(1+ (2 pi r times z)2) =+-d times zeta/root over( Q 2-1) right. So if we integrate this +-this.
So we need to do this integration. Let us think about this part.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:11)

So integration of dr/root over( 1+ (2pi r*z) 2). How to integrate this? Let us assume 2 pi r*z
is=x so integration by substitution. So 2 pi z dr is=dx so integration dr is dx/(2 pi z) and this
is integration of dx/(2 pi z root over( 1+x2)). This we write in a little different manner.

Now, it becomes 1/(2 pi z) integration of ((1+x/ root(1+x2))/(root(1+x2)+x)dx).

(Refer Slide Time: 30:49)

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So we rewrite the last step for our convenience. Assume root over (root(1+x 2)+x) is=Y. So
this is {2x/(2(root(1+x2))+1} dx=dy. So {1+x/root over( 1+x 2 )}*dx is=dy, so then we can
write 1/(2pi z) integration dy/y. So integration dy/Y is logarithmic Y, 1/(2 pi z) ln*Y, what is
your Y? Y is (root over (1+x2)+x), what is your x? x was (2 pi r z). 1/(2 pi z) ln*(root over
(1+(2 pi r z)2)+ (2 pi r z))
What was the second one?
(Refer Slide Time: 33:28)

Second one was simple one, d zeta/ root over (Q 2-1). Now here this is constant d zeta, so
1/root over (Q2-1)*zeta okay. So what was our original form of integration? So our original
form of integration was this dr/root over (1+(2 pi r z)2) is=+-integration d zeta/ root over (Q2-
1) this. So this integration we found as 1/(2 pi z) ln*(root over (1+(2 pi r z)2)+ (2 pi r z))
=1/root over (Q2-1)*zeta + K, K is integral constant right.

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So this expression will give you the fibre path inside the yarn. Now if you put different values
of r, then you will realize that this gives you an almost straight line. So we can say that the
infinitesimally small curve of a fibre follows almost a linear path inside the yarn. So
imaginatively inside the yarn it follows this kind of straight line.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:23)

So in the last expression if you put different values of r then you can find out different values
of zeta. If you plot them r versus zeta you will obtain a curve which will be resembling very
similar to this straight line. So this infers that the path of infinitesimally small fibre segments
inside a yarn is very near to a straight line.

So if you take different values of small r, you will get different values of zeta. If you plot, you
will get such behaviour. Now we said this model as model of equidistant migration of fibres
in yarn why we said so? So why this model is called as equidistant migration of fibres in
yarn? So we would like to talk about it now.
(Refer Slide Time: 39:10)

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So name of the model we will discuss now. If you remember, one point of time we derived
this expression. In fact, this expression we derived at the beginning of this module, dr/dl
is=tan (alpha)/square root of (tan2 (alpha)+tan2 (beta)+1). Now what this model gives? This
model gives us tan2 (alpha) is=(tan2 (beta)+1)/(Q2-1) right. So tan2 (beta)+1 can be substituted
as (Q2-1) tan2 (alpha).

So what we will get, dr/dl is=tan (alpha)/square root of (tan 2 (alpha)+ (Q2-1) tan2 (alpha)). So
what you will get, we will get +-tan (alpha)/(Q tan( alpha)) right. So dr/dl is=+-1/Q right.
What does it mean? This means dl is +-Q times dr. Look at this expression, dl is +-Q times
dr, dl is the change in length of fibre segment, dr change in radius, Q is a constant.

So the fibre length increases equidistantly with the steps of radius. That is why this model is
called as equidistant migration model. That is why this model is called as equidistant
migration. Now we will consider some approximations.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:27)

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If you remember in Treloar’s model also we considered two approximations, one was slow
migration, period of migration was very high, so slow migration, so the factor K capital K
there was very high. Second assumption was tan2 (beta) is much <1. In this case, we will
consider the same that is tan2 (beta) is much <1 is valid for all radii r. So what will become
tan2 (alpha)= (tan2 (beta)+1)/ (Q2-1) right.

Now, if tan 2 (beta) is very small, then 1+ tan 2 (beta) very small quantity is approximately 1.
So we can write it as 1/(Q 2-1). So tangent of alpha will be +-1/root over( Q 2-1). What is
tangent of alpha? dr/d zeta . dr/d zeta=+-1/root over( Q 2-1). So root over( Q 2-1) dr will be=d
zeta. So if we integrate this expression what we will get? We will get we will write here, +-
root over( Q 2-1)*r is=zeta-small k, small k is integral constant right.

So zeta is=+- root over( Q 2-1)*r +k,, look at this expression, this is an equation of a cone.
That means the fibre path approximately follows conical inside yarn. So how does it look
like?
(Refer Slide Time: 47:26)

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Imaginatively, this is how the fibre path will look like. So it starts from somewhere here, it
touches the surface. So this is how it touches, then again it goes inside, again it comes out
touches the surface, goes inside. So this path resembles path of a cone. So in equidistant
radial migration, if we consider the approximation then fibre path follows cone. Otherwise,
we can say the fibre path inside a yarn approximately follows a cone.

So this is all about equidistant migration of fibres in yarn. Now the very important question
arises whether this model is able to explain the experimental results correctly, so this is how
is the comparison between theory and experimental results.
(Refer Slide Time: 49:07)

Comparison, theory versus experiment, what you see there in this graph along the x axis,
tangent beta 2 pi r times z is plotted, along the y axis absolute value of tangent alpha*tangent

253
beta. So this region is same in the comparison of Treloar’s model, so this is basically the
experimental region. All experimental data fall in this region right. So this is your
experimental region.

Now two types of curves are there, one is original, second we see approximation. The
original we have derived tan alpha*tangent beta is=root over 1+tan square beta/root over Q
square-1*tangent beta. So this was original fundamental equation. So this continuous thick
lines black color for different values of Q we obtained. For example, Q is=7 here, so this line.
So this line is obtained from this expression right.

And also you see one approximation line, approximation line is dotted line is this line for Q
is=7. How we obtained this approximation line? The approximation line we obtained by
tangent alpha*tangent beta is=tangent beta root over Q square-1. So if you substitute Q is=7
for different values of tangent beta, you will obtain this dotted curve. For Q is=10, you will
obtain this dotted curve.

For Q is=3, you obtain this dotted curve 13, for Q is=13 you obtain this dotted curve, for Q
is=16 you obtain the last one dotted curve. So what is interesting to see here that the
equidistant migration model shows a very good correspondence between theory and
experiment. That means by changing one assumption in Treloar’s model that was assumption
4, nu r is proportional to radius r.

We can see that the derived model explains the experimental results satisfactorily. So this
was about the model of equidistant migration of radial fibres in yarn. Now we will have one
numerical exercise now. So the numerical problem is set in this manner.
(Refer Slide Time: 53:32)

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A carded ring spun yarn of 36.8 tex count and 497 meter invers twist was prepared from
viscose fibres of 38 millimeter length and 3.5 decitex fineness. This yarn was characterized
for the radial fibre migration in this yarn by tracer fibre technique and we obtained the
following results. For different value of small r/1/2 of yarn diameter 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 we
measured different values of period of migration in millimeter 12, 6, 4, 3, 2.4.

The values of packing density and coefficient kn were found to be 0.536 and 0.93
respectively. Find out the fundamental equation of equidistant radial migration of fibres in
this yarn. So this is how is this problem. So let us solve this problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:53)

What is given is mu 0.536 and coefficient kn is given 0.93, also given yarn count capital T
36.8 tex, twist is given 497 turns per meter. So you have to first find out yarn diameter. As

255
we know from yarn diameter module 2, so if you substitute the values here
4*36.8/3.14*0.536 viscose fibre*1510 kg per meter cube is density right. So this value you
will obtain 0.2415 in millimeter.

Let us consider it as 1500. Viscose fibre density 1.5 gram per cc. Then what is given here? In
the table, this value is given 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5; p is given 12, 6, 4, 3, 2.4. From there we
can find out r because we know now D, so r is=so r/D/2 is=say 0.1, so r is=0.1*D/2, D is
given here. So if we do this then we will find out 0.0121. 0.0242, 0.0363, 0.0484, 0.0605.
Roughly, we will find these values.

Now what was small c, r times p times mu in equidistant radial migration we know r, we
know p, we know mu, so if we multiply these three then we will get this value 0.0778. We
will see that this value will be same in all other cases right. So we obtain now this table. We
have to now find out fundamental equation of equidistant migration.
(Refer Slide Time: 59:08)

As we know, the fundamental equation is tan square beta+1*Q square-1, where Q is pi times
c/n*s. The value of c we obtained as 0.0778. We have to obtain values of small n number of
fibres in yarn cross-section and small s that is fibre cross-sectional area. How to find out
small n? Small n is=coefficient kn*yarn fineness/fibre fineness. The value of coefficient kn is
given here 0.93*36.8 tex/0.35 tex.

So this value will be coming to 98, so this is your 98*small s. How to find out small s? Cross-
sectional area we know this relation from module 1, so this was 0.35/1500 so this value will

256
be equal to this. So if you substitute 2.33*10 to the power -4, this will be coming is equal to
10.70. So the fundamental equation becomes tan square beta+1/10.7 square-1. So this is the
fundamental equation of radial fibre migration in this yarn.

So for different value of beta, we can obtain different value of tan alpha from this example
also. So this completes the numerical problem in this module. Thank you very much for your
attention.

257
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 19
Yarn Shrinkage Due to Washing

Welcome you all to this MOOCs online video course, theory of yarn structure, so far we have
completed 6 modules today, we are going to start module 7, this module talks about yarn
shrinkage due to washing. Almost all of us experienced this problem when you wash a cotton
cloth, it shrinks in dimension generally, we have a tendency to reduce the effect of shrinkage by
chemical processing so called stenting technique we do that.

However, the actual reason of this shrinkage of fabric remains unknown in order to understand
this shrinkage behaviour of fabric say woven fabric or knitted fabric, it is necessary for us to
understand the behaviour of yarn shrinkage, why does a yarn shrink, which parameters of yarn
are responsible for yarn shrinkage, is it yarn fineness or is it yarn twist or it is some other factor
which is dominant in deciding yarn shrinkage due to washing.

In this module, we will try to understand this behaviour and we will try to see the influence of
yarn parameters on yarn shrinkage due to washing, we consider the helical model of fibres in
yarn, it is the well-known concept often used in yarn modelling, we have discussed it in detail
in one of the modules in this course.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:33)

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Helical model of fibres in yarn, we recapture at this model, a general fibre is situated at a radius
r in the yarn, it makes an angle beta from the yarn axis, if we cut the yarn along its axis and if
we unravel then, we obtain this channel, the base of the triangle is 2 pi r and the height of the
triangle is 1/ z, where z denotes yarn twist and beta is this angle, so if we apply trigonometry
we can find out tangent of beta is 2 pi r times z.

Now, of course there will be a fibre which is situated at diameter D as well in that case for that
fibre, we will write tangent of beta D is pi times D times z, in theory of yarn this quantity has a
name which is known as twist intensity generally, we denote the symbol Kappa for this which
is equal to pi times D times z, so this is a very well-known expression as we know from helical
model of fibres in yarn and we consider helical model of fibres in yarn in this module 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:41)

Now, what is yarn shrinkage? Let us first define; the cotton yarn contracts its length due to
washing, this phenomenon is called as yarn shrinkage, how we quantify this effect; the effect of
shrinkage, let us consider zeta is the original length of yarn, if we wash this yarn into hot soap
solution then its length will shrink suppose, this is the length of yarn after washing and of
course, drying so, what is the change of length?

(Zeta - Zeta prime) is the change of length divided / original length, this is how we quantify
shrinkage, phi is yarn shrinkage, so yarn shrinkage is defined by the change in length due to
washing divided by original length, we can write this further as this okay, so this is how we
define yarn shrinkage. Now, we consider a helical fibre inside the yarn before shrinkage and
before washing and after washing.

259
(Refer Slide Time: 07:28)

So, how it will look like; so what you see is 2 cylinders; one is having length bigger however,
its radius is small; small arc, second cylinder what you see is that shortened in length but
looking bigger in diameter, its radius is r prime, so r is the initial radius and r prime is the final
radius after washing and drying that is shrunk yarn and l; now if we cut along the axis of these
2 cylinders and unravel it then we will find out 2 triangles.

In the one triangle this is a fibre length, original length of fibre small l, what will be the base;
base will be 2 pi r times Zeta * z; why z * Zeta because that is basically number of coils; initial
number of coils so that is why 2 pi r z * Zeta and this length will be zeta, after washing and
drying the same fibre will have a different length, there are; let us consider that length is l prime
and of course, radius will change.

So, this base will be now 2 times pi times r prime z * Zeta and this length is however z prime,
we consider number of coils z times zeta does not change because of washing and drying, so if
we apply now Pythagorean theorem to the initial fibre length l 2will be = zeta2 + (2 pi r z zeta) 2,
right. Similarly, if we apply Pythagorean theorem to the triangle after shrinking, then we will
obtain (l prime)2 = zeta prime2+ (2 times pi r prime z zeta)2.

We can rewrite this second equation as below.

(l prime)2 l 2 / l 2 = zeta prime2 zeta2/ zeta2+ (2 times pi r z)2 zeta2 r prime2/ r2

(Refer Slide Time: 12:58)

260
So, what we will get is (l prime) 2 [zeta2 + (2 pi r z zeta) 2] / l 2 = zeta prime2 zeta2/ zeta2+ (2 times

pi r z)2 zeta2 r prime2/ r2 now. After neglecting zeta2 from both sides, we can get (l prime) 2 [1 +

(2 pi r z ) 2] 2 / l 2 = zeta prime2 / zeta2+ (2 times pi r z)2 r prime2/ r2 So, further we can write this

expression as [(l prime)2 / l 2 + (l prime)2 / l 2 (2 pi r z ) 2] = zeta prime2 / zeta2+ (2 times pi r

z)2 r prime2/ r2, right.

Now, this equation we can further write as; so what we do in the earlier expression now, this
expression is somehow related to shrinkage, so we will keep it in the left hand side rest all in
the right hand side.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

261
If we do so then we obtained zeta prime2 / zeta2 = [(l prime)2 / l 2 + (l prime)2 / l 2 (2 pi r z ) 2] 2-
(2 times pi r z)2 r prime2/ r2, all right, how we define shrinkage; change in length by original
length is equal to this, so this by this = 1 – this, is not it, we now introduce 2 quantities; one is
relative extension of fibre length, we symbolize it by epsilon subscript l, how we define it;
change in length divided by original length, so L prime / L – 1, so L prime / L = 1 + epsilon L.
similarly, r prime / r = 1 + epsilon subscript r. epsilon r change in radius by original radius.
And, zeta prime / zeta = 1 – phi.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:06)

So, finally we obtain (1 – phi)2 = (1 + epsilon L)2 + (2 pi r z ) 2[(1 + epsilon L)

2
-(1 + epsilon
r)2], this 2 pi r z can also be written as pi D z * 2r/ D, right, so what we obtained ((1 + epsilon
L )2 + (pi D z )2* (2r/ D) 2[(1 + epsilon L)
2
-(1 + epsilon r)2]), if we take the square root and put
phi at one side, so we will obtain phi = 1 - root((1 + epsilon )2 + (pi D z )2* (2r/ D) 2[(1 +
L

2
epsilon L) -(1 + epsilon r)2]).

Look at this expression, this is the expression for yarn shrinkage due to washing, right now,
what this equations tells to us; it tells us a very interesting story, these parameters epsilon L
twist intensity kappa, epsilon r, this diameter D, they are constant for a given yarn, so for a
given yarn, epsilon L, Kappa, capital D, epsilon r are constant, so for that yarn, shrinkage is a
function of radius.

That means this equation tells us there is shrinkage of yarn different at different radii, so yarn
shrinkage is different at different radii, this is not possible, how a yarn can show different

262
values of shrinkage at different radii, this is not possible that means, there is something
interesting, so we introduced one assumption here. The assumption is that there exists a neutral
fibre at radius r = r* that fibre represents the whole yarn in terms of shrinkage.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:59)

So, the assumption is something like this, they are exist a neutral fibre at radius r = r star whose
values say 2r / D = 2r* / D, epsilon r = epsilonr *, these are the values they correspond; which
corresponds to a natural behaviour of individual fibres in the yarn during washing and drying,
so we imagine if fibre which is a neutral fibre which is situated at this particular radius whose
values are 2r/ D = 2r* / D ; epsilon r = epsilon r *, epsilon L = epsilon L * which corresponds to a
natural behaviour of individual fibres in the yarn during washing and drying.

* 2
Then we are able to write = phi = 1 - root((1 + epsilon L ) + (pi D z ) 2 (2r*/ D) 2[(1 + epsilon
*2
L )-(1 + epsilonr*)2]), so then (2r*/ D) 2 factor becomes a constant when r* becomes a constant, D
is a constant, this is constant, this is constant so, in that case yarn shrinkage depends on yarn
twist intensity; pi Dz. So, what we learn is; yarn shrinkage depends on yarn twist intensity only,
it is not only yarn twist, it is not only yarn fineness, it is not yarn twist, it is not yarn fineness, it
is yarn twist intensity that dictates yarn shrinkage due to washing.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:00)

263
Now, we would like to talk about these quantities epsilon L*, epsilon r* and 2r star/ D about these
*
quantities we would like to tell you first we start with parameter epsilon L , what is this
parameter; this parameter characterizes relative extension of fibre due to washing and drying so,
generally speaking in different literature, you will see this value is reported as 1.1% to 1.2%.

In the book of physical properties of fibres by a Morton and Hearle, you will see that a very
similar values are reported for this quantity, then comes another parameter epsilon r star, what
is epsilon r star; it characterizes relative extension of radius, so this is generally put it as 9.5% to
28% in literature, 9.5 % to 28% generally reported in literature, third parameter is to 2r star/ D,
what is the value of this quantity?

This is the relative position of the neutral fibre inside the yarn, right based on helical model,
constant value of packing density at each radii, we can estimate this position by dividing the
area into 2 halves that means, this the radius is r star and this is a yarn whose radius is D that
means what that means pi r *2= 1/2 of pi D2/ 4, okay, so what will be the value of this quantity?

This pi and this pi cancel out so, root 2, so 1/ root 2, so this becomes 1/ root 2, so 2r star /
capital D = 1/ root 2 that means, this will be roughly = 0.7, so based on helical model constant
packing density if we assume that at the; where this radial where this neutral fibre is existing, it
makes the yarn cross sectional area into 2 equal portions, so 2r star / D = 0.7 now, of course this
quantity might be different for different technologically spun yarns.

264
They may be for ring yarn, rotor yarn, air jet yarn, friction yarn probably this value might be
different right, so this was about the discussion with 3 parameters, so these parameters remains
constant, this parameter however is a function of number of cycles of washing and drying, so
the beginning this value will be less as you go on washing and drying, this value will increase
probably after certain number of washing and drying, this value will not practically change.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:44)

Now, we would like to go for experimental measurement of shrinkage, so experimental

measurements of yarn shrinkage, in this particular study cotton carded ring yarns were taken, so
how the yarn length was measured, what was done is; 10 Hanks per 10 meter yarn lengths were
prepared, the length of the hank was measured by using Instron tensile tester after applying a
pre tension, right.

Then this yarn underwent one cycle of washing and drying then this step was repeated after one
cycle of drying; washing and drying, this step was repeated after 1, 3 and 5 cycles of washing
and drying, so this gives you initial length, these 3 measurements gave you length of yarn after
first cycle, length of yarn afters third cycle, length of yarn after fifth cycle, so from these
differences we obtain shrinkage values at different cycles; first, three and fifth.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:40)

265
How did you was this washing was carried out 10 minutes in water solution of soap, 3 gram per
litre and soda 2 gram per litre at 90 degree Celsius temperature, this was followed by rinsing
using distilled water, so this is how we carried out washing and how we carried out drying;
drying initially was carried out on air for 6 hours then, 4 hours at 60 degrees Celsius, after that
conditioning at 20 degree Celsius and 60% RH for 25 hours; 24 hours.

So, this is how the experiment was carried out and we measured the shrinkage and we obtained
the results, I will show you now the results, these are the experimental results of shrinkage after
one cycle of washing and drying we used many yarns, cotton carded yarns, all were cotton
yarns but of different counts.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:24)

266
16 tex a star, so wherever you will see star that correspond to 16 tex, wherever you will see +40
tex, rhombus 100 tex, 20 tex, 50 tex, 30 tex, 70 tex, so different fineness of yarns we prepared
and we obtained the value of pi times D times z, so how we measured diameter, so yarn
diameter was also measured, twist measured from there we obtained pi Dz, yarn twist intensity.

So, this yarn twist intensity we plot along the x-axis and these are the results correspond to first
cycle of washing and drying shrinkage and this line is coming from theory, what is the
expression of this line; 1 - root over 0.9869 – 0.1729 * pi D z square now, let me tell you one
thing here.
(Refer Slide Time: 42:26)

As we have seen this expression, 1 + this - pi DZ square * 2r star / D square 1 + epsilon L star –
this, right now, 1 -; see how we are writing this equation, this + 2r star / D 1 + squared - * pi
times D times z, then we consider 1 + epsilon L star as = A and 2 r star / D * 1 + epsilon L star
– 1 + epsilon r star, this we consider as B then, we will be able to write yarn shrinkage; 1 - root
over A + B * pi Dz.

So, this line was obtained by using statistical regression technique and the equation what we use
for regression is phi = 1 - root over A + B * pi DZ square, by using statistical regression
technique, we obtained the values of A and B, these values are written here. So, for first cycle
we obtain 1 – 0.9869 - 1729 * pi Dz squared.
(Refer Slide Time: 45:23)

267
So, for cycle 1, what is the value of A; the value of A is 9869, what is the value of B; the value
of B is 0. This, right for cycle 1, now if we see here phi = 1 - root over A + B * pi Dz square, A;
what is A; A = 1 + this, so we will be able to obtain this value and what is B; B is 2r star / D * 1
+ square – 1 + squared, 2r star / D was considered to be 0.7, so this is 0.7, the moment we know
this value, we will be able to find out this as well, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 47:00)

So, this was the result after first cycle of washing and drying then we carried out for third cycle,
so this is the result for third cycle of washing and drying, what we see as compared to the
previous one, it is little increasing, so for this what we found similarly, this thick line comes
from theory, so what is the value of shrinkage after third cycle, 1 - root over 0.9937 – 0.2888 pi
Dz square.

268
So, this line follows this equation, this you obtained from statistical regression technique, so
what is the value of A for third cycle; the value of A 0.9937 and the value of B 0.2888
similarly, we measured yarn shrinkage after 5 cycles of washing and drying.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:17)

And after 5 cycles of washing and drying, we obtained this result similarly, this comes from
theory, after 5 cycles we obtained 1 - root over 0.9865 - 3018 pi Dz square, so the value of A is
this the value of B is this after 5 cycles, so 5 cycle the value of 0.9865 and -0.3018 is the value
of this after this. So, now if we use A from this table, we will obtain the value of epsilon star,
this value was obtained as this similarly, if we substitute A is here then we will obtain the value
of epsilon star for third cycle, it was this similarly, if we substitute A = this in this equation.

So you will find out the value of epsilon L star, this value will be 007, you know B, all ready
for first cycle, third cycle, fifth cycle, you know epsilon L for first cycle, third cycle, fifth cycle.
You know 2r star / D = 0.7 we consider it by using this equation, you will be able to find out
this value epsilon r star, relative extension of radius, this value was for the first cycle 0.157, for
a third cycle 0.258 and for the fifth cycle interestingly, it was 0.266.

What we see that this difference is much higher than these difference so probably, number of
cycles of washing and drying, epsilon r is probably after a few cycles there is a play to that
comes in. Now, why does it happen? Because yarn structure initially because of washing, it
swells and it shrinks, so it opens up, once it opens up then further swelling is probably not
possible that is why this play to comes, so after 5 cycles of washing, we did not find much
significant difference in results.

269
So, what we see is that our equation of this form is able to explain the experimental results quite
satisfactorily. So, probably the way it was imagined helical model and then simple extension of
helical model, the shrinkage of yarn was explained satisfactorily now, we would like to solve
one numerical problem on this module, the numerical problem is like this.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:27)

Predict the shrinkage of a cotton carded ring yarn of 29.5 tex count and 719.43 meter inverse
twist, so this yarn has a count 29.5 tex, zeta is the twist, 719.43 meter inverse considering that
the cotton fibre shows 0.7% decrease in length, -0.007 and yarn exhibits 16% increase in its
diameter due to washing, so diameter increase and radius increase will be proportional, 16, so
you have to predict the shrinkage, okay.

So, shrinkage you have to find out yarn diameter, diameter is not given, twist given, count
given, diameter is not given, so if we go back to module 4, we can find out diameter, how you
know; we will use this expression, only thing is that we need to know about packing density
because for cotton fibre rho can be taken as 1 phi 20 kg per meter cube, capital D is given, 29.5
tex, what is not given is mu, so we have to use module 4, some formulas to find out mu, which
formulas?
(Refer Slide Time: 54:51)

270
If you remember this equation, z square T 1/2 this equation we derived in module 4, the value
of Q for cotton carded ring yarn, 9.6 * 10 to the power - 8 Q, right and z was 719.43 square * T
to the power 1/2 T; 29.5 to the power 1/2 this value you will see will come as 0.2702, if you
solve this by using a suitable numerical technique or by a table prepare before, please refer to
module 4, then you will find out mu = 0.46 for this yarn.

If you now know mu = 0.46, then you substitute here, 4 * T; T is 29.53, 3.14 * 0.46 * 1520, this
value you will get as 0.2318, so you now know D, the moment you know D, 2318 millimeter,
what will be the value of Kappa; pi times D times z, so 3.14 * 0.2318 * z, 719. 43 meter
inverse, so this you will get 0.5236, this will be the value of Kappa.
(Refer Slide Time: 57:16)

271
So now, you know all values you know this value, 007, you know this value, you know kappa,
you will consider this, this we consider, then shrinkage = 1 – 1 + epsilon L star square + Kappa
square - 2r star/ D square * 1 + epsilon L squared - epsilon r square, you substitute all values
what are available to you, 1 - 0.007 square + 0.5236 square * 0.7 squared 1 – 0.007 square – 1 +
0.16 square, all values are given if you do you will get this answer 0.0761.

So, there will be approximately 7.6% shrinkage of this yarn, this ends the solution of this
problem and also this ends these module 7, thank you very much, thank you for your attention.

272
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 20
Tensile Mechanics of Yarns

Welcome to you all to these MOOCS online video course, theory of yarn structure, today we will
start module 8, tensile mechanics of yarns. Mechanics deals with the study of force stress strain
relation.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

In this module, first we would like to learn about the tensile mechanics of parallel fibre bundle;
afterwards we would like to learn about stress strain relations in yarns, so we will cover these 2
aspects under this theme, tensile mechanics of yarns.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:47)

273
Now, what is an ideal fibre bundle; an ideal fibre bundle consists of lot of fibres, where the fibres
are straight, they are all parallel and also they are parallel to the axis of the bundle, when we
apply force to such a bundle, we assumed that all fibres are gripped by both jaws of a tensile
tester and we will also assume that the mechanical behaviour of a given fibre is independent to
the mechanical behaviour of all other fibres.

So, by an ideal fibre bundle, we assume the bundle consists of numerous fibres where all the
fibres are straight, they are parallel to the axis of the bundle and when you stress such a bundle
then we assume that the all fibres are gripped by both jaws of a tensile tester and the fibres are
mechanically independent that means, when you apply force to a fibre, so the behaviour of this
fibre is independent to the behaviour of other fibres, they are mechanically independent.

Now, we talk about the stress of one fibre, then we will talk about the stress of a; of an ideal fibre
bundle, so let us first talk about one fibre.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:03)

274
Here is one fibre and there is a fibre bundle, so what you see here, these are the jaws of a tensile
tester, a fibre is gripped by both jaws of the tester and here the distance between the jaws is h,
when you apply a force, capital S as a result, it elongates, so the length becomes h * (1 +
epsilon), where epsilon is the elongation similarly, we consider a bundle, an ideal fibre bundle
where the initial distance between the jaws is h.

Because of the application of a force S subscript summation, this bundle extends, the fibres
extends and the distance between the jaws become h * (1 + epsilon), so let us now analyse this
situation in respect of the mechanical quantities, number of fibres, first. How many fibres here
we consider? One, so here it is 1, how many fibres we consider here, say it is small n now,
tensile force, what is the tensile force we consider here; capital S.

And what is the tensile force we consider here; capital S subscript summation, what is the force
strength relation here; force strength relation here is a function of strength and here it is a
summation force = is a function of strength. What is the strength of this fibre? As you know,
strength is the maximum force at which fibre breaks, so here you consider P, which is basically,
maximum of S.

Similarly, here the strength is P star; P subscript summation which is also maximum of this and
the last quantity is breaking strain or strain at break; breaking strain, suppose, breaking strain is

275
here, small a, what does that small a means; P will be obtained when the breaking strain is a,
similarly here it is a subscript summation, this will be obtained under this situation, so these are
the symbols we are going to use.

Now, we will consider 2 cases, in the first case is very trivial where we will assume all fibres
exhibit identical characteristics of stress strain, so we will analyse what will be the mechanical
tensile stress, tensile strength in such a bundle.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:40)

So, this is a case 1, very simple case, we assume all fibres have same force strain relation, all
fibres have same force that is strain, they have same breaking strain. What does that mean? That
means all fibres are identical so far their tensile characteristics are concerned, in such a situation
the following relations are valid, we will be able to multiply them similarly, strength will be
equal to strength of the bundle will be = number of fibres, n * strength of one fibre.

Similarly, breaking elongation; breaking strain of the bundle will be = breaking strain of the
fibre, this is a very idealised situation now, we will make it little complicated, we will come to
case 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:10)

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In case 2, what we will consider, a bundle consists of 2 types of fibres say, cotton, polyester,
right now, then all fibres of one type say cotton or polyester, have same stress strain, force strain
relation, same strength, same breaking elongation or breaking strain, so if you consider cotton
fibres, all cotton fibres have same force strain relation, all cotton fibres have same strength, all
cotton fibres have same breaking elongation.

If you consider polyester fibres, then all polyester fibres have same force strain relation, all
polyester fibres have same strength, all polyester fibres have same breaking strain however, the
tensile behaviours of cotton fibres is different than the tensile behaviour of polyester fibres of
one type of fibre is different than the tensile behaviour of the other type of fibre, so it means
tensile behaviour of all cotton fibres, though they are same but they are different than the tensile
behaviours of all polyester fibres.

Though all polyester fibres exhibit same tensile behaviour, so now we will consider such a
bundle of fibres, so it will be something like this, suppose this is the upper jaw of tensile tester,
this is the bottom jaw of the same tensile tester, now if I have one fibre say, red colour, all
straight parallel to the axis of the bundle then there will be other type, we will indicate it by blue
colour such is the bundle.

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What will be the tensile behaviour of this bundle, this problem was theoretically solved many
years ago by one researcher, his name was W.J. Hamburger, so the theoretical concept what we
are going to discuss now for this kind of bundle are also known as hamburger’s model now,
before going to the detail of the model, let us define the symbols that we are going to use in
Hamburger’s model.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:59)

So, variables enables fibre material or fibre, one type number 1, second type number 2, first
about fibre fineness for type 1, we will denote it by t1, for type 2, we will denote t2, as an
example, if a fibre bundle consist of cotton and polyester fibres then t 1 may denote the fineness
of cotton fibre, t2 may denote the fineness of polyester fibre, then second is force strain relation.

For type 1, S1 is a function of strain, S2, function of strain, breaking strain of fibre or strain at
break of fibres, suppose this is a subscript 1 and this is a subscript 2, these 2 will be different, so
a1 and be < = a2, so this is a very important consideration here then, we come about fibre
strength, fibre strength of type 1, P1 which is = S1 (a1) because this is the breaking elongation so,
function at breaking elongation will be equal to strength.

Similarly, P2, function is S2 (a2) now, number of fibres, suppose this is n 1, this is n2, so total
numbers of fibres in the bundle n; n 1 + n2, mass of fibres; suppose, this is your m 1, this is your

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m2, what is the total mass of fibres; m 1 + m2. Now, mass fraction of type 1, m1/m, let us say this
is g1 and here it is m2/m which is g2. What will be summation of g1 and g2; g1 + g2 = 1, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:48)

So, these are the characteristics of 2 types of fibres; 1 and 2, now we will consider the fineness of
the bundle say, bundle fineness, we will denote by the symbol T which = mass per unit length,
what is the mass of bundle; small m, what is the length; small h, so m/h, okay, so all
characteristics if you see subscript 1, they denote to type 1, say cotton, there will be some
characteristics which will have subscript 2, all those characteristics are related to type 2 fibre that
is polyester.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:56)

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And there will be some subscript, there will be some variables without subscript, they are
common to both now, we consider this kind of stress strain force strain curve of fibre, as I said
you 2 types of fibres, one and two, suppose this is the force strain curve of type 1 fibre and this is
the force strain curve of type 2 fibre, so type 1 and this will be type 2, this twisting behaviours of
these fibres are very different.

However, all type I fibres have same stress strain behaviour, all type 2 fibres have same stress
strain behaviour but type 1 fibres have different stress strain behaviour than type 2 fibres, right,
now if we look carefully to this graph, a1 is a breaking strain of type 1 fibre however that a1 type
2 fibres do not break, type 2 fibres have a force S 2 subscript a1, at higher elongation a 2, all type 2
fibres will break, so they are breaking force is P2.

P1 is breaking force of type 1, P2 is breaking force of type 2, so this is what we see now, what do
we have to now consider; we have to consider if this is the fibres tester behaviour then what will
be the behaviour of the bundle, so first we need to know how many type 1 fibres are present,
how many type 2 fibres are present, so in order to do that let us say, m 1, what is m1; m1 is mass of
type 1 fibres, so that is = g1 * m; m is mass of all fibre, g1 is mass fraction of type 1 fibre.

What is the fineness of type 1 fibre, single fibre fineness, so what is the fineness of type 1 fibre;
it is the mass of all type 1 fibres divided by length of all type 1 fibres, so mass of all type 1 fibres
is m1 divided by length of all type I fibres, what is the length of one fibre; small h, how many
fibres are present, n1, so what is the total length; n 1 * h, right, if you substitute m1/g1 m n1 * h,
you can write it further, g1/n1, m/h is bundle fineness * T; T is bundle fineness m/h.

So, n1 = g1 capital T/ small t1, so how many type 1 fibres are present is possible to calculate using
this formula now, imagine in a textile company, we blend fibres in terms of their weight, their
mass, so generally mass fractions are generally known, so g1 and g2 are known quantity, they are
readily available quantities, capital T; what is the count of the sliver, what is the count of the
sliver, what is the count of the yarn, these all quantities are generally known.

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What is the fineness of fibre; is also known, so capital G 1, so small g1, capital T small t1, these
are all known quantities, so by using all known quantities, you will be able to calculate how
many type 1 fibres are present in the bundle similarly, we can write n 2 = g2 capital T/t2, so by
using this relation, one will be able to calculate how many type 1 fibre, how many type 2 fibres
are present in the bundle, right.

So, now we come back to this, we have to analyse this situation, in order to analyse this situation,
what we do; we divide this region * 3 regions, first we consider what is happening at when the
breaking; when the elongation is < = a 1, then we will consider what is happening when the
elongation is in between a1 and a2, third region; we will consider when the elongation is > a 2, so
these 3 situations we would like to analyse.

First is this interval, (()) (31:32) epsilon is < = a 1, so this situation, so when they are equal to;
epsilon = a1, the force exhibited by one type of fibre will be n1 P1, so what will be the force at
elongation a1; n1 times P1 + type 2 fibres are also stressed, what is the force; coming from type 2
fibres, at this strain this is a force and how many type 2 fibres; n 2, so n2 this, if we substitute n1
from here and n2 from here, what we will see is g1 P1/t1 + g2 S2 (a1)/ t2.

So, this is how it can be calculated now, we consider the interval a 1, a2 excluding a1, so now we
consider interval epsilon excluding a1 but including a2, open interval, close interval, what will be
the force at a2; at a2, there is no type 1 fibre, so n1 * 0 + n2 * P2, so if we substitute n2 here, then it
will be T g2 P2/ t2, right, then the last interval; interval epsilon > a2, there is no fibre, there is no
bundle, so what will be the force at that strain, 0.

So, we obtain 3 expression for force, one is this interval, second is this interval, and the third is
this interval, so what will be the force; what will be the strength of the bundle; strength of the
bundle will be the maximum of this 3 forces, this we can neglect is 0, so strength of the bundle
will be maximum of these 2 forces.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:41)

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So, we will write strength of the bundle will be; this is the symbol we used earlier, maximum of
{Ssummation(a1),Ssummation (a2)}, right so, what is that? Maximum of [T{ g1 P1/ t1 + g2 S2(a1)/t2}, this is
for this function and for this will be T * g2 P2/t2], whatever will give maximum value that will be
= strength of the bundle, now what will be alright, so here this T is common, constant, it can out
of this maximum operator, right.

So, what will be bundle tenacity; bundle tenacity is this which is equal to maximum of this 2, this
will be expression for bundle tenacity, so this is about the strength of the bundle, what is about
the breaking strain of the bundle. Now, we will discuss that breaking strain of bundle, 2
situations can arise, breaking strain is denoted by this quantity, this can be = a 1, if this T = t2, so
if this is quantity is maximum, then the breaking strain of fibre type 1 will be = the bundle strain
of the breaking strain of the bundle.

Otherwise, breaking strain of the bundle can be = a 2, breaking strain of the type 2 fibre, if this is
= g2 P2/t2, right, now we would like to know the graphical representation of this expression, how
this expression looks like graphically?
(Refer Slide Time: 40:38)

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So, this is the graphical representation of this expression, this, let me explain you what is what in
this diagram, x axis mass fractions are plotted, g1 denotes mass fraction of type 1 fibre, g 2 denote
mass fraction of type 2 fibre, when g 1 = 1 at this point, mass fraction of type 2 fibre is 0,
similarly at the end when g2 = 1, mass fraction of type 1 fibre is 0, it has 2 y axis, this y axis, we
plot this point is basically P1/t1.

And this point is higher, P2/t2, this point is S2 a1/t2, so this is basically specific stress of fibre type
2 at breaking elongation of fibre type 1, so if we join this line; this dotted line, this line denotes
g1 P1/t1, this dotted line similarly, the line joining from 0 to P 2/t2 will give you g2 P2/ t2 and this is
this line g2 P2 / t2 this line right, similarly the line joining between these 2 points gives you g 2 S2
a1/ t2, so this dotted line gives you g2 S2 a1/t2.

And what is this 2 joining lines; this line gives you g 1 p1/t1, then + g2 S2 (a1)/t1, okay, now what is
of concern; our concern is of minimum tenacity, we should not makes type 1 and type 2 fibre in
such a manner that we should not arrive at minimum tenacity that is basically is a concern while
mixing. If we choose wrong blend ratio at which the bundle tenacity will be minimum, then we
spoil the material.

So, minimum tenacity is always is our concern that means, this point, so this will be the
behaviour of these bundle and then increase, this point is the host point at any case, we must

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avoid this point, right so what we see; we see 3 important points, first is this point, second is this
point, third is this point, this point is very crucial now, this first; this point, this point can be
obtain when g1 = 1.

So in that case bundle tenacity will be P1/t1, at this point g2 = 1, so what will be the bundle
tenacity at this point; P2/t2, these 2 points are easy but the host point is this, how will you find
out the bundle tenacity at this point, so the behaviour of the bundle; tensile behaviour of the
bundle is this and then it increases at any cost, we must avoid this blend ratio, so these point can
be obtained is basically the intersection of 2 lines; this line and this line.

So, this point gives is the intersection of 2 lines that means, how will you find out this point, so
g1 is this line, so g1; this expression will be = this expression, so this line and this line, so at this
point g1 P1/t1 + g2 S2(a1)/ t2 = g2 P2/ t2, right now, let us write g1as 1 – g 2, to so if you write g1 = 1
– g2, then if you club all g2 together in one side, remaining on the other side, then we will be able
to find out g2 = P1/t1 /(P1/t1 + P2/t2 – S2 (a1)/ t2), right.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:21)

So, how will you obtain such a blend ratio; g 2 = P1/t1 /(P1/t1 + P2/t2 – S2 (a1)/ t2)and at that blend
ratio, bundle tenacity will be g2 P2/t2, so this is the minimum bundle tenacity which we must
avoid in practice, so in textile industry we should not mix 2 fibres in such a manner that at that

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particular blend ratio, yarn tenacity is minimum or sliver tenacity is minimum or roving tenacity
is minimum, we must avoid such a blend ratio under all circumstances.

And this theory; Hamburger’s theory predicts what will be the blend ratio of 2 different types of
fibres at which we obtain minimum bundle tenacity. What is interesting here to see that come
back to this graph, look at this here g2 = 0 and g2 = 1, so and g2 is stronger than g1, type 2 fibre is
stronger than type 1 fibre, you have already seen this; this is type 2 fibre, type 2 fibre is stronger
than type 1 fibre, P2 is > P1.

So, we go an adding stronger fibres in the bundle, the bundle tenacity initially is reducing, it is
lowest here, then it is increasing, so what we observe this figure is that very interesting after
addition of stronger fibres in the bundle; bundle tenacity can decrease, we are adding stronger
fibres however, bundle tenacity is decreasing, after certain point it again start increasing and
finally it goes on increasing.

So, the interesting part of this theory is that after addition of stronger fibres in the bundle, the
bundle tenacity can decrease very much surprising however, it is true, Hamburger’s theory tells
us about this now, 2 other situations can also happen however, they are not of our concern.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:17)

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What kind of situations can happen, this 2 are also the possibilities, the curve can be something
like that here, highest here, lowest here and it is continuously decreasing, in this case lowest
here, highest here continuously increasing, they are of not our concern, problem is only when
initially decreases then it is increases, so this is possible only when the stress strain diagram of
the fibres is something like this?

So, what we learn is that the stress strain curves of the fibres ultimately decide the tensile
behaviour of the bundle now, how this theory can be applied to yarn, so far we have discussed
about parallel fibre bundle however, yarn is a twisted fibre bundle, so the question remains how
this theory can be applied to yarn. If one wishes to apply this theory exactly the way it is to yarn,
then there will be a huge mismatch between the actual results and the predicting results.

One has to modify, how do you modify, let us talk about that. How this theory can be applied to
yarn? What we will do; in this case, the meaning of this symbol was little different, P 1/t1 in a
hamburger’s theory it was the tenacity of fibre 1 but in this particular case, we will consider this
as tenacity of single yarn 100% fibre 1, so if the blend is a carbon and polyester, this means
tenacity of 100% cotton yarn.

Similarly, P2/t2 will be tenacity of single yarn but 100% fibre type 2 so, P 2/t2 will be the tenacity
of 100% polyester fibre yarn and then what will be by t 2, this is the specific stress of single yarn,
which yarn; 100% fibre 2 at strain a1, so if you consider these 3 meanings in this manner then we
use this theory, you will be able to obtain the tensile behaviour of the yarn, so this modification
or this consideration you have to follow.

If you wish to apply Hamburger’s theory in case of yarns, so now we will stop here, we would
like to discuss in the next lecture, new medical problems relate to this module, thank you very
much for your attention.

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 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi

Lecture – 21
Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to this MOOCs online video course, theory of yarn structure, in the last
class we started module 8; tensile mechanics of yarn, we discussed about 2 situations of fibrous
bundle; one was very trivial case where all fibers have identical stress strain behaviour then
what will be the bundle characteristics, tensile characteristics we discussed. Second case; we
talked about hamburgers theory.

That theory predicts the tensile behaviour of a parallel fiber bundle consists of 2 different types
of fibers and then we talked about how hamburgers theory can be applied to yarns, so a simple
note also we discussed. Now, we will start with hamburgers theory numerical problems, the
first numerical problems reads as follows.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)

Suppose a series of cotton polyester blended fibrous bundles are prepared by mixing the cotton
and polyester fibers in the following mass blends ratio; 100/0, so 100% polyester cotton fibers,
0% polyester fibers, 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40, 50/50, 40/60, 30/70, 20/80, 10/90, 0/100, 0/100
means 100% polyester fiber, 0% cotton fibers. The cotton fibers possess tenacity of 0.36
Newton per tex and breaking strain of 11%.

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But the polyester fibers possess tenacity of 0.41 Newton per tex and breaking strain of 46%
also, the polyester fiber show specific stress of 0.12 Newton per tex at a strain of 11%, calculate
the tenacity of the bundles.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:24)

That means, what are given to us is P1/t1 = 0.36 Newton per tex is given also, P2/t2 = 0.41
Newton per tex given, a1 = 11%, a2 = 46% and one more important value is given that = 0.12
newton per tex, so these items of information are given to us, we have to calculate bundle
tenacity at different blend ratios. What is bundle tenacity? From hamburgers theory, we learn
that bundle tenacity is maximum of g1, p1, t1 + g2/ t2; g2 p2 t2.

So, we need to calculate this function for different blend ratios, so let us first start, when g1 is 1,
g2; 0, 100% cotton fiber, so we will substitute all these quantities here, this will be maximum of
g1 is 1 * p1/ this 0.36 + g2 is 0 * 0.12, g2 is 0 * 0.41, so if we calculate, this will be 0.36 and
this will be 0, so out of these 2, what is maximum; 0.36, so bundle tenacity will be 0.36 Newton
per tex.

Second; g1 is given say 90% cotton fibers, g2 10% polyester fibers, what will be the bundle
tenacity; we use the same formula, maximum of g1 is 0.9 * p1/t1 is 0.36 + 0.1 * 0.12, the
second value 0.1 * 0.41, what will be the maximum value? Maximum of this quantity you will
find it out this should be equal to 0.336 and 0.041, so what is the maximum of these 2; 0.366
and 0.41 of course, 336 Newton per tex, right.

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Then we proceed to third; g1 cotton fiber percentage is 80 and g2, 20, what will be the bundle
tenacity? We use the same formula here, maximum of g1 is 0.80 * 0.36 + 0.2 * 0.12, 0.20 *
0.41.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:57)

What will be the maximum; 0.312, 082, so what is the maximum; 0.312 Newton per tex, so at
80/20 blend ratio, the bundle tenacity will be 0.312 Newton per tex, so gradually it is reducing,
so there will be 1 blend ratio at which the bundle tenacity will be minimum then again it will
increase, we have to see what is that blend ratio. Fourth; let us consider g1 is 0.70, g2 is 0.30,
what will be bundle tenacity?

Max 0.70 * 0.36 + 0.30 * 0.12, 0.30 * 0.41; 0.288, 0.123; 0.288 newton per tex, so at 70/30
blend ratio, the bundle tenacity will be = 0.288 newton per tex, then we configure the next one;
0.60, g2 is 0.40, so the bundle tenacity will be 0.60 * 0.36 + 0.40 * 0.12, 0.40 * 0.41, so what
will be these two values; these two values will be 0.264, 0.164, what will be the maximum in
between these 2, Newton per tex.

So at 60/40 blend ratio, bundle tenacity will be 0.264 newton per tex, now we come to the next
one, 50/50, what will be the bundle density at 50/50 blend ratio; 0.50 * 0.36 + 0.50 * 0.12, 0.50
* 0.41, what will be these 2 values? These 2 values will be 0.240, 0.205, maximum is 0.240
Newton per tex. So, when cotton and polyester fibers are mixed in equal proportions in terms of
weight, then the bundle tenacity will be 0.24 newton per tex.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:18)

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We continue for the other blends; g1 = 0.40, g2 = 0.60, at this blend ratio, what will be the
bundle tenacity; maximum of 0.40 * 0.36 + 0.60 * 0.12, these 2, so what will be these 2 value;
max of 0.144, 0.246, look at these values now, this value is higher than this value, 0.246
Newton per Tex, so the minimum bundle tenacity will be obtained when the polyester fiber
percentages in between 50 to 60%, right.

Now, we proceed further to obtain the other blend ratios, g1 is 0.30, g2 is 0.70, what is the
bundle tenacity; max of 0.30 * 0.36 + 0.70 * 0.12, 0.70 * 0.41, what will be these 2 values;
these 2 values will be maximum of 0.192, 0.287, which will be 0.287 Newton per tex, see again
that increasing strain started at 30/70 blend ratio, the bundle tenacity value will be 0.287
newton per tex.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:01)

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Next blend ratio; g1 is 0.20 and g2 is 0.80, so at this blend ratio, bundle tenacity will be
maximum of these 2; 0.20 * 0.36 + 0.80 * 0.12, 0.80 * 0.41, these 2 maximum will be 0.168,
0.328; 0.328 Newton per Tex. Next blend ratio; g1 is 0.10, g2 is 0.90, at this blend ratio, will be
maximum of these 2; 36 + 0.90 * 0.12, 0.90 * 0.41, so this 2 will be 0.144, 0.369; 0.369
Newton per Tex.

The last one 100% polyester fibers, when the bundle is prepared from 100% polyester fiber will
be equal to very simple that is basically, P2/t2 that = 0.41 Newton per tex.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:27)

If we summarize the results what we see is that g1, g2 and bundle tenacity in Newton per tex,
dimensionless, dimensionless, so 1, 0, 9, 0.1, 0.8, 0.2, 0.7, 0.3, 0.6, 0.4, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.this,
0, 1, so this value is 0.41, this value will be 0.369, this value will be 0.328, then this value will
be 0.287, this value will be 0.246, this value 40, 60, afterwards, this value will be 0.240, then
this value will be 0.264, then this value 0.288, this value will be 0.312, then 312, then this value
will be 0.366, then this value will be 3. this.

So, these values we calculated now, what we see is that it is decreasing, somewhere here we see
it is again started increasing, so this value continuously decreasing, after this it is again started
increasing, so the critical blend ratio lies in between 50 to 60, so the behaviour schematically
will be g1 say 1, 0 here and g2 0, 1 here and this will be the bundle tenacity, so it starts
decreasing somewhere here again, it starts increasing, this is the critical blend ratio.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:32)

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This we obtain from this numerical example now, let us consider a second numerical example,
very similar manner suppose, a series of cotton polyester blended fibrous bundle are prepared
by mixing cotton and polypropylene fibers in the following mass blend ratio; 100/0, 90/10,
80/20, 70/30 and so on, the cotton fiber possess a tenacity of 0.36 newton per tex, breaking
strain of 11%.

But the polypropylene fiber process tenacity of 0.53 Newton per tex and breaking strain of 25%
also, the polypropylene also specific stress of 0.30 newton per tex at 11%, calculate the tenacity
of the bundles?
(Refer Slide Time: 22:22)

So, how do we solve this problem; this problem we would solve in a similar manner, bundle
tenacity = maximum of these 2, t2 right, here this p1/ t1 is given as 0.36 Newton per tex, p2/t2

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is given as 0.53 Newton per tex and your s2 all right, a1 is given as 11%, a2 is given as 25%, so
s2 a1/ t2 is given as 0.3 Newton per tex now, what we will see, let us consider this as capital A,
this as capital B, we will show you the results of calculations.

Now, g1 then we will show you the value of Newton per tex B, Newton per tex max of A and B
that is equal to this Newton per Tex, right so, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, so this value
will be 360, what is the maximum; 36, 0.9; it will be 0.354 and 0.053, what is maximum; 354,
0.8; it will be 0.348 and this will be 0.106, what is the maximum; 348, at 7, it will be 0.342, this
will be 0.159, what will be maximum; 342.

At 0.6, it will be 0.336, this will be 0.212, what is maximum; 336, at 0.5, it will be 0.330, this
will be 0.265, what is maximum; 330, at 0.4, this value will be g2 4 and this value will be
0.318, maximum is 324, at 0.3, this value will be 0.318 but this value will be 0.371 and what is
maximum in between these 2; 371, at 0.2, this value will be 312, this value will be 424, at 0.1,
this value will be 306, this value will be 477, this value will be 477.

And at 0, this value will be 0.3, this value will be 0.53, so this value will 0.53, what we see here
is; it is continuously decreasing but from here 0.324 to 0.71 then again it is increasing, so the
very similar behaviour initially decreasing, then it is increasing so, this was problem number 2,
we stop here, in the next class we will continue with this module.

293
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture – 22
Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to this MOOCs online video course, theory of yarn structure. In the last 2 classes
we discussed about module 8, tensile mechanics of yarns. We started with discussion on
mechanics of parallel fiber bundle, there we discussed Hamburgers theory and also we solved
2 numerical problems. Today we are going to start with the third numerical problem on
module 8.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:59)

So this problem is basically an extension of problem number 1 of this module. You remember
in problem number 1, this information was given, cotton fibers possess a tenacity of 0.36
Newton per tex, breaking strain 11%, polyester fibers possess tenacity of 0.41 Newton per tex
and breaking strain 46%. Further the polyester fiber source specific stress of 0.12 Newton per
tex at a strain of 11%.

Determine the blend ratio of cotton and polyester fibers at which the bundles tenacity will be
the minimum. Also, determine the strength of the corresponding bundle. So what information
are given let us summarize. P1/t1 = 0.36 Newton per tex is given. We consider 1 denotes
cotton and 2 denotes polyester okay. Then another information is given P2/t2 = 0.41 Newton
per tex, breaking elongation is also given here. Breaking elongation is also given here.

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Another information which is given as S2 a1/t2 is given as 0.12 Newton per tex. So these all
information are given, we have to determine the blend ratio at which the bundle tenacity will
be minimum. This we have already derived in the last class. We will straightaway use the
expression here.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:47)

So the bundle tenacity will be minimum when g2 = P1/t1 / P1/t1 + P2/t2 – S2 a1/t2. So these
data are given here. What is P1/t1? Is given as 0.36/0.36 + P2/t2 is given as 0.41 – S2 a1/t2 is
given as 0.12. So this value will come as the ratio of 0.36 to 0.65 which is = 0.55 that means
when, so g1 is 1-g2 0.45. When cotton fiber mass percentage is 45 and polyester mass
percentage is 55, the resulting bundle gives the minimum strength.

So this was the first part of the problem. Now the second part is what will be tenacity of this
bundle consists of 45% cotton fibers and 55% polyester fibers. So let us solve that part of the
problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:12)

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As we know bundle tenacity is the minimum of 2 values right. So here g1 is given as 0.45
and g2 is given 0.55, so minimum of 2 values, 0.45 * 0.36 + 0.55 * 0.12, this value, 0.55 *
0.41. So these, sorry it is maximum. Maximum of these 2 values show, these 2 values will
come 0.228 and 0.226, which will be = 0.228 Newton per tex. So the bundle consisting of
45% cotton fibers and 55% polyester fibers will show minimum strength.

And what is the minimum strength? Minimum strength is 0.228 Newton per tex. So this is the
answer of the second part of the problem. Now we will discuss another numerical problem,
the fourth one, which is basically an extension of problem number 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 08:55)

If you remember in problem number 2 in this module we calculated bundle tenacity, when
cotton and polypropylene fibers of given data were blended at different proportions. In this

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particular problem what is asked is the minimum with the determine the strength of the
weakest bundle. So in problem number 2 also these information were given. P1/t1 = 0.36
Newton per tex, then a1 0.11, same were given in problem number 2.

P2/t2 0.53 Newton per tex, a2 = 0.25, another information is given, S2 a1/t2 0.30 Newton per
tex. Now we have to first find out what is the blend ratio at which bundle tenacity will be
minimum. Then we have to determine the strength of the bundle at that particular blend ratio.
So let us first determine what is the blend ratio at which bundle tenacity will be minimum. So
in this particular problem subscript 1 denotes cotton and subscript 2 denotes polypropylene.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:14)

So the blend ratio at which bundle tenacity will be minimum is (()) (11:22) P1/t1 + P2/t2 – St
a1/t1 is this. Now in this particular problem P1/t1 is given as 0.36, P2/t2 is given as 0.53 – S2
a1/t2 is given as 0.30 right. So what will be this value 0.36 / 0.59, so this will be = 0.61. Then
what is g1? g1 is 1- g2. So 1 – 0.61. So 0.39, what does that mean? The blend ratio cotton
39%, polypropylene 61%.

So a bundle which consists of 39% cotton fibers and 61% polyester fibers gives the minimum
tenacity. Then what is the minimum tenacity? So now we will solve that part of the problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:27)

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So minimum tenacity will be obtained in this manner right. So here what is your g1? 0.39.
What is P1/t1? 0.36 + what is g2? 0.61. What is S2 a1/t2? 0.30, so this is one value. The next
value is 0.53. So there will be 2 values 0.3234 and another will be Newton per tex is the
answer. So the bundle which gives you minimum tenacity where the minimum tenacity is
0.3234 Newton per tex and that bundle consist of 39% cotton fibers and 61% polypropylene
fibers.

So far we have solved 4 numerical problems. Now we will go to discuss the next part of this
module that is related to stress-strain relation in yarn. So we will now start that part, stress-
strain relation in yarn.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:50)

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If you remember on the first class of this module we told that in this module we will be going
to discuss 2 things, one is the tensile mechanics of parallel fiber bundle, second is the stress-
strain relation in yarn. So far we have discussed the tensile mechanics of parallel fiber
bundles, now we are going to discuss about stress-strain relation in yarn. So this part we will
start with a diagram.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:39)

This diagram is very much related to the diagram that we discussed in the module of radial
migration of fibers in yarn. What we see here is there is a general fiber element dl is its
length, this element. So as we know from the module of radial fiber migration in yarn where
we talked about general fiber path, fiber element, different angles. So this fiber element initial
fiber element of length dl is characterized by 3 quantities.

One is d zeta, second is r, and the third is the angle beta. Now we are applying load force to
the yarn as a result yarn elongates. So dl prime is this length, this part you are not seeing, dl
prime is the length of the fiber element after elongation of the yarn. So the axial position is
changing. So this is the increment along the axis of the yarn its radial position is changing
and also its angle is changing.

So these 3 quantities determine the position of the fiber element after elongation of the yarn.
Now if we see this top picture, this is the length dl, length of the fiber element, angle of the
fiber element to the axis of yarn is beta. This width becomes r times d phi and this is d zeta.
After elongation this fiber element will change its position. This change is shown here, the
length becomes dl prime, angle becomes beta prime.

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As a result the width becomes r prime d phi and the length axial distance becomes d zeta
prime. So this is about this image, now we will define 3 quantities. One is yarn axial strain.
Yarn axial strain, we use this symbol epsilon subscript a. This is the change in the axial
distance / the original distance. So what is the change in the axial distance? (d zeta prime – d
zeta) which is the change in the axial distance / original distance.

Original distance is d zeta. So (d zeta prime - d zeta) / d zeta. So we obtain d zeta prime=( 1
+ epsilon a) d zeta, right. Second is the radial strain. How do we define radial strain? Radial
strain is the change in radius / original radius. We denote this by epsilon r, what is the change
in radius, (r prime – r) which is the change in radius / original radius. So this becomes r prime
/ r -1. So r prime is = r *( 1 + epsilon r).

Then we define contraction ratio similar to Poisson ratio. What is Poisson zero? is the ratio of
radial strain by axial strain.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:26)

So we define contraction ratio is like Poisson’s ratio, we use the symbol eta for that is = -
radial strain / axial strain, this gives you epsr = – eta times epsa. The last quantity is fiber
strain because of the application of force the fiber is also stressed, it also exhibits strain, so
what is fiber strain? Fiber strain let us use this symbol epsilon L again it is defined by the ratio
of change in fiber length / original fiber length.

300
What is change in fiber length? (dl prime – dl) which is the change in fiber length / original
length. So dl prime / dl -1. So dl prime is (1 + epsilon l) * dl. So if we summarize these 4
quantities, first one was d zeta prime is = this, second one was new radius (1 + epsilon r),
third was contraction ratio and the fourth is this one right. Our next step if we come back to
the original drawing our next step will be applying Pythagorean theorem to this triangle and
also to this triangle.

So if we apply Pythagorean theorem let us see what happens, dl 2 is = (r d phi)2 + (d zeta) 2.

So let us write down.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:26)

Similarly, if we apply Pythagorean theorem to this triangle then we will see (dl prime ) 2 is =
(r prime d phi)2 + (d zeta prime) 2. So let us write down (dl prime ) 2 is = ((1 + epsilon r)r d
phi)2 + (d zeta (1 + epsilon a)) 2.

Now, change the value of epsr , so it becomes ((1 –eta*+ epsilon a)r d phi) 2 + (d zeta (1 +
epsilon a)) 2 .
(Refer Slide Time: 29:07)

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What is your (dl prime/ dl) 2? was defined by (1 + epsl )2. So (1 + epsilon l)2 is(((1 –
eta*epsilon a)r d phi)2 + (d zeta (1 + epsilon a)) 2 ) /((r d phi)2 + (d zeta) 2). We have just now
derived dl prime square is this. So we write this in the numerator, 1 + epsilon a squared
square + 1 – eta epsilon a square r d phi. In the denominator it is dL square. So by using
Pythagorean theorem we obtain this relation, we will use this in the denominator. So we write
this as square + r time d phi square.

Now we divide numerator as well as denominator by this quantity d zeta square. Let us see
what we obtain, (((1 –eta* epsilon a)r d phi/ d zeta)2 + ( (1 + epsilon a)) 2 ) /((r d phi)2/ (d zeta)
2
+1). Tangent beta, tangent of this = r times d phi/d zeta. So we substitute this then what we
obtain is. Hence, we obtain (((1 –eta* epsilon a)tan(beta)) 2 + ( (1 + epsilon a)) 2 ) /(tan 2(beta)
+1)
(Refer Slide Time: 32:28)

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Square + 1 -. We stop here today. In the next class, we will continue from this expression.
Thank you. Thank you very much for your attention.

303
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture – 23
Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to you all to this MOOCs online video course, theory of yarn structure. We have
started discussing module 8, tensile mechanics of yarns in the last 3 classes. We talked about
mechanics of parallel fiber bundles, then we started discussing about stress-strain relation. So
in the last class we have derived so far this relation. So our aim is to find out a relation
characterizing fiber strain and yarn strain.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:56)

So epsilon l is your fiber strain, epsilona is your yarn strain. eta is contraction ratio and beta is
the angle of fiber and we obtain this relation. Now you will work from here. So (((1 –eta*
epsilon a)tan(beta))2 + ( (1 + epsilon a)) 2 ) /(tan 2(beta) +1). We do not change the numerator
(((1 –eta* epsilon a)tan(beta)) 2 + ( (1 + epsilon a)) 2
) /(sec 2(beta) ), so, ((1 –eta* epsilon
a)sin(beta))2 + ( (1 + epsilon a)) 2
(cos 2(beta) ) right. Now we expand it (1 + 2 epsilon a +
epsilon a) 2 cos 2 (beta) + (1 - 2 eta epsilon a + eta2 epsilon a2 )sin2 (beta).

Then we see that (cos2 (beta) + sin2 (beta)) + 2 * epsilona (cos2 (beta) – eta.sin 2
(beta)) +
epsilona2 (cos2 (beta) + eta2 sin2(beta)) right. If we expand at the left hand side also then what
we obtain is square and this is = 1. Now we assume that the strains are small. Fiber strain as
well as yarn strain all are small in magnitude.

304
(Refer Slide Time: 04:26)

When fiber strain is small so square of a small quantity will be further small tends to 0.
2
Similarly, when axial strain is small square of a small quantity will be further small, epsilon l

, epsilon a2 tend to 0 .so epsilon l=epsilon a .(cos2(beta)-eta. sin2(beta)). So when this tends to 0
these tends to 0, this 1 and 1 cancel out. These 3 quantities determine fiber strain.

Long ago in the era of 1907 a very famous scientist Gegauff reported this relation. This
relation can be obtained from this expression if we obtain eta = 0. So this is a very special
case. When there is no radial contraction in yarn, fiber strain = yarn strain * cos2 (twist angle);
however, this expression is a more generalized one. If we know contraction ratio, twist angle,
yarn axial strain will be able to predict fiber strain using this relation.

So we derived a relation between fiber strain and yarn strain. Now we would like to derive a
relation between fiber stress and yarn stress. So what is the relation between fiber stress and
yarn stress, this we are going to derive now.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:22)

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For this derivation, we take help from this figure. What you see is an oblique fiber, if an axial
force F subscript 1 is applied to this fiber and F subscript a is the axial force to the yarn, so F 1
stands for the axial force to the fiber where as Fa represents axial force in yarn. Beta is the
twist angle. The cross sectional area of the fiber is small s. As a result, the sectional area of
fibre is S star.

So let us write what is what here. F 1 axial force on fibre, F a axial force on yarn, cross-
sectional area of fiber and is the sectional area of fiber right.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:30)

We know that force is area, so F 1 is the force let us assume stress is sigma and what is the
area? small s. We assume that fiber stress-strain relation is linear. So sigma is = E times
epsilon L, Hook’s law. Sigma is fiber stress, E Young's modulus and epsilon L we know fiber

306
strain. So if we substitute this relation here what we obtain is E epsilon L * s. So axial force
on fiber is = initial modulus of fiber, axial strain on fiber and cross sectional area of fiber.

Now we go back to this drawing again. We know the quantity of F 1, we are interested to find
out F a. Beta is the twist angle. So F a = F 1 times cos (beta). So let us write that. F a = F 1 times
cos (beta). F a = E epsilon L * s times cos (beta) okay. F subscript a is from here. Young's
modulus fiber strain, fiber cross section area * cos of beta.

Then what is this trace developed along the axial direction of yarn? What is this trace
developed along the axial direction of yarn? Stress = force per unit area. So force is F
subscript a. What is the area? This area is S *. So sigma subscript a = Fa/S*. Stress = S*. What
is F subscript a, E epsilon L s cos(beta)/S*. S* we know from module 2 is s/cos(beta). So S* is
s/cos(beta).
(Refer Slide Time: 16:13)

So sigma a becomes E epsilon L cos2(beta) because you see here this s and this s cancel out.
Beta is twist angle. Right now we know epsilon l=epsilon a .(cos2(beta)-eta. sin2(beta)) form.
We have derived this expression a few minutes before. If we now substitute this here. So, it
becomes E epsilon (cos2(beta)-eta. sin2(beta)) cos2(beta). After multiplying cos2(beta), E
a .

epsilon a .(cos4(beta)-eta. cos2(beta). Sin2(beta))

What is this expression? This expression is the axial stress of one fiber along the yarn axial
direction. So now we have to find out what is the total axial stress or total axial force
developed in yarn. For that purpose, we come back to this drawing. What you see here a

307
cylindrical yarn circular cross section is shown here, lot of fibers are present here. We
consider an annular ring which is situated at a radius r and whose thickness is dr.

So if we find out what is the force developed, force on fibers in this annular ring then if we
integrate that expression from 0 to d/2 we will obtain the total force developed in the yarn
right. So the total force developed in the yarn is the integration of stress * area. So what is
stress? Stress is sigma a, stressed on one fiber and so the total area available is d subscript s, d
subscript s is the area of fibers available in this annular ring.

If we integrate that from 0 to d/2, we obtain the total force. So what is ds? d subscript s stands
for the elementary sectional area of fibers. Elementary substance cross section area of fibers.
These we define in module 2. So we know mu is = fiber area / yarn area. So fiber area = yarn
area * mu. What is the yarn area here? 2 pi r dr * mu. So this comes from the definition of
packing density.

Packing density is defined by fiber area ds/yarn area (2 pi r dr), so ds becomes = 2 pi r dr *

mu. So now if we write this expression P sigma a ds 0 to rho/2 then ds = (2 pi r dr) * mu. So
if we substitute sigma a * 2 pi r dr *mu. If we substitute sigma a here, then we will get a
relatively long expression.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:36)

So p = limit varies from0 to D/2 integration of(E epsilon (cos2(beta)-eta. sin2(beta))

a .

cos2(beta)2 pi r dr times mu) right. This form of integration we see 2 variables, one is beta,
second is r and we know that this r and beta are related because tangent beta = 2 pi r z. So we

308
have to either convert this beta * r or this r * beta, so that we will be able to do the
integration. So let us convert these r * to beta, so let us do that.

How we do that r. What is r? r can be written by 2 pi r z/(2 pi z). What is 2 pi r z? 2 pi r z is

tangent of beta, 2 pi z. In the denominator we multiply capital D. Similarly, we have to do the
same for the numerator, so let us do that, D what is this pi DZ? tangent (beta D). So r becomes
D tan( beta)/(2 tangent (beta D)). Now this D/(2 times tangent (beta D)) is a constant, tangent
beta right. So dr is D sec 2( beta) d beta/(2 tangent (beta D)). So that is = D d beta/(2 tangent
(beta D) cos2( beta)).

Now what is r dr, here it is r times dr. So ((D /(2 tangent (beta D))2 sin( beta) /cos3( beta)) d
beta).. We will substitute this into this expression. So this expression will become further
long. Let us do that.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:35)

p = limit varies from 0 to beta D integration of (E epsilon (cos2(beta)-eta. sin2(beta))

a .

cos2(beta)2 pi mu ((D /(2 tangent (beta D))2 sin( beta) /cos3( beta)) d beta)). So the limit will
change from 0 to beta D. So what we obtain is E epsilon a 2 pi mu * (D /(2 tangent (beta D)))2
limit varies from 0 to betaD integration of((cos4( beta)-eta. sin2( beta) Cos2( beta)) sin( beta)
/cos3( beta)d beta) right. This limit is 0 to beta D, so we have to solve this integral. So there
are 2 indefinite integrals. Let us solve them.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:44)

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First is sin (beta) cos (beta) dbeta, let sin(beta) = t, so cos (beta) d beta = dt. So this
integration will become tdt, integration of tdt, t 2/2, what is t square? Sin2 (beta)/2. So you
come back and write the solution one by one. what is the next integral? Next integral is sin
3
(beta)/cos (beta) * d beta. This we can write as (1-cos 2(beta)sin (beta)/cos(beta). Let us
assume cos beta = u, -sin( beta) d beta = du. So -(1 - u 2 )/u du.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:22)

So –du/u + udu,, - du/u is ln u + u du is u square/2. What was u? u was cos beta, so –ln cos
(beta) + cos 2 (beta)/2. So this is the solution of this integral, we come back and we write this
-, (Refer Slide Time: 34:05)

310
So P = E epsilon a 2 pi mu * (D /(2 tangent (beta D)))2* limit varies form 0 to betaD (Sin2
2
(beta)/2+eta.ln cos (beta) – eta.cos (beta)/2). So, it becomes E epsilon a 2 pi mu * (D /(2
tangent (beta D)))2* [{(Sin2 (betaD)/2+ eta.ln cos (betaD) – eta.cos 2 (betaD)/2)}-{ (Sin2 (0)/2+
2
so +eta.ln cos (0) –eta.cos (0)/2)}]. There fore it becomes E epsilon a 2 pi mu * (D /(2
tangent (beta D)))2 [Sin2 (betaD)/2+ eta.ln cos (betaD) – eta.cos 2 (betaD)/2+eta/2]

What do we do now? these 2 and these 2 we used to cancel So E epsilon a pi mu * (D /(2

tangent (beta D)))2 [Sin2 (betaD) + 2eta.ln cos (betaD) – eta.cos 2
(betaD)+eta].Now, So E
epsilon a pi mu * (D /(2 tangent (beta D)))2 [(1+eta)Sin2 (betaD) + eta.ln cos2(betaD)]

(Refer Slide Time: 38:36)

311
So So it becomes E epsilon a pi mu * D 2 /4 [(1+eta)cos2 (betaD) + eta.ln cos2(betaD)/ tan2
(betaD)]. So this is the expression for axial force in yarn. Now this quantity talks about
something what is that? Suppose we think about an untwisted fiber bundle of same count and
same substance cross-sectional area.

Let us now think about an untwisted fiber bundle that means parallel fiber bundle of same
fineness having same substance cross-sectional area. Let us now think about an untwisted
parallel fiber bundle of same count and having same substance cross sectional area. So at
same strain? What is the strain? epsilon a, what will be the axial force? This axial force we
denote by P*.

P* will be equal to sigma a * substance cross sectional area. Force is = stress * area. What is
sigmaa for such parallel fiber bundle? E * epsilon a and what is s? s is mu times pi d 2/4. Since
d2 is = 4T/(pi mu rho) and S = T/rho right. This we learned in module 2. So you see this now.
E epsilon a mu pi d2 /4. So this quantity is = the axial force of a parallel fiber bundle having
same fineness and same substance cross sectional area.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:58)

So if we write now P/P* this will be = [(1+eta)cos 2 (betaD) + eta.ln cos2(betaD)/ tan2 (betaD)].
Now something about this quantity P/P*. Yarn axial force divided by axial force on a parallel
fiber bundle having same fineness and same substance cross sectional area like yarn.

312
So this quantity we denote as phi, where ‘phi’ is known as coefficient of tensile force
utilization in twisted yarn. The material remains same, fiber material remains same; however,
this is yarn, this is parallel fiber bundles so there is an influence of actually obliquity.

This relation is very important because it characterizes the relation between yarn stress and
fiber stress, yarn force and fiber force. Now Gegauff considered contraction = 0, there is no
radial contraction in yarn, so is cos2 (beta D). So this is a very special case; however, this is a
very generalized expression.

Now how does this expression relates to reality? What is the comparison between this
expression? this theoretical result with experimental findings. Let us now learn about that.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:20)

This compares theory and experiment. When eta if we put eta is = 0 here then we obtain the
first curve, this curve. When eta is = 0.5 here for different angles of beta D, we obtain the
next curve and this curve is something different, which is the result of another theory where
(()) (49:09) variability was considered. What we see is that from this region onwards except
from 0 to 10 degree to surface twist angle, all the experimental results are tending to fall onto
the theoretical line.

In this part there was little deviation was there and that could be probably explained by some
other phenomenon, it is related to (()) (49:44) variability in fibers in yarn. So in this particular
part there is a very good correspondence obtained between theory and experimental results.
Now we would like to comment on a very well-known aspect in yarn.

313
(Refer Slide Time: 50:18)

Twist tenacity relation in yarn, as it is well known that it increases and then decreases. This
particular curve is the result of 2 influences, one influence is this which is the result of fiber
to fiber friction in yarn. The other influence we have just now learned is the effect of fiber
obliquity. So in a twist tenacity curve this part of the curve the reason is understood;
however, fiber to fiber friction and its effect on tenacity of yarn still an unsolved problem in
the theory of yarn.

In future one can attempt to solve this part of this curve theoretically; however, this part is
theoretically solved. So now we will proceed to solve numerical problems related to this
module. The very first numerical problem what we would like to solve is related to fiber
strain and yarn strain. The second numerical problem will be related to fiber stress and yarn
stress.

So there were earlier 4 numerical problems related to Hamburger’s model. So this is the fifth
problem in this module.
(Refer Slide Time: 53:40)

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So how the ratio of fiber strain to yarn strain changes from centre to surface of a yarn for
different values of angle of twist 10 degree, 20 degree, 30 degree, 40 degree and for different
values of contracts and ratio 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75. So this is a problem. Fiber strain to yarn strain.
this is your fiber strain to yarn strain. Cos square beta * sin square beta. So we have to use
this formula to solve this problem.

See beta is = 10 degree, 20 degree, 30 degree and 40 degree okay. We will talk about this
ratio here. It is a dimensionless ratio for different value 0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 right. Now we
substitute beta 10 degree and eta 0. So you will obtain this value 9698. Then we substitute
beta 20-degree here and eta 0. So this component is 0. So then you will see the value 0.8830.
Now eta 0, so this component vanishes 30 degree beta.

So beta 30 degree means 0.7500, then 40 degree beta, eta is 0 so this component vanishes.
Cos square 40 degree, what will be the value? 5868 okay. So when eta = 0, so this component
vanishes, so this column is obtained cos square 10 degree is this value, cos square 20 degree
this value, cos square 30 degree is this value, cos square 40 degree is this value.

What we see is that as the beta increases this ratio decreases that means if we apply more
twist because of the obliquity this ratio is reducing, similar manner we will be able to solve
what is this ratio when eta = 0.25 for different angles of beta and for different values of
contraction ratio. We will solve it in the next class. Thank you. Thank you for your attention.

315
 Theory of Yarn Structure
Prof. Dipayan Das
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Lecture – 24
Tensile Mechanics of Yarns (contd.,)

Welcome to this MOOCs online video course, theory of yarn structure. In the last few classes
we discussed about module 8 related to tensile mechanics of yarns. In the last class we solved
the problem of yarn stress and fiber stress and also yarn strain and fiber strain. Also we have
started solving numerical problem 5 and we solved for different twist angles beta.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:58)

If we assume there is no radial contraction of yarn what will be the ratio of fiber strain to yarn
strain. So we solved this column. Today we will continue with solving for the rest of the
columns. Let us start with contraction ratio 0.25. So if in this expression eta = 0.25, when
beta = 10 degree, so the value of this ratio epsilon l to epsilon a will be 0.9623. Similarly,
when beta = 20 degree.

Epsilon l/epsilon a will be 0.8538, similarly for beta 30 this value will be further less 0.6875,
when beta is 40 then this value is remarkably less 0.4835. In the similar manner we can solve
what is this ratio when contraction ratio is 0.5 and there are 4 different angles of beta. This
answers will be 0.9547 then for 20 degree beta, the answer will be 0.8245, for 30 degree the
answer will be 0.6250 and for 40 degree the answer will be 0.3802.

316
In a similar manner we can solve when contraction ratio is 0.75, what is the ratio of fiber
strength to yarn strength when beta = 10. This value will be 0.947, for 20 this value will be
0.795, for 30 this value will be 0.56 and for 40 this value will be approximately 0.27. Now if
we carefully observe this table, if we go along this direction for a given contraction ratio
when the surface twist angle, when the twist angle increases this ratio fiber strength to yarn
strength decreases.

The same trend is observed here, here also, and here also. Now if we go along this way, for a
given twist angle, when contraction increases the ratio of fiber strain to yarn strain decreases;
however, when beta is less, this effect is less. When beta is little high as high as 20 degree
then we see as the contraction ratio increases, same trend is here; however, the effect is little
higher. This effect you see when beta is 40, if we increase contraction ratio the values are
changing from say 0.59 to 0.48 to 0.32 to 0.27, remarkable change.

So this can also be observed from this data. So we have solved numerical problem 5. Now we
are going to solve numerical problem 6 of this module.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:31)

This problem reads as follows, a cotton carded ring spun yarn of 29.5 tex count and 719.43
meter inverse twist. So you have given T = 29.5 tex and Z is also given 719.43 meter inverse.
This yarn is tested for its stress-strain behavior. Calculate tensile force utilization coefficient
of this yarn assuming yarn contraction is = 0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 respectively. So we have to
basically use this expression phi tensile force utilization coefficient of yarn 1 + eta cos square
beta D + eta, tan square beta D.

317
Eta given 0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, what is not given is beta D. Now tangent of beta D = pi times D
times Z. Z is given, D is not given, what is D? D as we know root over 4 times T/pi mu rho *
Z. T is given, rho is the cotton fiber, so rho we can consider 1.52 gram per centimeter cube,
mu is not given. How to find out mu? mu we can find out in a manner we learnt earlier. Let
me show you how.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:57)

mu to the power 2.5/1 – mu to the power 0.8 cube, Q Z square T to the power 1/2. Probably
we learn this in module 4. So it is cotton coordinating spun yarn 9.61 * 10 to the power -8 is
the value of Q. What is the value of Z, Z is given 719.43 and what is the value of T? 29.5 to
the power 1/2. So then you can solve for this expression, you will find out mu will be = 0.46.

The moment you find out 0.46 mu then you will come back to this page and you will see
what is given, 3.14, 4 times T, what is T? 29.5, 3.14 mu is 0.46 and rho is 1520 kg per meter
cube * Z 43. So this tangent beta you will get as 0.5237 of course it is dimensionless. So
tangent of beta D = 0.5237 then beta D is changed for this value will be coming
approximately = 27.65 degree.

So in this manner you obtain beta D. Now you come back to this expression, beta D you
obtain 27.65 degree, eta for different values you need to calculate phi.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:02)

318
So phi is = 1 + eta cos square beta D + eta ln cos square beta D/tan square beta D. Beta D you
obtain as 27.65 degree. So you need to find out this. For eta 0, second is 0.25, third is 0.50
and fourth is 0.75. So you need to find out 4 values of phi, tensile force utilization coefficient
in yarn. So when eta is 0, so these vanishes, this 0, so cos square beta D, cos square 27.65
degree, the value will be 0.7864.

So cos square 27.65 degree = roughly 0.7864, when contraction ratio = 0.25, eta = 0.25, so
you substitute 0.25 here, 0.25 here and beta D 27.65 degree you calculate, you will get this
value will be approximately = 7597. Now third one, eta contraction ratio = 0.50, so you
substitute eta = 0.50 and consider beta D = 27.65 degree, beta D = 27.65 degree. You solve
for it, you will find out these value will be roughly = 0.7278.

The last one when the contraction ratio is 0.75 and beta D 27.65 degree. So you substitute
contraction ratio as 0.75 here and you substitute beta D as 27.65 degree, you will find out this
value will be = 0.7098. What do we see is that for a given yarn where beta D is fixed constant
27.65 degree, for contraction ratio increases tensile force utilization coefficient decreases.
This we see from this numerical problem. So we solved numerical problem 6 also. So module
8 ends here. Thank you very much for your attention.

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