EU Biorefinery

Outlook to 2030
Studies on support to research and innovation policy
in the area of bio-based products and services

Written by
E4tech • WUR • BTG • FNR • ICONS Independent
Expert
Report

February 2021

Research and
Innovation
EU Biorefinery Outlook to 2030 (Lot 3)

Studies on support to research and innovation policy in the area of bio-based products and services

European Commission
Directorate-General for Research and Innovation
Directorate B — Healthy Planet
Unit B.1 — Circular Economy and Biobased Systems
Email [email protected]
European Commission
B-1049 Brussels

Manuscript completed in February 2021

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 EUROPEAN COMMISSION

EU Biorefinery
Outlook to 2030
Studies on support to research and innovation in
the area of bio-based products and services

AUTHORS
Richard Platt, Ausilio Bauen, Patrick Reumerman, Cécile Geier, René Van Ree,
Iris Vural Gursel, Lesly Garcia, Martin Behrens, Philipp von Bothmer, Jo Howes,
Yamini Panchaksharam, Kaisa Vikla, Valerie Sartorius, Bert Annevelink

COMMUNICATION AND GRAPHIC DESIGN

Raffaella Moreschi, Ilaria Abbondanti Sitta, Niccolò Bertuzzi, Marcello Bardellini

Directorate-General for Research and Innovation

2021 Healthy Planet EN
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................ 4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (EN) .................................................................................... 5
RÉSUMÉ ............................................................................................................. 20
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 36
Study context .................................................................................................................. 36
A focus on biorefining and the production of bio-based chemicals and materials ........................ 36
Study aim and objectives .................................................................................................. 38
Work package structure and interactions ............................................................................. 39
Policy Context .................................................................................................................. 40
Stakeholder engagement ................................................................................................... 41
1 WP1 – BIOREFINERY CLASSIFICATION ............................................................... 44
1.1 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 44
1.2 Approach ................................................................................................................ 44
1.3 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 44
1.4 Biorefinery Classification System................................................................................ 45
1.5 Application of the Biorefinery Classification System ...................................................... 55
1.6 Additional information relevant to Stakeholders ........................................................... 56
2 WP 2 – DRIVERS AND BARRIERS FOR BIOREFINERIES ......................................... 58
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 58
2.2 Activity A: Development of the barrier and driver categorisation .................................... 58
2.3 Activity B) Specific Barriers and Drivers ...................................................................... 61
2.4 Activity C) General Barriers and Drivers ...................................................................... 64
3 WP 3 – AVAILABLE AND EMERGING BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS AND RD&I NEEDS ..... 83
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 83
3.2 Aim and objectives ................................................................................................... 83
3.3 Approach ................................................................................................................ 84
3.4 Task 1 - Identification and description of available and emerging biorefinery pathways...... 84
3.5 Task 2 - High-level assessment of the key advantages and disadvantages of biorefinery
pathways compared to alternative pathways ....................................................................... 123
3.6 Task 3 - Identification of technical barriers & measures to overcome these barriers for market
deployment of material and chemical based biorefineries ...................................................... 151
3.7 Task 4 - Identification of Research, Development and Innovation (RD&I) needs to overcome
technical and non-technical barriers. .................................................................................. 158
4 WP 4 – EU AND GLOBAL BIOREFINERY DEPLOYMENT “DATABASE” ....................... 165
4.1 Objectives, scope and approach ................................................................................ 165
4.2 Define datafield headings ......................................................................................... 167
4.3 Selection of top 10 most relevant other countries ........................................................ 167
4.4 Review existing biorefinery databases........................................................................ 168
4.5 Build database of biorefineries in EU and top 10 countries ............................................ 169
4.6 Analysis of EU (and top 10 other countries) planned biorefineries .................................. 170
4.7 WP 4 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 181
5 WP 5– MARKET PROSPECTS FOR BIOREFINERIES TO 2030 ................................. 182
5.1 Objectives ............................................................................................................. 182
5.2 Approach ............................................................................................................... 182
5.3 Growth scenarios .................................................................................................... 182
5.4 Potential demand .................................................................................................... 184

2
5.5 Potential supply ...................................................................................................... 224
5.6 Comparison of supply in the EU to supply in top 10 non-EU countries in database ............ 270
5.7 Comparison of EU demand vs EU supply .................................................................... 274
6 WP 6 – EU BIOREFINERY OUTLOOK AND ROADMAP FOR DEPLOYMENT ................. 276
6.1 Objective ............................................................................................................... 276
6.2 Approach ............................................................................................................... 276
6.3 Chemical and material driven biorefinery roadmaps ..................................................... 278
6.4 Biorefinery outlook for deployment in the EU .............................................................. 317
6.5 Identify and quantify GHG and socio-economic benefits ............................................... 327
ANNEX I - WP 1 LITERATURE REVIEW BIOREFINERY CLASSIFICATIONS SYSTEMS ..... 332
IEA Bioenergy Task 42 Biorefinery Classification & Bio-Based Chemicals Update (IEA
2009/2018/2020) ............................................................................................................ 332
Towards a common classification approach for biorefinery Systems (2009).............................. 334
BioRefinery identification, classification and mapping (Euroview-2009) ................................... 334
European Biorefinery Strategy Road Map & Vision 2030 (Star-Colibri 2011) ............................. 335
ANNEX II - WP 1 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM DEFINITIONS ...................................... 337
Feedstock ....................................................................................................................... 337
Conversion Processes ....................................................................................................... 338
Product Groups ............................................................................................................... 343
ANNEX III - WP 2 SPECIFIC DRIVERS AND BARRIERS FACTSHEETS ......................... 347
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake of Propylene Glycol .......................................... 347
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake in lubricants.................................................... 351
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake in Solvents ..................................................... 356
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake in surfactants .................................................. 360
Drivers for, and barriers to, market uptake of microfibrillated cellulose ................................... 364
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake of polymers and plastics, specifically for thermoplastic
starch 368
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake of polymers and plastics, specifically for thermoplastic
starch 372
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake in Building Blocks (Lactic acid) .......................... 375
Drivers for, and barriers to, bio-based uptake in Building Blocks (Methanol) ............................ 381
Specific drivers for, and barriers to, Lignin-based resins market uptake .................................. 385
ANNEX IV - WP 4 ROADTOBIO TOP 120 CHEMICALS USES FOR DATABASE ............... 390
ANNEX V - WP 4 LIST OF KEYWORDS FOR MATERIAL BIOREFINERIES ...................... 393

3
ABSTRACT

EN

A circular bio-based economy is seen as an important element of a European low carbon

economy, and is expected to increasingly contribute to GHG emission reductions,
decreased dependence on fossil resources and drive economic growth over the next
decades. This study presents scenarios on how demand and supply for bio-based chemicals
and materials could grow to 2030, and provides roadmaps with actions required to increase
the deployment of chemical and material driven biorefineries in the EU. The study also
presents the key elements of the analysis which have supported the preparation of the
scenarios and roadmaps. This includes a biorefinery classification system, a database of
operational or announced biorefineries (developed in collaboration with the Joint Research
Centre) for the EU and 10 non-EU countries, a detailed opportunities and barriers analysis
and a market outlook to 2030 with a focus on eleven biorefinery pathways. The study was
developed by E4tech (lead), BTG, Wageningen Research, FNR and ICONS with the support
of over 100 stakeholders from the bio-based industry, the chemicals and materials
industries, academia & research institutions, the investment community and policy makers
through active participation in stakeholder workshops, meetings and interviews. The study
will support policy-makers and industry in further developing strategies, policies and
deployment plans for European biorefineries.

FR

La bioéconomie circulaire est vue comme élément clé dans le développement d’une
économie à bas carbone dans l’Union européenne. Celle-ci offre le potentiel de contribuer
à la réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES), à la diminution de la dépendance
aux ressources fossiles ainsi qu’à la croissance économique de l’UE au cours de la prochaine
décennie. L’étude « Biorefinery Outlook 2030 » offre ainsi une analyse de l’évolution
potentielle de l’offre et de la demande en produits chimiques et matériaux biosourcés
(c’est-à-dire d’origine biologique) sur la base de scénarios à l’horizon 2030, ainsi que des
feuilles de route comprenant une liste d’actions nécessaires pour accroitre le déploiement
des bioraffineries en Europe. L’étude présente également les éléments clés de l’analyse sur
laquelle se basent les scénarios et les feuilles de route. Sont inclus un système de
classification des bioraffineries, une base de données des bioraffineries (développé en
collaboration avec le Centre Commun de Recherche de l’UE ou « Joint Research Centre »)
en activité ou en développement dans les pays membres de l’UE et dix pays tiers, une
analyse détaillée des barrières et opportunités, ainsi qu’une analyse de marché axée sur
onze filières de bioraffinerie. L'étude a été menée par E4tech (partenaire principal), BTG,
Wageningen Research, FNR et ICONS. Le consortium a bénéficié de contributions de plus
de 100 représentants de l’industrie chimique traditionnelle et biosourcée, de
l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche, de la communauté des investisseurs et des
décideurs politiques, à travers une participation active à des ateliers, réunions et entretiens
individuels. L’étude a pour but d’aider les décideurs politiques ainsi que les industriels à
élaborer des stratégies, des politiques et des plans de déploiement pour une industrie
européenne de la bioraffinerie.

4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The circular bioeconomy can help build a sustainable future and help meet the European
Green Deal's ambitious targets, including its plan to reduce EU greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions by at least 55% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels. It also contributes to other
EU initiatives, including the Circular Economy Action Plan, the Biodiversity Strategy and
the Farm to Fork Strategy1. The updated EU Bioeconomy Strategy published in 2018
contributes to the European Green Deal, as well as Industrial, Circular Economy and Clean
Energy Innovation Strategies2. In light of the Bioeconomy Strategy, the European
Commission Directorate General for Research and Innovation commissioned three studies
to support the research and innovation policies regarding bio-based resources and
products.

This study, EU Biorefinery Outlook to 2030 (Lot 3), is specifically in support of the EU
Bioeconomy Strategy’s action to facilitate the development and deployment of new
sustainable biorefineries and to estimate the potential deployment of different types of
biorefineries.

Biorefining can be broadly defined as the processing of biomass into a portfolio of

marketable bio-based products, which could include co-production of food and feed,
chemicals and materials and bioenergy (power, heat/cold, fuels).3 The focus of the current
study is on chemical and material4 driven biorefineries which include the production of
innovative high value bio-based products. This includes integrated biorefineries that
produce chemical and materials as major products, but could also co-produce food and
feed as well as bioenergy. The tender study excludes bioenergy and biofuel driven
biorefineries, i.e. biorefineries with energy or fuels as major products, and conventional
biomass processing facilities focused on traditional bio-based products, such as paper and
board.

Biorefineries producing bio-based chemical and material products are expected to be an

important part of the circular bio-based economy, as well as the EU’s transition to a
climate-neutral economy. Deployment of biorefineries that utilise domestic EU biomass can
increase security of supply of raw materials, substituting fossil-based materials and
products and their respective emissions, and create jobs and business opportunities,
especially in rural areas. They increasingly complement processing of biomass in bioenergy
and biofuels driven biorefineries, as well as other production routes to produce bio-based
chemicals and materials, such as co-processing in existing facilities and those based on
CO2 and recycled carbon.

Classification chemical and material driven biorefineries

A biorefinery classification system has been developed5 to communicate information about

chemical and material driven biorefineries on the basis of four major full value chain
categories important to biorefinery operations: feedstocks, conversion processes,
platforms and products. The IEA Bioenergy Task 42 matrix classification has been used as
a basis, and has been further developed and extended, especially in the bio-based
chemicals and materials product group categories.

1
Bioeconomy & European Green Deal, https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/bioeconomy/bioeconomy-european-
green-deal_en
2
Bioeconomy Strategy, https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/research-area/bioeconomy/bioeconomy-
strategy_en
3
IEA Bioenergy Task 42 - Biomass can be crops, aquatic biomass, forestry, primary (agro/forest) – secondary
(process) and tertiary (post-consumer) residues, etc. This framework therefore will be very useably for political
decision making for upcoming R&I needed for the implementation of the Green Deal.
4
Bio-based chemicals and materials range from high-value added fine chemicals such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
food additives, etc., to high volume materials such as general bio-polymers or chemical feedstocks [i.e. building
blocks].
5
WP1 – Biorefinery Classification – developed by Stichting Wageningen Research, Institute Wageningen Food & Bio-
based Research

5
The classification system is focused on biorefineries producing chemicals and materials.
The proposed product groups cover a broad spectrum of bio-based products, like the ones
proposed in the EU Bioeconomy Strategy and the Statistical Classification of Economic
Activities in the European Community (NACE) nomenclatures.

Table 1. Biorefinery Classification

1. Feedstocks 2. Conversion 3. Platforms 4. Products

Processes

1.1. Primary biomass†: 2.1. Biochemical: • Biochar 4.1. Chemicals:

• Aquatic biomass • Aerobic conversion • Bio-Coal • Additives
• Lignocellulosic from • Anaerobic digestion • Bio-Crude • Agrochemicals
croplands and • Enzymatic process • Biogas • Building blocks6
grasslands • Fermentation • Bio-oils • Catalysts & Enzymes
• Lignocellulosic • Insect-based • Bio-hydrogen • Colorants
wood/forestry bioconversion • Bio-Naphtha • Cosmeceuticals
• Oil crops • *Other biochemical • C5/C6 sugars • Flavours & Fragrances
• Starch crops conversion • Carbon dioxide • Lubricants
• Sugar crops • Lignin • Nutraceuticals
• *Other primary 2.2. Chemical: • Oils • Paints & Coatings
biomass • Catalytic • Organic Fibres • Pharmaceuticals
• Esterification • Organic Juice • Solvents
1.2. Secondary Biomass†: • Hydrogenation • Protein • Surfactants
• Microbial biomass • Hydrolysis • Pyrolytic Liquid • *Other chemical
• Residues from • Methanation • Starch product
agriculture • Chemical Pulping • Syngas
• Residues from aquatic • Steam reforming • *Other platform 4.2. Materials:
biomass • Water electrolysis • Composites
• Residues from forestry • Water gas shift • **Fibres
and forest-based • *Other chemical • Organic Fertilizers
industry. conversion • Polymers
• Residues from nature • Resins
and landscape 2.3. Mechanical and • *Other material product
management thermomechanical:
• Residues from recycled • Blending 4.3. Food
bio-based products • Extraction
• *Other organic residues • Mechanical & 4.4. Animal Feed
thermomechanical
disruption & 4.5. Energy:
fractionation • Cooling agents
• Mechanical pulping • Fuels
• Separation processes • Heat
• Other mechanical and • Power
thermomechanical • *Other energy product
conversion

2.4. Thermochemical:
• Combustion
• Gasification
• Hydrothermal
liquefaction
• Pyrolysis
• Supercritical conversion
• Torrefaction &
Carbonization
• *Other thermochemical
conversion

* ‘Other’ is included to enable new concepts, technologies or product categories to be included.

**’Fibres’ potentially can be further subdivided according to their application: textile fibres, paper and board
fibres, carbon/specialty fibres and other fibres.
†Primary biomass is a biomass originated via artificial or natural photosynthesis. Secondary biomass is produced
during the processing, conversion or decomposition of primary biomass and organic material.

6
A building block is defined as a molecule which can be converted to various secondary chemicals and intermediates
and turn into a broad range of different downstream products.

6
Chemical and material driven biorefinery pathways and their development status

Based on the classification system, eleven umbrella biorefinery pathways have been
identified (A-K) that are at varying development and deployment levels7. Each pathway is
a combination of one or more Feedstocks, Conversion Processes, Platforms and Products
shown in Table 1. A-D represent commercially established biorefineries whilst pathways E-
K are at earlier stages of development.

Table 2. Chemical and materials driven biorefinery pathways

Biorefinery pathway name

A. One platform (C6 sugars) biorefinery using sugar crops

B. One platform (starch) biorefinery using starch crops

C. One platform (oil) biorefinery using oil crops, wastesa and residues

D. Two-platform (pulp and spent liquor) biorefinery using wood

E. Three platform (C5 sugars, C6 sugars and lignin) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomassc

F. Two-platform (organic fibres and organic juice) biorefinery using green biomassb

G. Two-platform (oil and biogas) biorefinery using aquatic biomass

H. Two-platform (organic fibres and oil) biorefinery using natural fibresb

I. One platform (syngas) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomassc and municipal solid waste

J. Two platform (pyrolytic liquid and biochar) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass

K. One platform (bio-crude) biorefinery using lignocellulosic, aquatic biomass, organic residues

a. Waste/residue fats, oils and greases belong to category "Other organic residues"
b. Green biomass and Natural fibres belong to category "Lignocellulosic from croplands and grasslands“
c. Lignocellulosic biomass includes Lignocellulosic from croplands, wood/forestry and residues from agriculture
and forestry

Current deployment status of biorefineries in Europe

Over 400 chemical and material driven biorefineries at commercial or demonstration scale
have been identified in the EU8 and 10 non-EU countries9. Approximately 300 of these are
located in the EU.

The respective interactive dashboards of the chemical and material driven biorefineries in
the EU (non-EU) are available under the following links:
https://datam.jrc.ec.europa.eu/datam/mashup/CHEMICAL_BIOREFINERIES_EU/index.html
( https://datam.jrc.ec.europa.eu/datam/mashup/CHEMICAL_BIOREFINERIES_NON_EU/index.html )

Of the operational chemical and material driven biorefineries, the C6 sugar and starch
platform (Pathways A, B) and the oil platform (Pathway C) that utilise food and feed crop
feedstocks (i.e. oil, sugar or starch crops) account for 56% of the total number of
facilities.

7
WP3 – Available and emerging biorefinery pathways and RD&I needs – developed by Stichting Wageningen Research,
Institute Wageningen Food & Biobased Research
8
WP4 – EU and global biorefinery deployment “database” – developed by B.T.G Biomass technology group BV based
on the JRC biorefinery database: https://datam.jrc.ec.europa.eu/datam/mashup/BIOBASED_INDUSTRY/index.html
9
10 countries: USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Brazil, China, India, Thailand, Norway, Switzerland,
United Kingdom

7
The two platform pulp and spent liquor (Pathway D) accounts for nearly 20% of operational
biorefineries and is based on pulping of wood feedstock (lignocellulosic wood/forestry). It
is the pathway with the most biorefineries using secondary feedstocks (e.g. residues from
forestry and forest-based industries). Pathways E-K make up the remainder with the three
platform C5 sugars, C6 sugars and lignin (Pathway E) and the two platform natural fibres
and oil (Pathway H) accounting for about 10% each.

For a long time, the forest-based biorefineries have been innovating and diversifying their
product portfolio by processing pulp & paper mill side streams into differentiated materials
and chemicals (other than traditional products such as paper and board), and these
operations often include multiple pathways (e.g. D + E). They are a good example of how
biorefineries can include a variety of processes, platforms, products and both virgin and
recycled biomass feedstocks.

Figure 1. Distribution of identified bio-based chemicals and materials driven biorefineries in 2020 in the EU

Key drivers and barriers for further deployment

The most important general drivers were identified10 as: the EU Green Deal, governmental
support for expansion and scale-up of biorefineries, the need to reduce dependence on
fossil raw materials and products as well as their related greenhouse gas emissions, and
the functional benefits that bio-based products are potentially able to provide.

The lack of economic viability was identified as the main non-technical barrier to bio-based
chemicals and materials deployment, particularly for biorefineries producing large volume
commodities. There is a large gap between the market’s willingness to pay for these bio-
based products and their production costs in most cases. This is a result of very limited or
no increased willingness to pay more for renewable/low carbon bio-based chemicals and
materials, low costs of the fossil-derived equivalents, high production costs of bio-based

10
WP2 – Drivers and barriers for biorefineries – developed by B.T.G Biomass technology group BV with stakeholder
input gathers in virtual workshops, meetings and interviews

8
products, and competition with biofuels markets. In addition, some EU biorefineries are
less cost competitive than biorefineries in some other parts of the world due to higher
energy costs, higher labour costs, higher taxes, and limited availability and accessibility of
low-cost biomass feedstocks. Moreover, the Commission’s draft proposal for the Taxonomy
Delegated Act on climate change mitigation and adaptation also excludes use of food and
feed crops for bio-based chemicals and plastics (as well as for biofuels) from voluntary
sustainable financing.

Achieving the scale up of new bio-based chemicals and materials production capacity is
challenging, because of the level of investment required, coupled with technology and
market risk hindering financing.

Achieving the scale up of new bio-based chemicals and materials production capacity is
challenging, because of the level of investment required in plants, coupled with technology
and market risk hindering financing.

All bio-based chemicals and materials driven biorefineries, to varying degrees, have
immediate concerns about certified sustainable feedstock supply and mid- to long-term
concerns over the sustainable feedstock mobilisation potential in a competitive circular
bioeconomy. The EU biomass potential is large from primary crops and agricultural, process
and post-consumer residues and wastes, but there will be demand for these feedstocks
from various sectors. Furthermore, there are ethical concerns related to their use and also
their proposed exclusion from the activities of voluntary sustainable financing that affect
investments in respective installations and products.

The main advantage of many bio-based chemicals and materials lies in their environmental
benefits (e.g. substitution of fossil-based products leading to greenhouse gas emission
reductions), and in some cases characteristics that outperform their fossil counterparts
(e.g. biodegradability of some polymers). In order for these benefits to be valued, they
need to be rewarded by appropriate policies being developed as part of the EU’s Green
Deal and climate targets, and they need to be quantified and broadly understood.
Currently, there is a lack of evidence on the full life-cycle sustainability benefits of bio-
based products. Quantitative information on sustainability is needed over the full biomass-
to-products life-cycle, including their end-of-life fate, to demonstrate their potential
environmental and other advantages.

Today there is a very limited policy-based market pull. The European Commission will
propose legislation on the Sustainable Product Policy Initiative extending the Eco-design
Directive beyond energy aspects to a broad range of products and the making use of the
Product Environmental Footprint method. However, additional policy-based market pull is
expected to be required to overcome barriers to bio-based chemicals and materials.

Research, Development & Innovation (RD&I) activities needed to overcome

technical barriers

Some of the biorefinery pathways are at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs).
Therefore, supporting fundamental research, applied research and providing piloting,
demonstration and commercial scale support (1st of a kind commercial application) will be
required to scale-up chemicals and material driven biorefineries in the EU. The RD&I needs
to address11 the most important technical barriers relate to the development of:

• Robust and flexible logistical systems (collection, transport, storage) able to process
the diverse European biomass potential, especially as regards agricultural residues
and various municipal waste streams;

11
WP3 – Available and emerging biorefinery pathways and RD&I needs – developed by Stichting Wageningen
Research, Institute Wageningen Food & Biobased Research

9
 • Pre-treatment technologies converting diverse and low-quality biomass feedstocks
to higher quality bio-based commodities that meet the processing requirements of
a variety of biorefining conversion processes for widescale use. This potentially can
also decouple sustainable decentralised refining to produce bio-based commodities
from more centralised processing of these into bio-based intermediates and
products;

• Conversion processes (e.g. enzymatic processing, fermentation, esterification,

hydrolysis, chemical pulping, gasification etc.) that are more energy efficient and
sometimes product selective to increase market competitiveness;

• A clear approach to assessing the sustainability (incl. end-of-life strategies) of bio-

based products.

In the new EC Horizon Europe Programme (2021-2027) significant budget will become
available to tackle biorefinery related technical barriers, for example within Pillar2 "Global
Challenges and European Industrial Competitiveness" - Cluster6 "Food, Bioeconomy,
natural Resources, Agriculture and Environment". Also within the linked follow-up of the
successful Bio-Based Industries Joint Undertaking (BBI-JU), i.e. the EU Partnership for a
Circular Bio-based Europe (CBE), biorefinery technology development, demonstration and
market introduction will be supported.

EU bio-based chemicals and materials market demand to 2030

Two scenarios to 2030 for the demand for bio-based chemicals and materials in the EU
have been developed. The high growth scenario assumes: a favourable macro-economic
environment and policy for bio-based products, including a strong recovery from the Covid-
19 pandemic, a high oil price (increasing the competitiveness of bio-based products in
some applications), a market pull policy put in place for bio-based chemicals and materials
and there is widespread financial support for various types of biorefinery investments.
These factors are contradictory or do not develop in the low growth scenario.

Using the JRC study “Insights into the European market for bio-based chemicals. Analysis
based on 10 key product categories” 12 as a basis for today’s bio-based chemicals and
materials consumption, the potential demand in 2030 (Figure 2) could grow significantly
in the high growth scenario to ~16 million tonnes per year (Mtpa) growing at about 9.9%
per year until 2030, but could reach approximately only half this amount in the low growth
scenario growing at about 3.0% per year13.

12
Spekreijse, Jurjen; Lammens, Tijs; Parisi, Claudia; Ronzon, Tevecia; Vis, Martijn: Insights into the European market
for bio-based chemicals. Analysis based on 10 key product categories. (2019) JRC Science Policy Report, source:
https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/insights-european-market-bio-based-chemicals
13
WP 5 – Market prospects for biorefineries to 2030 – demand scenarios developed by Fachagentur Nachwachsende
Rohstoffe (FNR)

10
 Figure 2. Demand for bio-based products 2019, and 2030 low- and high scenario14

EU supply outlook for bio-based chemicals and materials to 2030

The current bio-based chemicals and materials supply from EU biorefineries is estimated
at 4.6 million tonnes (Figure 3). It is estimated that supply from new or expanded
biorefineries could grow by an additional 3.1 million tonnes in the EU in 2030 in the high
growth scenario, whilst in the low growth scenario this could be limited to an additional 1.1
million tonnes15.

These growth scenarios set the upper and lower bound of the biorefinery outlook
deployment between 2020 and 2030 based on publicly available information on chemical
and material driven biorefineries. These are growth scenarios, so they do not include the
potential closure of existing biorefineries that are currently operational in the EU.

Figure 3. Demand vs. Supply of biochemicals and biomaterials in the EU in 2030.

14
The group “fibres” is limited to man-made bio-based fibres. The “additives” group additives includes bio-derived
plasticisers only. The category “Other” consists of the product groups “Paints, coatings, inks and dyes” and
“Cosmetics and personal care products”. Product categories (see Table 1) not included in the demand assessment
are: agrochemicals, flavours and fragrances, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, organic fFertilizers, amd composities.
The production of paper and board is not included into the product groups.
15
WP 5 – Market prospects for biorefineries to 2030 – supply scenarios developed by E4tech

11
This additional supply has to be provided by expanding operational biorefineries, new
demonstration scale plants, new commercial scale plants that have been announced or
those that are expected to be announced based on pathways at demonstration scale today.

These pathways potentially could produce a wide range of bio-based products that are used
across the product groups. A selection of some of these bio-based chemicals and materials
have been developed into case studies considering the drivers and barriers to their
development, competing pathways to produce them and their market prospects16.

There are several biorefinery pathways that produce products that can be used as biofuels
or bio-based chemicals. Pathways A, B and E all can produce ethanol which is primarily
used as a fuel today, and Pathways D and I may produce biomethanol. These are almost
exclusively used as transport fuel today in the EU, although some bioethanol is already
used for chemicals (e.g. as a solvent) or to produce ethylene outside of the region and
fossil methanol is used in larger volumes for chemical applications. In addition, there are
smaller scale activities currently under development for the use of pyrolysis oil fractions
for chemicals and materials in conjunction with biofuel products.

A share of the production of these products has been considered to be sold for chemicals
and materials, with the remainder for biofuels in the high scenario. This additional
‘advanced biofuels to bio-based chemicals’ supply represents a large potential for
increasing the bio-based chemicals and materials, but is expected to require additional
policy changes. It will be important to consider in developments to the Renewable Energy
Directive (RED II), in Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) and Smart Mobility strategies. Policy
support for producing bio-based chemicals and materials via these pathways could not only
bring about environmental benefits, such as lower greenhouse gas emissions. There is a
risk of a decreasing market for liquid biofuels as a result of road transport electrification,
particularly for ethanol (blending use with gasoline), and therefore there could be potential
for “advanced biofuels” driven biorefineries to partially refocus on chemicals and
downstream materials. In addition, policy support for bio-based chemicals and materials,
as well as biofuels from these pathways, could reduce perceived investment risk for these
biorefineries as they would have wider addressable markets.

For both growth scenarios, the EU demand is higher than the projected supply in 2030
(Figure 3). The shortfall could be met through imports from non-EU countries and/or supply
from alternative ramp-up routes.

Alternative ramp-up routes could include biofuel-driven biorefineries using feed/food crop
feedstocks switching focus to the chemicals market (e.g. existing ethanol plants could sell
higher quantities into the chemicals market). One major route could be dehydrating
ethanol to produce ethylene (the largest chemical building block/platform chemical), which
Braskem in Brazil and Croda in the US operate at commercial scale. Co-processing is also
an option that is already being done commercially in the EU, either through the production
of chemicals or chemical feedstocks in petroleum refineries, co-processing of biomass/bio-
based feedstocks in steam crackers or bio-methane in existing conventional methanol
plants.

There is significant uncertainty surrounding both the technical feasibility of some co-
processing routes, biomass availability, the potential use of the products produced for
chemicals and materials compared to fuels, as well as policy (e.g. the Sustainable Finance
Taxonomy Draft Act states that food or feed crops may not be used as bio-based feedstock
for the production of chemicals) that may affect these developments. The study considers
existing capacity of food/feed crop-based ethanol plants, petroleum refineries, steam
crackers and methanol plants in the EU and their potential to co-process biomass to
produce bio-based chemicals and materials. It is estimated that between 5.4 million tonnes
of bio-based chemicals and materials in the low growth scenario and 11.7 in the high

16
Case study products: propylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol, lactic acid, methanol, fatty acid and PEG esters, acetic acid,
fatty alcohol ethoxylate, micro-fibrillated cellulose, thermoplastic starch and lignin based phenolic resins.

12
growth scenario could be produced in these facilities by 2030. If scaled to this level, these
alternative ramp-up routes, could help to balance the EU supply and demand by 2030.

Key actions needed to support EU bio-based chemicals and materials production

The outlook for biorefinery deployment could move towards the high growth scenario if
actions proposed in the roadmaps below are implemented (Figure 7)17. The actions are
focused on how to bring about the maximum benefits to the EU (e.g. largest greenhouse
gas savings), and could also support developments beyond biorefining, supporting
chemicals and materials produced from recycled or CO2-based processes as well.

Policy and regulation is essential to close the large gap between the market’s willingness
to pay and bioproduct costs, addressing the economic barriers to deployment identified as
the most important by stakeholders. Policy that supports chemicals and materials that
provide environmental benefits such as greenhouse gas savings should be implemented.
The types of policy actions included in the roadmap are GHG reduction targets, mandates
(e.g. in public procurement), bans/reducing targets on use of fossil and non-recycled
products, as well as taxes on some fossil products and carbon. These policies need to be
developed and implemented in 5 years to have an impact on deployment by 2030.

The individual biorefinery pathways cannot be considered in isolation, or without

considering policy and other changes that may influence the deployment rates of one or
more of the pathways. Policy developments will help determine the overall and relative
ramp-up of these pathways. Whilst the roadmaps suggest areas of policy that should be
considered, they do not specify fixed policy actions including targets, and therefore the
impact of policy actions on deployment will only become clear through additional
investigation and modelling, and then once the policies are implemented.

One such policy action is to ensure that biorefinery projects are adequately classified under
the EU’s Sustainable Finance Taxonomy18. The Taxonomy covers several areas related to
biorefineries including agriculture and forestry, and the manufacture of chemicals and
plastics. The Draft Act states that food or feed crops may not be used as bio-based
feedstock for the manufacture of organic basic chemicals or of plastic in primary form under
the Taxonomy, so the Taxonomy would support only non-food/feed pathways D-K. Overall,
the requirements for financing need to be carefully considered to ensure sustainability
without unnecessarily restricting biorefinery development.

In the outlook for biorefinery deployment developed the conditions for non-crop feedstocks
for the production of chemicals and materials in the EU are assumed to be favourable. The
outlook almost reaches the high scenario as the majority of the projects in the high scenario
are expected to focus on the utilisation of secondary feedstocks.

17
WP 6 – EU biorefinery outlook and roadmap for deployment – developed by E4tech
18
European Commission. Sustainable finance – EU classification system for green investments. Draft regulation and
annexes for EU taxonomy for sustainable activities. 2020. Available online at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-
regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12302-Climate-change-mitigation-and-adaptation-taxonomy#ISC_WORKFLOW

13
Figure 4. Chemical and materials driven biorefinery outlook for deployment – additional biorefineries by 2030

Overall 42 new chemical and materials driven biorefineries, including 5 demonstration scale
plants, could become operational by 2030 adding approximately 3.1 million tonnes of
additional capacity, with a significant volumes coming from debottlenecking19/expansion
of existing biorefineries (largely Pathways A-E) and new biorefineries allocated in Pathways
D and E. All pathways are expected to see some new biorefineries by 2030 and it is noted
that although in some cases biorefineries may be considered as combinations of pathways
(e.g. D+E) or include some of the processes of just one pathway.

Small, medium and large scale commercial biorefineries are all included in the outlook
ranging from 6 to over 220 kta product capacity, with the scale primarily dependent on the
pathway, feedstock utilised and size/attractiveness of the markets for the products
produced.

For pathway D, the volumes of bio-based chemicals and materials shown in the outlook for
biorefinery deployment do not include pulp used for traditional applications. In addition,
there are announced pulping biorefineries that will initially be focused on more traditional
pulp and derivatives (e.g. paper and board). These more traditional products are not in the
scope of this study, but these investments offer the future potential for valorisation of side
streams to produce the bio-based chemicals and materials covered in this study. This could
include the extraction and further conversion of crude tall oil, lignin and turpentine from
black liquor and/or through the development of innovative cellulose based products. A
wider selection of pulping biorefineries are detailed in the Confederation of European Paper
Industries “Innovative bio-based products for a sustainable future: A Cepi study on pulp &
paper industry biorefineries in Europe”20

19
Debottlenecking is the process of increasing production of existing plants and equipment by improving processes
and/or revamping equipment.
20
CEPI, Innovative bio-based products for a sustainable future: A Cepi study on pulp & paper industry biorefineries in
Europe (2021) https://www.cepi.org/innovative-bio-based-products-for-a-sustainable-future-a-cepi-study-on-pulp-
paper-industry-biorefineries-in-europe/

14
 Figure 5. Supply ramp up, additional supply from debottlenecking/expansion (Deb/Exp) of existing commercial scale
biorefineries

Pathway D and E utilise lignocellulosic wood/forestry and developments are expected in

Nordic countries where there are large sources of feedstock, well developed biomass supply
chains and existing pulp and paper industries. Investment in biorefineries in the BIOEAST
initiative countries has historically been lower, but these countries also have significant
potential from these residues particularly Poland, Romania, Czech Republic and Latvia.
Pathway E also utilises agricultural residues and the BIOEAST initiative countries include
some of the countries with the largest agricultural residue potential (based on S2Biom) in
the EU, with Poland (3rd highest), Romania (5th highest) and Hungary (6th highest) all with
estimated nationwide potentials of over 10 million tonnes per year.

When comparing the outlook of 42 new chemical and materials driven biorefineries to
previous biorefinery deployment outlooks, the definition of chemical and materials driven
biorefineries is also important to consider. The European Commission’s Bioeconomy
Strategy21 states the development of 300 new sustainable biorefineries by 2030. This
target was first mentioned in a roadmap22 developed during the BIO-TIC project23 in 2015.
The 42 biorefineries estimated in this outlook should not be compared to this 300 as:

• The current analysis only takes into account biorefineries producing chemical
building blocks, plastics and, to some extent, advanced ethanol as well. However,
it does not include biorefineries producing bio-based jet fuels as this is out of scope.

• BIO-TIC analysis spans the period 2008 to 2030, while the current analysis
considers only the period 2020 to 2030.

• The BIO-TIC roadmap estimated the number of new biorefineries that need to be
operating by 2030 in order to meet the estimated demand, while the current

21
European Commission. A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe - Strengthening the connection between economy,
society and the environment: updated bioeconomy strategy. 2018. Available online at:
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/edace3e3-e189-11e8-b690-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-149755478
22
BIO-TIC. A roadmap to a thriving industrial biotechnology sector in Europe. 2015. Available online at:
http://www.industrialbiotech-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/BIO-TIC-roadmap.pdf
23
The BIO-TIC project (2012-2015) was a FP7 funded project focusing on the industrial biotechnology sector in
Europe.

15
 analysis provides an estimate of the number of new biorefineries that can be
realistically deployed by 2030

Capital investment required is in the range of Euro 3.4 billion to Euro 13.7 billion for the
additional capacity. The capital investment required will depend on the investment type
made (e.g. expansion, re-purposing/converted, new brownfield biorefineries etc…) as well
as many other factors (process technology used, labour costs, materials costs, etc..). Some
of these factors (e.g. process technology) are very related to the biorefinery pathways,
whilst others will be more related to where the investment is planned, and if it is on a
greenfield or brownfield site. The range of capital investment in Figure 6 can be considered,
however not all of these investments are always possible. For example, there may not be
mothballed24 plants suitable to be converted to a chemical and material driven biorefinery
and further debottlenecking of existing biorefineries may not be possible.

Existing brownfield sites including pulp and paper mills, wood working manufacturing sites,
sugar and starch processing facilities, chemical parks, petroleum refineries and steam
crackers all offer shared infrastructure (including in some cases existing local port access)
and supply chains, potentially lowering the capital investment and operating costs for
biorefineries. Further, some of these locations can have underutilised land and
infrastructure as a result of declining industry, however coupled with a local skilled labour
force.

HIGHEST • New greenfield biorefinery

CAPEX

• New biorefinery on a brownfield site (lower capex from shared services

such as steam, water, power, storage, logistics etc…)

• Re-purposing/conversion of a plant on existing brownfield site (highly

project dependent as it only some equipment can be reused)

• Expansion of a biorefinery on a brownfield site (e.g. valorising a side

stream) – capacity increase often limited

• Debottlenecking (improving processes, revamping or new equipment) to

increase the capacity of existing biorefineries - capacity increase is limited
however

LOWEST • Co-processing / re-focus of existing plants from fuels to chemicals (drop-in

CAPEX such as methanol)

Figure 6. Investment types to ramp-up bio-based chemical and material production

The financing of these biorefineries is expected to come from both public and private
sources. For example, the recently (2020) agreed upon EU Recovery and Resilience
facility25 - which provides significant (672.5 billion Euros) financial support in the form of
loans and grants to EU Member States could help to support investment in biorefinery
expansion, contributing to the realisation of the Green Deal objectives.

The biorefinery deployment outlook could result in significant benefits for the EU including
the creation of regional local jobs, overall GHG savings and increased raw material security
(reduced imports of fossil feedstocks from outside the EU). We estimate that 3.5 million
tonnes of GHG saved relative to fossil comparators on a lifecycle basis. This is roughly
equivalent taking 750 000 internal combustion engine passenger vehicles of the road for
one year26. In addition, about 5.6 million tonnes of naphtha, a fraction of crude oil, could

24
Stopping the use of a plant but keeping it in good condition so that it can resused/started up again
25
The Recovery and Resilience Facility https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/recovery-
coronavirus/recovery-and-resilience-facility_en#the-recovery-and-resilience-facility
26
US EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency https://www.epa.gov/energy/greenhouse-gas-
equivalencies-calculator

16
be substituted by 2030. Job creation through the development of full supply chains (from
feedstock sourcing/production, through biorefining and then downstream processing and
use) could contribute significantly to the target of 400,000 green jobs by 203527, especially
if the feedstock is sourced from in the EU and the downstream processing also takes place
region.

Realising the biorefinery deployment outlook could bring about significant benefits but this
is only possible through action taken now and until 2030 by policy makers, the bio-based
industry and its associations, the chemicals and materials industries and their associations,
academia & research institutions, the investment community and NGOs. The roadmap
(Figure 7) presents the key actions to take, with their importance categorised by barrier
category (e.g. economic). Further details of these actions are provided in Section 6 ‘EU
biorefinery outlook and roadmap for deployment28’, as well as further roadmap with specific
actions for each biorefinery pathway.

27
The Strategic Innovation and Research Agenda (SIRA) https://biconsortium.eu/about/our-vision-strategy/sira
28
WP 6 – EU biorefinery outlook and roadmap for deployment – developed by E4tech

17
 Stakeholder type
Policy makers
Bio industry & associations
Chemical/material industry & Industry associations • Clear market based policy in place ​

EXPECTED STATUS
• Sustainability framework in
Academia & Research institutions operation​
NGOs & Civil societies Type of actions • 42 additional biorefineries across
Investment community Policy & regulation different pathways​
• Potential GHG savings of 3.5
Support for RD&D and scale up million tonnes ​CO2eq

Information and coordination

2020 2025 2030

Set EU sector targets for GHG

reduction in EU chemicals
production

Develop EU mandate for GHG Implement increasing EU mandate for GHG reduction in chemicals sold in the EU
reduction in chemicals sold
in the EU

Develop EU mandate for Implement EU mandate for bio/low GHG content for hard to recycle products
bio/low GHG content for hard
to recycle products

Ban sale of selected non-recycled fossil-based products and/or set a

reducing target for fossil material used

Chemical producers and users

set voluntary GHG reduction
commitments

Develop MS public procurement Implement MS public procurement standards specifying bio, recycled
standards specifying bio, recycled or CO2-based products
or CO2-based products

Tax fossil input to chemicals industry

ECONOMIC

Reform EU ETS to increase CO2 price

Develop Carbon Border Implement Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

Adjustment Mechanism

Support investigation of optimal use of EU biomass feedstock

Conduct R&D focusing on cost reduction across all biorefinery pathways

through continuing activities such as Horizon Europe, Circular
Bio-based Europe and MS support

Establish partnerships to develop biorefineries on existing

industrial sites to reduce costs

Improve process economics by identifying connections between

different pathways and other industries

Expand biomass/waste feedstock databases to identify low cost resources

Develop regional bioeconomy

strategies

Harmonise bioproducts’
sustainability requirements
with existing schemes

Consider CCU in the EU ETS

Consider all biomass and land-using activities when setting strategies

DIRECTION
STRATEGIC

for each. For example, on circular economy, bioeconomy and food

Set strategic objectives for the biorefinery sector overall including

acceptable use of land and crops

Policy design to enable non crop/ low land use impact routes

18
 2020 2025 2030

Continue EU public co-financing for pilot/demonstration plants

Pilot plant data collection to help develop early stage TEAs and modelling

Reduce scaling up costs by making available/providing support

SCALE UP OF NEW

for shared facilities

TECHNOLOGIES

Ensure classification of biorefinery

projects under the EU’s
Sustainable Finance Taxonomy

Increase equity investment in companies

Implement grant/ loan scheme for feasibility studies

Additional support for new technologies such as sub-targets or subsidy for limited volumes of products from new pathways

Invest in enhancing the engineering know-how of academic research teams

Develop a standard Implement a standard for bio-based products’ sustainability

for bio-based products’
sustainability

Support from EU/ MSs for SMEs to comply with sustainability standards

Provide EU funding to Agree policy on

quantify risk of undegraded biodegradable bioplastics
compostable plastic residues
SUSTAINABILITY

Organise information campaigns

on GMMs used in bioprocesses

Develop bio-based product

labels

Early adoption of labelled products in highly visible markets

Establish bio-based
terminology for all products

Require publicly supported projects to assess sustainability impacts and communicate this transparently

Provide support for green hydrogen projects in biorefineries

R&D on European biomass resource potential

Provide funding for regional and local biomass resource assessments

FEEDSTOCK

Support more projects to develop tools/platforms to support biomass supply chains

Support establishment of biomass and waste supply companies

Include crops for biorefineries in GM crop policy

Enhance targets for collecting and recycling wastes

Develop policy to align material classification as waste, residue or coproduct in all MSs

Implement EU-level matchmaking programme for companies

MARKET
ENTRY

Reduce REACH registration fee

for sustainable chemicals

Figure 7. Roadmap with actions common to all pathways

19
RÉSUMÉ

Une bioéconomie circulaire a le potentiel de jouer un rôle important dans la construction

d’un futur durable et peut contribuer à l’atteinte des objectifs ambitieux du pacte vert pour
l’Europe (European Green Deal)29. Celui-ci inclut notamment l’objectif de réduire les
émissions de gaz à effet de serre de l'UE d'au moins 55 % d'ici 2030, comparé aux niveaux
de 1990. La bioéconomie circulaire contribue également à d'autres initiatives de l'UE, telles
que le plan d'action pour l’économie circulaire (Circular Economy Action Plan), la stratégie
de l’UE en faveur de la biodiversité (Biodiversity Strategy) et la stratégie "de la ferme à la
table" (Farm to Fork strategy). Dans la même logique, la stratégie européenne pour la
bioéconomie (Bioeconomy Strategy) publiée en 2018 contribue au pacte vert pour l’Europe,
ainsi qu’aux stratégies pour l’innovation de l’industrie, l’économie circulaire et l’énergie
propre30. Compte tenu de cette stratégie, la Direction Générale de la Recherche de de
l’Innovation de la Commission Européenne (DG RTD) a commissionné trois études pour
soutenir les politiques de recherche et d’innovation concernant les ressources et produits
biosourcés.

Cette étude, « EU Biorefinery Outlook to 2030 (Lot 3) », s’inscrit dans le cadre de la

stratégie Européenne pour la Bioéconomie, qui vise à faciliter le développement et le
déploiement de nouvelles bioraffineries durables, ainsi qu’à estimer la capacité potentielle
de différents types de bioraffineries.

Le bioraffinage peut être défini comme un procédé de transformation de la biomasse en

produits dits « biosourcés » commercialisables. Des ingrédients biosourcés sont utilisés
dans les secteurs de l’agro-alimentaire, de la chimie, des matériaux et de l’énergie
(électricité, chaleur/froid, carburants).31 Cette étude se concentre sur les bioraffineries
dont les produits principaux sont utilisables dans l’industrie chimique et des matériaux32
afin de produire des spécialités biosourcées à haute valeur ajoutée, tout en générant des
co-produits alimentaires et énergétiques (chaleur, électricité ou carburant). L'étude exclut
néanmoins les sites industriels dédiés à la production de bioénergie et de biocarburants
ainsi que les installations conventionnelles de traitement de la biomasse (par ex.
production de papier).

Les bioraffineries ciblant la production de produits chimiques et matériaux peuvent jouer

un rôle important dans la bioéconomie ainsi que dans la transition de l’UE vers une
économie à bas carbone. L’utilisation de biomasse en provenance de l'UE pourrait
potentiellement augmenter la sécurité de l’approvisionnement en matières premières,
substituer certains produits d’origine fossile permettant ainsi de réduire leurs émissions
associées et aussi créer des emplois et des opportunités commerciales, en particulier dans
les zones rurales. Leur activité vient compléter d’autres technologies qui contribuent au
développement de la bioéconomie et de l’économie circulaire, telles que le traitement de
biomasse dans les structures de raffinerie pétrolières, l’utilisation de la biomasse pour la
production de biocarburants et de bioénergie, ainsi que d’autres voies de production
émergentes basées sur le CO2 et le carbone recyclé.

Système de classification des bioraffineries

Dans un premier temps cette étude définit un système de classification pour les
bioraffineries dont les produits principaux sont destinés au secteur de la chimie et des

29
Bioeconomy & European Green Deal https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/bioeconomy/bioeconomy-european-
green-deal_en
30
Bioeconomy Strategy https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/research-area/bioeconomy/bioeconomy-
strategy_en
31
IEA Bioenergy Task 42 - La biomasse peut être des cultures, de la biomasse aquatique, de la sylviculture, des
résidus primaires (agroforesterie) - secondaires (processus) et tertiaires (post-consommation), etc. Ce cadre sera
donc très utile pour la prise de décision politique pour les prochaines R&D nécessaires à la mise en œuvre du pacte
vert pour l’Europe.
32
Les produits chimiques et matériaux biosourcés incluent des produits chimiques à haute valeur ajoutée, tels que les
produits pharmaceutiques, les produits cosmétiques, les additifs alimentaires, etc., ainsi que les matériaux de base
tels que les biopolymères ou les matières premières chimiques (c'est-à-dire les ingrédients chimiques de base).

20
matériaux33. Ce système de classification est structuré autour des quatre catégories
principales de la chaîne de valeur. Ces catégories incluent : les matières premières, les
procédés de conversion, les substances intermédiaires dites « plateformes » (« platform
chemicals ») et les produits finaux. La classification se base sur le travail de la Tâche 42
de l’AIE (Agence Internationale de l’Energie), dont les catégories de produits chimiques et
matériaux biosourcés ont été révisées et étendues.

Le système de classification se concentre sur les bioraffineries axées sur la production de

produits chimiques et de matériaux. Les groupes de produits finaux considérés dans la
classification proviennent de la stratégie européenne pour la bioéconomie et de la
Nomenclature statistique des Activités économiques dans la Communauté Européenne
(NACE).

Table 3. Classification des Bioraffineries

1. Matières premières 2. Procédés de conversion 3. Substances 4. Produits finaux

plateformes
1.1 Biomasse primaire: 2.1. Biochimique: • Biocharbon (biochar) 4.1. Chimiques :
• Biomasse aquatique • Fermentation aérobie • Biomasse torréfiée • Additifs
• Biomasse • Digestion anaérobie (biocoal) • Produits
lignocellulosique • Hydrolyse enzymatique • Huile pyrolytique (bio- phytosanitaires
agricole et de prairies • Fermentation crude) • Ingrédients
• Bois et biomasse • Bioconversion • Biogaz chimiques de base34
ligneuse • Autres conversions biologiques • Huiles biologiques • Catalyseurs &
• Cultures oléagineuses • Biohydrogène Enzymes
• Cultures sucrières 2.2. Chimique: • Bio-Naphtha • Colorants
• Cultures céréalières • Catalytique • Sucres pentoses (C5) • Cosmétiques
• *Autre biomasse • Estérification & hexoses (C6) • Aromes & Parfums
primaire • Hydrogénation • Dioxyde de Carbone • Lubrifiants
• Hydrolyse (fermentation) • Lignine • Nutraceutiques
1.2 Biomasse • Méthanation • Huiles • Peintures et
secondaire: • Production de pâte à papier • Fibres organiques revêtements
• Biomasse microbienne • Vaporeformage • Jus biologique • Pharmaceutiques
• Résidus agricoles • Electrolyse de l’eau • Protéines • Solvants
• Résidus de biomasse • Conversion du gas à l’eau • Liquide pyrolytique • Tensioactifs
aquatique • *Autre conversion chimique • Amidon • *Autres produits
• Résidus forestiers et • Gaz de synthèse chimiques
industrie forestière 2.3. Mécanique et
thermomécanique : • *Autre plateforme
• Résidus de gestion de 4.2. Matériaux:
la nature et du • Mélang • Composites
paysage • Extraction • **Fibres
• Résidus de bio-produits • Fractionnement mécanique & • Engrais biologiques
recyclés thermomécanique • Polymères
• *Autres résidus • Mise en pâte mécanique • Résines
organiques • Procédés de séparation • *Autres matériaux
• Autres conversions
mécaniques et 4.3. Nourriture
thermomécaniques
4.4. Nourriture animale
2.4. Thermochimique:
• Combustion 4.5. Energie :
• Gazéification • Agents de
• Liquéfaction hydrothermale refroidissement
• Pyrolyse • Carburants
• Extraction de • Chaleur
fluides supercritiques (SFE) • Electricité
• Torréfaction & Carbonisation • *Autres produits
• *Autres conversions énergétiques
thermochimiques

* La rubrique "Autres" permet l’inclusion de nouveaux concepts, technologies ou catégories de produits.

**Les ’Fibres’ peuvent être répartis selon leur application : fibres textiles, papier, panneaux de fibres, fibres de
carbone, fibres spécialisées et autres.
†La biomasse primaire est la matière première produite par la photosynthèse naturelle ou artificielle. La biomasse
secondaire est produite pendant le traitement, la conversion ou la décomposition de la biomasse primaire et des
matières organiques.

33
Module 1 – Système de classification de bioraffineries (« WP1 – Biorefinery Classification ») développé par Stichting
Wageningen Research, Institute Wageningen Food & Biobased Research
34
Un ingrédient chimique de base est un terme utilisé pour définir un composé chimique qui peut être assemblé de
façon modulaire pour former de larges structures moléculaires (buidling block en amglais)

21
Les filières de bioraffinerie considérées et leur statut de développement

A partir du système de classification, onze filières de bioraffinerie (A-K), à niveaux de

développement technologique et de déploiement commercial variables, ont été
identifiées35. Les voies A-D représentent les filières établies à échelle commerciale, tandis
que les filières E-K sont à des stades de déploiements plus précoces.

Table 4. Filières de bioraffinerie à production destinée aux secteurs de la chimie et des matériaux

Filières de bioraffinerie

Bioraffinerie simple plateforme (sucres C6) à base de cultures sucrières

Bioraffinerie simple plateforme (amidon) à base de cultures amylacées

Bioraffinerie simple plateforme (huile) à base de cultures, déchets et résidus oléagineux

Bioraffinerie double plateforme (pulpes & liqueurs résiduaires) à base de biomasse ligneuse (bois)

Bioraffinerie triple plateforme (sucres C5/C6 & lignine) à base de biomasse lignocellulosique

Bioraffinerie double plateforme (fibres organiques and jus organiques) à base de biomasse verte

Bioraffinerie double plateforme (huile et biogaz) à base de biomasse aquatique

Bioraffinerie double plateforme (fibres organiques et huile) à base de fibres naturelles

Bioraffinerie simple plateforme (gaz de synthèse) à base de biomasse lignocellulosique et de déchets

municipaux

Bioraffinerie double plateforme (liquide pyrolytique & biochar) à base de biomasse lignocellulosique

Bioraffinerie simple plateforme (bio-crude) à base de biomasse lignocellulosique, biomasse aquatique, résidus
organiques

a. Déchets/résidus de graisses et d'huiles appartiennent à la catégorie « autres résidus organiques »

b. La biomasse verte et les fibres naturelles appartiennent à la catégorie « biomasse lignocellulosique agricole et
de prairies »
c. La biomasse lignocellulosique inclut la biomasse lignocellulosique des prairies, bois et biomasse ligneuse, les
résidus agricoles et les résidus forestiers/d’industrie forestière

Statut actuel des bioraffineries en Europe

Plus de 400 bioraffineries axées sur la production à destination des secteurs chimiques et
des matériaux à échelle commerciale ou de démonstration ont été identifiées. La base de
données développée contient les bioraffineries situées dans l’UE36 et dans les dix pays tiers
considérés dans l’étude37. La majorité, environ 300 d’entre elles, se trouvent dans l’UE.

Parmi les bioraffineries opérationnelles, les plateformes à sucres C6 (filières A, B) et la

plateforme à huiles (filière C), qui utilisent des ressources agricoles (céréalières et
oléagineuses), comptent pour 56% du nombre total d’installations. La filière D représente
près de 20% des bioraffineries opérationnelles. Le procédé biochimique transforme les
pulpes obtenues à partir de biomasse forestière et représente ainsi la filière avec la plus
forte utilisation de biomasse secondaire (ex. résidus forestiers). Les filières E-K forment le
reste des bioraffineries européennes, avec les filières E et H représentant chacune environ
10% du nombre de sites de bioraffinage.

35
Module 3 - Filières de bioraffinage existantes et émergentes et besoins de R&D (« WP3 – Available and emerging
biorefinery pathways and RD&I needs ») – développé par Stichting Wageningen Research, Institute Wageningen
Food & Biobased Research
36
Module 4 - Déploiement des bioraffineries dans l'UE et dans le monde, base de données (« WP4 – EU and global
biorefinery deployment “database”») développe par B.T.G Biomass Technology Group BV basé sur la base de
données de JRC: https://datam.jrc.ec.europa.eu/datam/mashup/BIOBASED_INDUSTRY/index.html
37
10 pays tiers: États-Unis, Canada, Australie, Nouvelle-Zélande, Japon, Brésil, Chine, Inde, Thaïlande, Norvège,
Suisse, Royaume-Uni

22
Le secteur forestier a depuis longtemps su innover et diversifier sa gamme de produits.
Dans un tel contexte, le bioraffinage transforme les principaux constituants de la biomasse
forestière et valorise les flux secondaires dans le but de produire des produits chimiques
de spécialité et matériaux biosourcés (autres que les produits conventionnels, par ex.
papier ou panneaux). Ces opérations intègrent souvent plusieurs filières de bioraffineries
(ex : D+E). Elles sont un bon exemple de la manière dont les bioraffineries peuvent inclure
une variété de procédés, de substances intermédiaires « plateformes », de produits et de
matières premières.

Figure 8. Répartition des bioraffineries axées sur les produits chimiques et les matériaux en 2020 dans l’UE

Moteurs et obstacles au déploiement commercial

Cette étude identifie les moteurs principaux du déploiement des bioraffineries dans l’UE38:
l’accord européen pour un pacte vert, les soutiens gouvernementaux à l’extension des
bioraffineries, la nécessité de réduire la dépendance aux matières premières et leurs
émissions de gaz à effet de serre, ainsi que les potentiels avantages fonctionnels que les
produits biosourcés peuvent fournir.

Le manque de rentabilité économique représente néanmoins l’obstacle principal au

déploiement de produits chimiques et de matériaux biosourcés, en particulier pour les
bioraffineries produisant de larges volumes de produits chimiques de base (« commodity
chemicals »). On constate un écart considérable entre les coûts de production de produits
biosourcés et les prix sur le marché de produits conventionnels équivalents. Cette situation
résulte en partie de la réticence des utilisateurs intermédiaires et finaux à payer des
produits chimiques et des matériaux renouvelables/bas carbone biosourcés plus chers que
leurs équivalents fossiles. La concurrence des biocarburants se révèle également
problématique, notamment pour l’approvisionnement en biomasse durable et bon marché.
En outre, certaines bioraffineries en UE peuvent être moins compétitives, comparé à

38
Module 2 – Moteurs et obstacles pour les bioraffineries (« WP2 – Drivers and barriers for biorefineries »)
développé par B.T.G Biomass technology group BV avec la contribution des parties prenantes dans le cadre
d'ateliers, de réunions et d'entretiens individuels

23
d’autres régions du monde en raison du coût plus élevé de la consommation énergétique,
de la main d’œuvre, des taxes et d'un accès limité aux matières premières à faible coût.
De plus, le projet de loi de la Commission pour l'acte délégué de la taxonomie verte, qui
vise à évaluer si une activité contribue bien à l'atténuation et/ou à l'adaptation au
changement climatique, exclut la possibilité d’utiliser les mécanismes de financement
durables volontaires (« voluntary sustainable financing ») pour soutenir la production de
produits chimiques, plastiques ou biocarburants à base de cultures destinées à
l'alimentation humaine et/ou animale. Cette mesure aura pour effet principal de limiter les
filières de biomasse utilisables, réduisant d’autant les options possibles pour
l’approvisionnement des bioraffineries.

La mise en place d’une capacité de production à grande échelle de nouveaux produits

chimiques et matériaux biosourcés représente un défi financier important car il nécessite
un haut niveau d’investissement. Ceci est dû aux risques technologiques et commerciaux
associés à la construction de nouveaux sites de production.

Toutes les filières de produits biosourcés, à des degrés variables, sont soumises à des
contraintes à court terme liées à l’approvisionnement immédiat en ressources durables,
ainsi qu’à des contraintes à moyen et long terme liées au potentiel de mobilisation de
ressources durables dans une bioéconomie circulaire et compétitive. L’UE a un large
potentiel de production de biomasse primaire et agricole ainsi que de résidus de
transformation et post-consommation. Pourtant ces ressources feront dans l’avenir l’objet
d’une demande croissante de la part de divers secteurs. Les investissements dans les
installations et des produits respectifs sont affectés également affectés par des
préoccupations éthiques liées à leur utilisation ainsi qu’à leur exclusion proposée des
activités de financement volontaire durable.

De nombreux produits biosourcés présentent des avantages en matière environnementale

(comme la réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre) et dans certains cas, des
caractéristiques qui surpassent leurs homologues fossiles (par exemple, la biodégradabilité
de certains polymères). Afin de maximiser ces bénéfices, les produits biosourcés durables
doivent être avantagés par les schémas appropriés, développés dans le contexte du pacte
vert européen. Les impacts environnementaux des produits biosourcés doivent toutefois
être mieux compris et quantifiés. Actuellement, il existe un manque de données quant à
ces impacts et les éventuels bénéfices des produits biosourcés sur leur cycle de vie
complet. Les recherches doivent donc se concentrer sur les informations quantitatives sur
la durabilité des produits biosourcés sur l’ensemble de leur cycle de vie, y compris en fin
de vie, pour démontrer leur avantages environnementaux potentiels par rapport aux
produits conventionnels.

Aujourd'hui, les politiques publiques ne permettent pas d’améliorer l'attractivité du

marché. La Commission européenne va proposer une législation « Sustainable Product
Policy Initiative » qui étendra la directive sur l'écoconception (Ecodesign Directive en
anglais) au-delà des aspects énergétiques à un large éventail de produits -y compris les
produits biosourcés- et utilisera la méthode de l'empreinte environnementale des produits
(Product Environmental Footprint method). Toutefois, des politiques incitatives
supplémentaires pourraient s’avérer nécessaires pour surmonter les obstacles
économiques au déploiement commercial des produits chimiques et aux matériaux
biosourcés.

Les activités de R&D nécessaires pour surmonter les obstacles techniques

• Certaines filières de bioraffinerie sont encore à un niveau bas de maturité technologique

(TRL, pour Technology Readiness Level en anglais). Le soutien financier à la recherche
fondamentale et appliquée, l’expérimentation, la démonstration et aux premières
applications commerciales seront nécessaires au développement des bioraffineries

24
 axées sur les produits chimiques et les matériaux dans l’UE. La R&D doit s’attaquer aux
critères techniques les plus pertinents pour le développement39, ce qui inclut :

• Des systèmes logistiques robustes et flexibles (collecte, transport et stockage),

adaptés à tout type de biomasse européenne ;

• Des technologies de prétraitement pouvant convertir un large spectre de ressources

en biomasse de faible qualité en produits intermédiaires répondant aux exigences
de qualité et densité énergétique permettant le traitement par divers procédés de
conversion de bioraffinerie à grande échelle. Cela peut également permettre de
décentraliser le raffinage de matière première en produits chimiques de base. La
transformation en produits intermédiaires et finaux biosourcés pourra quant à elle
être centralisée.

• Des procédés de conversion (p.ex. traitement enzymatique, fermentation,

estérification, hydrolyse, production de pulpe à papier, gazéification, etc....) plus
efficients énergétiquement afin d’accroître la compétitivité de certains produits
spécifiques.

• Une approche claire pour évaluer la durabilité (y compris les stratégies de « fin de
vie ») des produits biosourcés.

D’importants budgets doivent être mis à disposition au sein du nouveau programme

Horizon (2021-2027) pour aider les bioraffineries à surmonter certains obstacles
techniques. Les activités prévues au sein du deuxième pilier « Global Challenges and
European Industrial Competitiveness – Cluster 6 Food, Bioeconomy, natural Resources,
Agriculture and Environment » représentent un exemple de soutien financier important.
En outre, la prolongation du programme de l’UE « Bio-Based Industries Joint Undertaking
(BBI-JU) » par le nouveau programme de l’UE « Parternship for a Circular Bio-based
Europe (CBE) » soutiendra le développement technologique, les projets de démonstration
et l’entrée sur le marché.

Demande en produits chimiques et matériaux biosourcés dans l'UE à l’horizon

2030

Deux scénarios de croissance ont été développés pour estimer la demande en produits
chimiques et matériaux biosourcés dans l’UE à l’horizon 2030. Le scénario de croissance
élevée suppose un environnement macro-économique et politique favorable aux produits
biosourcés. Cela comprend notamment une forte reprise économique suite à la pandémie
de Covid-19, un prix du pétrole élevé (augmentant la compétitivité relative des produits
d’origine biologique dans certaines applications), ainsi que la mise en place de politiques
visant à renforcer l’attractivité des produits biosourcés et des soutiens financiers
généralisés pour le développement de bioraffineries. Dans le cas du scénario de croissance
basse, ces facteurs sont contradictoires ou alors ne sont pas conséquents.

L’étude “Insights into the European market for bio-based chemicals”40 publiée en 2019 par
le JRC est par ailleurs utilisée comme référence de la consommation actuelle en produits
chimiques et matériaux biosourcés. Ainsi, la demande potentielle pour 2030 pourrait croître
de manière conséquente dans le scénario de croissance élevée à ~16 millions de tonnes
par an (Mtpa), augmentant d’environ 9,9% par an jusqu’en 2030. Dans le cas du scénario

39
Module 3 - Filières de bioraffinage existantes et émergentes et besoins de R&D (« WP3 – Available and emerging
biorefinery pathways and RD&I needs ») – développé par Stichting Wageningen Research, Institute Wageningen
Food & Biobased Research
40
Spekreijse, Jurjen; Lammens, Tijs; Parisi, Claudia; Ronzon, Tevecia; Vis, Martijn: Insights into the European
market for bio-based chemicals. Analysis based on 10 key product categories. (2019) JRC Science Policy Report,
source: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/insights-european-market-bio-based-chemicals

25
de croissance basse, cette demande pourrait n’atteindre qu’environ la moitié de ce volume,
avec une croissance annuelle de 3% 41.

Figure 9. Demande de marché pour les produits chimiques et matériaux biosourcés en 2019 et 2030 pour les deux scenarios
analysés 42

Approvisionnement de produits chimiques et matériaux biosourcés à l’horizon

2030

L’offre actuelle de l’UE en produits biosourcés de bioraffineries est estimée à 4,6 millions
de tonnes (Figure3). Le scénario de croissance élevée estime que le lancement de nouvelles
bioraffineries et l’augmentation de la capacité de production des bioraffineries existantes
pourrait accroitre l’approvisionnement de 3,1 millions de tonnes supplémentaires dans l’UE
en 2030. Cette augmentation de la production se limiterait à 1,1 millions de tonnes
supplémentaires dans le scénario de croissance basse43.

Ces scénarios se basent sur les informations disponibles au public et fixent les limites
supérieures et inférieures des perspectives de déploiement des capacités de bioraffinage
entre 2020 et 2030. Etant des scénarios de croissance, ils ne considèrent donc pas la
fermeture potentielle des bioraffineries actuellement opérationnelles dans l'UE.

41
Module 5 - Perspectives de marché pour les bioraffineries à l'horizon 2030 (« WP 5 – Market prospects for
biorefineries to 2030 – demand scenarios ») développé par Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe (FNR)
42
Le groupe des "fibres" se limite aux fibres synthétiques d'origine biologique. Le groupe "additifs" inclut
uniquement les plastifiants d'origine biologique. La catégorie "Autres" comprend les groupes de produits
"Peintures, revêtements, encres et colorants" et "Produits cosmétiques et de soins personnels". Les catégories
de produits (voir tableau 1) non incluses dans l'évaluation de la demande : produits agrochimiques, arômes et
parfums, nutraceutiques, produits pharmaceutiques, engrais organiques et composites. La production de papier
et de panneaux n'est pas incluse.
43
Module 5 - Perspectives de marché pour les bioraffineries à l'horizon 2030 - scénarios d'approvisionnement («
WP 5 – Market prospects for biorefineries to 2030 – supply scenarios ») développé par E4tech

26
 Figure 10. Offre vs. demande en produits chimiques et matériaux biosourcés dans l’UE en 2030.

Cette offre supplémentaire en produits biosourcés provient de l’expansion et de

l’amélioration des bioraffineries commerciales actuellement opérationnelles en UE, des
nouveaux sites de démonstration, des nouvelles bioraffineries commerciales annoncées et
de celles qui pourraient être annoncées à la suite des résultats des usines de
démonstrations.

Les filières de bioraffinage pourraient potentiellement produire une large gamme de

produits biosourcés pour diverses applications. Des études de cas ont été effectuées dans
le cadre de ce projet sur une sélection de ces produits chimiques et matériaux afin
d’examiner les moteurs et les obstacles à leur développement, les alternatives de
production et les perspectives commerciales44.

Certaines filières de bioraffinage permettent de produire plusieurs types de produits tels

que des produits chimiques, des matériaux et des biocarburants. Les voies A, B & E peuvent
produire de l’éthanol, qui est principalement utilisé en tant que carburant aujourd’hui, bien
qu’une partie du volume produit soit également utilisée pour des produits chimiques (par
exemple comme solvant) ou pour produire de l'éthylène. Les filières D & I produisent du
biométhanol qui est quasiment exclusivement utilisé en tant que carburant aujourd’hui en
UE, bien qu’un large marché existe pour le méthanol fossile dans l’industrie chimique.
Enfin, certaines activités à petite échelle tentent actuellement de développer l’utilisation
d’huiles pyrolytiques pour la fabrication de produits chimiques et de matériaux en plus de
leur utilisation pour la production de biocarburants.

Le scénario de croissance élevée projette qu’une fraction de la production de ces

bioraffineries servent à la fabrication de produits chimiques et matériaux, et le reste en
tant que biocarburant. Cette idée de transférer une partie de la production de biocarburants
à l’industrie chimique présente un large potentiel pour accroitre la part de contenu
biosourcé dans les produits chimiques et les matériaux. Néanmoins, elle nécessitera d’un
soutien politique supplémentaire au sein de l’UE. Il conviendra donc d'en tenir compte dans
l'élaboration et/ou la révision des directives sur les énergies renouvelables (RED II), sur le
développement des carburants d’aviation durable (Sustainable Aviation Directive), de la
mobilité intelligente (Smart Mobility Directive) ainsi que d’autres développements dans

44
Produits dans les études de cas : propylène glycol, 1,4-butanediol, acide lactique, méthanol, esters d'acide gras et
PEG, acide acétique, éthoxylate d'alcool gras, cellulose microfibrillée, amidon thermoplastique et résines phénoliques
à base de lignine.

27
l'UE. Le soutien politique à la production de produits chimiques et de matériaux biosourcés
à travers ces filières pourrait contribuer aux objectifs environnementaux promus par ces
directives, tels que la réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre. La tendance de
l'électrification des transports routiers présente également un risque de diminution de la
demande en biocarburants. Ceci pourrait avoir un impact en particulier pour l'éthanol
(commercialisé en tant qu’essence-éthanol E10). Il sera donc possible pour les
bioraffineries spécialisées dans les "biocarburants avancés" de se recentrer partiellement
sur les produits chimiques et les matériaux. En outre, le soutien politique aux produits
chimiques et aux matériaux biosourcés, ainsi qu'aux biocarburants issus de ces filières (en
tant que sous-produit, par opposition aux bioraffineries dont les biocarburants sont le
produit principal), réduirait le risque d'investissement perçu pour ces bioraffineries.

Dans les deux scénarios, l’étude révèle que la demande dans l’UE est supérieure à l’offre
en produits biosourcés à l’horizon 2030. Le déficit de production domestique pourra
potentiellement être comblé par des importations en provenance de pays hors UE, et/ou
par des voies alternatives d’augmentation de la production domestique qui pourraient
émerger (Figure 10).

Ces voies alternatives pourraient inclure des bioraffineries utilisant des cultures agricoles
alimentaires actuellement utilisées pour la production de biocarburants, et qui pourraient
se reconvertir vers les produits chimiques (ex : les usines d’éthanol existantes pourraient
vendre une plus grande quantité à l’industrie chimique). La déshydratation de l’éthanol en
éthylène (une molécule plateforme chimique majeure) pourrait représenter une des voies
principales. Ce procédé est actuellement opéré à échelle commerciale par Braskem au
Brésil et par Croda aux États-Unis.

Le principe de co-traitement (« co-processing ») de biomasse avec des ressources fossiles

est également une option pratiquée à échelle commerciale dans l’UE. Trois approches
existent pour le co-traitement : 1) la production de produits chimiques dans les raffineries
pétrolières ; 2) l’utilisation de vapocraqueurs ; ou 3) par l’utilisation du biométhane dans
les usines de biométhanol existantes.

De fortes incertitudes persistent et pourraient affecter le développement des bioraffineries,

notamment la fiabilité technologique de certaines filières de co-traitement, la disponibilité
de la matière première, la compétition avec la filière biocarburant et la politique
énergétique dans l’UE.

L'étude évalue la capacité de production supplémentaire de produits biosourcés que

pourraient amener les usines d'éthanol à base de cultures destinées à l'alimentation
humaine ou animale et le co-traitement (raffineries de pétrole, vapocraqueurs et usines de
méthanol) dans l'UE. On estime qu'entre 5,4 millions de tonnes de produits chimiques et
de matériaux biosourcés dans le scénario de faible croissance et 11,7 dans le scénario de
forte croissance pourraient être produites dans ces installations d'ici 2030. Si le niveau de
production du scénario de forte croissance est atteint, ces filières alternatives pourraient
contribuer à équilibrer l'offre et la demande de l'UE d'ici 2030.

Actions clés pour accélérer le développement des bioraffineries axées sur les
produits chimiques et les matériaux dans l’UE

Les perspectives de déploiement devraient pouvoir évoluer vers le scénario de croissance

élevée si les actions proposées dans la feuille de route ci-dessous sont mises en œuvre
(Figure 14)45. Les actions proposées cherchent à apporter le maximum de bénéfices pour
l’UE. Celles-ci favoriseront un développement au-delà des filières de bioraffinage
considérées dans cette étude.

45
Module 6 – Perspectives et feuille de route pour le déploiement du bioraffinage dans l'UE (« WP6 - EU biorefinery
outlook and roadmap for deployment») développé par E4tech

28
Lors des différentes séances participatives, les parties prenantes ont identifié les obstacles
économiques les plus importants pour les bioraffineries européennes, notamment le
manque de compétitivité du prix des produits biosourcés, au regard de leurs équivalents
d’origine fossile. Le rôle des politiques publiques et de la réglementation est donc essentiel
pour réduire l’écart entre le prix que les consommateurs sont disposés à payer (willingness
to pay en anglais) et les coûts de production des produits biosourcés. Il convient ainsi de
mettre en œuvre une politique qui soutienne les produits chimiques et les matériaux
alternatifs aux produits fossiles conventionnels, et qui présentent des avantages
environnementaux tels que la réduction des gaz à effet de serre. Il pourrait s'agir de
produits chimiques et de matériaux biosourcés, mais aussi de produits recyclés ou à base
de CO2. La feuille de route contient une liste d'actions politiques diverses, telles que des
objectifs de réduction des GES, des quotas (par exemple dans les marchés publics), des
interdictions/objectifs de réduction de l'utilisation des produits fossiles et non recyclés,
ainsi que l’introduction de taxes sur certains produits fossiles et le carbone. Ces politiques
doivent être élaborées et mises en œuvre sur une période de cinq ans afin d’avoir un impact
sur le déploiement des bioraffineries d'ici 2030.

Dans le contexte du bioraffinage européen, le développement des filières individuelles

identifiées dans cette étude ne peut pas être considéré de manière isolée mais dans le
cadre d’un déploiement collectif de plusieurs filières. Le développement de ces politiques
de soutien permettra d’ajuster le déploiement absolu et relatif de certaines filières par
rapport à d’autres. Bien que les feuilles de route suggèrent les domaines dans lesquels les
mesures politiques devraient être appliquées, celles-ci ne définissent pas d’objectifs précis.
Comprendre l’impact de ces mesures politiques sur le déploiement des filières de
bioraffinerie nécessitera des travaux de modélisation supplémentaire, ainsi que la mise en
œuvre de ces mesures.

L'une de ces mesures consiste à veiller à ce que les bioraffineries soient correctement
classées dans la taxinomie verte (Sustainable Finance Toxanomy) de l'UE46. Cette
taxonomie couvre plusieurs domaines liés aux bioraffineries, notamment l'agriculture et la
sylviculture ainsi que la fabrication de produits chimiques et de plastiques biosourcés.

La taxonomie verte ne reconnait pas l’utilisation de cultures destinées à l'alimentation

humaine ou animale pour la fabrication de produits chimiques de base ou de plastique sous
forme primaire. Ainsi, la taxonomie ne couvrirait que les filières non alimentaires, c’est-à-
dire D à K. En général, le financement des bioraffineries doit être conditionné par la
durabilité, sans pour autant restreindre inutilement le développement des bioraffineries.

Dans les perspectives de déploiement développées dans cette étude (Figure 11), les
conditions dans l’UE sont supposées favorables au développement des ressources
secondaires (non agricoles) pour la production de produits biosourcés. Dans la mesure où
la majorité des projets considérés dans le scénario de haute croissance se concentrent sur
l'utilisation de ressources secondaires, les perspectives de déploiement atteignent presque
les résultats du scénario de haute croissance.

46
European Commission. Sustainable finance – EU classification system for green investments. Draft regulation
and annexes for EU taxonomy for sustainable activities. 2020. Available online at:
https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12302-Climate-change-mitigation-
and-adaptation-taxonomy#ISC_WORKFLOW

29
 Figure 11. Perspectives de déploiement pour les bioraffineries axées sur la production de produits chimiques et matériaux
d’origine biologiques – nombre additionnel de bioraffineries en 2030.47

Au total, 42 nouvelles bioraffineries produisant des substances chimiques et des matériaux

biosourcés (dont 5 à échelle de démonstration) pourraient devenir opérationnelles d’ici
2030. Ces nouvelles bioraffineries augmenteraient la capacité de production de 3.1 millions
de tonnes, avec une quantité importante venant d’un accroissement des capacités de
production48 des bioraffineries existantes (majoritairement filières A-C) et de nouvelles
constructions provenant des filières D, E & I. Toutes les filières devraient voir apparaître
de nouvelles bioraffineries d'ici 2030. Certaines bioraffineries pourront inclure plusieurs
filières (par exemple D+E) ou se concentrer sur une seule filière.

La capacité des bioraffineries envisagées dans les perspectives de déploiement peut être à
petite, moyenne ou grande échelle, allant de 6 à plus de 220 kta de capacité de production.
L’échelle dépend principalement du procédé de conversion utilisé, du type de ressource et
de la taille/attractivité des marchés pour les produits finaux.

Dans le cas précis de la filière D, les volumes de produits chimiques et de matériaux

biosourcés indiqués dans les perspectives de déploiement n'incluent pas la production de
produits traditionnels, tels que la pâte à papier. En outre l’annonce de nouvelles
bioraffineries actives dans l’industrie papetière sont actuellement axées sur la pâte à papier
et les dérivés plus traditionnels (par exemple, papier et panneaux). Ces produits
traditionnels n'entrent pas dans le cadre de cette étude, mais ces investissements offrent
le potentiel futur de valorisation des flux secondaires pour produire certains des produits
chimiques et les matériaux biosourcés couverts par cette étude. Cela pourrait inclure
l'extraction et la conversion ultérieure de l’huile de tall (tall oïl) brute, de la lignine et de la
térébenthine à partir de la liqueur noire et/ou par le développement de produits innovants
à base de cellulose. Une sélection plus large de bioraffineries centrées sur la production de
pâte à papier est détaillée dans le document de la Confédération européenne des industries
papetières intitulé "Des produits biosourcés innovants pour un futur durable: Une étude du
Cepi sur les bioraffineries de l'industrie de la pâte et du papier en Europe"49.

47
Les filières B, G et K ont été omises car elles ne contribuent pas à l'augmentation générale de production.
48
L’accroissement des capacités de production est le phénomène qui consiste à augmenter la production des usines et
des équipements existants en améliorant les procédés et/ou en réorganisant les équipements.
49
CEPI, Innovative bio-based products for a sustainable future: A Cepi study on pulp & paper industry biorefineries in
Europe (2021) https://www.cepi.org/innovative-bio-based-products-for-a-sustainable-future-a-cepi-study-on-pulp-
paper-industry-biorefineries-in-europe/

30
 Figure 12. Accélération de l'approvisionnement et approvisionnement supplémentaire grâce à l'expansion des bioraffineries.
Deb/Exp (debottlenecking/expansion en anglais) indique l’augmentation de la capacité de production des bioraffineries
existantes

Les filières D, E et I utilisent des ressources forestières lignocellulosiques. De nombreux

développements sont attendus dans les pays nordiques dotés de ressources forestières
abondantes, de chaînes logistiques bien établies et d’une industrie papetière solide.
Historiquement, les investissements dans les bioraffineries des pays de l’initiative BIOEAST
sont resté relativement bas. Néanmoins, ces pays recèlent un important potentiel en
résidus forestiers, en particulier la Pologne, la Roumanie, la République Tchèque et la
Lettonie. La filière E utilise également des résidus agricoles dont le potentiel est important
dans les pays de l’initiative BIOEAST (données obtenues de S2biom) : la Pologne (3e plus
haut potentiel en EU), la Roumanie (5e potentiel), et la Hongrie (6e potentiel) ont toutes
une capacité nationale supérieure à 10 millions de tonnes par an.

La définition et la classification des bioraffineries dans l’UE doit être prise en compte afin
de pouvoir comparer les perspectives de déploiement des bioraffineries dans l'UE établies
dans cette étude et celles provenant d’études précédentes. La stratégie de bioéconomie
de la Commission européenne (Bioeconomy Strategy)50 prévoit le développement de 300
nouvelles bioraffineries durables d'ici 2030. Cet objectif a été mentionné pour la première
fois dans une feuille de route élaborée dans le cadre du projet BIO-TIC en 201551,52. Les
42 bioraffineries estimées dans la présente étude ne doivent cependant pas être comparées
à ces 300 car :

• Cette étude considère seulement les bioraffineries produisant des produits

chimiques des matériaux biosourcés et, dans une certaine mesure, de l'éthanol
avancé. Ainsi, cette étude exclut les bioraffineries produisant principalement des
biocarburants destinés à l'aviation.

50
European Commission. A sustainable bioeconomy for Europe - Strengthening the connection between economy,
society and the environment: updated bioeconomy strategy. 2018. Available online at:
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/edace3e3-e189-11e8-b690-01aa75ed71a1/language-
en/format-PDF/source-149755478
51
BIO-TIC. A roadmap to a thriving industrial biotechnology sector in Europe. 2015. Available online at:
http://www.industrialbiotech-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/BIO-TIC-roadmap.pdf
52
Le projet BIO-TIC (2012-2015), financé par FP7, est axé sur le secteur de la biotechnologie industrielle en Europe.

31
 • L'analyse BIO-TIC couvre la période 2008 à 2030, alors que cette étude ne
considère que la période 2020 à 2030.

• La feuille de route BIO-TIC a pour but d'estimer le nombre de nouvelles

bioraffineries nécessaires d'ici 2030 pour répondre à la demande estimée. A
l’inverse, cette étude fournit une estimation du nombre de nouvelles bioraffineries
qui peuvent être déployées de manière réaliste d'ici 2030 sur la base de l’offre
actuelle et de scénarios de croissance.

Les capitaux à investir pour assurer un tel déploiement sont de l’ordre de 3.5 à 13.8
milliards d’euros. Un tel investissement dépendra du type d'investissement réalisé
(bioraffineries existantes, converties ou nouvelles) ainsi que de nombreux autres facteurs
(procédé de conversion utilisé, coûts de la main-d'œuvre, coûts des matériaux, etc.).
Certains de ces facteurs (par exemple, la technologie des procédés) sont très liés aux
filières mêmes de bioraffinage, tandis que d'autres seront davantage liés au site de
l'investissement réalisé ainsi qu'au type d'installation (construction d’une nouvelle
installation ou réaffectation d’une installation existante). Lors de la procédure de sélection
d'un nouvel investissement, un ordre particulier (présenté dans la Figure 20)
d'investissement en capital peut être envisagé. Pourtant, toutes les méthodes
d’investissement ne sont pas toujours possibles : la reconversion de bioraffineries mises à
l’arrêt en bioraffinerie chimique et matérielle ou l’augmentation des capacités de
production des bioraffineries existantes pourraient s’avérer impossibles.

Le financement de ces bioraffineries devrait provenir à la fois de sources publiques et

privées. Par exemple, le mécanisme européen pour la reprise et la relance économique
(2020)53 fournit un soutien financier important (672,5 milliards d'euros) sous forme de
prêts et de subventions aux États membres de l'UE. Ce plan pourrait ainsi contribuer à
soutenir les investissements dans l'expansion des bioraffineries, et à la réalisation des
objectifs du pacte vert européen.

• Nouvelle bioraffinerie sur site dédié

HIGHEST
CAPEX
• Nouvelle bioraffinerie sur une friche industrielle (investissements inférieurs
provenant de services partagés tels que la vapeur, l'eau, l'électricité, le
stockage, la logistique, etc.)

• Réutilisation/conversion d'une usine sur une friche industrielle existante

(dépend fortement du projet car seuls certains équipements peuvent être
réutilisés)

• Expansion d'une bioraffinerie sur une friche industrielle (par exemple,

valorisation d'un cours d'eau secondaire) - augmentation de la capacité
souvent limitée

• Amélioration/augmentation des capacité de production (amélioration des

processus, modernisation ou nouveaux équipements) des bioraffineries
existantes - l'augmentation de la capacité est toutefois limitée

• Co-traitement / réorientation des installations existantes des combustibles

LOWEST vers les produits chimiques (en remplacement du méthanol, par exemple)
CAPEX

Figure 13. Types d'investissements requis pour accélérer la production de produits chimiques et de matériaux biosourcés

53
The Recovery and Resilience Facility https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/recovery-
coronavirus/recovery-and-resilience-facility_en#the-recovery-and-resilience-facility

32
Les perspectives de déploiement de bioraffineries pourraient entrainer des avantages
considérables pour l’UE : Cette étude estime la réduction de 3.5 millions de tonnes de gaz
à effet de serre économisées par rapport au alternatives fossiles et environ 5.6 tonnes de
naphta (fraction du pétrole brut) économisées en 2030. Les perspectives de déploiement
présentées dans cette étude ont aussi le potentiel de créer de nouveaux emplois. La
création d'emplois par le développement de chaînes d'approvisionnement complètes -
c’est-à-dire de l'approvisionnement en matières premières à la production, en passant par
le bioraffinage, puis la transformation en aval et finalement l'utilisation finale - pourrait
fortement contribuer à l'objectif de 400 000 « emplois verts » d'ici 2035. Ceci sera surtout
le cas si les matières premières proviennent de l'UE et que la transformation en aval a
également lieu dans la région.

La réalisation de ces perspectives de déploiement de bioraffineries pourraient apporter de

considérables avantages, mais cela ne sera possible que par le biais d’actions menées dès
aujourd’hui et jusqu’en 2030 par toutes les parties prenantes : les décideurs politiques, les
industries des produits biosourcés et leurs associations, les industries des produits
chimiques et des matériaux et leurs associations, le milieu académique, les instituts de
recherche, la communauté d'investissement et les ONG. La feuille de route (Figure 14)
expose les principales actions à entreprendre en les classant par importance et catégorie
(par exemple, économiques). Ces actions sont détaillées dans le module 6 du rapport
« Perspectives et feuille de route pour le déploiement du bioraffinage dans l'UE54», ainsi
que dans les feuilles de route qui identifient des actions spécifiques pour chaque filière de
bioraffinage.

54
Module 6 – Perspectives et feuille de route pour le déploiement du bioraffinage dans l'UE (« WP6 - EU biorefinery
outlook and roadmap for deployment») développé par E4tech

33
 FINAL
Type de parties prenantes
Décideurs politiques
Bio-industrie et associations industrielles PERSPECTIVES DE DÉPLOIEMENT
Industrie chimique/matériaux et associations industrielles
• Mise en place d'une politique de marché
Enseignement supérieur instituts de recherche • Le cadre de durabilité en vigueur
ONG et sociétés civiles Type d’actions • 42 bioraffineries supplémentaires dans
Investisseurs différentes filières
Politique et réglementation
• Potentielles économies de GES de 3,5
Soutien à la R&D et changement d’échelle millions de tonnes de CO2eq

Information et coordination

2020 2025 2030

Fixer des objectifs sectoriels pour

la réduction des GES des produits
chimiques et matériaux de l’UE

Élaborer un mandat européen Mettre en œuvre le mandat européen croissant pour la réduction des GES dans les produits
pour la réduction des GES des chimiques/matériaux vendus dans l’UE
produits chimiques et matériaux
vendus dans l’UE

Élaborer un mandat européen Mettre en œuvre le mandat européen pour une faible teneur en GES pour les produits difficiles
pour une faible teneur en GES à recycler
pour les produits difficiles à
recycler

Mettre en œuvre la vente de divers produits à base de matières premières fossiles non
recyclées et/ou fixer un objectif de réduction des matériaux fossiles utilisés

Les producteurs et utilisateurs de

produits chimiques fixent des
engagements volontaires de
réduction des GES

Élaborer des standards pour les marchés Mettre en œuvre des standards d'approvisionnements publics au sein de l'UE spécifiant
publics dans les états membres sur les les produits biologiques et recyclés ou des produits à base de CO 2
produits biosourcés, recyclés
ou à base de CO2

Taxer les importations de matières premières fossiles dans les industries chimiques et des
matériaux
ÉCONOMIQUES

Réformer le SCEQE pour augmenter le

prix du CO2

Développer un mécanisme Mettre en œuvre le mécanisme d’ajustement carbone aux frontières

d’ajustement carbone aux frontières

Soutenir la recherche d'une utilisation optimale des matières premières de la biomasse

européenne

Mener des activités de R&D pour réduire les coûts dans toutes les filières de
bioraffinage grâce aux programmes continus tels que Horizon Europe, Circular
Biobased Europe et le soutien des États membres

Établir des partenariats pour développer des bioraffineries sur des sites industriels
existants afin de diminuer les coûts de développement

Améliorer la performance économique des procédés en identifiant les liens entre les
différentes filières et les autres industries

Améliorer les bases de données sur les matières premières (biomasse et déchets) pour
identifier les ressources à faible coût

Développer des stratégies

régionales de bioéconomie

Aligner les exigences en matière de

durabilité des produits biosourcés avec les
régimes existants

Envisager l’inclusion de la séquestration

et l'utilisation du carbone dans le SCEQE

Tenir compte de toutes les activités liées à la biomasse et à l'utilisation des terres lors de
ORIENTATION
STRATÉGIQUE

l’établissement des stratégies pour chacune d'entre elles. Par exemple, sur l'économie
circulaire, la bioéconomie et l'alimentation

Fixer des objectifs stratégiques pour l'ensemble du secteur du bioraffinage, inclus

une utilisation acceptable des terres et des cultures

Mettre en œuvre des politiques permettant l’émergence et la montée en puissance de

filières sans culture dédiée/à faible impact sur l'utilisation des terres

34
 FINAL

2020 2025 2030

CHANGEMENT D’ECHELLE DE NOUVELLES

Poursuivre le cofinancement public de l'UE pour les installations pilotes/démonstration

Collecter des données sur les sites pilotes pour faciliter la mise au point d’évaluations techno-
économiques et de modélisation en phases initiales du projet

Réduire les coûts de mise à l'échelle en mettant à disposition/en

fournissant un soutien pour les installations partagées
TECHNOLOGIES

Assurer la classification des projets de

bioraffinage selon la taxonomie verte
de l'UE

Augmenter les capitaux propres dans les entreprises

Appliquer un régime de subventions/prêts pour les études de faisabilité

Apporter un soutien supplémentaire pour les nouvelles technologies, p.ex. des sous-objectifs ou des subventions pour des volumes limités de
produits issus de nouvelles filières
Investir dans le renforcement du savoir-faire en matière d'ingénierie des équipes de recherche
universitaires

Élaborer un standard pour la Instaurer un standard pour la durabilité des produits biosourcés
durabilité des produits
biosourcés

Soutien de l'UE/des États membres aux PME pour qu'elles se conforment aux standards de
durabilité
Fournir un financement de l'UE Adoption d'une politique sur les
pour quantifier le risque lié aux bioplastiques biodégradables
résidus de plastique compostable
non dégradés
DURABILITÉ

Organiser des campagnes

d'information sur les MGM utilisés
dans les bioprocédés

Développer des labels pour

les produits biosourcés

Adoption précoce de produits labellisés sur des marchés très visibles

Établir une terminologie commune

pour les produits biosourcés

Exiger que les projets publics évaluent l'impact sur la durabilité et le communiquent de manière transparente

Soutenir le développement de projets d'hydrogène vert dans les bioraffineries

Soutenir la R&D sur le potentiel des ressources européennes en biomasse

MATIÈRE PREMIÈRE

Fournir un financement pour les évaluations régionales et locales des ressources en biomasse

Soutenir davantage de projets visant à développer des outils/plateformes pour soutenir les
chaînes d'approvisionnement en biomasse

Soutenir la création d'entreprises de distribution de biomasse et de déchets

Inclure les cultures destinées aux bioraffineries dans la politique sur les cultures OGM

Renforcer les objectifs de collecte et de recyclage des déchets

Élaborer une politique pour uniformiser la classification des matériaux en tant que déchets, résidus ou coproduits dans tous les États
membres
ACCÈS AU
MARCHÉ

Instaurer un programme de rapprochement des entreprises au niveau de l'UE

Réduire les frais d'inscription à REACH

pour les produits chimiques durables

Figure 14. Feuilles de routes et actions correspondantes communes à toutes les filières.

35
Introduction

Study context

The circular bioeconomy is key for building a sustainable future and meeting the European
Green Deal's ambitious targets. In light of the EU Bioeconomy Strategy55, the European
Commission DG RTD commissioned three studies to support the research and innovation
policies regarding bio-based resources, products and services.

The overall objective is to provide a range of new information and analysis that will help
identify future policy directions, emerging technologies, societal demands, challenges and
opportunities in the fields of the bioeconomy related to bio-based products and the bio-
based innovation.

The three studies are:

1. Carbon economy (lot 1)

2. Life and biological sciences and technologies as engines for bio-based innovation
(lot 2)

3. Biorefinery pathways and outlook for deployment (lot 3)

This study is Lot 3 Biorefinery pathways and outlook for deployment or shortened
title EU Biorefinery Outlook to 2030. The EU Bioeconomy Strategy noted an action to
seek to facilitate the development of new sustainable biorefineries and confirm the type
and estimated potential. This tender study is specifically related to this action and focuses
on the production of chemicals and materials from biorefineries in the EU.

A focus on biorefining and the production of bio-based chemicals and materials

Definitions of both biorefineries and bio-based products differ between stakeholders and in
the literature. It is important that the definitions used in this project are aligned with other
EC work streams but are also fit for the purpose of this study. The definitions highlighted
below are from the tender documents for this contract and these are supported by
clarifications for each definition.

Biorefining can be broadly defined as the sustainable processing of biomass into a

portfolio of marketable bio-based products, which could include co-production of food and
feed, materials and chemicals and bioenergy (power, heat/cold, fuels)56. The focus of the
current study are chemical and material driven biorefineries which include the
production of innovative high value bio-based products57. Throughout this report bio-
based products refer to bio-based chemicals and materials.

Further to this definition, we define chemical and material driven biorefineries as producing
bio-based chemicals and materials as their main products. This means they produce
primarily bio-based chemicals and/or materials with bioenergy as a side-product. This

55
A sustainable Bioeconomy for Europe: strengthening the connection between economy, society and the
environment, Updated Bioeconomy Strategy European Commission Directorate-General for Research and
Innovation Unit F – Bioeconomy (2018)
https://ec.europa.eu/research/bioeconomy/pdf/ec_bioeconomy_strategy_2018.pdf#view=fit&pagemode=none
56
IEA Bioenergy Task 42 - Biomass can be crops, aquatic biomass, forestry, primary (agro/forest) – secondary
(process) and tertiary (post-consumer) residues, etc. This framework therefore will be very useably for political
decision making for upcoming R&I needed for the implementation of the Green Deal.
57
N° 2018/RTD/F2/OP/PP-07281/2018/ Support to R&I policy on biobased products & services TENDER
SPECIFICATIONS STUDIES ON SUPPORT TO R&I POLICY IN THE AREA OF BIO-BASED PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
(pg 27)

36
means that bioenergy (power, heat/cold, biofuels) focused facilities that produce chemical
co-products are not included.

In this study, bio-based products refer to non-food products derived from biomass. Bio-
based products may range from high-value added fine chemicals such as cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, food additives, etc., to high volume materials such as general bio-based
polymers or chemical feedstocks (i.e. building blocks).

The sources of carbon and categories of routes to chemicals and materials are shown in
Table 5 Using biorefining as defined above to produce chemicals and materials is one route
to biochemicals and biomaterials. Co-processing of bio-based feedstocks in existing fossil-
based production assets is also an alternative pathway. This study considers co-processing
on a high-level. This study focuses on the routes to bio-based products that are more novel
and therefore does not cover in any depth traditional bio-based products, such as pulp and
paper, and wood products.

The circular bio-based economy is seen as an important element of a future European low
fossil carbon economy, and is expected to increasingly contribute to GHG emissions
reductions over the next decade, as well as increased security of supply of raw materials
by using local resources, additional jobs and business opportunities created in rural areas.

Whilst bio-based products are expected to be an important part of the EU’s transition to a
lower fossil carbon economy, there are other alternative sources and routes that will help
achieve this, namely CO2-based and recycled carbon-based chemicals and materials. Whilst
not being the focus of this tender study the interactions of these with biorefining, and in
some cases future competition between the routes, are considered.

Table 5. Categories of routes to chemical and materials

Virgin fossil carbon Bio carbon CO2-based Recycled carbon

Source/ • Crude oil • Primary: crops, • Combustion emissions • Plastic waste

feedstocks • Natural gas lignocellulosic, – fossil or bioenergy
• Natural Gas Liquids aquatic • Process emissions –
• Coal • Secondary fossil (e.g. ammonia
biomass synthesis) or bio (e.g.
residues fermentation)
• Air

Technology/ • Upstream O&G • Primary • CO2 capture • Mechanical recycling

key value • Downstream O&G producers • Green H2 • Purification
chain steps • Chemical processing • Biorefineries • Downstream • Depolymerisation
• Downstream • Downstream processing • Thermochemical
processing processing • Chemical processing
• Downstream
processing

Interactions • Co-processing of bio • Co-processing • All CO2 sources • Chemical and

or recycled fossil of virgin or downstream
carbon recycled fossil processing
carbon (e.g.
MSW
gasification)
• Green H2

Maturity High Varied Low Varied

Renewable No Yes Depends on carbon Depends on carbon

source source

37
Study aim and objectives

Aim:

To provide an outlook for integrated chemical and material biorefineries enabling

stakeholders such as the scientific community, industry (primary producers and
manufacturers), investors, policymakers, and NGOs to take the present-day decisions
necessary to shape the future sustainable bioeconomy

Objectives:

• Describe, categorise and develop a robust classification system for different types of
biorefineries and the products they could produce considering the needs of a range of
stakeholders, including policy and decision makers in the EU and regional level (WP 1)

• Report on the status of biorefinery development and the markets for related bio-
based products (WP 4 and 5)

• Determine the attractiveness of different bio-based products and their market

potential (demand) based on drivers and benefits of chemical and material
biorefineries, bio-based products and the applications and markets they could access
(WP 2 and 5)

• Identify the technical and market challenges that need to be overcome to

commercialise biorefineries (WP 2 and 3)

• Identify the R&D&I needs of biorefinery pathways and future policies that could
incentivise their uptake (WP 3)

• Develop scenarios for the potential ramp up of biorefinery deployment in Europe

to 2030 taking into consideration technology, market and resource considerations as
well as considering the policy lines of the European Green Deal (WP 5)

• Develop a roadmap for biorefinery deployment in the EU to 2030 segmented by

biorefinery pathways, including the number of biorefineries, installed capacity by
volume and capital investment in new biorefinery construction, type of actions required
by different actors, and impact in terms of sustainability and societal benefit (WP 6
using inputs from WP 1-5)

• Engage relevant stakeholders in activities aimed at meeting above objective

(Stakeholder Engagement)

• Develop communication materials to effectively communicate the outputs of the

study (WP 7)

Comments on the key success factors for the project from DG RTD - the study should:

• Understand how biorefining fits in the context of value chain and cross-value chain
cascading of bio-materials and resource efficiency (WP 1)

• Assess the relevance of projections and recommendations on biorefinery growth from

previous projects in view of the EU policy demands and the foreseeable changes in the
markets of bio-based products (WP 5)

• Provide clarity on the barriers (economic, political, financial, market-based,

environmental) surrounding biorefinery deployment (WP 2 and 3)

• Help communicate the project objectives and findings clearly to multiple stakeholders,
importantly potential investors (e.g. EIB) (WP 7)

38
• Provide input to help form policy approach especially for regions which currently lack a
bioeconomy strategy although produce considerable amounts of various potential
biomass feedstock (all WPs)

• Help inform actions that will increase the number of small, medium and large scale
biorefineries in the EU operating in industrial symbiosis and intensifying transition away
from fossil-based and/or carbon-intensive products to bio-based ones (all WPs)

• Help guide national and regional development of bioeconomy strategies, with focus on
rural areas and the deployment of small-scale biorefineries.

Work package structure and interactions

The work required for this study has been split into seven work packages (WP) as shown
in Figure 15. The lead partner(s) of each work package are indicated (e.g. BTG is leading
the work on drivers and barriers in WP 2).

Figure 15. “EU Biorefinery Outlook to 2030” study overview

39
WP 2-6 are dependent on earlier WPs and these interactions have been summarised in
Table 6
Table 6. Major interactions and dependencies between work packages (WPs)

WP 2 WP 3 WP 4 WP 5 WP 6

WP Classification Classification Classification Classification Classification

1

WP Demand input – general General drivers and

2 drivers and barriers, fact barriers, fact sheets
sheets with specific drivers with specific drivers
and barriers. and barriers.

Input to supply ramp up –

general and specific drivers
and barriers to biorefinery
deployment to inform
scenario development

WP Input to supply ramp up – Technical barriers /

3 pathway definitions, TRL of opportunities (Task
pathways (Task 2), technical 3), RD&I needs (Task
barriers / opportunities (Task 4)
3) and ad-/disadvantages
compared to alternatives
(Task 2)

WP Input to supply ramp up -

4 capacity by operational plant
(demonstration / commercial)
and planned projects
including project status.

WP The supply ramp-up

5 in the high and low
scenarios

Policy Context

EU POLICY AND REGULATION

The following policies and regulations are considered to be very relevant to the
development of biorefineries and the market potential of bio-based chemicals and
materials. These have been defined and discussed in WP 2 and 6.

1. European Green Deal, with the following specific initiatives identified as having high
importance:

a. Climate Law

b. Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

c. Just Transition Fund

d. Circular Economy Action Plan

e. Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability

f. Hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe

g. EU strategy to reduce methane emissions

h. Textile strategy

40
 2. Circular Economy Package (CEP)

3. Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II)

4. Waste Framework Directive (WFD)

5. Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)

6. Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

7. Council Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 (Common Customs Tariff - CCT)

8. Genetically Modified Organisms Directive (2001/18/EC GMO)

9. EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS)

10. Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) and Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
(EPBD)

11. Land Use and Land Use Change (LULUCF)

12. Sustainable Finance Taxonomy

13. Deforestation and forest degradation

14. Packaging and Packaging waste Directive

HORIZON EUROPE

The Horizon Europe programme including the BBI-JU (Bio-based Industries Joint
Undertaking) programme is important for the development of chemical and material driven
biorefineries. It is expected that the new EC Horizon Europe Programme (2021-2027) will
continue to be important for their deployment including the potential follow-up of the very
successful BBI-JU by means of the new EU Partnership Circular Bio-based Europe (CBE).
These are further discussed in WP 2, 3 and 6.

REGIONAL ASPECTS

Regional aspects play an important role in the broader development of the bioeconomy,
and more specifically in the development of biorefineries. Here, regional aspects can imply
regions as in clusters of member states, national (member state) level, or the sub-national
regional level.

This study gives particular focus to MS in Eastern Europe where some national bioeconomy
strategies are less well developed. Regional aspects are considered throughout the study
with particular focus in WP 2 (drivers and barriers), WP 5 (locations for deployment) and
WP 6 (roadmaps).

Stakeholder engagement

A stakeholder engagement process was developed at the start of the project. Led by FNR
the consortium collected stakeholder contacts and formed a Stakeholder Advisory Group
(SAG), as well as a list of contacts to invite as participants to the workshops.

The purpose of the stakeholder engagement was to gather stakeholder input on the
approach of the study, as well as validate findings from the work. This created buy-in from
key stakeholders and increases the likelihood that the final roadmap is disseminated and
implemented.

41
STAKEHOLDER ADVISORY GROUP (SAG)

The Stakeholder Advisory Group (SAG) was a direct connection of the project to the
different stakeholder groups via 11 members. Multiple meetings were scheduled over the
14 month study .

Individual meetings focused on the results developed with the different WPs. Feedback
from stakeholder was assessed and incorporated into the approach and findings of these
WPs.

The SAG members are58:

• Dirk Carrez | Bio-Based Industry Consortium

• Patrick Klintbom | ETIP Bioenergy

• Constanze Ißbrücker & Christian Schulz | European Bioplastics

• Gianni Girotti | Cefic – The European Chemical Industry Council

• Barna Kovacs | BIOEAST Initiative

• Andrea Monti | EERA – European Energy Research Alliance

• Johan Elvnert | Forest Technology Platform

• Robert M'Barek & Edoardo Baldoni | JRC – Joint Research Centre

• Joško Bobanović | Sofinnova Partners

• Sverker Danielsson | Skogsindustrierna – confirmed to join from September

meeting

• Viktoriya Sturm | Thünen Institute – joined for the last SAG-meeting

STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT FORMATS

Two Stakeholder Workshops were planned to take place during the project. Due to the
Covid19 pandemic, the workshop was held online and each workshop was split into two
webinar events in order to allow shorter online formats. Through experience of similar
events the consortium has found participants tended to be more willing to join and be
attentive with these shorter format events.

To ensure interactivity and to receive input from as many participants as possible, four
“interaction channels” were established.

1. Direct communication in a moderated online discussion

2. Online live-polls during the workshop

3. Online-surveys filled in after the workshop

4. Additional input/feedback by e-mail after the workshop

58
In addition to those SAG members listed above, others were contacted including the World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF), The European Consumer Organisation (BEUC) and Committee of Professional Agricultural Organisations-
General Confederation of Agricultural Cooperatives (COPA-COGECA) however these stakeholders declined the
invitation to be part of the SAG.

42
WP leaders designed questions suitable for the workshops and decided on the most
appropriate engagement format dependent on the individual WP results. Participation to
the Stakeholder Workshop was good. Adding participants from both parts of the 2
workshops (no double counting), 44 stakeholders participated in the first and 43 in the
second workshop.

Interviews were used as individual approaches to receive deep insights from selected
experts and specific subjects. Interviews have been conducted by WP 2 and 3. Further
information on the approach to these interviews is provided in the WP chapters where
relevant.

A list of the stakeholder comments received during the various engagement formats can
be found in the annex to this final report including information on how feedback was
incorporated or why incorporation was not possible i.e. for technical reasons or because it
was beyond the scope of this study.

Table 7. Stakeholder Engagement Summary

Event Date Number of Description/ comments

participants

1st SAG Meeting 31-03-2020 Total: 15 The 1st SAG meeting was dedicated to discussing the WPs
SAG: 5 1 (Biorefineries classification) and 4 (EU and global
biorefinery deployment).

2nd SAG Meeting 24-06-2020 Total: 20 The 2nd SAG meeting was dedicated to discussing and
SAG: 8 verify outcomes of the Stakeholder Workshop in more
depth.

1st Stakeholder 27-05-2020 Total: 35 The 1st Stakeholder Workshop Part I was dedicated to
Workshop Part I External: 26 discuss the work of WPs 1 (Biorefineries classification)
and 4 (EU and global biorefinery deployment) with a
wider audience.

1st Stakeholder 12-06-2020 Total: 42 The 1st Stakeholder Workshop Part II was dedicated to
Workshop Part External: 30 discuss the work of WPs 2 (Drivers and Barriers) and 3
II (Biorefinery Pathways) with a wider audience.

3rd SAG Meeting 21-09-2020 Total: 14 The 3rd SAG meeting will be dedicated to discussing draft
SAG: 7 results of WPs 5 and 6.

2nd Stakeholder 07-10-2020 Total: 39 The workshop was dedicated to present draft results of
Workshop Part I External: 31 WPs 5 and 6 as well as final results from WPs 1-4.

2nd Stakeholder 28-10-2020 Total: 35 The workshop was dedicated to present the market
Workshop Part External: 22 prospects for biorefineries as well as the potential
II demand/supply of biochemical and –materials under low
and high scenario to 2030.
4th SAG Meeting 12-01-2021 Total: 24 The 4th SAG meeting was dedicated to discuss the EU
SAG: 8 chemical and material driven biorefinery roadmaps to
2030.

43
1 WP1 – BIOREFINERY CLASSIFICATION

The report chapter for WP 1 (Biorefinery Classification) including the completed

classification scheme led by WUR

1.1 Objectives

The objective of this work package is to develop a robust biorefinery classification scheme
for chemical and material biorefineries, based on the analysis of current and emerging
biorefinery models.

The biorefinery classification system aims to support the communication of information in

relation to biorefineries (including its nomenclature) to relevant stakeholders (e.g. RD&I,
policy makers, governmental organization, non-governmental organizations, the general
public, industry, investors) in an understandable way.

1.2 Approach

The following approach was taken to build the biorefinery classification:

• Definition of target audiences and biorefinery characteristics.

• Literature review.

• Consulting of and linking with WP3 and WP4.

• Development of a draft biorefinery classification system.

• Stakeholder consultation.

• Development and definition of biorefinery classification system.

During the development of the biorefinery classification system, several literature sources
were reviewed and partially taken into account when defining the different categories and
subcategories. The base set-up of the classification system is taken from IEA Bioenergy
Task 42. Further specification of and focusing on the chemicals and materials sectors took
place by using the NACE classification (Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in
the European Union), review of the PRODCOM classification (PRODuction COMmunautaire),
as well as other relevant biorefinery classification approaches that are mentioned in the
literature review in this section and Annex I.

1.3 Literature Review

Various descriptions and definitions of biorefining can be found in literature. For this study,
biorefining is defined as the sustainable processing of biomass into a portfolio of
marketable bio-based products, which could include co-production of food and feed,
materials and chemicals and bioenergy (power, heat/cold, fuels).59

Based on the scope of the project (focus on chemicals and material products and the
engagement of a wide variety of stakeholders), a different set of categories and further
subdivision might be required. Different categorizations can be developed looking at the
characteristics of the available and emerging feedstocks, final products or to the
market/sector. As starting point, we have reviewed several classification approaches
developed in nine European projects in the last years (2009-2022), aiming to get a deeper

59
IEA Bioenergy Task 42 - Biomass can be crops, aquatic biomass, forestry, primary (agro/forest) – secondary
(process) and tertiary (post-consumer) residues, etc. This framework therefore will be very usable for political
decision making for upcoming R&I needed for the implementation of the Green Deal.

44
understanding of different biorefinery classification. In this WP the following project reports
were reviewed:

• IEA Bioenergy Task 42 Biorefinery Classification & Bio-Based Chemicals Update (IEA-
2009/2018/2020).

• Towards a common classification approach for biorefinery Systems (IEA-2009).

• BioRefinery identification, classification and mapping (Euroview-2009).

• European Biorefinery Strategy Road Map & Vision 2030 (Star Colibri-2011)

• Bio-economy and sustainability: a potential contribution to the Bio-economy

Observatory. Institute for Environment and Sustainability (JRC-2013)

• Bio-based products and Services. Categories. (InnProBio-2015)

• Bio-based industries in Europe - focus on bio-based materials (Nova Institute-2017)

• Biorefinery Distribution in the EU (JRC-2018).

• Insight into the European market for bio-based chemicals (JRC-2019)

• RoadtoBio: Roadmap for the Chemical Industry in Europe towards a Bioeconomy (Bio-
based Industries Joint-2019)

The literature review was performed during the project provided information to develop a
classification system that allows the understanding of the overall concept of biorefining and
facilitates the study and the comparison of biorefinery systems. Additionally, it uses
product groups that include important products in subcategories that they are easier to be
identified and recognized even for non-technical stakeholders.

The summary of the literature review on biorefinery classification approaches is presented

in Annex I.

1.4 Biorefinery Classification System

The demand for developing a chemical and material focused biorefinery classification arises
from the need better communicate information on biorefineries in the context of the
evolution of the bio-based industries and sustainable climate-neutral circular bio-based
products in the EU. It is important that the classification considers at some extent the
existing EU nomenclatures.

From the literature review, it has been considered that the IEA Bioenergy Task 42 matrix
classification (based on four criteria: platform type, product group, feedstock group, and
conversion process) provides an approach that facilitates the understanding of the
biorefinery concept. This classification system aims to be60:

‒ unambiguous for all stakeholders in the biorefinery field,

‒ explicit with regard to the feedstock, the platform and the final product and
‒ specific enough for categorising each biorefinery

The IEA Bioenergy Task 42 classification system is taken as reference because it provides
a comprehensive overview of the main components of different biorefineries, like possible

60
E. Gnasounou; A. Pandey. Life-Cycle Assessment of Biorefineries. Chapter 1. Classification of Biorefineries Taking
into Account Sustainability Potentials and Flexibility, Elsevier, 2017.

45
feedstocks that can be used, the most important intermediates and products that could
contribute to the partial substitution of fossil or carbon-intensive products and the
reduction of waste generation.

It is important to point out that within the biorefinery industry, secondary biomass
feedstocks (residues), shall not be considered as waste. According to the European Waste
Law61,the definition of waste essentially turns on the notion of ‘discard’. This means that if
a material has potential for further use in the economy (in this case bioeconomy) it should
not be considered a waste.

Definitions as by-product or secondary raw material have no legal meaning in the European
Waste Law, materials are simply waste or not. Taking in account this legal definition all
residues used as feedstocks in biorefineries are not considered waste and therefore in this
project the European Waste Classification is not followed.

Additionally, using the European List of Waste will be very specific and not fit for the
purpose of grouping biorefinery feedstocks but more useful for the study of waste
management. For example, if the European waste classification wanted to be applied for
recycled plastic there are 8 different codes that can be used but non of them will provide
information on the bio-based content, which is needed to be selected as biorefinery
feedstock.

Table 8. European List of Waste Codes

Code Chapter Description

020104 Plastic waste from agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture and fishing, food preparation
and processing (except packing)

0702013 Plastic wastes from the MFSU of plastics, synthetic rubber and man-made fibres

120105 plastics shavings and turnings from shaping and physical and mechanical surface
treatment of plastics,

150102 Plastic packaging

160119 Plastic end-of-life vehicles from different means of transport (including off-road
machinery) and wastes from dismantling of end-of-life vehicles and vehicle maintenance.
170203 Plastic from construction and demolition wastes (including excavated soil from
contaminated sites)

170204 glass, plastic and wood containing or contaminated with hazardous substances

191204 Plastic wastes from the mechanical treatment of waste (for example sorting, crushing,
compacting, pelletising) not otherwise specified

On the other hand, PRODCOM codes are specific to single products or product groups. It
seems that PRODCOM codes are given only to product that are considered relevant and
have large production volumes otherwise the product is grouped into a product category
group, like in the case of lactic acid which is an important bio-based chemical to produce
biopolymers. For some bio-based chemicals this can be a drawback as they are currently
not produced in large quantities.

PRODCOM classification list, includes an important number of products and product groups
(chemicals and materials) that can be easily identified as bio-based (fatty acids, sorbitol,
glycerine, natural fibres) and although new codes has been recently added (2016) to be
more specific on the renewable content of the product (e.g. lubricants with bio-based
content, bio-based butanediol, and bio-based succinic acid); the introduction of new codes
for important chemicals and materials (e.g. lactic acid, itaconic acid ethylene from bio-
based origin, ethyl acetate from bio-based origin, epichlorohydrin from bio-based origin,

61
Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Interpretative
Communication on waste and by-products.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0059

46
bio-based resins) is still missing. Currently, for a high number of chemicals there is no
clear distinction if they are fully or partially bio-based or fossil based.

In this project, the IEA Bioenergy Task 42 classification system is further modified
according to recent developments identified in the literature review and according to
insights provided by the Stakeholder Advisory Group (SAG), a wider stakeholder group
during a workshop consultation, and the consortium members.

The classification system proposed is focused on biorefineries producing chemicals and

materials either as a major output or as side-products. The proposed product groups are
linked to a broad spectrum of bio-based products like the ones proposed in the Bioeconomy
strategy, and the NACE nomenclatures.

From the NACE classification the following product group were taken as reference:
Agrochemicals and Pesticides, Paints and coatings, Fertilizers, Pharmaceuticals fibre,
Paints, inks, dye and pigments (colorants), Soap, detergents and cleaning preparations
(surfactants), Pharmaceutical products, Textile fibres (fibres), Plastics in primary forms
(polymers).

From the European new Circular Economy Action Plan 202062 similar product categories
are considered: Plastics (included in polymers), Chemicals (are linked to applications as
solvent, additives, building blocks, surfactants), Textiles (fibres); Construction materials
(covered in this work by fibres, composites, resins).

Table 1 shows the proposed new biorefinery classification system to be used in this project.
It is important to mention that the sub-group ‘other’ in each category is included to enable
new feedstock concepts, technologies or product categories to be included in the future.
Information for each category is provided below:

FEEDSTOCK

The feedstock category provides an indication on the type and/or the source of biomass
that is processed in the biorefinery. The IEA Bioenergy Task 42 classification for feedstock
is further modified to primary and secondary biomass feedstocks. A more detailed
description and the definition of each type of feedstock for the new classification system is
provided in Annex II.

One important modification is that the new subcategorization differentiates lignocellulosic

biomass generated from woodlands (forestry) and from the one originated from croplands
and grasslands. This is relevant information linked to concepts such as land use, land use
change and forestry (LULUCF) as well as effective management of protected areas which
contribute to the fight against climate change and increasing biodiversity, key pillars for
the European Biodiversity Strategy 2030 and the European Green Deal.63,64

Additionally, the proposed classification emphasizes the importance of using secondary

biomass by including more specific residue feedstocks. These streams are produced during
the processing, conversion or decomposition of primary biomass, are relevant to Circular
Economy Action Plan to support of waste prevention and circularity as well as the
prioritisation of the funding of the implementation of the Bioeconomy strategy.

62
The new Circular Economy Action Plan 2020. Brussels, 11.3.2020 COM. 2020.
63
Factsheet: EU Biodiversity strategy 2030. 20 May 2020
64
Communication from the Commission. The European Green Deal COM/2019/640 final

47
New possible feedstock such aquaculture and microbial biomass are also included. The
modification is done partially in accordance with the 2018 JRC study on building a database
of biorefineries and several European projects (Biomass Futures65 and BioSustain66 ).

It is important to highlight that the proposed classification system does not consider within
the scope the use of fossil-based carbon dioxide or fossil based recycled materials and
products as feedstock. However, it does include recycled bio-feedstocks such as paper,
bio-textiles, bio-CO2, bio-plastics, bio-ethanol. This is aligned to the definition of
biorefineries in the introduction (i.e. bio-based feedstocks are considered whilst fossil
feedstocks are not considered, recycled or not).

1 Primary biomass is a biomass originated via artificial or natural photosynthesis,

capable to capture and store carbon during the growing period.67 This type of biomass may
be produced for dedicated use or purpose and it is obtained from forest, agricultural land,
aquatic systems or specialised bioreactors.

For the grouping of renewable feedstocks (specially crops), it is common to associate the
biomass crop to the type of carbohydrate that is in higher concentration in the feedstock.
The most important carbohydrate groups in crops are: oil, starch, sugars and
lignocellulose.

• Aquatic biomass (aquatic plants, microalgae and aquaculture)

• Lignocellulosic from cropland (e.g. short rotation coppice and other crops) and
grassland (e.g. Miscanthus, perennial grasses (e.g. alfalfa), reed)

• Lignocellulosic wood/forestry from woodland (round wood, sawn logs, fuelwood,

softwood, hardwood).

• Oil crops (e.g. soya beans, coconut, olive tree, palm oil, castor beans, sunflower seed,
rapeseed, sesame seed, tallow tree)

• Starch crops (grains, such as corn or wheat, and tubers such as (sweet) potatoes and
cassava)

• Sugar crops (sugar cane, sugar beet and sweet sorghum)

• Other primary biomass

2 Secondary biomass: biomass produced during the processing, conversion or

decomposition of primary biomass and organic material. This is a side-products and
residues category, which include biomass that has already been part of current industrial
ecosystems, production and consumption chains.

• Microbial biomass (biomass generated by e.g. enzymes, bacteria, protist, fungi)

• Residues from forest management and the forest-based industry (e.g. logging residues,
sawdust, bark, brown and black liquor, fibre sludge, lignin and tall oil)

• Residues from agriculture (only from crop cultivation e.g. residues from harvesting e.g.
straw, leaves, sugarcane residues on field, vineyard prunings, olive tree prunings,
bagasse, rice husks, empty fruit bunch, mesocarp fibre, sugar beet pulp, soy hulls,

65
Elbersen B, Startisky I, Bottcher H,. Atals of EU biomass potentials Deliverable 3.3.February 2020
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/intelligent/projects/sites/ieeprojects/files/projects/documents/biomass_futures_atlaso
f_technical_and_economic_biomass_potential_en.pdf
66
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/biosustain_report_final.pdf
67
https://www.marquard-bahls.com/en/news-info/glossary/detail/term/biomass.html

48
 distiller`s dried grains with solubles (DDGS), potato peels, vegetable residues, nut
shells)

• Residues from aquatic biomass cultivation, processing and consumption, (e.g. fisheries
and aquaculture).

• Residues from nature and landscape management (green biomass from nature and
landscape management)

• Residues from recycled bio-based products (e.g. recycled bio-plastics and bio-
polymers, bio-based textiles, recycle paper)

• Other organic residues (e.g. organic fraction municipal solid waste (MSW), sewage and
wastewater sludge, used cooking oil, animal fat, manure).

Table 9. Classification System

1. Feedstock 2. Conversion Process 3. Platform 4. Product

1.1. Primary biomass: 2.1. Biochemical: • Biochar 4.1. Chemicals:

• Aquatic biomass • Aerobic conversion • Bio-Coal • Additives
• Lignocellulosic from • Anaerobic digestion • Bio-Crude • Agrochemicals
croplands and • Enzymatic process • Biogas • Building blocks68
grasslands • Fermentation • Bio-oils • Catalysts & Enzymes
• Lignocellulosic • Insect-based bioconversion • Bio-hydrogen • Colorants
wood/forestry • Other biochemical conversion • Bio-Naphtha • Cosmeceuticals
• Oil crops • C5/C6 sugars • Flavours & Fragrances
• Starch crops 2.2. Chemical: • Carbon dioxide • Lubricants
• Sugar crops • Catalytic • Lignin • Nutraceuticals
• *Other primary • Esterification • Oils • Paints & Coatings
biomass • Hydrogenation • Organic Fibres • Pharmaceuticals
• Hydrolysis • Organic Juice • Solvents
1.1. Secondary • Methanation • Protein • Surfactants
Biomass: • Chemical Pulping • Pyrolytic Liquid • *Other chemical
• Microbial biomass • Steam reforming • Starch product
• Residues from • Water electrolysis • Syngas
agriculture • Water gas shift • *Other platform 4.2. Materials:
• Residues from • *Other chemical conversion • Composites
aquatic biomass • **Fibres
• Residues from 2.3. Mechanical and • Organic Fertilizers
forestry and forest- thermomechanical: • Polymers
based industry • Blending • Resins
• Residues from • Extraction • *Other material
nature and • Mechanical & product
landscape thermomechanical disruption &
management fractionation 4.3. Food
• Residues from • Mechanical pulping
recycled bio-based • Separation processes 4.4. Animal Feed
products • Other mechanical and
• *Other organic thermomechanical conversion 4.5. Energy:
residues • Cooling agents
2.4. Thermochemical: • Fuels
• Combustion • Heat
• Gasification • Power
• Hydrothermal liquefaction • *Other energy product
• Pyrolysis
• Supercritical conversion
• Torrefaction & Carbonization
• *Other thermochemical
conversion

* ‘Other’ is included to enable new concepts, technologies or product categories to be included.

**’Fibres’ group can be extended to subgroups according to the application: textile fibres, paper and board fibres,
carbon/specialty fibres and other fibres.

68
A building block is defined as a molecule which can be converted to various secondary chemicals and intermediates
and turn into a broad range of different downstream products.

49
CONVERSION PROCESS

The conversion process criterion provides information about the current and emerging
technologies used to transform feedstock (biomass) and/or intermediates product streams
into final products. In biorefinery systems, several technological processes can be applied
to convert biomass feedstock into marketable products. The IEA Bioenergy Task 42
classification for the conversion process is used, with four main subcategories of processes:
Mechanical, Chemical, Thermochemical and Biochemical.

A more detailed description and the definition of the different conversion processes for the
new classification system is provided in Annex II.

Changes are implemented in some sub-groups. In the biochemical processes, the

conversion of biomass using insects is included (this practice is also known as insect
farming). This type of conversion process is mainly used to convert organic residues and
waste to intermediates like protein and oil.

In the Mechanical processes, the sub-groups pressing-disruption & mechanical

fractionation are merged due to the similarity of the technologies and overlapping of some
of the processes and a new sub-group named “Mechanical and thermomechanical
disruption and fraction”. Additionally, the blending process is included, because it is a
relevant process often used in the conditioning of feedstock or process streams to reach
certain specifications.

In the chemical processes the terms “Hydrothermal Liquefaction” instead of “Hydrothermal

Upgrading” and “Supercritical Conversion” instead of “Supercritical Conditions” are used.
Additionally, the sub-group “Torrefaction and carbonization processes” is included in the
category thermochemical conversion in line with the STAR Colibri project.

1 Biochemical Conversion Processes:

• Aerobic conversion

• Anaerobic digestion (also known as methanization)

• Enzymatic Process

• Fermentation

• Insects-based bioconversion

• Other biochemical conversion

2 Chemical Conversion Processes:

• Catalytic

• Esterification

• Hydrogenation

• Hydrolysis

• Methanation

• Chemical Pulping

• Steam reforming

• Water electrolysis

50
• Water gas shift

• Other chemical conversion

3 Mechanical and Thermomechanical Conversion Processes:

• Blending

• Extraction

• Mechanical & thermomechanical disruption &fractionation

• Mechanical pulping

• Separation (e.g. filtration, distillation, absorption)

• Other mechanical and thermomechanical conversion

4 Thermochemical Conversion Processes:

• Combustion

• Gasification

• Hydrothermal liquefaction

• Pyrolysis

• Supercritical conversion

• Torrefaction & Carbonization

• Other thermochemical conversion

PLATFORM

Platforms are intermediate products that are generated from a variety of biomass
feedstocks and can be further processed via the previously mentioned conversion process
to obtain a broad range of final products. The platforms also provide information about the
potential of integration of different facilities into more complex biorefineries.

The IEA Bioenergy Task 42 classification for the platforms is used and new platforms like,
organic fibres, naphtha, protein, starch and carbon dioxide are added as they lead to
several materials and chemical product outputs. In total, 16 platforms are proposed. A
more detailed description and the definition of the different platforms for the new
classification system is provided in Annex II.

• Biochar (very stable solid material also known as black carbon)69

• Bio-coal (solid material with a higher energy content compared to the original biomass
feedstock produced via torrefaction)70

69
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70
http://www.etipbioenergy.eu/value-chains/products-end-use/intermediates/torrefied-pellets

51
• Bio-crude (complex mixture of oxygenated organic compounds)

• Biogas (anaerobic digestion gas composed mainly of CH4 and CO2 and lower levels of
impurities such as H2S)

• Bio-hydrogen (hydrogen produced from biomass in photoreactors or fermenters,

mostly catalysed by enzymes. Biogenic hydrogen and carbon dioxide can be used to
produce hydrocarbons or other chemicals.)

• Bio-naphtha (C5- C10 hydrocarbon compounds, without residual oxygenates)

• Bio-oils (vegetable oil, microalgae oil, tall oil, fatty, grease, used oil)

• C5/C6 sugars (C5-xylose, arabinose and C6-glucose, fructose, galactose)

• Carbon dioxide (biogenic CO2 conversion into intermediates)

• Lignin (intermediates from the processing of lignocellulosic biomass e.g.

phenylpropane)71

• Organic fibres (press cake fibres, sugarcane bagasse, cellulose fibres)

• Organic juice (liquid mixture of valuable compounds: carbohydrates, proteins, free

amino acids, organic acids, minerals, hormones and enzymes)72

• Protein (plant-based proteins and amino acids)

• Pyrolytic liquid (complex mixtures containing water, guaiacols, catechols, syringols,

vanillin, isoeugenol, pyrenes, diverse carboxylic acids that can involve several hundreds
of compounds)73

• Starch (modified and regular starch)

• Syngas (a mixture of mainly carbon monoxide and hydrogen, as well as methane,

carbon dioxide and nitrogen)

• Other platform

PRODUCT

The term product refers to the products at the outlet of the biorefinery, and as such
depends on the boundary of the biorefinery system74. In this proposal, the IEA Bioenergy
Task 42 classification is modified, and the product criteria are re-arranged in five
categories:

1. Chemicals

2. Materials

3. Food

71
F. Cherubini / Energy Conversion and Management 51,1412–1421, 2010
72
https://biorrefineria.blogspot.com/p/plataformas-de-biorrefineria.html
73
Gnansounou E., Pandey A., Life cycle assessment of biorefineries. Elsevier,2016
74
Sadhukhan J, Siew K, Martinez-Hernandez E, Biorefineries and Chemical Processes: Design Integration and
Sustainability,2014.

52
 4. Animal Feed

5. Energy

The definitions of all chemical, materials, energy, food and animal feed sub-categories are
discussed and explained in more detail in Annex II.

The main changes are proposed in the chemicals and material categories and are explained
in the following sub-sections. Additionally, some examples per sub-category are included
but the range of possible bio-based products per sub-category is broader and will be
presented in the database developed in WP 4.

1 Chemicals

For the Chemicals category, the IEA Bioenergy Task 42 sub-classification based on the
number of carbons in the chemical compound was considered highly specific, especially for
stakeholders without technical background. Therefore, a more general sub-classification
for a broader audience and based on different application markets of the chemical products
is proposed. This is done in alignment to what is proposed in the ‘RoadtoBio Roadmap’ and
the ‘Insight to the European market for bio-based chemicals’ report75,76.

• Additives (e.g. bio-based derived plasticizers, stabilizers, thickeners, fillers, inhibitors,

flame retardants) some specific examples of chemical compounds with application as
additives are: CMC (carboxymethylcellulose) and lignin.

• Agrochemicals: plant hormones (e.g. jasmonic acid, abscisic acid), naturally occurring
steroid plant, bio-fungicides from plant extracts.

• Building blocks: starting materials used to mainly to manufacture other chemical

compounds (e.g. ethylene, propylene, lactic acid, BTX (benzene, toluene, xylene)).

• Catalysts & Enzymes (e.g. catalyst produced from cellulosic agricultural waste and
activated carbon, as well as enzymes produced from fungi or plants (e.g. amylase,
papain, bromelin, ficin, malt diastase)77

• Colorants (including dyes, pigments and inks)78,79

• Cosmeceuticals: e.g. vitamins, antioxidants, botanical extracts, flavonoids, hyaluronic

acid and other bioactive substance added to products that are intended to be applied
to the human body with the purpose of cleaning, perfuming, protecting and keeping it
in good condition.80

• Flavours & Fragrances (e.g. vanillin, geraniol, cinnamic acid, geranyl acetate, linalool)

• Lubricants (e.g. triglyceride esters derived from vegetable oils obtained from plants)

• Nutraceuticals: e.g. amino acids, vitamins, proteins, antioxidants, derived from food
sources and used as additives for food and feed (e.g. hydroxytyrosol, lecithin).

75
https://www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/publications/roadmap/RoadToBio_action_plan.pdf
76
Spekreijse, J., Lammens, T., Parisi, C., Ronzon, T., Vis, M., Insights into the European market of bio-based
chemicals. Analysis based on ten key product categories, EUR 29581 EN, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, 2019.
77
B. Volesky, John H. T. Luong & Knud Aunstrup. Microbial Enzymes: Production, Purification, and Isolation, Critical
Reviews in Biotechnology, 2:2, 119-146, 1984. DOI: 10.3109/07388558409082583
78
https://www.foodcolor.com/natural-pigments
79
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281113520_Extraction_of_natural_dye_Pomegranate_rind_and_its_fastne
ss_properties
80
Guidance document on the demarcation between the cosmetic products directive 76/768 and the medicinal products
directive 2001/83 as greed between the commission services and the competent authorities of member states.

53
• Paints & Coatings (paint and coating containing a vegetable fraction coming from bio-
based materials such as vegetable oils, natural pigments or bio-based resins)

• Pharmaceuticals: Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (API’s): e.g. insuline, N-acetyl

glucosamine, L-lysine, artemisinic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, oleuropein, revastrol.

• Solvents: are chemicals that are used to dissolve other chemical substances e.g.
methanol, ethanol, toluene, acetone, turpentine, ethyl acetate.

• Surfactants (mostly produced from vegetable oils, some examples: e.g. glycolipids,
sopherolipids, esterquats and some starch derivates like carboxy methyl starch and
sugar derivates like alkyl polyglucoside)81

• Other chemical product

Some chemicals can be categories under two or more of the categories above as they are
used in multiple sectors. For example, methanol is a building block and is used to produce
many downstream chemicals and materials (e.g. it is used to produce formaldehyde which
is in turn used in the production of formaldehyde containing resins), but it also can be used
as a solvent. Methanol could therefore be categories under either building blocks or
solvents, depending on its use.

2 Materials

The materials category was re-arranged to clearly separate the chemical, energy and food
& feed products from materials. Only two sub-categories from the IEA Bioenergy Task 42
classification remain in the materials section (polymers and resins) and other products like
food, animal feed, fertilizers, chemicals, building blocks, bio-hydrogen and glycerine were
re-assigned and into new product categories and in the case of bio-hydrogen it can be re-
assigned as platform or product.

In the new classification system, the following five sub-categories are proposed in order to
cover a broader range of applications of materials:

• Composites (natural composites: e.g. wood, mud bricks (mud+straw), bones and bio-
based derived composites: contain synthetic fibres or synthetic polymers e.g. PLA/flax
composites, paper, concrete).

• Fibres (natural fibres: e.g. wool, jute, hemp, sisal, abaca, silk and bio-based derived
fibres: e.g. polycaprolactam (polyamide 6, Nylon 6), Poly(hexamethylene adipamide)
(polyamide 66, Nylon 66), polyamid-11 (Nylon 11))

• Organic fertilizers (e.g. humic acid, guano, sewage sludge, compost, digest)

• Polymers (natural polymers: e.g. starch, natural rubber, cellulose, CMC carboxymethyl
cellulose), lignin, chitin, pectin and bio-based derived polymers: e.g. polyethylene (PE),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polyethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate (PEF),
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), polylactic acid (PLA))

• Resins (natural resins: e.g. rosin, shellac, copal, respin and bio-based derived resins:
polyurethane resins, epoxy resins, alkyd resins)

• Other material products

81
Spekreijse, J., Lammens, T., Parisi, C., Ronzon, T., Vis, M., Insights into the European market of bio-based
chemicals. Analysis based on ten key product categories, EUR 29581 EN, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, 2019.

54
In the case of the fibres group, the Forest-based Sector Technology Platform (FTP)
provided the advice to further finetune the ‘fibres’ group to subcategories that will be more
understandable to their markets and stakeholders according to the application, such as:
textile fibres, paper and board fibres, composite fibres and carbon/speciality fibres.

3 Energy

The energy category includes secondary energy carriers (transportation biofuels, power
and heat). In this classification this category was slightly modified to differentiate the
functionality of the energy product.

• Cooling agents (e.g. natural refrigerants like carbon dioxide and ammonia used in heat
adsorption systems and refrigeration systems)

• Fuels (e.g. biodiesel, bioethanol, biomethane, biomethane, ethers, hydrogen)

• Heat (e.g. warming and heating services)

• Power (e.g. electricity production)

For the food and feed categories the main change is that they were moved out from the
material category according to IEA Bioenergy Task 42 and were added as two separate
categories. No further sub-classification is proposed because these products are not the
main focus of this project.

1.5 Application of the Biorefinery Classification System

The following example shows the application of the biorefinery classification and was taken
from the biorefinery database that is being developed in WP 4.

Biowert (Germany)

The core of the business of Biowert is the production of high-quality cellulosic fibres
from grass (lignocellulosic from cropland and grassland). The fibre processing unit
is a combination of mechanical and biochemical processes. The integration of the
biochemical process (anaerobic fermentation) uses the organic juices to produce biogas
which via a thermochemical conversion (combustion) delivers electricity and heat that is
internally consume for the processing of the fibres.

• This biorefinery is integrated by 3 different platforms (organic fibres, organic juice and
biogas) to produce three different materials (cellulosic fibres, organic fertilizer and
composites). In the production of composites an additional polymeric raw material is
required. The polymeric matrix of the composite can be fossil based, bio-based or a
recycled polymer.82

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Spekreijse, J., Lammens, T., Parisi, C., Ronzon, T., Vis, M., Insights into the European market of bio-based
chemicals. Analysis based on ten key product categories, EUR 29581 EN, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg, 2019.

55
 Figure 16. Example of biorefinery classification use. Refinery Biowert (Germany)

1.6 Additional information relevant to Stakeholders

The proposed classification system is developed to provide a simple and straightforward

way to describe current and future biorefineries and to allow their comparison taking into
account the current available information in databases.

The classification system forms the basis of clearly naming of specific biorefinery plants.
Taking the example of the Biowert Refinery in Germany, the description of the biorefinery
using the proposed classification system would be:

An integrated biorefinery using food residues and grass silage to produce

cellulosic fibres, organic fertilizers, composites, electricity & heat (through the
biogas, organic juice and fibre platforms)

This naming could be made even more specific, replacing the general terms organic
fertilizer, cellulosic fibres, composites and food residues to more specific ones if that
information is available.

56
On top of the 4 characteristics being part of the classification system, there are more
biorefinery based data that are important for the analysis and assessment activities within
this project, such as:

‒ Feedstock origin and supply

‒ Technology Readiness Level (TRL)
‒ Size of installation
‒ Integrated plant (the plant is or not integrated to an existing plant)
‒ Biorefinery location (territorial dimension based on GPS coordinates)

These biorefinery specific data will be collected in WP 3 and WP 4 and will (together with
the classification system data) be integrated in the biorefineries database (WP 4).

The additional information is not easy to obtain and in many cases the completion rate in
the database is very low, nevertheless it can be useful for future assessments on the impact
of biorefineries at different levels (economic, social, environmental).

57
2 WP 2 – DRIVERS AND BARRIERS FOR BIOREFINERIES

2.1 Introduction

The objective of WP 2 and the followed approach are detailed below.

Objective

The specific objective of work package 2 (WP 2) is to provide a comprehensive and

structured analysis of the barriers and drivers that pertain to biorefineries as classified in
WP 1.

The focus in WP2 is on the non-technical drivers and barriers to biorefinery development
whilst WP3 focuses on the technical drivers and barriers. The results of WP 2 and WP 3 will
feed into WP 5 which will assess the market prospects for biorefineries and develop an
outlook for biorefinery deployment in the EU to 2030.

Approach

In this report we make a distinction between general drivers/barriers and specific

drivers/barriers, where:

• General drivers/barriers are relevant for all/nearly all biorefineries.

• Specific drivers/barriers are relevant for one or only a few product groups (as defined
in the classification in WP 1) or biorefinery pathways (as defined in WP 3).

For general as well as specific drivers/barriers, individual drivers/barriers will be

determined first and then grouped into wider driver/barrier categories later. The work has
been subdivided in the following activities:

Activity A: Development of the barrier and driver categorisation

Since chemical and material based biorefineries encompass many feedstocks, processes,
platforms, and products (chemicals and materials), structuring barriers and drivers
becomes very important. To this end a categorisation system is developed, based on
several literature sources.

Activity B: Specific Barriers and Drivers

Specific barriers and drivers were determined for a limited set of product groups. These
product groups were defined based on the Biorefineries Classification developed in WP 1,
and in cooperation with Work packages 5 (Market Prospects for biorefineries to 2030) and
6 (EU Biorefinery Outlook and Roadmap for Deployment). Fact sheets for these product
groups were developed, using the same categorisation defined in Activity A, and validated
via interviews with companies that produce these types of products.

Activity C: General Barriers and Drivers

Based on the developed categorisation, general barriers and drivers were derived from
several literature sources, interviews and meetings with stakeholders and from specific
drivers and barrier factsheets These barriers and drivers were synthesised (combined) to
capture them in a limited number of barriers and drivers, further refined and listed in a
table format. Following that, a prioritisation was made by means of a Stakeholder meeting,
several interviews with experts, and literature.

2.2 Activity A) Development of the barrier and driver categorisation

To derive a suitable categorisation system for general and specific drivers and barriers a
practical approach was identified and adopted, which includes the following:

58
 1. Develop an initial categorisation system for general barriers and drivers

2. Identify and collect relevant literature on general drivers and barriers

3. Extract and categorise general barriers and drivers

4. Refine the categorisation system and derive umbrella terms for barriers and drivers

DEVELOP INITIAL CATEGORISATION SYSTEM FOR GENERAL BARRIERS AND DRIVERS

As key starting point for the initial categorisation of drivers and barriers we built on recent
EU-supported work that two consortium partners of the current assignment (BTG and/or
E4tech) contributed to. This concerns on the one hand the Roadmap for the Chemical
Industry in Europe towards a Bioeconomy, developed in the frame of the Horizon 2020
(BBI JU) RoadToBio project (GA No. 745623, www.roadtobio.eu) and on the other hand
the report Insights into the European market for bio-based chemicals, a study
commissioned by JRC83.

The RoadToBio project developed a roadmap for the chemical industry to show a way on
how to increase the share of bio-based or renewable feedstock (to 25% of total volume of
organic chemicals/raw materials/feedstock used by the chemical industry in 2030). In the
roadmap84 a full chapter is dedicated to describing general barriers. In total 16 barriers are
discussed, grouped into six categories: 1. Access to feedstock, 2. Competition with fossil
fuels, 3. Policy and regulation, 4. Public perception and society, 5, Markets, finance and
investment, 6. Research and Development.

The “Insights” study presents the outcome of research conducted jointly by BTG and the
EC’s Joint Research Centre (in Sevilla, Spain). For the “Insights” study the authors built on
a categorisation adopted from work lead by85, which had grouped drivers and barriers into
four categories: 1. Innovation & technological readiness, 2. Economic and market potential,
3. Social and environmental impact, 4. Legal and regulatory factors.

IDENTIFY AND COLLECT RELEVANT LITERATURE ON GENERAL DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

In a desk study, documents discussing general drivers and barriers for the bioeconomy
were identified and collected. Documents published or issued in recent years were
prioritised. A mixture of sources was considered, including:

• Policy documents and the actions from the EC or from associated bodies or partners,
such as the BIC SIRA 2030 , the BIC Vision document86, the JRC ‘Insights’ study1, the
recent JRC report on the bioeconomy size87, and the Lot 3 Tender documents (2019)

• Deliverables for EC-supported projects, in particular Coordination and Support Actions

(CSA) and CSA-like projects, such as BIOEAST (2020), BLOOM (Oct 2019), RoadToBio
(April 2019), and Star-ProBio (2017)

• Conference presentations and papers such as from Chafiâ88

83
Spekreijse J, Lammens T, Parisi C, Ronzon T, Vis M. Insights into the European market for bio-based chemicals
Analysis based on 10 key product categories. Published online 2019. doi:10.2760/549564
84
www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/publications/roadmap/RoadToBio_strategy_document.pdf
85
Mohannak K, Samtani L. A Criteria-based Approach for Evaluating Innovation Commercialisation A Criteria-based
Approach for Evaluating Innovation Commercialisation. DRUID Soc Conf 2014. Published online 2014
86
Bio based industries consortium. The Strategic Innovation and Research Agenda (SIRA 2030) for a Circular Bio-
based Europe. 2020;(March). https://biconsortium.eu/news/SIRA2030-consultation
87
JRC. How Big Is the Bioeconomy? Reflections from an Economic Perspective.; 2020. doi:10.2760/144526
88
Chafiâ D. Biomass and Waste to Value Products. G.I. Dynamics BV; 2020

59
• Scientific (peer-reviewed) papers such as Hassan et al.89 and Brunnhofer et al.90

The literature suggested by EC staff at the inception meeting (such as the EC Guidance for
Impact Assessment and the EC Self-Assessment Tool (SAT) for regional bioeconomy
projects) was also examined.

EXTRACT AND CATEGORISE GENERAL BARRIERS AND DRIVERS

Some tens of the earlier mentioned documents that discuss general drivers and barriers
for the bioeconomy were assessed. From the documents a wide range of general barriers
and/or drivers were extracted.

Using the initial two categorisations, we started filling a table with the extracted general
drivers. Both due to the sheer number and variety of general drivers it appeared not
possible to fit all of them in either of the initial categorisations. It became clear that the
initial categorisation system would have to be refined.

REFINE THE CATEGORISATION SYSTEM AND DERIVE UMBRELLA TERMS FOR BARRIERS
AND DRIVERS

For two distinct, but interacting, reasons it appeared useful to define a revised
categorisation system, combining and adding on the two initial categorisations.

To reflect the different perspectives of various groups of stakeholders (e.g. private

companies vs. policy makers) a distinction was made between micro-economic (company-
level) and macro-economic (society-level) drivers. A similar distinction can be made
regarding societal matters, to reflect the different viewpoints from the individual
stakeholders and the full society.

To streamline the outcome of the above exercise and to reduce the large number of
different terms used to describe individual general drivers and barriers, an effort was made
to synthesise (combine) them, and to capture them in a limited number of overarching (
“umbrella”) terms and themes.

To ensure that for both drivers and barriers the same categorisation is applied a final
streamlining step was implemented, yielding the following categories that can be
applied for general drivers and barriers alike:

• Business drivers vs. Business barriers

• Innovation drivers vs. Innovation barriers

• Economic drivers vs. Economic barriers

• Access to feedstock drivers vs. Access to feedstock barriers

• Environmental drivers vs. Environmental barriers

• Societal drivers vs. Societal barriers

• Policy drivers vs. Policy barriers

89
Hassan SS, Williams GA, Jaiswal AK. Moving towards the second generation of lignocellulosic biorefineries in the EU:
Drivers, challenges, and opportunities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2019;101(November 2018):590-599.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.11.041
90
Brunnhofer M, Gabriella N, Schöggl JP, Stern T, Posch A. The biorefinery transition in the European pulp and paper
industry – A three-phase Delphi study including a SWOT-AHP analysis. For Policy Econ. 2020;110(February
2019):101882. doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2019.02.006

60
The resulting driver and barrier categories are shown Table 10.

Table 10. Grouping drivers and barriers into umbrella terms and themes

Drivers (extracted from many sources) General barriers (based on RoadtoBio)

Business drivers / business perspective / new Bio-based alternatives not cost-competitive/ Lower
business models / cost reductions / market drivers performance of bio-based alternatives
Umbrella term “Business drivers” Umbrella term “Business barriers”

Innovation / Advancing R&D / Functional benefits / Need for research and development / Limited
Performance drivers guidance and direction in R&D / Limited
Umbrella term “Innovation drivers” understanding of ecological boundaries and
innovation adaption and diffusion
Umbrella term “Innovation barriers”

Economic growth; rural/community development / Limited availability of funding in the early stages /
job creation / prosperity and employment / People Limited support for scale-up / Limited access to
and community / European finance for start-up & SME
competitiveness/independence Umbrella term “Economic barriers”
Umbrella term “Economic drivers”

Feedstock/Raw Material Flexibility/Security / Low availability of biomass / Non-level playing field

Management of Natural Resources / Resource Umbrella term “Access to feedstock barriers”
Efficiency / Circularity
Umbrella term “Access to feedstock drivers”

Climate change / Environment / Carbon Footprint / Umbrella term “Environmental barriers”

Ecological boundaries / Sustainable planet
Umbrella term “Environmental drivers”

Personal Health / Lifestyle / Consumer awareness Lack of information, understanding and expertise /
and concerns / new purchasing and consumption Low public acceptance of bio-based products /
patterns / Technology acceptance Unrealistic/High expectations
“Societal drivers” Umbrella term “Societal barriers”

Policy and regulation Lack of policy harmonisation / Limited long-term

Umbrella term “Policy drivers” reliability / REACH - Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Evaluation of Chemicals
Umbrella term “Policy barriers”

2.3 Activity B) Specific Barriers and Drivers

For economic actors (e.g. biorefinery operators or investors) specific drivers and barriers
may be of high, if not higher, relevance than general drivers and barriers. Such specific
drivers and barriers will be determined for a limited number of (chemical and material)
product groups. The selection of what product groups to consider will tie into a) the WP
1 biorefinery classification, b) the WP 3 pathways, and c) selection criteria of the
consortium.

SELECTION OF PRODUCT GROUPS AND CHEMICALS

a) WP 1 Biorefinery classification system

WP 1 of the current assignment refined a classification system developed earlier by IEA

Bioenergy Task 42 Biorefinery. The biorefinery classification system distinguishes the
following product groups:

• 13 chemical product groups, as follows: Additives, Agrochemicals, Building blocks,

Catalysts & Enzymes, Colourants, Cosmeceuticals, Flavours & Fragrances, Lubricants,
Nutraceuticals, Paints & Coatings, Pharmaceuticals, Solvents, and Surfactants

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• 5 material product groups, as follows: Composites, Fibres, Organic Fertilisers,
Polymers, and Resins

Also included in the proposed WP 1 classification, but beyond the scope of this study, are
the following biorefinery products:

• energy products: cooling agents, fuels, heat, and power

• food

• animal feed

b) WP 3 Biorefinery pathways

WP 3 of the current assignment study has identified and studied a series of biorefinery
pathways. For each pathway, several process variants exist regarding secondary refining
and how co-products and residual materials are utilised. Two different approaches are
recognised in how the biorefineries develop:

• bottom-up approach, considers the extension and/or upgrading of existing biomass

processing facility (e.g. sugar, starch, oil, and pulp mill)

• top-down approach, considers new industrial value chains with newly developed, highly
integrated systems

Combining the top-down and a bottom-up approaches, WP 3 identified the following 11

biorefinery pathways91:

A. One platform (C6 sugars) biorefinery using sugar crops

B. One platform (starch) biorefinery using starch crops

C. One platform (oil) biorefinery using oil crops

D. Two-platform (pulp and spent liquor) biorefinery using wood

E. Three platform (C5 sugars, C6 sugars and lignin) biorefinery using lignocellulosic
biomass

F. Two-platform (organic fibres and organic juice) biorefinery using green biomass

G. Two-platform (oil and biogas) biorefinery using aquatic biomass

H. Two-platform (organic fibres and oil) biorefinery using natural fibres

I. One platform (syngas) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass and municipal

solid waste

J. Two platform (pyrolytic liquid and biochar) biorefinery using lignocellulosic

biomass

K. One platform (bio-crude) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass

91
The pathways do not represent a specific biorefinery facility, there could be several initiatives using this pathway or
its variants in the world. Each of these “umbrella” biorefinery pathways encompasses the different process
variations of this pathway described in literature. In each pathway a broad range of chemicals and materials may
be generated.

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c) Selection criteria for product groups

Considering the many configuration variants that can exist under each biorefinery
“umbrella”’ pathway the number of candidate product groups for which specific drivers and
barriers could be determined is high92. Available resources limit the number of product
groups that can be assessed to 10. The selection was completed based on the following
criteria:

• Both chemicals and materials shall be represented

• No domination of a single or just a few biorefinery pathways

• Market potential i.e. substantial market volume and/or market growth (CAGR)

• Stakeholder views and preferences

Product groups and chemicals selected

Based on the information listed earlier the following product groups and chemicals were
selected:

Table 11. Selected product groups and chemicals for determining Specific Drivers and Barriers

Product group Chemical/Material

Additives Propylene glycol

lubricants

Solvents

Surfactants

Fibres Microfibrillated cellulose

Polymers & Plastics Thermoplastic starch & Poly lactic acid

Building blocks 1,4-butanediol

Building blocks Lactic acid

Building blocks Methanol

Resins Lignin based phenolic resins

FACTSHEETS SPECIFIC DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

In Annex III, 10 factsheets are given, one for each product group/chemical. These
factsheets have been drafted and validated by an interview with one or more companies
that produce that type of products.

FACTSHEET ANALYSIS TO EXTRACT GENERAL BARRIERS AND DRIVERS.

All factsheets have been analysed, to extract drivers and barriers and drivers that occur in
more than one category. In that case it may not be a specific driver/barrier but a more
general one. These occurrences have been tabulated in Table 12, and these have been

92
For example in commercial, demo, and pilot-scale facilities for biorefinery pathway A the following are produced:
Sugar, ethanol, Ethylene glycols (MEG, DEG, TEG), Lactic acid, Polylactic acid, Lactide monomers, Microcellulose
fibres, arabinose and galacturonic acid, animal feed, carbon dioxide, biogas, heat and electricity (source: WP3
status report, Table 3).

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used in drafting the list of general drivers and barriers complemented by the literature
review and the views of stakeholders, gathered in interviews.

In this table the number in parenthesis after the specific driver/barrier indicates how often
a driver of barrier is listed in the factsheets, so 6/10 means that in six out of ten factsheets
the barrier is mentioned.

Table 12. Occurrence of Specific drivers and barriers in the factsheets

Category Drivers Barriers

1: Business 1. Many products have multiple 1. Cost competitiveness (7/10)

applications (6/10) 2. Poor performance (4/10)
2. Bio-based is an advantage for 3. Difficult to enter existing markets (4/10)
marketing, demand for bio-based
increasing (7/10)

2: Innovation 1. Technology consolidated (3/10) 1. Issues with IP (2/10)

2. High investments in R&D or R&D is
widespread (2/10)
3. Improved properties (4/10)

3: Economy 1. Increasing EU competitiveness (2/10) 1. High investment costs for scale-up or

production costs (3/10)

4: Feedstock 1. Most cases feedstocks are available 1. Security of supply now or when scaling
from several sources (6/10) up is required (6/10)
2. Efficient extraction of lignocellulosic 2. Food crop use/sustainability questions
sugars creates more feedstock (3/10)
opportunity (2/10)
3. Possibility to use waste (4/10)

5: Climate 1. Offers GHG savings (10/10) 1. Lack of standardized, detailed studied

change and 2. Biodegradability (6/10) information about environmental
environment performance/difficulty proving it (5/10)

6: Citizen and 1. Growing consumer awareness (4/10) 1. Lack of consumer awareness, lack of
Society 2. Non-harmful to health, low toxicity product labelling to increase awareness,
(6/10) bio-based not a selling argument or
“fake products” (lack of knowledge)
(2/10)
2. Confusing terminology (3/10)

7: Policy and 1. Ban on plastics, regulations towards 1. Lack of regulatory push, regulations
regulation sustainable packaging (4/10) country/region dependent (6/10)
2. Some regulatory requirements (e.g.
REACH) are costly and time consuming
(3/10)
3. Lack of standards/labels (2/10)

2.4 Activity C) General Barriers and Drivers

Based on the developed categorisation, general barriers and drivers were derived from
several literature sources, and the Specific Drivers and Barriers work. In Table 13 (page
Table 13) a synthesised/combined table of the general barriers and drivers with respect to
biorefineries in the EU is given. Per category a concise description alluding to the choices
behind the groupings is given.

GENERAL DRIVER AND BARRIER DESCRIPTIONS

Business drivers and barriers

This is about the business-perspective, and the drivers and barriers individual biorefineries
or those that seek to develop them are experiencing.

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The context here is that biorefineries seek to convert biomass into a portfolio of marketable
bio-based products, as follows from the definition. Biorefineries are in development, and
chemical and material products, many of fossil origin are to be replaced by biorefinery
products. This leads already to several barriers and drivers that almost inevitably surface:

• Biorefinery products are often substituting fossil products in an established market,

which means barriers due to established businesses with already optimised value
chains, and tendencies to resist change need to be overcome.

• Biorefineries produce multiple products, for multiple markets, which means that market
focus needs to be divided, and market demands may not align. The flip-side of this is
that feedstocks are used more efficiently, leading to resource efficiency and cost
advantages, and that companies are less dependent on one market.

In Table 13, the business barriers and drivers are grouped under Product properties and
prices, and Markets and applications.

In the Table 13 part about product properties and prices, the advantages of bio-based
products are listed: these can be functional advantages, lower life-cycle costs, and
advantages because of green premiums or corporate social responsibility83. These ‘green
premiums’ actually exists, both according to literature93, and it is mentioned for multiple
product groups in the specific barriers and drivers. This ‘green premiums’ are however
more easily accepted for ‘premium’ products. For more common products it is much more
difficult to charge more94. The driver is furthermore not universally applicable, since it is
also mentioned95 at the barriers that consumers are less willing to pay green premiums,
especially when new bio-based ingredients are used in existing products. Besides these
advantages, bio-based products also exhibit sometimes a lower, and/or less consistent
quality, and higher costs83.

In the part on Markets and applications, benefits of bio-based products are related to their
perceived environmental/sustainable benefits creating a market push via Corporate Social
Responsibility programmes, and purchase policies of Brands, but also that these benefits
can be used in promotions and are more in demand (market push)96. Besides that, the
number of applications for bio-based products rise, and the bio-economy can provide a
wider spectrum of products compared to the fossil industry1. Barriers in this part were
discussed already earlier.

Innovation drivers and barriers

Innovation is very much related to biorefineries, since many products and process are
relatively new, and still in development. From literature and expert interviews it’s clear
that R&D is widespread, and that there are high investments in R&D, assisted by EU (e.g.
BBI-JU), national and regional public funds. There is appetite for investments, helped by
the same market push and pull effects discussed under business drivers and barriers83.

Flip-side of these drivers are the related barriers: Biorefineries are in many cases new
plants, which are - also because of the innovative character – subject to the typical
problems that start-ups have, such as difficulty to attract financing after the pilot phase
(‘the Valley of Death’), and all other associated problems with trying to establish new and
innovative enterprises83. To overcome the problems with scale-up of biorefineries, there
are subsidy programmes (see the information the BBI-JU programme later in this

93
Carus M, Partanen A, Dammer L. Detailed evaluation of GreenPremium prices for bio-based products along the value
chain. 2018;10(2013-03):1-20. https://bioforever.org/sites/default/files/publications/2018-03/Detailed-eval-
GreenPremium-prices-for-bb-prod-along-value-chain.pdf
94
Expert opinion. Interview with an industry expert in the framework of this project, 2020
95
Pfau S, Vos J. Roadmap for the Chemical Industry in Europe towards a Bioeconomy - Deliverable 2.2.; 2017.
doi:10.2169/naika.106.contents
96
European Commission. Bio-Based Products – from Idea to Market.; 2019. doi:10.2777/305874

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paragraph), and the EU is working towards streamlining financial resources and
coordinating between various funding mechanism, and between different countries94.

Economy drivers and barriers

Economy drivers and barriers are less about the individual business perspective, and more
about the larger benefits and issues related to biorefineries. Biorefineries use agricultural
and forestry feedstocks, and the bioeconomy can thus offer a significant opportunity to
grow and protect jobs and thereby stimulate economic development in rural (farming)
communities. Europe is well-suited for biorefineries because of a skilled workforce and
existing infrastructure. Other drivers for biorefineries are the price volatility of fossil (oil)
feedstocks and instability of oil-producing countries is avoided. Conversely, low oil prices
can also be a barrier if prices are particularly low. Biorefineries allow Europe to be more
self-sufficient, with more resilient supply chains because of distributed feedstock supply
and production83,97

In Europe, cost levels are relatively high compared to the rest of the world. Also, there is
competition from non-EU produces that do not have to comply with CO2 emission reduction
requirements such as ETS. The Carbon Border Adjustment Measure (CBAM) is a policy
initiative that could compensate this (see the section under Policy and regulation)94.

Feedstock drivers and barriers

Biorefineries use biomass as feedstock, which is relatively abundant, though it can -

because of the intensive use for food, feed, materials, and energy - also be viewed as
scarce, also because the amount of arable land is limited. Biomass use for chemicals and
materials is generally viewed as high value, but the (perceived) biomass availability in case
of a full roll-out of biorefineries can be viewed as limited, and hence characterised as a
potential barrier. Given that many biorefineries use oil crops, sugar and/or starch crops,
as shown in WP 4 of this project, the scarcity of biomass and competition with food/feed
is an issue. Quantitatively, the German IfBB has projected98 that the global land area to
be used for bioplastics in 2023 will be 913 700 ha, or 0.007% of the total global arable
land. This can be compared to the use for materials (0.79% of arable land), biofuels
(0.39% of arable land) and food & feed (9.25% of arable land). Other studies99100, note
the issue and offer various solutions for sustainable use of biomass. Policy drivers and
barriers related to this issue are discussed under ‘Policy and regulations’.

Using biomass as feedstock can also for other reasons be problematic, such as high and
fluctuating prices, single-feedstock dependency and pollution through fertilisers used when
growing plants.

One potential barrier is the view by some that the current European/Nordic model of
sustainable forest management, which combines forest management with below-increment
harvesting and – extensive – economic valorisation of forest products, should be
reviewed101. Coupled with the recent scientific debate on whether the sustainable

97
Farai Chireshe and Tjaša Bole-Rentel. The bio-economy can create thousands of jobs and boost our supply chains –
here’s how. https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-08-18-the-bio-economy-can-create-thousands-of-jobs-
and-boost-our-supply-chains-heres-how/
98
IfBB- Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites. Biopolymers facts and statistics 2019. Biopolym facts Stat.
Published online 2019:3-46. https://www.ifbb-hannover.de/en/facts-and-statistics.html
99
Rijksoverheid. Biomassa 2030. Published online 2016:32.
https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten/rapporten/2015/12/01/biomassa-2030
100
IEA. IEA Bioenergy 28th Update. Vol 31.; 2014. doi:10.1016/s0961-9534(07)00064-5
101
European Wilderness Society. Forest experts demanding change in forest management. Published 2020.
https://wilderness-society.org/more-than-70-leading-forest-experts-warn-against-actionism-in-the-german-forest-
crisis-and-demand-end-of-wood-factories/

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harvesting level in the EU is reached or even exceeded102, this could lead to less woody
feedstock for biorefineries in the future.

Drivers for using biomass as feedstock are the diversity of feedstocks that can be used
that can create supply chain flexibility83. Surplus lands, or marginal lands can be used for
growing crops, and it is in many cases possible to combine growing biomass with other
desirable land use functions103. Especially forests have multiple functions and values, such
as enhancing biodiversity, recreation, cultural values, and carbon storage104. Lastly, the
increasing availability of source-separated waste is beneficial for biorefineries that use this
type of feedstock105.

Climate change and environment drivers and barriers

The use of biomass for chemicals and materials is driven by the need to reduce fossil
dependency, and to decarbonise the economy. The bioeconomy, of which biorefineries are
an essential part, contributes to many Sustainable Development Goals106, such as Good
Health and Well-being, Sustainable Cities and Communities, Responsible Consumption and
Production, and Climate Action. More specifically related to the environment, biorefinery
products can also offer one or more of benefits, such as biodegradability, low ecotoxicity,
recyclability, and low human toxicity107. Biorefinery products can also replace high energy
intensive materials like steel, and thus lower the carbon footprint.

Given that there are many bio-based products on the market, proving their environmental
or climate benefits is problematic – and thus a barrier. Via instruments like a Life Cycle
Analysis (LCA) the specific benefits of one product – thus on the product level - can be
determined, but LCA’s are costly and time consuming. Furthermore, although there is
standardisation in LCA’s (e.g. the ISO norm 14040), there is still quite some unclarity on
how to conduct these LCA’s for bio-based products and processes. Especially for new
companies/SMEs and for biorefineries that produce many products, this constitutes a
barrier. One recent development is the broader focus on circularity, as opposed to the
exclusive focus of using bio-based materials83,95.

In addition to the barriers above, there is not a level playing field between bio-based
materials and fossil materials. In an open letter to the JRC, Nova explained that fossil-
sources polymers are subject to less stringent demands regarding LCA and sustainability
as compared to bio-based polymers, which means that bio-based and fossil-based
polymers are not scrutinised on an equal footing. Secondly, bio-based processes are often
new and in development, as opposed to well-established value chains for fossil products108
but still need to show they are sustainable from day one94.

102
Korhonen K. A new article in the journal Nature overestimates the increase of forest harvesting in Europe.
Published 2020. https://www.luke.fi/en/blog/a-new-article-in-the-journal-nature-overestimates-the-increase-of-
forest-harvesting-in-europe/
103
Farai Chireshe and Tjaša Bole-Rentel. The bio-economy can create thousands of jobs and boost our supply chains –
here’s how. https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-08-18-the-bio-economy-can-create-thousands-of-jobs-
and-boost-our-supply-chains-heres-how/
104
Orazio C, Kies U, Edwards D. Handbook for wood mobilisation in Europe. Published online 2017:116.
http://simwood.efi.int
105
Favoino E, Giavini M. Bio-Waste Generation in the EU: Current Capture Levels and Future Potential.; 2020.
https://zerowasteeurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020_07_06_bic_zwe_report_bio_waste.pdf
106
Anand M. Brief for GSDR – 2016 Update Innovation and Sustainable Development: A Bioeconomic Perspective.
Published online 2016:1-4
107
Panchaksharam Y, Kiri P, Bauen A, et al. Roadmap for the Chemical Industry in Europe towards a Bioeconomy.;
2019. https://www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/publications/roadmap/RoadToBio_strategy_document.pdf
108
Carus M, vom Berg C, Scharf A, Puente Á. How can the environmental effects of bio-based polymers be compared
with those of petrochemical polymers on equal footing ? 2019;(Ilcd):1-6. https://www.european-
bioplastics.org/nova-institute-published-open-letter-to-jrc-on-comparability-of-bio-based-and-petrochemical-
polymers/

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It should be noted that, although this letter only pertains to bio-based polymers, there is
no reason to expect that the situation is any differed in any other case where bio-based
products compete with their fossil counterparts.

One specific issue for bioplastics is that recycling of bio compostable plastics is not in line
with current composting practices. Because of that, bio compostable plastics are treated
like regular plastics and utilised in e.g. Refuse-Derived-Fuel and similar lower valued
applications83.

Citizen and Society drivers and barriers

The use of bio-based products by consumers is arguably a driver for biorefineries. A

growing consumer preference for ‘green’ products is observed, coupled with a growing
awareness on the need for action regarding carbon emission reduction96. Many people have
a positive attitude towards bio-based products, and increasingly prefer bio-based, or
‘natural’ products, especially those related to skin contact, and personal health83109. Bio-
based products can also in some cases contribute to occupational health and safety, for
example by being less toxic, such as with biolubricants.

Drawbacks for biorefineries are the poor terminology. Bio-based is a poor marketing term,
and terms like biodegradability versus bio-based can be confusing. Added to that is the
low public awareness of biorefinery products, and the association that some consumers
have with bio-based as low-quality and/or high-priced. For some stakeholders, the term
‘bio-based’ in itself is not a fully convincing vision.

A more general emerging barrier for biorefinery products is that some stakeholders are
casting doubt on all use of biomass for products, which has led to negative perceptions by
some. This is intertwined with the ‘food versus fuel’ discussion110 which pertains mainly to
biofuels and bioenergy, and the – earlier mentioned – discussion on sustainable
management of forests. Because biorefineries – also those producing chemicals and
materials – are closely linked to bioenergy, biofuels, and forestry, it is realistic to assume
that the sector will also be affected by this discussion. One example showing this influence
is that biolubricant producers have to prove that their products are not produced using
palm oil94.

Labels can be used to highlight the benefits of bio-based products, but strict requirements,
combined with the fact that many bio-based products also contain non-bio-based
components, mean that some labels (such as labelling cosmetics products are ‘natural’
only if 100% bio-based) mean that many bio-based products do not qualify).

Policy and regulation drivers and barriers

Regulatory incentives and barriers can be particularly strong drivers/barriers and impact a
wide range of biorefinery pathways. They are likely to rank high in the prioritisation.

There are different ways in which governments can regulate, influence behaviour, and alter
incentives111. Each of these instruments has its advantages and disadvantages, strengths,
and weaknesses:

109
Sijtsema SJ, Onwezen MC, Reinders MJ, Dagevos H, Partanen A, Meeusen M. Consumer perception of bio-based
products - An exploratory study in 5 European countries. NJAS - Wageningen J Life Sci. 2016;77:61-69.
doi:10.1016/j.njas.2016.03.007
110
Bioenergy E. Food versus Fuel. https://etipbioenergy.eu/sustainability/food-vs-fuel-debate
111
Wageningen University and Research. An overview of suitable regional policies to support bio-based business
models - Power4BIO deliverable 4.2. 2020. Accessed July 15, 2020. https://www.wur.nl/en/show/Biobased-
resins.htm

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 1. regulation – a command and control approach using obligatory standards and
licenses that require companies/market players to change their behaviour and
punishes them if they are detected to be non-compliant.

2. economic instruments – includes all instruments changing price incentives

(taxes, subsidies, feed-in tariffs), but also quantity constraints ((tradable) quota,
tariff rate quota), and charges.

3. voluntary approaches – could be codes of good practice, self-regulation and other

industry-led initiatives. Financial incentive schemes could be part of these
instruments. These approaches typically encourage rather than force people or
businesses to show the desired behaviour.

4. information and advice sharing systems – policies aimed at raising the

awareness and facilitating changes in behaviour.

5. market-based signalling approaches – labelling, traceability, voluntary

certification schemes and farm assurance schemes. These approaches are often
related to informational problems (lack of information about product quality and
food safety) hindering the proper functioning of markets.

6. other measures/instruments not in the categories above such as vision

documents, road maps, strategies.

The last four types of instruments are all examples of so-called “soft measures”. Mirroring
this terminology, the first two types of instruments could be referred to as “hard
measures”.

Regulatory incentives and barriers that apply specifically for bio-based chemicals and
materials were studied in the first year of the earlier mentioned RoadToBio project by
Nova-institute with support from BTG. From some tens of European policies and regulations
the most relevant ones were selected. The following were considered the most relevant
the development of biorefineries and the market potential of bio-based chemicals and
materials:

1. Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II)

2. Waste Framework Directive (WFD)

3. Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)

4. Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

5. Council Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 (Common Customs Tariff - CCT)

6. Genetically Modified Organisms Directive (2001/18/EC GMO)

7. EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS)

8. Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) and Energy Performance of Buildings Directive

(EPBD)

9. Land Use and Land Use Change (LULUCF)

10. European Green Deal

11. Circular Economy Package (CEP)

12. Packaging and Packaging waste Directive

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 13. Sustainable Finance Taxonomy

14. Deforestation and forest degradation

Below, the relevance of each of these policies with respect to biorefineries is described.

The revised renewable energy directive 2018/2001/EU (“RED II”)112 is a set of

policy initiatives by the European Commission with the overarching aim of making Europe
climate neutral in 2050. To this end, the overall EU target for Renewable Energy Sources
consumption by 2030 has been raised to 32%, and a transport sub-target has been
included of minimum of 14% of the energy consumed in road and rail transport by 2030
as renewable energy.

One effect of the RED II on biorefineries and bio-based products is that of a non-level
playing field: The RED II, and many national programmes provide incentives for bioenergy
and biofuels and consequently the use of feedstocks for that purpose. This creates higher
prices for biomass, and thus higher costs for biorefineries. So, the limited biomass supply
is favoured to be used for energy purposes, which directly contradicts the circular economy
idea because it reduces the cascading use of biomass and instead promotes direct, final
use for energy generation. For certain types of biomass – those types that are not
considered to carry the risk of Land Use Change – an even stronger competition is created,
since these feedstocks can be ‘double-counted’, meaning that they can receive additional
benefits. Also, these are not subject to the gradual phase-out of First-Generation biofuels.
This effect is especially occurring for residual oils, Crude Tall Oil, glycerol and animal fats113.
It should however be noted that many biorefineries also produce bioenergy in the form of
heat, power and/or biofuels, so the incentives of the RED II will in many cases also support
biorefineries development.

Positive effects on the availability of biomass are the sustainability and GHG criteria that
were introduced in the RED and the RED II. For biofuels this means for example that
minimum amounts of GHG savings need to be achieved, ranging from 50% for older plants
(before October 2015) to 65% for the newest plants (after January 2026). Also for forestry
feedstocks sustainability criteria are mandated, and GHG criteria for solid and gaseous
biomass are defined. All these criteria will have the effect that biomass will be used more
efficiently, and that more energy, chemicals, and materials can be generated with the same
amount of feedstock.

The Waste Framework Directive (WFD) has been established in 2008, and was updated
in 2018114. The goals of this update were to ensure that waste management systems of
member states would be improved regarding sustainable materials, increase efficiency of
resource use and to make sure that waste is valued as a resource115. Similarly, to the
Circular Economy Package, this update is mainly focused on non-biomass, finite resources.
However, the waste reduction aimed for can be beneficial for biorefineries since many bio-
based products are biodegradable and compostable. Also allowing biodegradable and
compostable packaging to be collected with the bio-waste and recycled in industrial
composting and anaerobic digestion will be a driver for biorefineries. Another measure that
can be beneficial is the obligation of member states to set up separate collection systems
for bio-waste, since this means a higher availability of separated biowaste streams as
feedstocks for biorefineries.

112
European Commission. renewable energy directive 2018/2001/EU. Published online 2018. https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2018.328.01.0082.01.ENG&toc=OJ:L:2018:328:TOC
113
Vom Berg C, Dammer L, Vos J, Pfau S. Roadmap for the Chemical Industry in Europe towards a Bioeconomy -
Deliverable 2.1.; 2018. https://www.roadtobio.eu/
114
European Commission. Waste Framework Directive 2018/851. Published 2018. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32018L0851
115
Latham & Watkins LLP. The EU Adopts Four Directives to Solidify Europe’s Leading Position in Waste Management.
Published 2018

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A barrier for the use of waste streams in biorefineries is the sometimes non-uniform
classification of materials as waste, residue, or coproduct, which leads to loopholes that
cannot be addressed by national legislation alone. Feedstocks are classified differently in
the Member States, so that a feedstock can be seen as a co-product in one country while
being labelled as a residue in another. This ambiguity in classification of a material as being
a “product” or “waste” can result in situations where a material has to comply with both
product and waste legislations, depending on the regions it is marketed in.

This can result in problems with end-of-life treatment, how the biorefinery is characterised
(as waste treatment facility or production facility), and whether the final products can be
classified as ‘product’ or ‘waste’113. In most countries (e.g. AT, FR, UK, NL), individual
companies can apply for an end-of-waste status of their products in a standardised
procedure. In some countries (DE, IT), this option seems not to be available. In those
cases, only the legislator can start such a procedure 116.

It used to be the case that use of gasification, pyrolysis and other processes such as
industrial biotechnology to produce new chemical materials from waste was not counted
as recycling; but this has been chanced in the 2018 update of the WFD.

REACH is the European Regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and

Restriction of Chemicals117. It entered into force in 2007. REACH aims to improve the
protection of human health and the environment through the better and earlier
identification of the intrinsic properties of chemical substances. This is done via four key
processes, namely the registration, evaluation, authorisation, and restriction of chemicals.
Manufacturers and importers are required to gather information on the properties of their
chemical substances, allowing safe handling. The information must be registered in a
central database in the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) in Helsinki
(https://echa.europa.eu/). REACH ensures that new substances, once registered can be
freely used and traded in the EU. REACH also provides for a level playing field with non-EU
producers, by also requiring registration of imported chemicals that are placed on the EU
market.

For biorefineries and bio-based products REACH implies that for new chemical substances
– often the case in innovative biorefineries – registration is required. This registration is
progressively more elaborate and expensive when the amount of product that is placed on
the market increases. This is especially difficult for small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) that do not have sufficient internal know-how. ECHA has introduced reduced fees
for SMEs which reduces this burden, which helps to lessen that part of the barrier.

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is a set of policies, defined at EU level that
wants to ensure the stable supply of affordable food in the EU, safeguard farmers income,
and contribute to climate change mitigation, and supporting rural development and
landscapes. Support for EU farmers was in 2018 about 1/3 of the EU budget118. A side
benefit for biorefineries is that a stable supply of food also means availability of crops and
residues for biorefining.

An effect on biorefineries and bio-based products is that costs of feedstock produced in

Europe are generally high compared to other regions, though it should be mentioned that
other factors, like scarcity of land, and relatively high farming incomes will likely also be
important. These high costs of feedstock mean that bio-based products, that in many cases
compete on a global scale, are at a disadvantage. These high costs are related to quota
and tariffs, and the generally higher costs because of demonstration of the necessary

116
Vis M, Toussaint A, Houser H, Probst M, Insam H. Guidelines on Legal and Pre-Normative Issues in the Focus
Regions - Residue2Heat Deliverable 6.7.; 2019. www.residue2heat.eu
117
European Commission. REACH. Published online 2007. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32006R1907R(01)
118
European Commission. The common agricultural policy at a glance. Published online 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/key-policies/common-agricultural-policy/cap-glance_en

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environmental sustainability standards by farmers, which requires complex and time-
consuming procedures to demonstrate the biomass’ sustainability113.

The Common Customs Tariff (CCT) is the common European set of customs tariffs that
apply to goods imported in the EU Single Market119. In 1987 legislation was introduced to
set up a database (TARIC) in which all tariffs, agricultural measures, trade defence
measures, prohibitions and restrictions are combined. The tariffs and quota are the same
in every Member State, but differ significantly per goods category, with generally higher
tariffs for agricultural goods.

The effect of this is generally higher prices for agricultural goods in the EU. This leads to
increased costs for biorefineries. Though the products of the biorefineries themselves may
be protected by these import tariffs, this decreases competitiveness outside the EU. As a
consequence, this is an incentive for producers to look for site locations outside of Europe.
Another consequence of the CCT is that many petrochemicals are exempt from import
tariffs or fall under specific agreements that lower the import tariff rate. As a general trend,
petrochemicals often have import tax advantages over bio-based feedstock, resulting in
competitive disadvantages for bio-based chemicals and materials113. High import tariff can
also lead to uncertainty regarding investments, since policy changes, e.g. through Free
Trade Agreements (FTAs) – of which the EU has a large number and is working on more -
can have a large effect.

The EU has a number of regulations in place to regulate the development and use of
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) of which the first one was legislated in 2001120.
The main goals of the strict regulations are ensuring the protection of humans and the
environment, in accordance with the precautionary principle. The regulations are enforced
at the point where GMOs are placed on the market, and at the point where they are
released in the environment.

Currently, when the level of approved GMO exceeds 0.9% clear labelling is required. For
non-approved GMO this threshold is zero. Some genetic modification techniques are
exempted because of a proven track record, but many techniques are subject to this
regulation. These thresholds limit the use of new biotechnologies and slow the EU scientific
progress on this area.

EU legislation makes a distinction between (1) contained use of genetically modified micro-
organisms (GMM), which falls under Directive 2009/41/EC and (2) deliberate release,
which is basically any activity with GMOs that is not contained use, and falls under Directive
2001/18/EC. Generally speaking, contained use of GMM has less risk of releasing GMM in
the environment, which normally means less risks, and therefore less cumbersome
approval procedures.

For the other option (deliberate release), risks are perceived to be higher, and
consequently the approval process is slow and expensive. According to a report from Ernst
& Young published in 2014121, it takes on average around 4 years for a GMO import to be
approved in Europe and for GMO cultivation applications it tends to take even longer. Costs
for the applicants are estimated at between €7m and €15m, mostly due to the necessity
of many studies. New and improved crops therefore face long periods of insecurity before
they become accessible as feedstock for the chemical industry and their products. This
means that GM improved crops, with possibly higher yields, do not become available in the
EU.

119
European Commission. Council Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 of 23 July 1987 on the tariff and statistical
nomenclature and on the Common Customs Tariff. Published online 1987. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31987R2658
120
European Commission. GMO legislation. Published online 2001. https://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/gmo/legislation_en
121
E&Y. Biotechnology in Europe The Tax , Finance and Regulatory Framework And.; 2014.
http://www.europabio.org/sites/default/files/report/ey-europabio_report_final_1.pdf

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The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) represents a common
system that caps the total CO2 emission from all larger installations in the EU. It provides
an – adjustable – absolute cap, and allows companies to trade their surpluses, thereby
ensuring that CO2 emission reduction are carried out in a cost-effective and economically
efficient way122.

The EU ETS allows for the capture of CO2 to be included. However, the use of CO2 in further
processes and products (Carbon Capture and Utilisation, CCU) is not recognised in the
current (third period) EU ETS. This also effects the chemical utilisation of CO2 emitted from
green carbon sources. This is a barrier for products, also produced in biorefineries, made
from CO2.

The amended Energy Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD)123 has as one of the
objectives to create a clear path towards a decarbonised building stock in the EU by 2050.
One of the measures is that all new buildings must be nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEB)
from 31 December 2020, whereby only the ‘use-phase’ of the building is taken into
account, not the production of the building materials. The Energy Efficiency Directive
(EED)124 mandates energy efficiency improvements, setting an energy efficiency target for
2030 of at least 32.5%, relative to the 2007 modelling projections for 2030.

Effects of the measures with respect to biorefineries are not well understood, also because
the EPBD and the EED are not uniformly applied because of differences between Member
States. However, it is reported that Insulation performance / thermal conductivity of
natural fibre materials is not evaluated fairly. These materials can buffer moisture without
function loss, but the standard evaluation applies a correction factor, leading to worse
results. In some Member States these materials are not allowed at all. The more general
barrier is lack of fair standardisation and regulation for bio-based construction materials.

The European Green Deal125 is a set of policy initiatives by the European Commission
with the overarching aim of making Europe climate neutral in 2050. Though many of the
initiatives are not yet fully worked out, the set of initiatives is likely to influence the
development of biorefineries in several ways:

• It is to be expected that the actions to reduce CO2 emissions via a Climate Law126 and
promote a circular economy will be beneficial, as well as actions to reduce pollution
from chemicals. The BIC (Bio-based Industries Consortium) has put out a statement
supporting the Climate Law, while urging the EU to also include CO2 emissions from
materials and manufactured products (22% of total CO2 emissions in the EU) in the
Climate Law127.

• Another element in the Green Deal is a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).
This would mean that non-EU trading partners that are less strict on emission would
pay a carbon tax when they put products on the EU Market. This way, carbon leakage
would be avoided. Recently (June 2020) the EU launched a consultation on this. Such
a measure would make it easier for the EU to mandate or stimulate biorefinery products
while maintaining a level playing field. It is however not clear if and how fast this

122
European Commission. EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). Published online 2018.
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets_en#tab-0-1
123
European Commission. Directive (EU) 2018/844 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018
amending Directive 2010/31/EU on the energy performance of buildings and Directive 2012/27/EU on energy
efficiency. Published online 2018. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2018.156.01.0075.01.ENG
124
European Commission. Directive (EU) 2018/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December
2018 amending Directive 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency. Published online 2018. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2018.328.01.0210.01.ENG
125
European Commission. The European Green Deal : Questions & Answers. Published 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_19_6690
126
European Commission. European Climate Law. Published 2020. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eu-climate-
action/law_en#
127
BIC. BIC supports EU in achieving climate neutrality by 2050 in joint statement on Climate Law. Published 2020.
https://biconsortium.eu/Climate-Law

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 measure will become relevant for biorefineries, since the EU has stated in its Inception
Impact Assessment that this mechanism will be targeted to selected sectors, namely
those that are most at risk of carbon leakage. It is unclear if chemical and material
biorefineries fall under such a sector128.

• Financing biorefinery initiatives will likely be stimulated, via the 100 billion Euro Just
Transition Fund. A policy initiative to make agriculture more sustainable (from farm to
fork), could have an indirect impact through the valorisation of organic residues.

• Part of the EU Green Deal is a Circular Economy Action Plan that is considered by the
EU to be at the core of the EU Green Deal129. The EC notes that half of total greenhouse
gas emissions come from resource extraction and processing, and that it is not possible
to achieve climate neutrality without the transition to a fully circular economy. Included
in this new Action Plan is the drafting of a Sustainable Product Policy Framework. Such
a framework – when established – would be beneficial for biorefineries, because it
would address challenges related to bio-based plastics. Another initiative is the use of
the Product and Organisation Environmental Footprint methods. With respect to these
last two methods transition projects are currently carried out130. The PEF involves a
simplified method of determine the environmental impact of products. This could be
beneficial for bio-based products, given the various problems with proving the
sustainability detailed elsewhere in this paragraph. Current proposals are however not
considered entirely appropriate for bioplastics by the industry itself94

• To ensure that the EU tackles tackle pollution from all sources and moves towards a
toxic-free environment, a Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability Communication has
been adopted by the EC. This strategy contains a set of measures, such as related to
the development of safe and sustainable-by-design criteria for chemicals, establish a
sustainable-by-design network, financial support for safe substances, legislation, etc.
Included in the strategy is to explore regulatory tools to drive and reward the
development of sustainable bio-based chemicals131.

• A hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe focuses on renewable hydrogen, as

it has the biggest decarbonisation potential and is therefore the most compatible option
with the EU's climate neutrality goal132. Green hydrogen (i.e. the production of
hydrogen via electrolysis of water using renewable electricity is the focus) but there is
the potential bio-based hydrogen from syngas via biomass gasification or upgrading
and reforming of biogas from anaerobic digestion. These biogenic processes are often
found as part of biorefinery configurations however the hydrogen strategy only
mentions this in for the longer term (after 2030), which is after the scope of the study.
Green hydrogen is itself also being implemented as part of biorefinery complexes, for
example it can be used to provide supplementary hydrogen in the production of
methanol via gasification of biomass. The green hydrogen increases the hydrogen in
the syngas mixture to the necessary ratio for methanol synthesis.

• The EU strategy to reduce methane emissions focuses on focuses on addressing

anthropogenic methane emissions (i.e. emissions associated with human
activity)133.There is a clear link for the biorefinery pathways that are based on anaerobic
digestion of wastes (e.g. manure, sewage sludge) to produce biogas. This processes

128
European Commission. EU Green Deal (carbon border adjustment mechanism). 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12228-Carbon-Border-Adjustment-
Mechanism
129
European Commission. Questions and Answers: A New Circular Economy Action Plan for a Cleaner and More
Competitive Europe. Published 2020. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_20_419
130
European Commission. The Environmental Footprint transition phase. Published 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/smgp/ef_transition.htm
131
European Commission. Chemicals – strategy for sustainability (toxic-free EU environment). 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12264-Chemicals-strategy-for-
sustainability-
132
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/hydrogen_strategy.pdf
133
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/eu_methane_strategy.pdf

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 reduces methane emissions as the methane is used either for combustion (and
therefore converted to CO2, a less potent greenhouse gas), or converted to chemicals
(e.g. through reforming to syngas and conversion to methanol).

• The EU is currently working on a textile strategy which is expected to be published in

2021. This is expected to be relevant to bio-based fibres produced from biorefineries
that have advantages over synthetic PET fibres (that are largely imported) and are a
leading cause of microplastics pollution.

The Green Deal could possibly be detrimental to the availability of feedstocks for
biorefineries when other use of biomass e.g. for bioenergy and biofuels is overstimulated.

The recently (2020) agreed upon EU Recovery and Resilience facility134 - which provides
significant (672.5 billion Euro) financial support in the form of loans and grants to EU
Member States - is also expected to contribute to the realisation of the Green Deal
objectives. Each national recovery and resilience plan will have to contain a minimum of
37% of the budget related to climate.

The EU Circular Economy Package (CEP) 135has as goal to stimulate Europe's transition
towards a circular economy. There are overlaps with the bioeconomy and/or biorefineries,
but the focus is different136. The Circular Economy Package mainly focuses on non-biomass,
finite resources, and how to use, re-use and recycle these. There are however measures
included for biorefineries/bio-based products. Measures that will act as drivers for bio-
refineries are a target for recycling wood packaging, an obligation to collect biowaste
separately, and a reference to food waste reduction targets. A more general driver is that
the EU Circular Economy Package sets as goal to make better and more efficient use of
biomass resource, while a divergence is that the value of biodegradable products does not
sit well with the goal of preserving value for the longest time possible.

One element of the Package is the Single-use plastics Directive (SUPD) of 2019137. This
directive constitutes a ban on the 10 single-use plastic items most found in marine litter.
In total 70% of all marine litter constitutes of one of these items. The directive bans these
plastics when alternatives are readily available. Guidance to implementation of this
directive is currently being developed, although some member states (e.g. France) have
already adopted legislation. It is unclear yet how the SUPD precisely will affect bioplastics,
and by extension biorefineries that produce these. According to the sector itself, the EU
should stronger acknowledge the benefits of bioplastics in this directive138. Stakeholders
also mention that companies are currently pausing development work on bioplastics
because of the uncertainty related to the ban94.

The Packaging and Packaging waste Directive has been established in 2004 and was
updated in 2018139. In this legislation, it is made clear that bio-based plastics can help to
reduce environmental impacts of plastic packaging and reduce Europe’s dependence on
imported raw materials. Bio-based and recycled materials are recognised as equally viable
solutions to make packaging more sustainable. Also, Member States are encouraged to

134
https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/recovery-coronavirus/recovery-and-resilience-facility_en#the-
recovery-and-resilience-facility
135
European Commission. Circular Economy Package : Questions & Answers. Published 2015.
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_15_6204
136
European Environment Agency. The Circular Economy and the Bioeconomy - Partners in Sustainability.; 2018.
doi:10.2800/02937
137
European Commission. Single-use plastics: New EU rules to reduce marine litter. 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/MEMO_18_3909
138
European Bioplastics. Guidance on single-use plastics directive: European Commission to stick to its timeline. 2020.
https://www.european-bioplastics.org/guidance-on-single-use-plastics-directive-european-commission-to-stick-to-
its-timeline/
139
European Commission. Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive. Published 2018. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2018.150.01.0141.01.ENG&toc=OJ:L:2018:150:TOC

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promote the use of bio-based packaging that can be recycled or composted. The proposal
contains no ‘hard measures’ however140.

The Regulation on the inclusion of greenhouse gas emissions and removals from
land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF)141, has been adopted in 2018. The
central idea behind this regulation is that Member States have to ensure that greenhouse
gas emissions from land use, land use change or forestry are offset by at least an
equivalent removal of CO₂ from the atmosphere in the period 2021 to 2030. This means
for example that when a Member States remove a forest (deforestation), the resulting CO2
emissions need to be compensated, e.g. by planting new forests. Also, emissions from the
use of biomass for energy are recorded.

With respect to biorefineries and the LULUCF several factors will likely play a role.
Recognising the role of forests as carbon sinks could lead to more forest in the EU, and
subsequently more feedstock for biorefineries. The effect on the use of biomass for energy
seems limited142, so it is expected that the indirect effects of that particular issue (biomass
for energy) on biorefineries is also limited. Theoretically, when the deployment of
biorefineries increases significantly, and when the use of food crops in biorefineries stays
the same or becomes larger, there might be an effect on feedstock prices for these
biorefineries.

The EU has recently adopted a Sustainable Finance Taxonomy143. This involves the
establishment of an EU classification system for sustainable activities. Technical screening
criteria have been developed, identifying 70 climate change mitigation and 68 climate
change adaptation activities. Additionally, criteria that must ensure that no significant harm
is being done (do no significant harm, or DNSH) have been developed144.

Biorefineries would certainly benefit from the taxonomy, if it is clear they can fulfil the
technical screening criteria. This could be the case for the production of bioplastics, which
would fall under the heading C21 (Manufacturing of plastics in primary form). Also, the
manufacturing of other bio-based chemicals could qualify under the heading of C20
(Manufacture of other organic basic chemicals). It is not possible to determine at this
moment of all products for biorefineries could qualify, given the very wide spectrum of bio-
based products. It is clear, however, that this taxonomy could facilitate the increased
availability for financial instruments for many biorefineries.

An upcoming EU initiative is the deforestation and forest degradation initiative145. This

initiative aims to minimise the EU’s contribution to deforestation and forest degradation
worldwide and promote the consumption of products from deforestation-free supply chains
in the EU. The initiative complements existing EU regulations on the banning of illegal
logging, and the Renewable Energy Directive which sets sustainability criteria for bioenergy
from biomass. The initiative is particularly relevant for agricultural commodities;
approximately 70 percent of deforestation is connected to agricultural commodity

140
BiofuelsDigest. New European legislation highlights benefits of bioplastics. Published 2018.
https://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2018/03/07/new-european-legislation-highlights-benefits-of-bioplastics/
141
European Commission. Land use and forestry regulation for 2021-2030. Published 2018.
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/forests/lulucf_en#tab-0-0
142
abuurs GJ, Arets EJMM, Lesschen J-P, Schelhaas MJ. Effects of the EU-LULUCF regulation on the use of biomass for
bio-energy. Published online 2018. https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-
353338333338
143
European Commission. REGULATION (EU) 2020/852 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 18
June 2020 on the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment, and amending Regulation (EU)
2019/2088. Published online 2020. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32020R0852&from=EN
144
European Commission. Taxonomy : Final Report of the Technical Expert What Is the EU Taxonomy ?; 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/documents/200309-
sustainable-finance-teg-final-report-taxonomy_en.pdf
145
European Commission. Deforestation and forest degradation – reducing the impact of products placed on the EU
market. Published 2020. https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12137-
Minimising-the-risk-of-deforestation-and-forest-degradation-associated-with-products-placed-on-the-EU-market

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production146. For EU biorefineries this initiative will be beneficial as it will be one additional
step towards a level playing field with non-EU biorefineries. The public consultation is
expected to be finished end of 2020, with the initiative to be completed in 2021.

Regional aspects play an important role in the broader development of the bioeconomy,
and more specifically in the development of biorefineries. Here, regional aspects can imply
regions as in clusters of member states, national (member state) level, or the sub-national
regional level.

One first aspect is that there are stark regional differences regarding policy development.
A study by the IEA on the availability of national bioeconomy strategies, showed that the
policy development level was relatively high in North-Western Europe, and less in Eastern
Europe147.

A second issue is the bioeconomy status in the Central and Eastern European countries.
This has been the focus of the Bioeast project (www.bioeast.eu), supplemented by JRC
work148. Their work shows that the bioeconomy sector in CEE countries employs a large
number of people – 40% of the total bioeconomy sector in the EU – but only 9% of the
bioeconomy turnover in the EU. This partly reflects differences in labour productivity, but
the JRC points to a relatively low number of biorefineries as evidence of an untapped
potential, particularly as many CEE countries can be characterised as having a relative
abundance of biomass149. identified as main barriers with respect to the bioeconomy in
CEE countries is the insufficient infrastructure, missing links between industries, such as
agriculture and the petrochemical industry and the regional abundance of fossil resources.

Besides regulations, another ‘hard’ instrument is subsidies. Many subsidies exist to bring
the development of biorefineries further, at EU level and at national and regional level.
One EU-level programme that is well-known and actively used is – next to the regular
Horizon 2020 programme and the Horizon Europe programme - the BBI-JU (Bio-based
Industries Joint Undertaking) programme. This programme was mentioned by several
stakeholders that were interviewed in the framework of this project. It is a public/private
cooperation between the EC and a consortium of bio-based industries, that provides
funding for research, development, and demonstration. Of particular interest are the BBI-
JU Flagship projects150. These are Innovation Actions, where financial support is given for
larger scale demonstration projects; in many cases innovative biorefineries.

By way of a summary a list of the regulatory drivers and barriers on EU level is given in
Table 13:

146
Chain reaction research. The Chain: EU Proposals for Deforestation-Free Supply Chains Another Step in the
Transformation of Agricultural Commodity Trade. Published 2019. https://chainreactionresearch.com/eu-proposals-
for-deforestation-free-supply-chains-another-step-in-the-transformation-of-agricultural-commodity-trade/
147
Motola V, De Bari I, Pierro N, Giocoli A. Bioeconomy and Biorefining Strategies in the EU Member States and
beyond - Reference Year 2018.; 2018. https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Bioeconomy-
and-Biorefining-Strategies_Final-Report_DEC2018.pdf
148
Ronzon T, Gurria P, Parisi C, Philippidis G, M’Barek R. Socio-economic insights into the bioeconomy in BIOEAST
countries. Research Brief. 2018;1:1-22. doi:10.2760/560977
149
Piotrowski S, Dammer L. State of Play of Central and Eastern Europe’s Bioeconomy. Published online 2018
150
BBI-JU. BBI-JU project overview. 2020. https://www.bbi-europe.eu/projects

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 Table 13. Drivers and barriers related to policies and regulations

Category Drivers Barriers

RED II 1. Bioenergy produced by biorefineries is 1. Higher demand and higher prices for
supported biomass
2. Sustainability criteria, meaning more 2. Non-level playing field for biochemicals
biomass available and biomaterials with bioenergy and
biofuels
3. Additional incentives for certain low-
ILUC biomass types

WFD 1. Waste reduction aims do benefit 1. Non-uniform classification of materials

biodegradable products as waste, residue or coproduct.
2. Allowing biodegradable and - 2. Usage of waste for chemicals requires
compostable materials collection with regulatory work
bio-waste
3. Obligations to set-up separate collection
for biowastes

REACH 1. Stable framework, one registration for 1. Difficult & expensive procedure of
all EU admitting new chemicals
2. Level playing field with non-EU 2. Lack of knowledge by SMEs
chemicals benefits EU producers since
unsafe products are banned in EU
3. Some support for SMEs

CAP 1. Availability of crops and residues for 1. High costs of bio-based feedstock
biorefining

CCT 1. Protection of products against world 1. Global price disadvantage

market prices 2. Competitive disadvantage vs.
petrochemicals
3. Uncertainty for long-term investments

GMO 1. Mandatory labelling of GMO products

2. Slow and expensive approval procedure

EU ETS 1. CCU processes not eligible for ETS

credits

EED & EBPD 1. General lack of fair regulation &

standardisation for new bio-based
options,

European Green 1. Benefits expected from climate change

Deal action, the Climate Law and circular
economy initiatives like the Sustainable
Product Policy Framework, Chemicals
strategy for sustainability; unclear if
Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism
will be beneficial

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2.4.1 SUMMARY TABLE GENERAL DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

Below the drivers and barriers of all seven categories are summarised.

Table 14. Overview table of general drivers and barriers

Category Drivers Barriers

1: Business Product properties and prices Product properties and prices

Bio-based products can offer various Lower quality vis-à-vis fossil-based
functional benefits e.g. biodegradability, equivalents; Difficulty in maintaining
foaming properties or solubility, high consistent product quality and purity83;
lubricity and adhesivity, high strength, High (production) costs, need to compete
weight reduction etc83. against very efficient fossil value chains83;
Bio-based products achieve Green Most consumers are only willing to pay
Premium prices in many applications94 little or no more for bio-based products96,
Bio-based products (e.g. bio-lubricants) in particular for commodities (e.g.
may cost less over the product lifecycle lubricants). Existing products can only claim
owing to lower maintenance, storage, and extra when rebranded83
disposal requirements.
Markets and applications
Markets and applications Multiple products that serve multiple
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) markets requires divided focus of
policies and favourable purchase policies biorefineries, though business can be more
of large brands and buyer, as result of robust
‘greening of society’ trend97; If priced higher, bio-based products should
Rising demand/market and offer better properties/ functionalities
promotional benefits for 'chemical-free' Difficult to enter existing markets due
products e.g. greener surfactants, and/or to competition, and for customers to change
‘biodegradable’ or ‘natural‘ products83 suppliers83
Increasing number of bio-based
applications83
The bio-economy offers the opportunity of
flexibility through a wider range of
products than the conventional
petrochemical processes98

2: Innovation Appetite for investment in ‘green’ Lack of investment (e.g. for pilots,
innovations83; in particular investments demos, large-scale production plants) 83
targeting the UN Sustainable Development Difficulty to attract finance for scale-ups
Goals (SDGs), as result of ‘greening of
society’ trend97
Widespread R&D activity83
EU, national and regional support for
RD&D, and increasingly for scale-up

3: Economy Volatile oil/petrochemical prices Volatile oil/petrochemical prices

Political instability of oil-producing Higher cost level in EU
countries
Because a significant portion of bio-based
feedstocks come from the agricultural
sector, the bio-economy offers a significant
opportunity to grow and protect jobs and
thereby stimulate economic
development in rural farming
communities98
Presence of skilled workforce and physical
infrastructure in EU83
Appetite for investment in bio-based
production83
The bio-economy builds resilience in
supply chains by being based on a
distributed and decentralised model in
contrast to vertically integrated, centralised
fossil-based industries98

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 4: Feedstock Diverse feedstock use, which creates Increased land use83
flexibility in the supply chain83 (Perceived) biomass availability in case of
Industry crops can be grown on surplus full rollout83
land. Some crops can be grown on Biomass prices: high/ fluctuating /
abandoned or degraded land, contributing to increasing83
the rehabilitation of these areas98 Highly dependency on a single type of
Especially forests have many other feedstock83
functions besides feedstock supply, such Perceived competition with food and/or
as biodiversity, recreation, cultural values energy supply83
and carbon storage105 land diverted from food production151
Widespread and growing availability of
source-separated bio-waste106

5: Climate The bioeconomy is at the centre of Broader consideration of products

change and sustainable development strategies sustainability; less exclusive focus on
environment worldwide and contributes to many SDGs107 using bio-based materials
Need to reduce fossil dependence83 A problem of bio-based products in general
Beyond being produced from renewable is the lack of evidence of their specific
resources, bio-based products offer one or environmental, social and economic
more/all of the following environmental sustainability
benefits, namely Biodegradability, Low Environmental sustainability may be proven
ecotoxicity, Lower GHG emissions, through a life cycle assessment (LCA). This
Recyclability, Low human toxicity108 has to be carried out at the product level,
making this an expensive instrument in
case of many products96
Environmental sustainability requirements
are more stringent for bio-based than for
fossil products.
In particular for SMEs, providing formal
proof of environmental
sustainability/superiority (through LCA,
product standard, ecolabel, etc.) is very
costly
Recycling issues (bio-plastics production
and plastic recycling sectors are not in
harmony) 83

6: Citizen and 1. Growing consumer preference for Bio-based is a poor marketing term83
Society green products, as result of ‘greening of There is low public awareness of
society’ trend98 biorefinery products
2. Growing awareness of the impact of Terminology (e.g. “bio-based”,
fossil products on the environment83 “biodegradable”) used can be confusing for
3. People assume that bio-based consumers: e.g. “biolubricant” can refer to
production is aimed at finding products derived from renewable sources or
environmentally friendlier solutions. to a biodegradable lubricant derived from
This results in a positive attitude petroleum-based sources); less confusing
towards bio-based products terms are not picked up;
4. An increase in personal health Some customers associate “bio-based” with
concerns; people are particularly having a lower quality and/or a higher
concerned what they wear on the body price
and/or apply to the body (skin-contact For producers and consumers (and certain
products) 110 environmental policy makers) alike, being
5. Bio-based products can contribute to bio-based is (in itself) not or no longer a
occupational health and safety (e.g. fully convincing sale argument
the use of bio-based lubricants some stakeholders are casting doubt on all
produces a cleaner, less toxic working use of biomass, and/or on wood
environment and not cause skin harvesting
problems for those working with
engines and hydraulic systems); They
offer increased employee safety due to
higher flashpoints, constant viscosity
and less oil mist and vapour emissions
6. Preference for natural fibres for
applications with skin contact83
7. Promotional benefits (e.g. of
marketing cosmetics as 'natural')96

151
National geographic. What you need to know about plant-based plastics. 2018.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/11/are-bioplastics-made-from-plants-better-for-
environment-ocean-plastic/

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7: Policy and Forthcoming EU legislation, such as the There is no financial support for chemical
regulation European Green Deal and the and material products from biorefineries,
Sustainable Finance Taxonomy is nor is there generic financial support for
expected to give biorefinery products a investments yet.
boost EU legislation supporting biomass use for
Several current EU regulations, such as the biofuels and energy (e.g. RED II) result in a
Circular Economy Package, the updated lack of level playing field for other
Waste Framework Directive, and the chemical/material biorefinery products114
updated Packaging and Packaging For many bio-based products there are no
Waste Directive include measures that are relevant product standards; / eco-labels;
beneficial for biorefineries. many existing ones were developed without
Several EU regulations such as Sustainable keeping bio-based options in mind
Finance Taxonomy, and the Deforestation in The REACH requirement to register new
iterative contain measures that could be chemical substances manufactured or
beneficial when enacted upon further. imported in quantities of 1 tonne or more
For some bio-based products relevant per year is a significant barrier for
standards and workable eco-labels innovative biorefinery products Registration
exists (e. g for bio-based lubricants, and procedures are both time consuming and
for compostable bioplastics) costly
Several other EU regulations, such as the
Common Agriculture policy, Common
Customs Tariffs, GMO regulations, the
EPBD and LULUCF contain aspects that can
hinder biorefineries products
Need for stable and long-term regulations,
providing certainty for investors95.

2.4.2 PRIORITISATION GENERAL DRIVERS AND BARRIERS

To develop a prioritisation of the General Drivers and Barriers derived in the previous
paragraphs, a stakeholder workshop was held to define these. In this workshop, held on 7
October 2020, the General Barriers and Drivers were presented and ranked, using an on-
line voting tool (Mentimeter). Added to the seven categories, was an extra category to
account for technical barriers.

31 External stakeholders took part in the workshop. An additional 13 people participated,

who were either part of the Consortium (12) or representative of the principal (the EU)
(1). In advance it was agreed that consortium member would also vote, because of their
expertise. Not all participants voted on all subjects.

The voting was carried out as follows:

1. Firstly, for every category all drivers were presented after which stakeholders were
requested to vote on 2 or 3 options (dependent on the number of options
presented). The same was done for the barriers for every category

2. In a second segment – as part of the same workshop – the stakeholders were asked
to rank – from the top choices of each category – the most important drivers. The
same was done with the barriers

Results are shown in Figure 17. and Figure 18 In these figures the results of the votes are
shown as percentages.

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 Figure 17. Ranking of the General Drivers for biorefineries

Figure 18. Ranking of the General Barriers for biorefineries

Workshop participants expected that the Green Deal will give a significant boost for
biorefineries. Government support for RD&D and scale-up is also considered very
important, as is the need to reduce fossil dependency.

Top barriers are considered to be the costs, and – as a second cost related item – that
consumers are not willing to pay more for bio-based. A barrier that cannot be remedied by
(government or other) action, is the complex nature of biomass. Proof of sustainability
issues, and perceived competition with food is also deemed important, which fits with the
information gathered in the stakeholder interviews, and the information gathered from
various literature sources.

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3 WP 3 – AVAILABLE AND EMERGING BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS AND RD&I
NEEDS

This section includes a chapter of available and emerging technologies and RD&I needs
(WP 3). It was led by WUR.

3.1 Introduction

In this Work Package 3 (WP 3), available and emerging biorefinery technologies and
pathways will be identified and described in line with the Biorefinery Classification System
developed in WP 1 and linking with the WP 4 Biorefinery Database with a focus on chemical
and material products. It is expected that chemicals and materials focused biorefineries
will compete with fossil-based pathways for producing equal, similar, functionally
comparable or dedicated chemicals and materials. Technical feasibility of the substitution
at the level of chemicals, materials or functional roles need to be taken into account. So,
understanding the advantages and disadvantages of biorefinery pathways relative to these
fossil-based pathways is important in understanding their prospects and their needs.

Technical and non-technical barriers affecting the biomass-to-products value chains have
to be tackled to achieve a successful market deployment of biorefineries in a European
Circular Bioeconomy and in line with the EU policy objectives agreed for 2030 and 2050.
Amongst others, they strive for an effective utilisation of residues and waste for climate-
neutral circular products and implementation of strategies on Biodiversity and Farm to Fork
for 2030. This includes stepping up actions to avoid or minimize, products associated with
deforestation or forest degradation to be placed on the market. The deforestation may
relate to several food-based feedstocks such as palm oil, soya, sugar cane, cassava and
some other grains.

WP 2 focuses on identification of the non-technical barriers, whereas in this WP 3 the

technical barriers (as well as opportunities) are identified. This WP 3 will also deal with the
identification of the main research, development and innovation (R&D&I) needs to address
the technical and non-technical barriers and opportunities that influence biorefinery market
deployment.

3.2 Aim and objectives

The aim of WP 3 is to assess available and emerging biorefinery technologies and

pathways, compare them with competing pathways (e.g. fossil and CO2 based), and
identify technical barriers and research, development and innovation needs for the
successful market deployment of biorefineries. Specific objectives are:

• to identify and describe available and emerging biorefinery technologies and pathways;

• to identify alternative/competing pathways and to qualitatively assess key advantages

and disadvantages of biorefinery pathways compared to alternative/competing
pathways;

• to identify technical barriers and research actions to overcome these barriers for market
deployment of biorefineries;

• to identify major research, development and innovation needs for biorefineries to

overcome technical and non-technical barriers to become competitive with alternative
fossil-based and sustainable pathways for the production of chemicals and materials.

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3.3 Approach

This WP 3 begins by identifying and describing available and emerging biorefinery

technologies and pathways in line with the Biorefinery Classification System developed in
WP 1. Together with WP 4 (biorefinery database) commercial examples for these pathways
are identified. Emerging pathways that include demos, pilots and main applied R&D&I
initiatives are identified through literature review and based on the extensive knowledge
of the project partners in the area as well as information from the SAG and stakeholder
workshops.

Competing pathways for the production of chemicals and materials are identified that
include using fossil and CO2 as feedstock. A high-level assessment of the advantages and
disadvantages of biorefinery pathways relative to the alternative pathways is performed.

Several criteria are used, such as: sustainability of biomass feedstock, climate-neutrality
and circularity of products, (potential) product performance, cost competitiveness, and
social acceptance, as far as these could be extracted from existing literature (i.e. the
project is not including own system modelling/assessment activities).

WP 3 further analyses the technical barriers hindering the deployment of biorefineries and
uses them and the non-technical barriers identified in WP 2 to identify R&D&I needs that
could address both types of barriers. In 2011 the EU StarColibri project delivered a
Biorefinery Vision Document, and a Biorefinery Joint Strategic Research Roadmap for
biorefineries in the EU.152,153 The information from the StarColibri project is taken as a
starting point for the analysis. Detailed technical barriers and R&D&I needs assessments
from other projects and literature are used. These include outcomes/publications of major
EU-projects (H2020/BBI), and Strategic Research and Innovation Agendas of major
European, international and national organizations (i.e. ETIP Bioenergy, EERA Bioenergy,
Bio-based Industries Consortium (BIC)/BBI-JU, Europabio, IEA Bioenergy Task42, and
other that are relevant) that consider chemicals & materials driven biorefineries.

This WP 3 is accordingly broken down into four tasks:

1. Identification and description of available and emerging biorefinery pathways;

2. High-level assessment of the key advantages and disadvantages of biorefinery

pathways in the light of the EU policy goals and compared to alternative pathways;

3. Identification of technical barriers and opportunities for market deployment of

biorefineries;

4. Major research, development and innovation needs to overcome technical and non-
technical barriers to biorefinery market deployment.

3.4 Task 1 - Identification and description of available and emerging biorefinery

pathways

BIOREFINERY PATHWAY

A biorefinery pathway (see Figure 19 ) consists essentially of the pre-treatment and

preparation of the biomass, separation of biomass components into intermediates/
platforms (primary refining) and further conversion and processing of the intermediates

152
Luguel, C., Annevelink, EB., Burel, C. and Gosse, G. Joint European Biorefinery Vision for 2030. Star-COLIBRI
project. 2011.
153
Luguel, C., Annevelink, EB., Burel, C. and Gosse. G. European Biorefinery Joint Strategic Research Roadmap. Star-
COLIBRI project. 2011.

84
into more intermediate products and semi-finished or finished products (secondary
refining).

Figure 19. Biorefinery process chain

A biorefinery is composed of four structural elements: ‘Feedstocks’, ‘Platforms’,

‘Conversion processes’ and ‘Products’. These four elements are combined in a biorefinery
pathway (see Figure 2). The generic example of a biorefinery depicted here starts with a
feedstock, which is converted to one (or more) platform(s) from which chemical, material
and energy products are produced; whereas side-streams are used as (food/feed) co-
products. ‘Platforms’ are short-hand descriptions of important intermediates in
biorefineries, such as C6 sugars, oils, lignin etc. that serve as basis for many subsequent
products. Figure 20 also gives the legend which shows the different shapes used to
represent the four structural elements of a biorefinery pathway. Furthermore, colours are
used to differentiate between the different type of processes used in conversion and the
different types of products produced. For primary refining, green arrows are used in
connecting the elements and for secondary refining black arrows are used.

Figure 20. Schematic representation of a biorefinery pathway

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APPROACH FOR IDENTIFYING THE BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS

As mentioned before, the classification system described in WP 1 is composed of four

structural elements: Feedstocks, Conversion Processes, Platforms and Products, each
featuring numerous sub-elements. This opens up many options for different biorefinery
pathways, all being composed of a variety of linked biorefinery technologies.

For identification of the pathways the most notable examples currently existing or
emerging have been selected where the focus is on chemical and material products in line
with the objectives of the project. It is seen that chemical and material-products can arise
from expansion/upgrading of conventional biorefineries by new secondary refining
processes (enhancing the effective use of residues and waste for new chemicals or
materials). There are also biorefineries specifically designed for the conversion of the
feedstock to chemical and/or material products.

The goal is to identify the pathways for bio-based chemical and/or material products with
their possible combination with energy, biofuels, food and feed products in a biorefinery
system. This was done by reviewing the biorefineries already existing today (linking to WP
4) as well as considering developments that are already in progress (at demo, pilot scale
or by applied research activities) by conducting a literature review. For this, apart from the
database of commercial biorefineries developed in WP 4, reports from the StarColibri
project83,84, a selection of IEA Bioenergy Task42 publications (reports and
papers154,155,156,157, country reports158 and factsheets159), Biorefineries Roadmap of the
German Federal Government160, ongoing BBI JU projects161 and selected publications by
nova-Institute162,163,164, were taken into consideration. From this review of the existing and
emerging facilities, the ones producing chemicals and materials were identified and they
were grouped in a number of umbrella of biorefinery pathways. So, the pathways do
not represent a specific biorefinery facility; there could be several initiatives using this
pathway or its variants in the world. Each of these umbrella biorefinery pathways
encompasses the different process variations of this pathway described in literature.

APPROACH FOR CATEGORIZING THE PATHWAYS

In order to categorize the pathways there are different approaches that can be used
focusing on different aspects:

• Feedstock (e.g. sugar crop biorefinery, grass biorefinery, straw biorefinery, algae
biorefinery, whole crop biorefinery, lignocellulosic feedstock biorefinery);

154
Jungmeier, G., Hingsamer, M. and van Ree, R. Biofuel-driven Biorefineries. IEA BioenergyTask42 Biorefining. 2013.
155
Bell, G., Schuck, S., Jungmeier, G., Wellisch, M., Felby, C., Jørgensen, H., .Spaeth, J. Sustainable and synergetic
processing of biomass into marketable food & feed ingredients, chemicals, materials and energy (fuels, power,
heat). IEA Bioenergy Task42 Biorefining. 2014.
156
Cherubini, F., Jungmeier, G., Wellisch, M., Willke, T., Skiadas, I., van Ree, R., de Jong, E. Toward a common
classification approach for biorefinery systems. Biofpr. 3 (5): 534–546. 2009.
157
Wenger, J., Stern, T., Schöggl, JP., van Ree, R., de Corato, U., de Bari, I., Bell, G., Stichnothe, H. Natural Fibres
and Fibre-based Materials in Biorefineries. IEA Bioenergy Task42 Biorefining. 2018.
158
IEA Bioenergy Task 42 Country Reports, http://task42.ieabioenergy.com/document-category/country-reports/
159
IEA Bioenergy Task42 Factsheets, http://task42.ieabioenergy.com/document-category/factsheets/
160
The Federal Government. Biorefineries Roadmap as part of the German Federal Government action plans for the
material and energetic utilisation of renewable raw materials. May 2012.
161
BBI JU projects, https://www.bbi-europe.eu/projects
162
De Beus, N., Carus, M., Barth, M. Carbon Footprint and Sustainability of Different Natural Fibres for Biocomposites
and Insulation Material - Study providing data for the automotive and insulation industry. nova-Institute. 2019.
163
Nova-Institut. Bio-based Building Blocks and Polymers in the World – Capacities, Production and Applications:
Status Quo and Trends towards 2020. 2015.
164
Piotrowski, S. et al. Sustainable Biomass Potential for Biofuels in Competition to Food, Feed, Bioenergy and
Industrial Material – a Global Analysis of Biomass Supply and Demand. 2015.

86
• Process (e.g. thermochemical biorefinery, biochemical biorefinery, liquid phase
catalytic processing biorefinery, combined thermo- and biochemical conversion
biorefinery);

• Platform (e.g. syngas platform biorefinery, C6 and/or C5 sugar-platform biorefinery,

lignin-platform biorefinery, vegetable oil or oleochemical platform biorefinery, biogas
platform biorefinery, two-platform biorefinery);

• Product (e.g. energy-driven biorefinery, material-driven biorefinery)

In accordance with the classification system described in WP 1 and classification approach

defined by IEA Bioenergy Task42, the platform is the central element of the system and
most important feature in specifying the type of biorefinery. Therefore, in this project the
platforms (intermediates) that arise from primary refining are used in defining and
distinguishing the biorefinery pathways. Each pathway can have as feedstock one or more
types of biomass. Different types of technological processes can be applied to convert the
biomass feedstocks into platforms, and to finally convert these platforms to a spectrum of
products. Therefore, the set of platforms produced from primary refining processes are
considered the distinguishing element for the pathways. It should be noted that in
secondary refining, meaning the further processing of platforms into products, additional
intermediates/platforms can arise. These downstream platforms will not be taken into the
naming of the biorefinery pathway as other variants could be possible from the primary
platforms to end-products.

HOW DO THE BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS EXPAND, EMERGE AND DEVELOP?

Two different approaches exist for the development of biorefineries: ‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-
down’83.

• If the biorefinery concerns the extension and/or upgrading of conventional biomass

processing facility (e.g. sugar, starch, oil and pulp mill), it is referred to as a
bottom-up approach. Here the aim is to achieve an expanded range of products
and/or an increased valorisation of biomass fractions through the connection of
additional processes and new technologies in an integrated way. An example is the
Roquette Lestrem biorefinery which was a simple starch mill that was gradually
developed, and the product spectrum increased to native and modified starches,
proteins, polyols, organic acids and specialty chemicals.

• If the biorefinery develops as part of new industrial value chains with newly
developed, highly integrated systems, it is referred to as top-down approach. It
typically considers specifically developed new processes to convert various biomass
fractions and zero-waste generation of a broad variety of products for different
markets. Systems for primary and secondary refining are specifically developed for
the conversion of the feedstock into a range of products. An example is the Biowert
refinery producing high-quality fibres from grass for biomaterials such as
composites. The integration of the anaerobic digestion process uses the remaining
organic juices to produce biogas which delivers electricity and heat. Organic
fertilizer is attained as a by-product.

The bottom-up approach is always a brownfield approach, i.e. an existing facility is

upgraded/extended to a biorefinery facility at the same site. The top-down approach can
be either a brownfield or greenfield approach. In the first case, a new separate biorefinery
(pathway) will be realized at the same site of an already existing facility where the new
biorefinery will take advantage of the already existing industrial infrastructure (biomass
supply, use of auxiliaries, use of downstream processing facilities) and or regulations/
permits. This potentially will reduce deployment time because of multiple factors, such as
lower overall investments required, shared facilities, existing environmental permits etc.

87
In the second case a new biorefinery pathway will realized from scratch, potentially
requiring higher investments, new permits etc., significantly increasing the time-to-
market. Examples of both cases can be found in the bioethanol sector. There are several
plans to build advanced lignocellulosic biorefineries at the same site of already existing
conventional ethanol plants using sugar/starch crops with the aim to use existing biomass
supply infrastructure, experienced personnel, existing auxiliaries, the ability to plug-in
existing waste water treatments and/or distillation facilities etc. On the other hand there
are also demo plants to produce advanced bioethanol realized at new stand-alone sites,
i.e. the greenfield approach, for example within the feedstock cultivation area.

Various biorefinery pathways can be synergistically combined for optimal business case
deployment from both an socio-economic and sustainable point-of-view. In the pulp &
paper sector both the bottom-up approach (i.e. expanding the downstream products
portfolio of conventional pulp mills) and top-down approach (i.e. valorising bark and forest
residues in parallel with new biorefinery concepts at the same site) are used to create the
highest value from wood and the related forestry residues. This synergistic combination
provides an attractive business case from both an socio-economic and environmental point
of view.

Development and/or expansion of a biorefinery pathway usually proceeds incrementally. A

number of products can be expanded by separating and upgrading residues. Furthermore,
various biomass conversion technologies can be integrated optimising the valorisation of
feedstock into range of products co-producing combination of chemicals, materials, fuels,
energy, food and feed. The integrated biorefineries offer possibilities to completely new
chemicals and materials to be produced.

Furthermore, in accordance with the recent policy ambitions, transition in biorefinery

developments could take place in the near future. This considers a transition from a more
energy focus towards more chemicals and materials focus in biorefineries. Currently, the
European biorefineries are mostly energy-driven owing to the existing biofuel-related policy
targets supporting the use of biomass for biofuels production. No such directive exists yet
for the use of biomass for chemicals/materials. But, the principles of the circular economy
and of the waste hierarchy (Directive 2008/98/EC, Article 4) favour the use as a material
over energy use. One of the actions in the Circular Economy Action Plan is the development
of the Sustainable Products Policy legal framework that will make use of the Products’
Environmental Footprint (PEF).

With the increased electrification of the transport sector (mainly in road and rail transport),
on the longer-term, biofuel demand may decline. For the short-term potential declining
biofuel use in road/rail transport will be compensated for by an increased demand for
advanced biofuels in the heavy duty road, aviation and shipping transport sectors. On the
mid/longer-term some of the advanced biofuel biorefining infrastructures potentially can
be used to produce chemicals/materials instead of fuels. The transition from a fuel to
chemicals focus could for example be achieved in existing biorefineries by diverting
bioethanol from fuel use towards chemical use, and the use of C6 sugars for the production
of other chemicals through chemical conversion or fermentation. Similarly, also using fatty
acid methyl esters for production of fatty alcohols for example in the production of
surfactants instead of using FAME as biodiesel fuel. It has to be noted that the biofuel
sector is a factor larger than the chemicals sector, so only a portion of existing biofuel
assets could transition to focusing on chemicals and materials. This leaves enough capacity
to meet the future market requests for biofuels in aviation and shipping transport sectors.

The second transition with respect to recent policy ambitions is the transition towards use
of residues and waste materials as feedstock and limiting the use of food crops as feedstock
in biorefineries. The sustainability of the biomass used in biorefineries is an important
consideration. This transition is already being supported in the production of fuels from
biomass. There is a dedicated target for advanced biofuels produced from feedstocks listed
in Part A of Annex IX of the Renewable Energy Directive (EU/2018/2011). Furthermore,
there is a cap for fuels produced from food and feed crops for which a significant expansion

88
of the production area into land with high-carbon stock is observed. The ILUC Directive
(EU/2015/1513) further limits the use of food-based biofuels.

Expansion in agricultural production, results in adverse direct and indirect changes to land
use which leads to deforestation and has a negative climate and biodiversity impacts. The
“food first” principle, which considers that the food and feed crops production must be first
directed towards meeting the world’s food and nutritional needs before supplying raw
materials for energy or industrial purposes, is a way to answer to these potential adverse
effects. The use of food crops as a feedstock for biorefineries should not decrease the
availability of food crops for food production. As part of the Biodiversity for 2030 Strategy
and Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission will present in 2021 a legislative proposal and
other measures to avoid or minimise products associated with deforestation or forest
degradation.

OVERVIEW OF THE IDENTIFIED BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS

In the sections below the identified biorefinery pathways are described divided into two
categories, i.e. bottom-up and top-down, as defined above.

The naming of the pathways includes platforms (intermediates) that arise from primary
refining and the feedstocks used: A <number of> platform biorefinery (<names
specific platforms from primary refining>) using <names specific feedstocks>.
The downstream platforms and name of the products are not included into the naming of
the biorefinery pathway as several variants are possible from the primary platforms to end-
products for each biorefinery pathway.

For each biorefinery pathway, first a description is provided, followed by information in

general terms regarding the four elements of the classification system: ‘Feedstocks’,
‘Platforms’, ‘Conversion processes’ and ‘Products’. There are several process variants for
all the biorefinery pathways regarding secondary refining and how co-products and residual
materials are utilized. These process variants existing for each pathway are then described.
The platforms are marked red and the products are made bold in the description of these
process variants. Examples of commercial plants (linking to WP 4 Biorefinery Database)
and examples of demos, pilots and major applied research activities (based on literature
review) in relation to the identified biorefinery pathways are provided. It is important to
note that the aim is not to provide a database for all the initiatives available for each
pathway, but to provide illustrative examples for the different process variants in each
pathway.

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 Table 15. Overview of the biorefinery pathways

Name Feedstocks Conversion Processes Platforms Products

A One platform (C6 sugars) biorefinery using Sugar crops Extraction, fermentation, (chemical C6 sugars Chemicals, polymers, food, animal feed, ethanol
sugar crops conversions) (building block or fuel), CO2, power and heat

B One platform (starch) biorefinery using starch Starch crops Extraction, fermentation, Starch Chemicals, (modified) starches, polymers, food,
crops (hydrolysis, chemical conversions) animal feed, ethanol (building block or fuel) and CO2
Bottom-up approach

C One platform (oil) biorefinery using oil crops, Oil crops, waste/residue Pressing, transesterification, Oil Chemicals (fatty acids, fatty alcohols, glycerol),
wastes and residues fats, oil and greasesa (hydrolysis, chemical conversions) food, animal feed, fuels (biodiesel and renewable
diesel)

D Two-platform (pulp and spent liquor) biorefinery Lignocellulosic crop, Mechanical processing, pulping, Pulp, spent Materials (pulp and paper, specialty fibres),
using wood wood/forestry, residues combustion, (separation, liquor chemicals (turpentine, tall oil, acetic acid, furfural,
from agriculture and extraction, gasification) ethanol, methanol, vanillin), lignin, power and heat
forestry

E Three platform (C5 sugars, C6 sugars and Green biomassb Pre-treatment, hydrolysis, C5 sugars, Chemicals, lignin products (materials, aromatics,
lignin) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass fermentation, combustion, C6 sugars, pyrolytic liquid, syngas), ethanol (building block or
(thermo-/ lignin fuel), power and heat
chemical conversions)

F Two-platform (organic fibres and organic juice) Aquatic biomass Pressing, fibre separation, Organic Materials, chemicals (lactic acid, amino acid),
biorefinery using green biomass anaerobic digestion, combustion, fibres, animal feed, organic fertilizer, fuels (biomethane,
(upgrading, separation) organic juice ethanol), power and heat

G Two-platform (oil and biogas) biorefinery using Natural fibres (e.g. Extraction, anaerobic digestion, Oil, biogas Chemicals (fatty acids, fatty alcohols, glycerol),
aquatic biomass hemp, flax)b combustion, esterification, nutraceuticals, food, organic fertilizer, biodiesel,
(hydrolysis, chemical conversions) power and heat

H Two-platform (organic fibres and oil) biorefinery Lignocellulosic Fibre separation, extraction, Organic Materials, chemicals (fatty acids, fatty alcohols,
using natural fibres biomassc, MSW (chemical conversions) fibres, oil glycerol), nutraceuticals, cannabinoids, food and
biodiesel

I One platform (syngas) biorefinery using Lignocellulosic biomassc Pretreatment, gasification, gas Syngas Chemicals (methanol, hydrogen, olefins), waxes and
lignocellulosic biomass and municipal solid waste conditioning, chemical conversions fuels (F-T biofuels, gasoline, LNG, mixed alcohols)

J Two platform (pyrolytic liquid and biochar) Lignocellulosic Pyrolysis, separation, combustion, Pyrolytic Pyrolysis oil (for materials, chemicals, food
Top-down approach

biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass biomassc, organic (gasification, cracking, extraction) liquid, flavourings, syngas, biofuels), biochar, power and
residues, aquatic biochar heat
biomass

K One platform (bio-crude) biorefinery using Lignocellulosic crop, Hydrothermal liquefaction, Bio-crude Chemicals and fuels
lignocellulosic, aquatic biomass, organic residues wood/forestry, residues upgrading
from agriculture and
forestry

a. Waste/residue fats, oils and greases belong to category "Other organic residues"
b. Green biomass and Natural fibres belong to category "Lignocellulosic from croplands and grasslands“
c. Lignocellulosic biomass includes Lignocellulosic from croplands, wood/forestry and residues from agriculture and forestry

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BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS FOLLOWING BOTTOM-UP APPROACH

The biorefinery pathways following the bottom-up approach concern the extension and/or
upgrading of conventional existing industries/facilities of a sugar mill, starch mill, oil mill
or paper mill.

A. One platform (C6 sugars) biorefinery using sugar crops

Description: This pathway uses sugar crops such as sugarcane and sugar beet as feedstock
and during primary refining sucrose (C6 sugars) is extracted from them. Thus, C6 sugars
constitute the platform for this biorefinery pathway. In secondary refining the C6 sugars
are then typically used as fermentation raw material for bioethanol synthesis. Bioethanol
can be used as a fuel or used as a chemical building block to produce other chemicals like
bioethylene. Furthermore, there is diversification of products from C6 sugars towards other
chemicals produced through fermentation and/or chemical conversions. These chemical
products can be used as chemical intermediates for further processing into finished
products, such as fine chemicals and bioplastics. Figure 21 illustrates how the C6 sugars
(glucose) can be used in the synthesis of many chemicals and plastics. It also shows that
ethanol serves as a platform chemical that can be used for further synthesis of other
chemicals and bioplastics.

There are by-products produced during primary refining (i.e. molasses, sugarcane
bagasse, sugar beet pulp). Molasses are mostly used for feed or utilized as fermentation
raw material. Sugarcane bagasse is used mostly for internal energy purposes whereas
sugar beet pulp is mostly used as animal feed.

Fermentation during secondary refining also results in by-products of vinasse and in fuel
oils. The fuel oils separated during bioethanol purification are used as raw material for the
chemical industry for example in obtaining esters. Vinasse is used for animal feed and
fertirrigation, i.e. utilizing it as a liquid fertilizer for crops. It can also be used for biogas
production through anaerobic digestion where the by-product digestate after crystallisation
of struvite finds use as a fertilizer. The biogas can be used to produce heat and electricity
in a combined heat and power (CHP) plant or upgraded and fed into the natural gas system
or used as biofuel. Also, the by-product carbon dioxide generated during the fermentation
process can be conditioned and attained as an additional value stream which can be used
by the food and beverage industry. Moreover, using carbon dioxide as a raw material for
chemicals and plastics using renewable energy is increasingly researched.

Feedstock: Sugar crops such as sugarcane and sugar beet

Platform: C6 sugars, (biogas)

Processes: Extraction, fermentation, (chemical conversions, combustion, anaerobic

digestion, conditioning)

Products: Chemicals, polymers, food, animal feed ethanol (building block or fuel), CO2,
power and heat

91
 Figure 21.Illustration of the diversity of bio-based plastics and their chemical pathways from sugars. Source:

adapted from nova-Institut 2015165

Figure 22 provides a schematic representation of the One platform (C6 sugars) biorefinery
pathway using sugar crops showing the different process variants. Because the side
streams arising from primary refining of sugar beet and sugar cane are valorised in
different ways, two separate schemes are provided for each in this pathway.

165
Nova-Institut. Bio-based Building Blocks and Polymers in the World – Capacities, Production and Applications:
Status Quo and Trends towards 2020. 2015

92
Figure 22. One platform (C6 sugars) biorefinery pathway, using sugar beet (top) and from sugar cane (bottom)

93
Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

Process variants 1 and 2 are demonstrated at commercial scale and several biorefinery
examples exist for the production of bioethanol. The vast majority of bioethanol is used for
transportation fuels but as explained above bioethanol also serves as a platform chemical.
Therefore, examples of bioethanol producing biorefineries are provided below based on
process variants 1 and 2. The bioethanol produced currently is used for fuel, but this
product can easily be diverted for chemicals/plastics production. Increasing amounts of
bioethanol are being used commercially for the production of bio-based ethylene and
subsequent derivatives such as ethylene oxide and mono ethylene glycol (MEG). For
process variant 3, other commercially available chemicals are lactic acid by fermentation
and sorbitol by chemical transformation. There are also materials being produced
commercially from these chemicals: polyethylene from ethylene, polylactic acid from lactic
acidic and bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) using bio-MEG.

There are also various research activities to bring new chemicals into the market produced
from sugars, such as adipic acid by biochemical conversion and a direct route to MEG by
chemical conversion.166 Carbon dioxide is attained as a co-product (process variant 4)
commercially. It currently finds use in the beverages industry and in greenhouses;
however, carbon dioxide is increasingly researched as a precursor for variety of
chemicals.167 Extraction of valuable ingredients from sugar beet pulp, concerning process
variant 5, is being researched at pilot scale. The alternative use of vinasse for biogas
production through anaerobic digestion (process variant 6) is increasingly gaining interest
at commercial facilities.

Table 16. Examples of commercial, demo, pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway A

Facility Description Feedstoc Products Process

k variants

Sudzucker AG CropEnergies in Zeitz processes sugar syrups from Sugar Bioethanol, 1, 4

& CropEnergies sugar beet coming from SudZucker in immediate beet (+ animal
Bioethanol vicinity. Alternatively, different cereals such as starch feed,
GmbH, Zeitz, wheat, maize, barley (starch crops) can be crops) carbon
Germany processed. All raw materials are fully utilized in dioxide,
168
producing animal feed products. Furthermore, CO2 electricity
produced in the fermentation process is captured and heat
and purified. Research is underway to convert it to
mono- and dicarboxylic acids using organisms. The
facility has its own cogeneration unit that provides
more than its own requirements and feeds excess
electricity to the grid.

Braskem, Brazilian ethanol produced from sugar cane is Sugar Ethylene, 3

Brazil 169 chemically converted into ethylene. The ethylene cane polyethylen
then goes through polymerization to produce e
polyethylene.

India Glycol, The plant produces ethylene glycols — Sugar Ethylene 3

India 170 monoethylene glycol (MEG), diethylene glycol cane glycols
(DEG) and triethylene glycol (TEG) through (MEG, DEG,
several steps of chemical conversion from TEG)
sugarcane derived ethanol. MEG, the largest
volume glycol, is used for the polyester fibre, yarn,
film and PET resin industries. MEG is co-
polymerised with terephthalic acid to produce
polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Coca Cola and
Danone are using this partially bio-based PET for
bottling products.

166
De Jong, E., Stichnothe, H., Bell, G., Jorgensen, H., Bio-Based Chemicals a 2020 Update, IEA Bioenergy Task42
Biorefining. 2020.
167
Dommermuth, B., Raschka, A. Plastics made from CO2. Bioplastics Magazine, 06/15, vol. 10. 2015.
168
CropEnergieshttps://www.cropenergies.com/en/Unternehmen/Standorte/Zeitz/
169
Braskem, http://plasticoverde.braskem.com.br/site.aspx/Im-greenTM-Polyethylene
170
India Glycol, https://www.indiaglycols.com/product_groups/monoethylene_glycol.htm

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 Corbion & C6 sugars from sugarcane are fermented to Sugar Lactic acid, 3
Total-Corbion produce lactic acid by Corbion, which in turn is cane Polylactic
PLA, Thailand converted to lactide monomers and polylactic acid acid,
171
at Total Corbion PLA located at the same site. Lactide
monomers

Cosun, In order to increase the value of its side stream Sugar Microcellulo 5
172
Netherlands sugar beet pulp from sugar production from sugar beet se fibres,
beet, Cosun developed multiple extraction arabinose
techniques to isolate valuable products: and
Microcellulose fibres, arabinose and galacturonic galacturonic
acid can be isolated as high value product. BBI-JU acid
Demonstration project
173
Covestro The newly developed process uses a Raw Aniline 3
microorganism as a catalyst to first convert the sugar
industrial sugar into a precursor. The aniline is
then produced by means of chemical catalysis in a
second step. Proof of principle has been done and
they are planning on scaling up.

B. One platform (starch) biorefinery using starch crops

Description: This biorefinery pathway uses starch crops such as cereals (e.g. corn and
wheat) and potatoes as feedstock, and with primary refining (native) starch is extracted
from them. Thus, starch constitutes the platform for this biorefinery. In secondary refining
the native starch can be used to produce bioethanol following saccharification and
fermentation. It can alternatively be hydrolysed into C6 sugars which can be used as
precursor to produce chemicals through fermentation and/or chemical conversions. These
chemical products can be used as chemical intermediates for further processing into
finished products as described also in pathway A. Native starch can also be chemically or
physically modified for the production of modified starches which find use in food, paper,
textile and cosmetics industry. Starch also finds use in producing bioplastics (starch
blends).

There are by-products arising from starch extraction that contain fibres and proteins; these
are used as animal feed. These are gluten and bran from wheat; germ, gluten feed and
gluten meal from corn; and protein meal and protamylase (which can be used as fertilizer)
from potato. Corn oil from corn is used in the food industry.

Bioethanol fermentation delivers as by-product so-called dried distillers grains with

solubles (DDGS) which is used as animal feed.

Feedstock: Starch crops such as cereals (e.g. corn and wheat) and potatoes

Platform: Starch, (C6 sugars)

Processes: Starch extraction, fermentation, hydrolysis, chemical or physical modifications

Products: Chemicals, (modified) starches, polymers, food, animal feed, ethanol (building
block or fuel) and CO2 Figure 23 provides a schematic representation of the One platform
(starch) biorefinery pathway using starch crops showing the different process variants.

171
Total-Corbion PLA, https://www.total-corbion.com/
172
Pulp2Value, http://pulp2value.eu/
173
Covestro, https://www.covestro.com/en/sustainability/lighthouse-projects/bio-anilin

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Figure 23. One platform (starch) biorefinery pathway using starch crops

96
Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

All the process variants are demonstrated at commercial scale. Examples are provided in
Table 17.

Table 17. Examples of commercial biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway B.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

Cargill, Krefeld, Production of high-quality starches and Corn Native and modified 1, 3, 4
Germany 174 sweeteners from the raw material maize starches, sorbitol,
for the food and technical industries. sweeteners, animal feed

Roquette, Produces a multitude of products from Corn, Native and modified 1, 3, 4, 6

Lestrem, starch crops including native and modified wheat starches, polyols,
France175 starches, proteins, polyols, organic acids proteins, sweeteners,
and specialty chemicals following chemical specialty food/feed
and/or biochemical processes. products, pharmaceutical
ingredients

Novamont, Corn starch is used as feedstock in Corn Starch bioplastics 4

176
Terni, Italy production of biodegradable and
compostable bioplastics (MATER-BI)

Bioamber, Production of succinic acid from wheat Wheat Succinic acid 4

France177 derived glucose

Novamont, Using direct sugars fermentation route Corn 1,4-butanediol 4

178
Adria, Italy developed and licensed by Genomatica to
produce 1,4-butanediol (MATER-BIOTECH).
Sugars produced from corn are supplied
from Cargill.

Cargill + At Cargill corn is processed into sugars are Corn Native and modified 1, 2, 3, 4
Natureworks, further fermented to produce ethanol and starches, corn oil,
Blair, USA179 lactic acid. Furthermore, corn oil and polyols, sweeteners,
animal feed are attained as side-products. animal feed, bioethanol,
Lactic acid is further converted to lactic acid, PLA
polylactic acid (PLA) at Natureworks that is
used in biodegradable plastic applications.

C. One platform (oil) biorefinery using oil crops, wastes and residues

Description: This pathway uses oil crops. Oil can be attained from oil seeds, such as:
rapeseed, soybeans, sunflower seeds, and from fruits, such as: oil palm, coconut and
olives. The oils are separated by pressing in primary refining. Alternatively, oil can be
attained from waste/residues fats, oils and greases. Oil constitutes the platform for this
biorefinery. Meal extract or presscake is attained as by-product from oil pressing. They are
used as animal feed.

In secondary refining, oil is typically converted to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME, biodiesel)
and glycerol by transesterification. Oil also serves as a valuable starting material for the
oleochemical industry and the production of lubricants. Alternatively, via hydrolysis,
cleavage of oil results in fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids, after chemical modifications
can find application in cosmetics, surfactants, dyes among other products. The FAME can
be used to produce fatty alcohols through catalytic hydrogenation. Commonly the fatty
alcohols are ethoxylated (i.e. reacted with ethylene oxide) to produce surfactants. The
ethylene oxide for this can be derived from dehydration of bioethanol from pathways A and
B to produce 100% bio-based surfactants. This has been done commercially by Croda in

174
Cargill, Krefel biorefinery, https://www.cargill.de/en/krefeld-location
175
Roquette, https://www.roquette.com/
176
Novamont, MATER-BI, https://novamont.it/eng/mater-bi
177
Bioamber, https://www.a-r-d.fr/en/bioamber
178
Novamont, MATER-BIOTECH, https://www.novamont.com/public/zip/factsheet_materbiotech_EN_web.pdf
179
Natureworks, Ingeo, https://www.natureworksllc.com/What-is-Ingeo/How-Ingeo-is-Made

97
the US.180 Fatty alcohols can also be further processed into fatty amines through
hydrogenation of fatty nitriles.

The by-product crude glycerol attained from biodiesel production or from hydrolysis, has a
range of applications. It can be further processed into pharmaceutical grade glycerol and
via chemical reactions into range of specialty chemicals.

Feedstock: Oil crops such as rapeseed, soybean, sunflower seeds, palm, and waste/residue
fats, oil and greases

Platform: Oil

Processes: Oil pressing, transesterification, (hydrolysis, chemical conversions)

Products: Chemicals (fatty acids, fatty alcohols, glycerol), food, animal feed, fuels
(biodiesel and renewable diesel)

Figure 24. One platform (oil) biorefinery pathway using oil crops, wastes and residues

180
Croda, https://www.crodapersonalcare.com/en-gb/sustainability/sustainable-manufacturing/eco-plant

98
Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

Figure 24 provides a schematic representation of the One platform (oil) biorefinery pathway
using oil crops, waste and residues showing the different process variants.

Table 18. Examples of commercial biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway C

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

Matrica Integration of chemical and biochemical Thistle Plasticizers for 2,3

Biorefinery, Italy process to produce chemicals using seed polymers, additives for
(Novamont and multiple feedstocks from local areas rubber, lubricants,
Versalis) 181 showing agro-industrial integration, glycerol, cosmetic
such as thistle low-input dry crop suited ingredients
to the Mediterranean climate and which
grows on wild, abandoned land

Croda182 Production of chemical intermediates by Oil crops, Oleochemicals 2

oleochemical biorefining for bio-based residual (Distilled and partly
polymers, lubricants, coatings, and oils hardened fatty acids,
personal care products Polymerised fatty
acids, Oleic acids,
isostearic acid, Stearic
fatty acids, glycerol)

KLK OLEO183 KLK OLEO process vide range of Palm oil Oleochemicals (fatty 2, 3, 4
oleochemicals used in diverse end-use acids, glycerol, fatty
applications, including home & personal alcohols and fatty
health care, cosmetics & toiletries, food, esters, sulphonated
flavours & fragrances, lubricants and methyl esters,
industrial chemicals surfactants and
phytonutrients)

D. Two-platform (pulp and spent liquor) biorefinery using wood

Description: Pathway D is based on existing pulping processes and innovations that are
directly linked to them to upgrade them into even more economically feasible and
sustainable biorefineries with a wider product portfolio.

This biorefinery pathway uses wood, most typically wood chips residues from saw mills and
thinning residues from forest management, as feedstock and with the pulping process the
two platforms pulp and spent liquor are produced. The two most typical pulping processes
are Kraft and sulphite pulping, but the use of ionic liquids is also under development for
speciality fibres for high quality textiles.184 The spent liquor from Kraft process is called
black liquor. Pulp can be used for papermaking and in the production of cellulose
derivatives. Dissolving pulp is produced from sulphite pulping or the Kraft process with an
acid prehydrolysis step to remove hemicelluloses. It finds application in textiles and
nonwoven products. Nanocrystalline cellulose can be produced through acid hydrolysis of
the pulp. It is possible to recover methanol from off-gas generated in pulp production.

Chemicals such as tall oil and turpentine as well as lignin can be recovered from black
liquor and spent liquor is usually combusted to generate heat and electricity that can be
used internally and externally. Tall oil and turpentine products find use for example in tires,
asphalt, perfumes, adhesives and paints. Tall oil can also be used in biodiesel production,
but it has nine times higher returns when used as chemical. Spent liquor can also be used

181
Matrica, http://www.matrica.it/default.asp?ver=en
182
Croda, https://www.croda.com/en-gb/products-and-markets/oleochemicals
183
KLK OLEO, https://www.klkoleo.com/
184
Hummel M. et al. Ionic Liquids for the Production of Man-Made Cellulosic Fibres: Opportunities and Challenges.
Rojas O. (eds) Cellulose Chemistry and Properties: Fibres, Nanocelluloses and Advanced Materials. Advances in
Polymer Science, vol 271. 2015.

99
for syngas production through gasification. See pathway I for many potential options for
syngas valorisation (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis to biofuels, conversion to hydrogen,
conversion to methanol and its derivatives such as methanol to olefins (MTO) route to
biochemicals and biofuels, or chemical conversion towards acetic acid or formaldehyde for
example). Alternatively, spent liquor can be processed to produce lignin oil which can be
further processed into chemicals. Lignosulphonates can be recovered from the spent
sulphite liquor which find most use in concrete and cement production. Furthermore,
vanillin can be produced from oxidation of lignosulfonates that find use in foods and
fragrances. Lignin can be extracted from black liquor and used for variety of chemical and
material applications as described in pathway E.

The pulping process generates a waste gas stream (steam stripper off-gas) from which
methanol can be recovered. Methanol can be used as a solvent, antifreeze, fuel or
precursor for further chemical products production.

Feedstock: Lignocellulosic wood/forestry

Platform: Pulp and spent liquor (heat and electricity, lignin, syngas)

Processes: Mechanical processing, pulping, combustion, papermaking, (separation,

extraction, chemical conversions, gasification)

Products: Materials (pulp and paper, specialty fibres), chemicals (turpentine, tall oil, acetic
acid, furfural, ethanol, methanol, vanillin), lignin, power and heat

Figure 25 representation of the Two-platform (pulp and spent liquor) biorefinery using
wood showing the different process variants. Because the Kraft pulping and sulphite
pulping result in different co-product possibilities, two separate schemes are provided for
this pathway D.

100
101
 Figure 25. Two-platform (pulp and spent liquor) biorefinery pathway using wood, for Kraft pulping (top) and for Sulphite pulping
(bottom)

Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

All the process variants are demonstrated at commercial scale. Examples are provided in
Table 19. Significant activities are taking place to widen the product portfolio and offer
innovative bio-based products.

Table 19. Examples of commercial facilities for biorefinery pathway D.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

Lenzing, Wood is processed through sulphite pulping into Beech Dissolving pulp, 1, 2, 4
Austria185 dissolving wood pulp and marketed under several wood acetic acid,
brands for textile, nonwoven and industrial furfural, xylose,
applications. Through vapor condensate extraction lignosulfonate,
process acetic acid and furfural are separated from sodium sulphate,
the spent liquor. In cooperation with the company soda ash, heat
DuPont / Danisco, xylose is extracted on site from the and electricity
spent sulphite liquor (high-purity crystalline powder),
which is used as sweetener. Residual liquor is burnt
for energy.

Borregaard, The conversion of the old sulphite pulp mill to the Spruce Specialty 1, 2, 3,
Norway186 biorefinery of today has been accomplished through wood, cellulose, 4, 5
specialization and continuous innovation. By using the woodchips microfibrillated
different components of wood, Borregaard produces cellulose,
lignin products, speciality cellulose, vanillin, lignosulfonates,
bioethanol and microfibrillar cellulose for a variety of vanillin, ethanol,
applications in sectors such as agriculture and chemicals (e.g.
fisheries, construction, pharmaceuticals and acetic acid), heat
cosmetics, foodstuffs, batteries and biofuels. and electricity

185
Lenzing, https://www.lenzing.com/sustainability/production/biorefinery
186
Borregaard, https://www.borregaard.com/

102
 Stora Enso, Offers a variety of pulp grades to meet the demands Softwood Pulp, lignin, tall 1, 2, 4
Sunila Mill, of paper, board and tissue producers. Tall oil and oil, turpentine,
Finland187 turpentine are also produced. Largest Kraft lignin heat and
producer based on the LignoBoost™ technology, electricity
LineoTM product. A pilot facility is built for producing
bio-based carbon materials based on lignin for
example, to replace fossil-based components in
phenols for adhesives.

Domtar, In the Kraft pulp mills pulp is produced for a variety of Pine wood Pulp and paper, 1, 2, 3,
USA 188, end uses, many with specific technical requirements. fluff pulp, 4
CelluForce189 Their lignin separation facility at its Plymouth mill is specialty pulp,
the first commercial-scale installation of the nanocrystalline
LignoBoost™ technology. Tall oil and turpentine are cellulose, tall oil,
attained as byproducts. With its joint venture turpentine, lignin,
CelluForce producing nanocrystalline cellulose. They heat and
are also researching into converting sugars into electricity
chemicals and fuels.

Alberta Steam stripper off gas, a by-product stream from the Wood Pulp, methanol, 1, 6
Pacific chemical recovery area of the Kraft pulping process is (aspen, heat and
Forest converted into high purity methanol. Plant exports poplar, electricity
Industries, excess electricity to grid. spruce,
Canada190 pine)

Spinnova191 The pulp undergoes a mechanical treatment to Pulp (from Textile fibre 3
produce micro fibrillated cellulose. No chemical is used FSC
in producing the fibres and only by-product is water certified
which is recycled. The fibre is suitable as-is for wood)
spinning into yarn and knitting or weaving into fabric
or non-wovens elsewhere.

Kraton192 Crude tall oil, by-product from Kraft process, is Crude tall TOFA (SYLFAT™), 2
processed in Kraton CTO biorefinery into four different oil TOR
fractions: tall oil fatty acid (TOFA), tall oil rosin (TOR), (SYLVAROS™)
distilled tall oil (DTO) and pitch. These fractions can and DTO
be upgraded into bio-based chemicals and find (SYLVATAL™)
applications such as surfactants, alkyd resins, and
adhesives.

BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS FOLLOWING TOP-DOWN APPROACH

The biorefinery pathways following the top-down approach are specifically developed new
processes to convert various biomass fractions at zero-waste generation to a broad variety
of products for different markets. Typically, a type of biomass feedstock is used that is not
handled in conventional biomass facilities (e.g. aquatic biomass, green biomass, various
residues and wastes, like bark) with typically new technologies used in primary refining
(such as lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment technologies, pyrolysis, hydrothermal
upgrading or torrefaction). They can be built either near an existing bottom-up facility, to
make use of both the existing industrial infrastructure (i.e. feedstock handling, auxiliaries,
waste water treatment) and existing permits etc. (brown-field approach), or at a new site
(green-field approach).

Two types of top-down biorefinery pathways can be distinguished with the first focusing
on separating the biomass into its functional components and then utilization of all the
different functionalised components of the biomass into spectrum of products. The second
type focuses on direct thermochemical conversion of biomass followed by further refining
into end products.

187
Stora Enso, https://www.storaenso.com/en/about-stora-enso/stora-enso-locations/sunila-mill
188
Domtar, https://www.domtar.com/en/who-we-are/all-locations/plymouth-mill
189
CelluForce, https://www.celluforce.com/
190
Alberta Pacific Forest Industries Inc., https://alpac.ca/index.php/about/products
191
Spinnova, https://spinnova.com/our-method/fibre/
192
Kraton, https://kraton.com/innovation/talloil.php

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Pathways based on separation of biomass into its components:

E. Three platform (C5 sugars, C6 sugars and lignin) biorefinery using lignocellulosic
biomass

Description: Pathway E considers full new innovative biorefinery approaches for

fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass to produce C5 & C6 sugars and lignin and
valorisation of these platforms, to a portfolio of bio-based products.

This pathway uses lignocellulosic biomass which includes a variety of sources as possible
feedstock, such as: lignocellulosic short rotation coppice (i.e. willow and poplar), other
wood, forestry residues, and agricultural residues (such as straw). The primary refining
includes a pre-treatment stage which can be done using variety of methods: physical (such
as milling), chemical (such as acid or alkali pretreatment, organosolv), physicochemical
(such as steam explosion, ammonia fibre explosion) and biological (fungal enzymes)
depending on the type of biomass feedstock and the targeted products. Typically, this is
followed by hydrolysis which results in C5&C6 sugars and lignin as the platforms. After
that, fermentation is carried out to produce bioethanol from C5&C6 sugars. Lignin can be
separated before fermentation or following fermentation from the remaining solution
depending on the type of pretreatment process.

Additional value can be created from lignin by utilising lignin’s macromolecular structure
in chemicals/materials, such as in production of asphalt, binder, adhesives, carbon fibres
and polymer composites. Alternatively, lignin can go through depolymerisation to produce
chemicals, such as aromatics. For this, different methods exist, such as: hydroprocessing,
liquid phase reforming, acid/base catalysis and oxidation.193 Additionally, thermochemical
conversions of lignin can also take place, like gasification to produce syngas or fast-
pyrolysis to produce pyrolytic liquid. In order to use the lignin for these material
applications, it is important to tailor the pretreatment process and achieve good separation
of the lignin from the cellulose and hemicellulose without changing it chemically or
physically. Lignin that is separated can be also combusted for heat and electricity.

Alternatively, based on the method of pretreatment and separation processes that follow,
the three fractions (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) can be isolated and processed
separately. The ratios of the three fractions of lignocellulose differ depending on the type
and origin of the biomass. The cellulose and hemicellulose fractions thereby can be
processed separately to different type of chemicals.

There is a possibility to integrate this biorefinery pathway into existing sugar/starch crop
refineries (pathway A or B) e.g. straw processing integrated into wheat processing facility.
This is also referred to as the whole crop biorefinery approach. There is also possibility to
integrate this pathway into existing pulp mill based biorefineries e.g. bark or forestry
residues processing to sugars, taking place on the same site as advanced pulp mill based
biorefineries of pathway D. With this brownfield approach, the new biorefinery takes
advantage of the already existing industrial infrastructure (biomass supply, use of
auxiliaries, use of downstream processing facilities) and or regulations/ permits.

Feedstock: Lignocellulosic crop, wood/forestry, residues from agriculture and forestry

Platform: C5 sugars, C6 sugars, lignin

Processes: Pre-treatment, hydrolysis, fermentation, combustion, (chemical and

thermochemical conversions)

Products: Chemicals, lignin products (materials, aromatics, pyrolytic liquid, syngas),

ethanol (building block or fuel), power and heat

193
Shutyser et al. Chem. Soc. Rev.47, 852. 2018.

104
Figure 26 provides a schematic representation of the Three platform (C5 sugars, C6 sugars
and lignin) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass showing the different process variants.

Figure 26. Three platform (C5 sugars, C6 sugars and lignin) biorefinery pathway using lignocellulosic biomass

Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

For the process variants 1 and 5 commercial scale examples exist as well as several demo
plants; process variant 2 is yet at demo stage. Examples of bioethanol producing
biorefineries are provided below based on process variant 1. The bioethanol produced
currently is used for fuel, but this platform chemical can easily be diverted for
chemicals/plastics production. Several initiatives exist for the process variant 3 to produce
chemicals. Process variant 4 concerning gasification and pyrolysis of lignin mostly in
research phase; bench and pilot scale experiments exist. Furthermore, several material
applications of lignin are researched and tested. Examples are provided in Table 20. First
commercial plants with a focus on advanced biofuels (cellulosic ethanol) are currently not
very successful; however, current developments to advanced chemicals (e.g. Avantium,
Biorizon) seem to be very promising.

105
 Table 20. Examples of commercial, demo, pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway E.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

Fraunhaufer In the pilot plant wood-chips (beech, Wood C5 sugars, C6 2

CBP, Leuna, poplar) processed using organosolv sugars, Lignin
Germany194 process. Lignin and hemicellulose are
dissolved and separated from cellulose.
Thereafter lignin is precipitated and
separated from hemicellulose. The clean
lignin can be used for material
applications. The cellulose is hydrolysed
enzymatically to C6 sugars and
hemicellulose is hydrolysed to C5 sugars
which can be used for further processing.

Clariant, Clariant is currently building a first-of-its- Straw (other Bioethanol, 1, 5

Germany and kind commercial-scale flagship plant for agricultural heat and
Romania195,196 the production of cellulosic ethanol from residues) electricity.
agricultural residues such as straw based biogas
on the sunliquid® technology. The plant
with an annual capacity of 50,000 tons of
cellulosic ethanol will be located in the
southwestern part of Romania. This
technology was already demonstrated in
Straubing plant with a production capacity
of 1,000 t of ethanol per year. The process
involves simultaneous fermentation of
C5&C6 sugars to ethanol. Stillage is
utilized in a nearby biogas plant. Lignin is
used for process energy.

Avantium, Pilot plant operating, plans for flagship Wood, forest Glucose (for 1, 3
Netherlands197 underway. High acid/low temperature and agricultural MEG, FDCA,
hydrolysis to provide glucose for bio-based residues lactic acid),
chemical applications. The resulting C6 C5/C6 sugars,
sugars can be used in other routes studied Lignin
at Avantium to product bio-MEG and FDCA
(for PEF).

Cellulac, A combined chemical and process Straw, spent Lactic acid 3

Ireland198 engineering technology to produce lactic brewers grains,
acid by pretreatment and fermentation of DDGS
sugars from lignocellulosic biomass

Fibria Acquired the technology and pilot facility Wood Lignin, 2, 4

Innovations, of Lignol Innovations based on Alcell bioethanol,
Canada199 organosolv process. Research into acetic acid,
innovative material applications for lignin furfural,
cellulose

Biorizon, European project works on the Lignin Aromatics 4b

LignoValue200 development of technology for the
isolation, depolymerization and
fractionation of the lignin fraction of
biomass into bio-aromatics. In the
LignoValue pilot installation scale up
production of bio-aromatics will take place.

194
Fraunhofer Center for Chemical-Biotechnological Processes (CBP) in Leuna, Lignocellulose biorefinery,
https://www.cbp.fraunhofer.de/en/reference-projects/lignocellulose-biorefinery.html
195
Clariant Sunliquid®, https://www.clariant.com/en/Solutions/Products/2014/10/16/16/16/sunliquid
196
LIGNOFLAG project, https://www.lignoflag-project.eu/
197
Avantium Dawn TegnologyTM, https://www.avantium.com/technologies/dawn/
198
Cellulac, http://cellulac.co.uk/en/main/process-diagram/
199
Fibria Innovations, http://r2017.fibria.com.br/en/our-production-processes/research-and-development/
200
Biorizon, LignoValue Pilot project, https://www.biorizon.eu/news/lignovalue-pilot-launched-flanders-first-and-only-
pilot-line-of-bio-aromati/

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F. Two-platform (organic fibres and organic juice) biorefinery using green biomass

Description: This pathway uses green nature-wet biomass such as grass as feedstock.
During primary refining, green biomass is pressed, and the liquid is separated. This results
in organic fibres and organic juice as the platforms for this biorefinery pathway.
The organic fibres are further processed into materials, such as boards, composites,
insultation material and fibre reinforced polymers. Alternatively, they can be used as
fermentation raw material to produce biofuels and chemicals following pre-treatment and
hydrolysis.

The organic juice contains valuable ingredients, such as lactic acid, proteins, and amino
acids which can be separated off before sending the remainder into a biogas plant. Organic
juice is fed to anaerobic digestion, typically coupled with other organic residues, to produce
biogas and digestate. In turn, the digestate is used as fertilizer and biogas can be upgraded
to biomethane to be injected in the natural gas grid, to bio-LNG for transport purposes, or
directly used to produce heat and electricity. Additionally, organic juice can be used as a
fermentation raw material.

Feedstock: Green wet biomass such as grass, clover, alfalfa (+ in combination with organic
residues)

Platform: Organic fibre, organic juice, (biogas)

Processes: Pressing, fibre separation, anaerobic digestion, combustion, (upgrading,

separation)

Products: Materials, chemicals (lactic acid, amino acid), animal feed, organic fertilizer, fuels
(biomethane, ethanol), power and heat Figure 27 provides a schematic representation of
the Two-platform (organic fibres and organic juice) biorefinery using green biomass
showing the different process variants

107
Figure 27. Two-platform (organic fibres and organic juice) biorefinery pathway using green biomass

108
Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

The process variants 1 and 2 are demonstrated at commercial scale, several demo
initiatives exist for the process variant 3. Process variants 4 and 5 are in the research
phase. Examples are provided in Table 21.

Table 21. Examples of commercial, demo, pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway F.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

Biowert GmbH, Biowert produces green electricity and Grass Organic fibres for 1
Germany innovative materials, namely composites, biomaterials, fertilizer,
(commercial)201 insulation materials and fertilizers. biogas, heat and
Anaerobic digestion of organic juice is done electricity
together with regional organic
residues/wastes.

Green A demonstration facility based in Utzenaich Grass Organic fibres for 1, 3

Biorefinery, produces fibre derived products, fertilizer, biomaterials, fertilizer,
Austria electricity and heat. Additionally, lactic acid biogas, lactic acid,
(demo)202 and amino acids are produced. amino acids, heat and
electricity

Grassa, Mobile, small-scale modular process Grass, Organic fibres for 1, 3

Netherlands203 installation has been built to produce fibres leaves animal feed, protein,
and protein concentrate as well as minerals. (tomato, minerals (fertilizer)
sugarbeet)

G. Two-platform (oil and biogas) biorefinery using aquatic biomass

Description: This pathway uses aquatic biomass, such as micro-algae. The oil is extracted
most typically using solvents. Oil and de-oiled biomass are attained after primary refining.

In secondary refining, oil can be cleaved by hydrolysis to produce fatty acids and glycerol
which form valuable starting materials for oleochemicals, lubricants, and surfactants. The
oil contains valuable ingredients, such as carotenoids, phytosterols, omega-3 and 6 fatty
acids that can be extracted in secondary refining. These find use in food additive, health
supplement, and pharmaceutical products. Alternatively, the oil can be converted to fatty
acid methyl esters (FAME, biodiesel) and glycerol by transesterification.

De-oiled biomass can be converted into digestate and biogas through anaerobic digestion.
The digestate by-product from this process can be used as fertilizer.

Feedstock: Aquatic biomass

Platform: Oil, biogas

Processes: Extraction, hydrolysis, anaerobic digestion, combustion, transesterification,

(separation, hydrolysis, chemical conversions)

Products: Chemicals (fatty acids, fatty alcohols, glycerol), nutraceuticals, food, organic
fertilizer, biodiesel, power and heat

201
Biowert GmbH, https://biowert.com/
202
Green Biorefinery Utzenaich, Austria, https://nachhaltigwirtschaften.at/de/fdz/projekte/demonstrationsanlage-
gruene-bioraffinerie-utzenaich.php
203
Grassa, https://grassa.nl/en/about-grassa/

109
Figure 28 provides a schematic representation of the Two-platform (oil and biogas)
biorefinery using aquatic biomass showing the different process variants.

Figure 28. Two-platform (oil and biogas) biorefinery pathway using aquatic biomass

Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

For this biorefinery pathway from aquatic biomass several initiatives exist mostly in
research and pilot stage. Examples are provided in Table 22.

Table 22. Examples of demo and pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway G.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

Ecoduna, Develop and research on future Microalgae Cosmeceuticals, 1, 3

Austria204 applications and effects of microalgae nutraceuticals, pigments,
and their ingredients energy and fuels

AlgaePARC, Research at laboratory and pilot scale to Microalgae Proteins, oils, omega 3 1, 3
the develop new production chains towards and 6, carbohydrates,
Netherlands205 high quality products. Mild recovery, pigments
extraction and fractionation of high value
components and research for product
development.

204
Ecoduna, https://www.ecoduna.com/en/
205
AlgaePARC, http://www.algaeparc.com/

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H. Two-platform (organic fibres and oil) biorefinery using natural fibres

Description: Various types of natural fibres exist. Flax and hemp are grown predominantly
in Europe, whereas jute, kenaf and sisal mostly available in Asia. The properties of natural
fibres depend on their composition, growing conditions and harvesting techniques.

The seeds are separated from the stem by threshing. The fibres are located within the
stem/stalk. They are first treated with microbes or chemicals to loosen and then later on
mechanically to separate from the woody inside (shives). The fibres are used mostly in the
production of natural fibre composites by mixing with plastics. They find use in high-
performance applications such as in automobiles and aircrafts due to their low density and
attractive mechanical properties. Other applications include geotextiles, textiles, building
and construction. The shive left after fibre separation is normally not utilized but uses such
as animal bedding is possible and applications such as particle boards and plastic
composites are being developed.

The seeds and its oil can be used for food and as nutraceuticals. Additionally, oil can be
extracted for use in production of oleochemicals and biodiesel in analogy with oil crop based
biorefinery. The seed oil can contain valuable oils such as linoleic (omega-6) and linolenic
(omega-3) acid that can be isolated.

Furthermore, the leaves/threshing residues can contain cannabinoids. A large number of

studies have shown health promoting and medicinal properties of cannabinoids with
cannabidiol (CBD) being the most known.

Feedstock: Natural plant fibres including bast (e.g. hemp, flax, jute, kenaf), leaf (sisal,
abaca), stalk (e.g. rice, wheat, maize)

Platform: Organic fibres and oil

Processes: Fibre separation, extraction, physical processing, (chemical conversions)

Products: Materials, chemicals (fatty acids, fatty alcohols, glycerol), nutraceuticals,

cannabinoids, food and biodiesel

Figure 29 provides a schematic representation of the Two-platform (organic fibres and oil)
biorefinery using natural fibres showing the different process variants.

111
Figure 29. Two-platform (organic fibres and oil) biorefinery pathway using natural fibres

112
Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

The natural fibres find use commercially in the production of composites. For the biorefinery
concept yielding multiple products from natural fibres, several initiatives exist mostly in
research and pilot stage. Examples are provided in Table 23.

Table 23. Examples of commercial, demo, pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway H.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

VeLiCa, VeLiCa is a pilot project looking at growing Hemp and Organic fibre for 1, 2
Italy206 hemp and flax in northern Italy and flax composites, oil for
biorefining into fibre-based green composite biodiesel,
building materials and oil. Oil will be used for lubricants and
bio-diesel, lubricants and polyols to produce polyols and
bio-based polymers. Additionally, valuable valuable oils for
oils will be obtained for the nutraceutical nutraceuticals
market.

GRACE207 The GRACE (GRowing Advanced industrial Hemp Organic fibre for 1, 2, 3, 4
Crops on marginal lands for biorEfineries) composites and
project led by the University of Hohenheim is building materials,
focused on exploiting the advantageous Oil for chemicals,
characteristics of Miscanthus and hemp. From Shive for building
hemp, the project looks at using fibres for materials,
composites and directly in building materials. Cannabinoids (e.g.
Extraction of oil for production of chemicals CBD)
(pelargonic acid, azelaic acid). Separated
shives use in building materials. Furthermore,
extraction of cannabinoids such as
cannabidiol from threshing residues.

Ecotechnilin, Ecotechnilin provides natural fibre (flax, Natural Natural fibre 1

France and hemp, jute, kenaf) for many industrial fibres (flax, composites
Poland208 applications. Specializes in the production of hemp, jute,
non-woven composite materials using natural kenaf)
fibres. The automotive industry moulds them
into car parts like wheel housings, trunk
floors, arm rests, door panels, dashboards
etc.

Kanesis, HempBioPlastic (HBP®) is a natural bio- Shrive of Hemp Bioplastic 3

Italy209 composite, developed and created from shive hemp
of industrial hemp which is usually just
wasted. PLA is used to produce the
composite, so it is biodegradable.

HempFlax, the HempFlax considers utilization of the hemp Hemp Biomaterials (fibre 1, 3, 4
Netherlands210 plant as a whole for various market for industrial
applications. Their products include animal applications,
bedding, building materials, materials for insulation,
industrial applications. As well as seeds, oil, composites),
CBD and protein powder. seeds, oil, CBD and
protein powder

Pathways based on direct thermochemical conversion of biomass:

Instead of processing of components attained from the biorefineries, the pathways

described below directly feed the whole biomass to thermochemical conversion for further
processing into chemicals and/or fuels.

206
Ravasio, Nicoletta & Galasso, Incoronata & Ottolina, Gianluca & Sacchi, Maria & Speranza, Giovanna & Tonin,
Claudio. A Biorefinery Model Based on Flax and Hemp Crops. La Chimica e l'Industria. 95. 113. 2013.
207
GRACE, https://www.grace-bbi.eu/
208
Ecotechnilin, https://eco-technilin.com/en/
209
Kanesis, https://www.kanesis.it/products/
210
HempFlax, https://www.hempflax.com/en/

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I. One platform (syngas) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass and municipal solid
waste

Description: In this biorefinery pathway there is no component separation, all the biomass
is gasified to produce syngas. Dry biomass is considered as feedstock. It is possible to feed
many different types of biomass, such as energy crops like Miscanthus and switchgrass,
short rotation coppice (i.e. willow and poplar), wood, forestry residues, agricultural
residues (such as straw), as well as municipal solid waste and wood waste.
In primary refining, the biomass is pre-treated and dried followed by gasification to produce
crude synthesis gas which is the platform for this biorefinery pathway. Depending on the
heating process the pre-treatment could also be torrefaction or pyrolysis which is followed
by gasification. The syngas composition depends on a range of process parameters. The
syngas then goes through gas cleaning and conditioning since each downstream process
requires a specific syngas composition (CO:H2 ratio) as well as limits to certain
contaminants (such as sulphur). The syngas then can be chemically converted into a
spectrum of chemicals and fuels. It can go through Fischer-Tropsch synthesis to produce
synthetic biofuels. It can be chemically converted into methanol which serves as precursor
for other chemicals (such as dimethyl-ether, formaldehyde, acetic acid). Methanol can
alternatively go through methanol to olefin (MTO) conversion to produce chemicals. Syngas
can also be used for production of hydrogen or in production of methane following
methanation (for feeding into the natural gas grid (synthetic natural gas, SNG) and/or bio-
LNG for transport).

Black liquor and lignin are also potential feedstocks for gasification, as covered under
biorefinery pathways D and E respectively.

Feedstock: Lignocellulosic crops, wood/forestry biomass, forestry residues, agricultural

residues and municipal solid waste

Platform: Syngas

Processes: Pre-treatment, gasification, gas cleaning and conditioning, chemical

conversions

Products: Chemicals (methanol, hydrogen, olefins), waxes and fuels (F-T biofuels,
gasoline, LNG, mixed alcohols)

Figure 30 provides a schematic representation of the One platform (syngas) biorefinery

using lignocellulosic biomass and municipal solid waste showing the different process
variants.

114
Figure 30. One platform (syngas) biorefinery pathway using lignocellulosic biomass and municipal solid waste

115
Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

Several initiatives exist at pilot, demo and commercial scale using straw, wood or MSW as
feedstock. Examples are provided in Table 24.

Table 24. Examples of commercial, demo and pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway I.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

LanzaTech211 LanzaTech ferments gases (industrial off- MSW, Bioethanol, chemical 3

gas or syngas from waste) and produces organic building blocks
ethanol and a variety of chemicals using a industrial
naturally occurring bacteria. They have waste,
demonstration facilities in China, Japan, agricultural
USA and New Zealand. waste
Karlruhe In the bioliq® pilot plant biomass is Wheat straw Methanol, DME, biofuels 1
Institute of densified with fast pyrolysis de-centrally.
Technology, The resulting slurry is used to produce
Germany212 syngas centrally by entrained gasification.
The syngas is cleaned and conditioned
followed by methanol or dimethyl ether
synthesis. DME can further be converted
to biofuels.

Enerkem213 First commercial waste to biofuels and MSW Methanol, ethanol 1, 3

chemicals company in Edmonton, Canada.
Two projects under way to produce
methanol from waste in the Netherlands
and Spain. The proprietary
thermochemical process includes
feedstock preparation, gasification,
syngas cleaning and conditioning and
catalytic conversion to produce methanol
and ethanol.

J. Two platform (pyrolytic liquid and biochar) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass

Description: Similar to the biorefinery pathway with the syngas platform, in this biorefinery
pathway lignocellulosic, dry biomass is thermochemically converted without separation into
its components. There is the possibility to feed many different types of biomass but most
typically, wood is used.

Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation/decomposition process that occurs in the absence of

oxygen, which results in production of pyrolytic liquid (pyrolysis oil), biochar and gas.
Biochar and gas are combusted to provide the process heat requirements. Biochar can also
be attained as co-product and is used for soil-amendment. Pyrolysis oil is the main product
and can be utilized in different ways. It can be gasified to syngas and further converted to
various chemicals and fuels as described in the pathway for syngas platform, pathway I.
Pyrolysis oil can alternatively be co-fed into petroleum oil refineries, and following
hydrotreating or cracking, it will result in the production of biofuels, chemical feedstocks
(e.g. naphtha) and chemical building blocks (e.g. propylene). Production of food flavouring
(liquid smoke) is a commercialized product from pyrolysis. Pyrolysis oil can also be fed into
a combined heat and power plant to produce heat and electricity.

Pyrolysis oil can find use in adhesives/resins where a phenolic rich fraction can be extracted
and used in phenol formaldehyde resins. Another application considered is the addition in
asphalt that can be used in roofing and roads. For this also the lignin fraction of pyrolysis
oil can be separated and used for bitumen replacement. Oil fractions can be used for wood
modification. Finally, extraction of levoglucosan which is present in the pyrolytic sugar

211
LanzaTech, https://www.lanzatech.com/
212
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, bioliq® Process, https://www.bioliq.de/english/55.php
213
Enerkem, https://enerkem.com/

116
phase (from cellulose) is researched which can be hydrolysed and converted to multitude
of chemicals.214

Feedstock: Lignocellulosic crop, wood/forestry, residues from agriculture and forestry

Platform: Pyrolytic liquid, biochar, (syngas)

Processes: Fast-pyrolysis, separation, combustion, (gasification, cracking, extraction)

Products: Pyrolysis oil (for materials, chemicals, food flavourings, syngas, biofuels),
biochar, power and heat

Figure 31. Two platform (pyrolytic liquid and biochar) biorefinery pathway using lignocellulosic biomass

Figure 31 provides a schematic representation of the Two platform (pyrolytic liquid and
biochar) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass showing the different process variants.

214
IEA Bioenergy Task 34, Materials and Products, http://task34.ieabioenergy.com/materials-and-products/

117
Examples for the different process variants and their development status:

Process variant 1 is demonstrated at commercial scale. Process variant 2 is covered within

the biorefinery pathway I and example of bioliq® pilot plant is given for that. For process
variant 3 commercial plant is being built which will be linked to an existing petroleum
refinery. Process variant 4 is mostly in research phase. Examples are provided in Table 25.

Pyrolysis oil can be used for energy (combustion), chemicals and materials (via
fractionation) or fuels and chemicals via co-processing in oil refineries.

Table 25. Examples of commercial, demo and pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway J.

Facility Description Feedstock Products Process

variants

Empryro, Commercial facility in Hengelo using fast Woodchips pyrolysis oil, heat and 1
Twence, the pyrolysis technology of BTG-BTL. The electricity
Netherlands215 plant uses woodchips to produce
pyrolysis oil. From the rest streams heat
and electricity is produced. Pyrolysis oil
is co-fired with natural gas producing
process steam for dairy company
FrieslandCampina.

Lieksa, Green Prefab facilities will be built in Sawdust pyrolysis oil, heat and 1
Fuel Nordic Oy, Netherlands and then assembled in electricity
Finland216 Liekska pyrolysis plant which will be
located next to a sawmill and will use
sawdust from the mill as feedstock.

CHIMAR Hellas, Studied the potential use pyrolysis oil, Pyrolysis Phenol-formaldehyde 4
SA217 the part comprising of phenolic oil resin
compounds, for replacing part of the
phenol needed in the formulation of
phenol-formaldehyde resin. Phenol
substitution levels of up to 50% were
achieved.

BTG, The BTG is actively exploring and developing Pyrolysis Biomaterials and 4
218
Netherlands different new products by using pyrolysis oil chemicals (such as
oil as the raw material in pilot set-ups. resin, asphalt, organic
Examples are: acids, phenolics,
• Pyrolytic lignin as a substitute for ethanol)
fossil phenol in phenol-formaldehyde
resins
• Pyrolytic lignin as a replacement for
fossil bitumen in e.g. asphalt
• Recovery of organic acids
• Production of mono-phenolics
• Pyrolytic sugars as a renewable
feedstock for platform chemicals and
fuels e.g. bio-ethanol levulinic acid,
polyols.

215
Twence, https://www.twence.nl/energie/wat-leveren-wij.html
216
Green Fuel Nordic Oy, https://www.greenfuelnordic.fi/en
217
Nakos P, Tsiantzi S, Athanassiadou E. Wood adhesives made with pyrolysis oils. Proceedings of the 3rd European
wood-based panel symposium, 12–14 September 2001.
218
BTG, https://www.btgworld.com/en/rtd/technologies/bio-materials-chemicals

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K. One platform (bio-crude) biorefinery using lignocellulosic biomass, aquatic biomass
and organic residues

Description: There are essentially two main classes of thermochemical processes able to
produce a liquid fuel directly from solid biomass: fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal
liquefaction. Pyrolysis oil resulting from fast pyrolysis generally has a relatively high oxygen
content, requiring further upgrading for most applications. Furthermore, it is usually
required to dry the biomass to make it suitable for pyrolysis. Whereas, in hydrothermal
liquefaction, it is possible to get a high viscosity liquid product with a considerably lower
oxygen content, and it can work also with wet biomass.219 This allows also aquatic biomass
and organic residues to be considered as potential feedstock besides lignocellulosic
biomass. Also low/negative-cost but also low-quality feedstocks like sludge and manure
potentially can be processed by means of hydrothermal liquefaction.

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) involves the reaction of the feedstock in the presence of
water at hydrothermal conditions (temperature 250-370 °C and pressure 4-22 MPa) where
the water is kept in liquid state.220 It is currently being studied mostly at lab scale with
batch setups. Several continuous pilot setups have also been built. An example is the one
built at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratories (PNNL) intended for the processing of
different types of biomass (such as algae and agricultural residues).221 Although HTL can
still be considered as an emerging technology, there are already some companies that are
active in its commercialization (see Table 15). The company Genifuel is looking at
commercial development of the technology developed by PNNL.222 Licella Pty Ltd., has
developed the so-called Cat-HTR™ (Catalytic Hydrothermal Reactor) process mainly
considering the use of agricultural and industrial residues and wastes as feedstock.223
Steeper Energy developed the Hydrofaction™ process in collaboration with Aalborg
University, Denmark. A demonstration plant is built in Norway by Silva Green Fuels.224

The bio-crude produced from HTL can be burned for fuel or upgraded to produce fuels or
chemicals. This is usually done by hydrotreating. Currently very few works have looked at
this downstream upgrading of bio-crude. An option considered is the co-processing of bio-
crude in existing petroleum refineries (hydrotreatment followed by FCC).

Feedstock: Lignocellulosic crop, wood/forestry, residues from agriculture and forestry,

aquatic biomass and organic residues and wastes

Platform: Bio-crude

Processes: Hydrothermal liquefaction, upgrading

Products: Chemicals and fuels

Figure 32 provides a schematic representation of the One platform (bio-crude) biorefinery

using lignocellulosic biomass, aquatic biomass and organic residues.

219
Castello, D., Pedersen, T.H., Rosendahl, L.A. Continuous Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass: A Critical Review.
Energies , 11, 3165. 2018.
220
IEA Bioenergy Task 34, Solvent Liquefaction, http://task34.ieabioenergy.com/solvent-liquefaction/
221
Elliott, D.C., Hart, T.R., Schmidt, A.J., Neuenschwander, G.G., Rotness, L.J.;,Olarte, M.V., Zacher, A.H., Albrecht,
K.O., Hallen, R.T., Holladay, J.E. Process development for hydrothermal liquefaction of algae feedstocks in a
continuous-flow reactor. Algal Res. , 2, 445–454. 2013.
222
Genifuel, http://www.genifuel.com/
223
Licella, https://www.licella.com.au/
224
Steeper Energy and Silva Green Fuel, Hydrofaction™ technology, https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/news/steeper-
energy-builds-industrial-scale-plant-worth-506-million

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 Figure 32. One platform (bio-crude) biorefinery pathway using lignocellulosic biomass, aquatic biomass and organic residues

Examples and their development status:

Several companies are building demonstration scale plants to bring the technology towards
commercialization. The production currently ends at bio-crude level that needs to be
further upgraded to produce chemicals and/or biofuels. Examples are provided in Table 26

Table 26. Examples of commercial, demo and pilot biorefining facilities for biorefinery pathway K.

Facility Description Feedstock Products

Genifuel, Genifuel pilot facilities in operation. The e.g. wastewater solids, Bio-crude
USA222 system was developed by the Pacific food processing wastes,
Northwest National Laboratory, (PNNL), part animal wastes and algae
of the US Department of Energy. The process
has been tested with variety of feedstocks,
most typically wet wastes.

Licella Pty Ltd., Licella developed the Cat-HTR™ process and Variety of organic residues Bio-crude
Australia223 tested in large scale continuous-flow pilot and wastes
plant. They are working with its strategic
partners to build commercial-scale
hydrothermal upgrading plants. Also, being
studied as chemical recycling to convert end-
of-life plastics to oil.

Steeper Steeper Energy license its proprietary Lignocellulosic residues Biofuels

Energy, Silva Hydrofaction™ technology to Silva, who will (forestry, agri-business, (renewable
Green Fuels224 build the demonstration plant. It will use food processing residues) diesel, jet,
woody residues as feedstock that are marine fuel)
converted to renewable crude oil and, in
turn, will be upgraded to renewable diesel,
jet or marine fuel.

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OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT STATUS AND SCALE OF THE 11 BIOREFINERY PATHWAYS

Development Status of Biorefinery Pathways

While the biorefinery pathways based on the bottom-up approach (A-D) are demonstrated
at commercial scale (TRL9), the biorefinery pathways based on the top-down approach (E-
L) are at a lower degree of maturity for the production of chemicals and/or materials.
Figure 33 shows development status of biorefinery pathways focusing on the production of
chemicals and/or materials. For pathway E, production of ethanol from lignocellulosic
biomass has been achieved at a (pre)commercial phase and several flagships exist also for
the production of other chemicals. Pathway F, biorefinery using grass, has been
demonstrated at commercial scale. For biorefinery pathways G and H, that utilise aquatic
biomass and natural fibres, the biorefinery concepts currently are at pilot stage. Regarding,
biorefinery pathway I, first commercial examples are emerging for the production of
methanol through syngas. Although the biorefinery pathways J and K, that consider
thermochemical routes of fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction respectively, the
production of the platforms of pyrolytic liquid and bio-crude has been demonstrated at
commercial (for J) or at demo scale (for K); research at laboratory scale is in progress for
the production of chemicals and materials from these platforms. Therefore, this latter
development status is indicated in Figure 33.

It should be noted that the biorefinery pathways contain several process variants involving
a variety of process and technology concepts, and that the development status for the
resulting variations can deviate within a single pathway. The Biorefinery Roadmap (Federal
Government of Germany, 20129) estimated the development status of the different
biorefinery pathways at the time of publication. The figure presented in this roadmap was
adapted to include also the other pathways described in this project and the progress that
has been made from 2012 till now.

Figure 33. Development status of biorefinery pathways for production of chemicals/materials in a biorefinery (adapted from
Biorefineries Roadmap, 20129)

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Scale of Biorefinery Pathways

Small-scale biorefinery processes are specifically favourable for the efficient and
sustainable valorisation for relatively wet biomass (such as grass), agricultural and food
processing residues and aquatic biomass. To prevent the costly transportation of this wet
or low density biomass, the production facilities are located in rural areas using local
biomass. It is considered that through highly automated modular and transportable units,
they can be easily implemented in these areas and allow higher contribution of biomass
suppliers to the bio-economy. These local systems also allow unused nutrients to be easily
returned to the farm. Accordingly, these small-scale biorefineries will contribute to rural
and coastal diversification and regeneration.225

Large-scale biorefinery processes are especially important for capital intensive processes.
For example, thermochemical processes (such as gasification) benefit from economy of
scale; whereas low-temperature biochemical processes benefit most from economy of
duplication. Large scale processing is also preferred when large volumes of products are
demanded such as biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel) and bulk chemicals. These are generally
located near a port to allow continuous feed of large volumes of mainly imported biomass.
However, further downstream processing of for example chemical building blocks to fine
and specialty chemicals can take place in small to medium scale in separate processing
plants.

It is also conceivable to decentralise the components of primary refining (e.g. biomass pre-
treatment and conditioning), giving rise to a hybrid structure (combination of small and
large scale production). The intermediates produced in the small decentralised facilities
(i.e. high energy density in case of upstream pyrolysis or torrefaction, and high quality in
case deashing/demineralisation is part of the primary refinery) are linked to a large-scale
central processing facility to upgrade the intermediate to final value-added products. This
allows combining the advantages of small systems (i.e. lower feedstock transportation
costs) with the advantages of economies of scale of larger systems (of intensive
technologies).

Table 27. Scale of biorefinery pathways

Size of biorefineries Characteristics

Small-scale • Attractive for wet biomass

biorefineries • Located in rural or coastal areas
• Use of mobile units

Large-scale • Attractive for capital-intensive processing such as thermo-chemical

biorefineries conversion
• For production of large volumes
• Potential integration in existing (petro)chemical complexes at harbour areas

Integrated • Combine the advantages of small-scale and large-scale systems

decentralized small- • Small-scale primary refining to increase biomass density and potentially the
scale processing with quality
centralized large-scale • Separate nutrients close to source and recycle closing the loop
upgrading • Efficient transport
• Efficient secondary refining

225
Bruins, M.E. and Sanders, J.P. Small-scale processing of biomass for biorefinery. Biofuels, Bioprod. Bioref., 6: 135-
145. 2012.

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3.5 Task 2 - High-level assessment of the key advantages and disadvantages of
biorefinery pathways compared to alternative pathways

Task 2 provides a high-level assessment of biorefinery pathways with respect to the market
competition with alternative fossil and CO2-based competing production pathways. This
high-level assessment is carried out for a selection of bio-based chemicals (4) and
materials (3) covering various biorefinery production pathways. This selection was carried
out in collaboration with WP 2 which uses these selected product groups/ products as case
studies when assessing specific non-technical barriers and WP 5 where market evaluations
are carried out. Task 2 includes identification of the fossil alternatives and other renewable
alternative pathways using CO2 and renewably produced power for water electrolysis to
produce H2.

The goal of the high-level assessment is to get an overall indication on the

advantages/disadvantages that biorefinery pathways deliver compared with their
alternatives considering different criteria such as technical product performance, cost
competitiveness and climate impact, as far as these could be extracted from existing
literature (i.e. the project is not including own system modelling/assessment activities).

Furthermore, regarding the bio-based pathways, the sustainability of biomass feedstock,

valorisation of residues and waste and material vs. energy use are considered.

SELECTION OF REPRESENTATIVE BIO-BASED CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS FOR ANALYSIS

Selecting the representative chemicals and materials is important to take up in the

analysis. This selection was done considering the chemical and material sub-categories
described in WP 1 Classification system and in alignment with WPs 2 and 5. For the
selection the following criteria were applied:
• Both chemicals and materials shall be represented

• A single or just a few biorefinery pathways shall not dominate

• Products with substantial market share and/or market growth shall be prioritized

• Products with specific functionality and/or sustainability benefits compared to fossil-

based alternatives shall be prioritized

• Data should be available for the different criteria used in the assessments

• Products with a production base in the EU shall be prioritised considering also

planned operations

For this, recent studies from the BBI project RoadToBio (2019) and the JRC Report on
Biobased chemicals (2019) were taken as a starting point. They cover the relevant products
in the market, selected under similar assumptions (i.e. market attractiveness, 2030 time
horizon). Furthermore, the products described in WP 3 Task 1 biorefinery pathways and
the products listed in the database developed in WP 4 were considered.

With the selection according to these criteria not all the biorefinery pathways are
represented. Also, not all the sub-categories under chemicals and materials are covered.
The selected representative chemicals and materials are provided below under sub-
categories described in WP 1 Classification System (in brackets the corresponding
biorefinery pathways for their production are indicated).

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Chemicals:

• Building blocks/additives: propylene glycol (B/C/E)

• Building blocks: Drop-in – 1,4 BDO (A/B/E) and methanol (D/I), Dedicated – lactic acid
+ poly lactic acid (A/B/E)

• Solvents: acetic acid (A/B/D/E/I)

• Surfactants: fatty alcohol ethoxylate (C + A/B/E)

• Materials:

• Fibres: microfibrillated cellulose (D)

• Resins: lignin based phenolic resins (D/E/J)

In the following sections, for each of these selected chemicals and materials, the following
are described: the production route and major examples; biorefinery and alternative
pathways (fossil and CO2-based); advantages/disadvantages with respect to the fossil-
based counterpart; and any other important aspects (sustainability of biomass feedstock,
valorisation of residues and waste, material vs. energy use).

BUILDING BLOCKS/ADDITIVE: PROPYLENE GLYCOL

Production route and major examples

ADM is one of the major producers of bio propylene glycol (PG).226 They use glycerol which
is attained as a by-product from the transesterification of vegetable oils. They use primarily
soybeans and canola as feedstock. The crude glycerol is processed through several
evaporation and distillation steps into a pharmaceutical grade glycerol. This glycerol is
either sold into the market or processed into PG through a catalytic conversion process of
hydrogenolysis. The reaction between glycerol and hydrogen takes place at high
temperature and pressure over a catalyst to produce PG and water. The PG is further
distilled into a technical grade or a pharma grade PG to be sold in the market. Technical
grade finds applications in unsaturated polyester resins, coolants and antifreeze, hydraulic
and brake fluid, and paint and coatings. The pharmaceutical grade finds use in food and
flavourings, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and pet food among others.

In 2011, ADM built a commercial production facility for PG at its Decatur, Illinois facility.
Currently, ADM is producing 100,000 metric tonnes of bio PG per year and employing 140
people at the Decatur facility.227 Bio PG has a 100 percent bio-based renewable carbon
content. It is sold with a USDA Certified Biobased Product Label.228

In 2012, chemical conglomerate BASF partnered with Oleon to open a bio-based PG

conversion facility in Belgium also by a glycerol-based process.229 Ashland also tied up with
Cargill to produce bio-based propylene glycol from glycerol in Europe.230

Also, UPM plans to build a biorefinery in Leuna, Germany, with an annual capacity of
220,000 metric tonnes that will convert wood into sugars and lignin. The sugar will be

226
ADM Propylene glycol, https://www.adm.com/products-services/industrials/propylene-glycol
227
http://ethanolproducer.com/articles/14960/adm-partners-with-pnnl-to-produce-biobased-propylene-glycol
228
https://www.adm.com/products-services/industrials/propylene-glycol/faqs
229
https://www.chemeurope.com/en/news/138616/basf-and-oleon-celebrate-grand-opening-of-propylene-glycol-
production-plant.html
230
https://cen.acs.org/articles/85/i20/Ashland-Cargill-Plan-Biobased-Chemical.html

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further converted through an efficient one-step process to renewable monoethylene glycol
(BioMEG) and propylene glycol. The plant is due to start up by 2023.

Biorefinery pathway

The production route described above is under pathway C and is depicted below.
Alternatively, it is possible to obtain glycerol from hydrolysis of oil into fatty acids and
glycerol (see Figure 24 process variant 2). It is also possible to produce fatty alcohols
(instead of biodiesel) and glycerol from transesterification (see Figure 34 process variant
4). These are indicated with dashed lines in Figure 24. Apart from oil crops such as soy
and canola, waste fats and oils can be used in this pathway.

Figure 34. One platform (oil) biorefinery pathway using soy/canola for propylene glycol

In addition to manufacturing propylene glycol from glycerol, ADM has the capability to
manufacture propylene glycol from its self-produced sorbitol, a corn-derived sugar alcohol,
following the same chemical conversion route226. This falls under pathway B described
under process variant 4 (see

Figure 23). It is also possible to use sugars derived from sugar crops (pathway A) and
from lignocellulosic biomass (pathway E) as feedstock.

Alternative pathways

The alternative to bio propylene glycol is the fossil-based propylene glycol. Fossil-based
propylene glycol is produced through hydration of propylene oxide that is derived from
propylene. The alternative pathways for the production of propylene glycol using either
biomass or fossil feedstock are depicted in Figure 35.

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 Figure 35. Alternative pathways for propylene glycol production using biomass or fossil feedstock

It should be noted here that propylene used as the feedstock in the fossil-based route can
also be attained commercially from biomass. Neste produces and sells renewable propane
attained as a by-product from its proprietary NEXBTL™ technology to Borealis, which the
company can steam crack or process via propane dehydrogenation to produce renewable
propylene.231

Assessment with respect to fossil-based propylene glycol –

Advantages/disadvantages bio-PG

Technical performance: Bio propylene glycol is a drop-in chemical – it is identical to fossil-

based propylene glycol (i.e. has the same molecular structure). ADM’s propylene glycol
meets the same USP, EP, JP (the three prime regional Pharmacopoeia organisations) and
FCC specifications (for food) as petroleum-based PG.228

Environmental performance: Life Cycle Analyses (LCA) studies, reviewed and endorsed by
third parties, show that propylene glycol produced by ADM provides a 60% reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions when compared to PG derived from petrochemical production.232
In addition, ADM USP-PG was certified by the USDA as a 100% bio-based product when
tested by ASTM D6866. 228

Cost performance: ADM is able to produce bio PG on a commercial scale which is cost
competitive with fossil-based PG227. Use of waste and residual oils and fats as feedstock
could positively influence the cost competitiveness.

Other important considerations

Sustainability of biomass feedstock: As part of the Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and the
Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission will present in 2021 a legislative proposal and other

231
https://www.neste.com/releases-and-news/circular-economy/borealis-producing-certified-renewable-
polypropylene-nestes-renewable-propane-own-facilities-belgium
232
https://www.adm.com/products-services/industrials/propylene-glycol/life-cycle-analysis

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measures to avoid or minimise the products associated with deforestation or forest
degradation. The deforestation relates to several food-based feedstocks especially oil
crops. The feedstock crude glycerol used in the production of PG is derived from oil crops
predominantly from soybean and canola. They don’t use palm oil derived glycerol. ADM
has set forth several sustainability commitments and sources certified biomass. ADM
sources RTRS certified soybeans in Argentina and Brazil and ISCC certified canola, corn
and soy in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Europe and Paraguay.233 Furthermore, following the
UPM example use of lignocellulosic biomass can replace use of crops as feedstock for
propylene glycol productions.

Valorisation of residues and wastes: Crude glycerol is currently available in high volumes
as a processing residue or by-product from biodiesel production. It contains impurities that
needs to be removed to bring it into utilization. The bioproduct derived need to be of high
value and needs to be attained in high yields/concentrations to cover the downstream
processing costs to be economically viable. The production of propylene glycol presents a
good example where science and industry expertise were brought together to refine the
catalyst and operation to produce a valuable chemical on a commercial scale.

The crude glycerol feedstock currently derived from oil crops for the production of bio PG,
could also be derived from the transesterification of waste fats and oils.

Material vs energy use: The principles of the circular economy and of the waste hierarchy
(Directive 2008/98/EC, Article 4) favour the material use over energy. However, the
existing biofuel-related targets (RED II, EU/2018/2011) support the use of biomass for
biofuels production. There is a dedicated target for advanced biofuels produced from
feedstocks listed in Part A of Annex IX of the Renewable Energy Directive which are wastes
and residues. This is supportive of the transition towards use of residues and waste
materials instead of food crops as feedstock. However, materials/chemicals that rely on
the same feedstock do not yet have such supportive mechanism in place. This results in
distorted competition for feedstock between energy and material use – a situation often
called as a non-level playing field. This puts pressure on availability and price of biomass
for material/chemical use and causes market distortion. Crude glycerol, which is the
feedstock for producing bio PG, is also one of the items in the Annex IX of RED II.

BUILDING BLOCK: DROP-IN – 1,4-BUTANEDIOL (BDO)

Production route and major examples

1.4-Butanediol (BDO) is a chemical building block for the production of plastics, elastic
fibres and polyurethanes for a wide range of applications, such as: textiles, electronics,
automotive and consumer goods.234 It is an example of drop-in chemicals, which are a bio-
based version of existing fossil-based chemicals that have established markets. Novamont
has invested in a production facility that produces BDO from glucose syrup through an
innovative single-step fermentation, thanks to bioengineering technology that Novamont
successfully licensed from Genomatica and integrated into its production process. 235
Glucose syrup is derived from the hydrolysis of starch. The resulting product, bio-BDO, is
a 100 % bio-based drop-in replacement for the fossil-based BDO on the market. The
company uses the product as an input for its own downstream bioplastic products, which
constitute the company’s main business. This allowed them to increase the renewable
carbon content of their bioplastics to more than 60%. They call it a 4th generation bioplastic
(Mater-Bi) that is biodegradable and compostable.236

Commercial production started in 2016 in the Mater-Biotech plant in Italy. The plant has a
production capacity of 30,000 metric tonnes of bio-BDO per year and employs 75

233
https://www.adm.com/sustainability/responsible-sourcing
234
https://www.novamont.com/public/zip/factsheet_materbiotech_EN_web.pdf
235
https://bioplasticsnews.com/bio-bdo-bio-butanediol-novamont/
236
https://www.novamont.it/eng/materbiotech/

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employees235. Novamont converted a decommissioned industrial plant designed for a
different fermentation process to the production of bio-BDO. This contributed to territorial
regeneration. 235

Other companies, including BASF, DSM and Tate&Lyle, also announced a licence agreement
with Genomatica to use their process for producing bio-BDO.237 BASF also markets bio-
based PolyTHF produced using bio-BDO.238

Bio Amber and Myriant are working on the development of bio-BDO through a two-step
process consisting of the initial glucose fermentation into bio based succinic acid and
subsequent conversion to BDO through conventional hydrogenation.239

Biorefinery pathways

The production route described above is under pathway B and is depicted in Figure 36.
Alternatively, it is possible to use the sugars derived from sugar crops (pathway A) or
from lignocellulosic biomass (pathway E) for fermentation into bio-BDO. There is also the
two-step route including fermentation into succinic acid followed by hydrogeneration to
BDO.

Figure 36. One platform (starch) biorefinery pathway using maize for 1,4 BDO

Alternative pathways

The alternative to bio-BDO is the fossil-based BDO. Fossil-based BDO is produced from
different fossil feedstocks, including: acetylene, butadiene, maleic anhydride and
propylene.240 Over 40% of fossil based BDO is still produced via the Reppe process where
acetylene is reacted with formaldehyde to form butynediol which then undergoes high

237
E4tech, RE-CORD and WUR. From the Sugar Platform to biofuels and biochemicals. Final report for the European
Commission, contract No. ENER/C2/423-2012/SI2.673791. 2015.
238
https://www.basf.com/global/en/media/news-releases/2015/03/p-15-163.html
239
RoadToBio.D1.2 Case studies on potentially attractive opportunities for bio-based chemicals in Europe. 2018.
240
https://thinking.nexant.com/sites/default/files/report/field_attachment_abstract/201304/2012_3_abs.pdf

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pressure hydrogenation to form BDO238. It is produced using the Mitsubishi process from
butadiene which is a multi-step synthesis based on the acetoxylation of butadiene to 1,4-
diacetoxy-2-butene followed by hydrogenation to produce BDO. Fossil-based BDO is also
manufactured on an industrial scale from maleic anhydride in the Davy process, which is
first converted to the methyl maleate ester, then hydrogenated. LyondellBasell, leading
producer in Europe, uses the ARCO process from propylene oxide to BDO technology239.

The alternative pathways for the production of BDO using either biomass or fossil feedstock
are depicted in Figure 37.

Figure 37. Alternative pathways for BDO production using biomass or fossil feedstock

Assessment with respect to fossil-based BDO – Advantages/disadvantages of

bio-BDO

Technical performance: Bio-BDO is identical to fossil-based bio-BDO (i.e. has the same
molecular structure). It offers direct drop-in replacement for fossil BDO.

Environmental performance: Novamont’s internal LCA studies show that bio-BDO results
in approximately 60% greenhouse gas emission reduction when compared to fossil-BDO234.
The plant has been designed to use by-products for its own energy purposes, thus reducing
net energy consumption and waste production233.

Cost performance: Bio-BDO product of Novamont is currently used internally for the
production of their biopolymers and not sold to external customers. It is not cost
competitive with the fossil equivalent product. It is reported that the costs are less than
double compared to published fossil-BDO prices234. Due to the relatively low capacity of
production, the production of bio-BDO does not yet benefit from economies of scale to the

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same extent that competing, fossil-based BDO do.241 The price difference has been reduced
as a result of cost reduction measures in the production process.

Bio-BDO replaces fossil-based chemicals in producing Novamont’s bioplastic products.

Although, there is a price difference with the conventionally used fossil-based plastics in
the blend, the use of bio-BDO allows increase in the renewable carbon content of their
bioplastics (from about 35% to about 60%) and further reduction of their fossil dependence
and climate impact.235 This is increasingly gaining importance with the legislative
requirements on minimum bio-based content criteria for lightweight plastic carrier bags
and sustainability commitments. With the integration of bio-BDO in its bioplastics,
Novamont is able to meet these minimum requirements, which gives them a competitive
advantage in the market.242

Since bio-BDO provides a drop in replacement for a product with an established supply
chain there is the opportunity for the future deployment of bio-BDO by external customers
especially committed to sustainability, and thus an increase in volume of production would
be possible. BDO is in high demand for a wide range of applications besides plastics, e.g.
in sectors such as: textiles, automotive and consumer goods. Furthermore, there is a
growing trend for BDO (fossil+bio) with the market growing 5-8% CAGR per year240. This
is partly owing to the growing demand of spandex in textiles and the bio-BDO derived
PTMEG used for this.

Other important considerations

Sustainability of biomass feedstock:

The feedstock currently used for the production of bio-BDO is sugars (glucose) derived
from the hydrolysis of starch – the so-called glucose syrup, commonly used in industrial
fermentation processes. The glucose syrup is supplied from a local Italian production plant
that uses starch sourced in Europe. According to company estimates, the current demand
for glucose syrup is assessed to not significantly influence the market for these raw
materials240.

Looking into the future, and to address possible future concerns with respect to feedstock
competition with food, Novamont has been conducting research on obtaining sugars from
lignocellulosic biomass (that corresponds to pathway E). Novamont pilot-tested this
technology, which has proven to be technologically feasible. 234

BUILDING BLOCK: DROP-IN – METHANOL

Production route and major examples

Methanol is one of the largest volume chemicals in the world and serves as a building block
for various other chemicals, e.g. formaldehyde, acetic acid, olefins, MTBE and DME.
Biomethanol is a drop-in chemical, chemically identical to fossil-based methanol. Currently,
almost all methanol is produced from synthesis gas (syngas). Bio-based syngas
(biosyngas) can be produced from gasification of various biomass sources, such as:
lignocellulosic crops (e.g. energy crops like Miscanthus and switchgrass and short rotation
coppice, such as: willow and poplar), wood, forestry residues, agricultural residues (such
as straw), as well as municipal solid waste (MSW), black liquor, wood waste and manure.

The first commercial scale plants have been built based on the MSW gasification by
Enerkem213. One is situated in Edmonton, Canada. Other projects are underway to produce
methanol from MSW, for example in the Netherlands, Spain and China. The proprietary

241
https://www.ecologic.eu/sites/files/publication/2019/3513-bio-based-products-15-success-stories-2019.pdf
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https://www.industryarc.com/PressRelease/1760/Bio-BDO-Market-Research-Analysis.html

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thermochemical process includes feedstock preparation, gasification, syngas cleaning and
conditioning and catalytic conversion to produce methanol and ethanol. 213

Methanol can also be produced from biogas which is upgraded to biomethane and then
reformed to produce biosyngas. This route produces the largest volumes of biomethanol
today but does not fall under the definition of a biorefinery. BioMCN formerly produced
biomethanol from glycerol in the Netherlands. In 2015, BioMCN was acquired by OCI N.V.
and continued producing renewable methanol from biogas with a capacity about 60,000
metric tonnes per year.243 The biogas has to be cleaned to obtain a gas with high methane
content which is then supplied to the natural gas grid. BioMCN uses gas from the grid and
converts to methanol. They purchase green gas certificates and the methanol produced is
on a mass balance basis certified as bio-methanol.244

Alternatively, methanol is commercially produced as a side-stream from Kraft mills by

separating and purifying methanol from the waste gas (steam stripper off-gas) which can
contain up to 70% methanol.245 This gas is conventionally incinerated. Alpac (Alberta-
Pacific Forest Industries Inc.) was the first company to valorise this waste gas to attain
methanol as a by-product. They produce 4,000 metric tonnes of methanol per year.246
They use a portion of the methanol they produce to make a pulp whitening agent required
for the production of pulp and sells any surplus commercially.247

Biorefinery pathways

The production route described above through syngas is under pathway I and is depicted
below:

Figure 38. One platform (syngas) biorefinery pathway using lignocellulosic biomass and MSW for methanol

Alternatively, methanol is generated as a by-product in Kraft mills covered under pathway

D, process variant 6 (see Figure 25).

Furthermore, methanol can also be generated by steam reforming of biomethane to

biosyngas and methanol synthesis to biomethanol. Biomethane is produced from upgrading
of biogas which arises from anaerobic digestion of organic residues (see pathway F).

Figure 27 provides a schematic representation of the Two-platform (organic fibres and

organic juice) biorefinery using green biomass showing the different process variants.

Alternative pathways

The alternatives to biomethanol are the fossil-based methanol and the CO2-based
methanol. The methanol produced from all these different options is chemically identical.

243
https://www.methanol.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/MethanolReport.pdf
244
https://brintbranchen.dk/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Paul-Compagne_BioMCN.pdf
245
IEA Bioenergy Task42 Biorefining. Sustainable and synergetic processing of biomass into marketable food & feed
ingredients, products (chemicals, materials) and energy (fuels, power, heat). August 2014.
246
IEA Bioenergy Task 42, Country Report, https://www.iea-bioenergy.task42-
biorefineries.com/upload_mm/d/9/3/21c2be95-41c5-41a9-ab99-
b6762e912c2a_Canada_2015_Country_Report_IEA_Bioenergy_Task42_MW_Final.pdf
247
https://alpac.ca/index.php/about/products

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Similar to the pathway of biomass, fossil-based methanol is also produced through syngas.
But the syngas is produced from gasification of coal or from steam reforming of natural
gas.

Methanol can also be produced by reacting CO2 with hydrogen produced from the
electrolysis of water using renewable electricity. There are three options for the source of
CO2: fossil CO2, biogenic CO2 and direct air capture.248 Fossil CO2 is mostly obtained from
manufacturing (e.g. cement, steel) or power plants. Biogenic CO2 is mostly produced
during fermentation of sugars and from conditioning of biogas to biomethane. Biogenic CO2
can also arise from other biomass conversion facilities mainly from combustion units. CO2
can alternatively be directly captured from air via Direct Air Capture (DAC).

The alternative pathways for the production of methanol using biomass, CO2 or fossil
feedstock are depicted in Figure 39.

Figure 39. Alternative pathways for methanol production using biomass, CO2 or fossil feedstock

In 2011, Carbon Recycling International (CRI) started operation of the George Olah
Renewable Methanol Plant242. It uses waste CO2 from the nearby geothermal power plant.
and currently produces 4,000 metric tonnes of renewable methanol per year. There is a
planned expansion to a larger plant. The other reagent hydrogen is produced by water
electrolysis fed by hydro and geothermal energy. The methanol product is used currently
for blending with gasoline. It has been reported that in comparison to fossil-fuel based
methanol, renewable (CO2-based) methanol reduces GHG emissions by 90%.242

248
Carus, M. et al. .Renewable Carbon is Key to a Sustainable and FutureOriented Chemical Industry, 2018.

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Additionally, SABIC has a facility to capture and purify CO2 from its ethylene glycol plant
in Saudi Arabia, which is liquified and piped to associated plants at the site to produce
methanol and urea. Currently 4.2 million tonnes of CO2 per year is utilised with a scope to
increase further.249

Assessment with respect to fossil-based methanol – Advantages/disadvantages

bio-methanol

Production of methanol through MSW gasification by Enerkem (pathway I) is considered

as reference for comparison with fossil-based methanol here.

Technical performance: Bio-methanol is identical to fossil-based methanol (i.e. has the

same molecular structure). It offers direct drop-in replacement for fossil-based methanol.
Enerkem meets the highest international quality standards set by IMPCA (International
Methanol Producers and Consumers Association).250

Environmental performance: The production of biomethanol using waste results in

significant GHG emission reduction compared to fossil-based methanol (estimated as 40%
compared with natural gas251, without taking into account avoided emissions from the
diversion of waste from landfilling or incineration). In 2016, the facility obtained
certification from the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC)
system.252

There is no land use impact as readily available and abundant wastes and residues are
used as feedstock. It is claimed that the diversion of this waste to gasification resulted in
2.5 times reduction in GHG emissions compared to the previous waste management
system.253

Cost performance: Low or no cost feedstock, i.e. wastes and/or residues are used. The
Enerkem plant in Edmonton processes 100,000 dry tonnes of waste per year and produces
38 million litres combined methanol and ethanol per year250. Production costs are
competitive with those derived from fossil feedstock.254 It is reported to generate 65 million
CAN$/year in net economic benefits in the region and creation of jobs251. This success
resulted in new projects with one planned in Rotterdam. A waste-to-methanol plant is
planned with Enerkem partnering with Air Liquide, Nouryon, the Port of Rotterdam, and
Shell. The planned facility will convert up to 360,000 tons of waste into 220,000 tons (270
million litres) of bio-methanol.255

Other important considerations

Sustainability of biomass feedstock: Biomethanol can be produced from gasification of any

carbon source and allows utilisation of for example municipal solid waste, agricultural or
forestry residues. Biogas, obtained through anaerobic digestion, from landfills, wastewater
treatment plants, organic or animal wastes can also be used as a feedstock for methanol
production. Therefore, biomethanol can be produced without any demand on agricultural
land and thus its production does not have a negative effect on the availability and price
of food and does not lead to deforestation. Another advantage is the flexibility of the
gasification and anaerobic digestion units to feed and process different types of feedstock.

249
http://www.methanol.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Hans-Vander-Velpen-CO2-Potential-in-the-Methanol-
Business.pdf
250
https://enerkem.com/products/methanol/
251
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852417310763
252
https://enerkem.com/company/facilities-projects/
253
https://enerkem.com/company/about-us/
254
https://www.bio.org/sites/default/files/legacy/bioorg/docs/1500%20McConnell.pdf
255
https://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2019/03/01/shell-joins-air-liquide-nouryon-in-enerkem-waste-to-
chemicals-project-in-rotterdam-the-complete-story/

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Valorisation of residues and wastes: Biomethanol production through gasification or
anaerobic digestion allows creating value from waste and residual streams. Enerkem
focuses on the use of non-recyclable and non-compostable solid waste as feedstock.256 It
also allows diverting waste from landfills and thereby avoiding associated environmental
problems and methane emissions. This is supportive of the waste hierarchy and the circular
economy. It allows recycling carbon molecules in waste into added-value products.

Material vs energy use: Similar to the discussion presented for glycerol in the PG case,
MSW is listed under REDII, Annex IX and accordingly double counted in meeting targets of
minimum share of biofuels. Thereby, renewable fuels mandates around the world favour
the blending of biomethanol in fuels instead of use for chemicals. The principles of the
circular economy on the other hand favour the use of waste as feedstock for value-added
chemicals/materials. One of the actions in the Circular Economy Action Plan is the
development of the Sustainable Products Policy legal framework that will make use of the
Products’ Environmental Footprint (PEF).

BUILDING BLOCK: DEDICATED – LACTIC ACID + POLYMER: POLY LACTIC ACID (PLA)

Production route and major examples

Lactic acid is an example of dedicated bio-based chemicals which are chemicals produced
via a dedicated pathway that do not have an identical fossil-based chemical.257 As such,
they “can be used to produce products that cannot be obtained through traditional chemical
reactions. These products potentially offer unique and superior properties that are
unattainable with fossil-based alternatives”.258

Lactic acid is a chemical building block produced from fermentation of sugars. It is used in
the food and beverage sector as a preservative and pH adjusting agent. It is used in the
pharmaceutical and chemical industries as a solvent and a starting material in the
production of lactate ester. The biodegradable polymer polylactic acid (PLA) is produced
from polymerisation of lactic acid. It is 100% bio-based. PLA is gaining increasing interest
due to growing demand for bio-based and sustainable plastics. It finds applications in a
wide range of markets, notably packaging, consumer goods, 3D printing, textiles,
electronics and automotive.259

Dutch company Corbion is the global market leader in lactic acid and its derivatives, with
manufacturing facilities in the USA, Thailand, Brazil, Netherlands, and Spain.260 Through
its joint venture with Total it also has a PLA polymerization plant in Thailand with a 75,000
metric tonnes of production capacity of PLA per year.261 The global leader in PLA production
is NatureWorks. They produce 150,000 metric tonnes of PLA per year in their
manufacturing facility located in Blair, Nebraska, USA. Other companies active in PLA
production include Galactic, Henan Jindan and BBCA in China166.

Biorefinery pathways

Lactic acid is produced from fermentation of sugars that can come from sugar crops or
starch crops. At Total-Corbion PLA, the biomass used for lactic acid production is
sugarcane.262 Sugar produced from the sugar mill is fermented to produce lactic acid. In
the case of NatureWorks, maize is used as feedstock. The harvested maize goes through
wet milling where dextrose is produced via enzymatic hydrolysis. Dextrose is sent to the

256
https://enerkem.com/process-technology/environmental-and-social-acceptability/
257
https://www.roadtobio.eu/uploads/publications/articles/17-12-18-RoadToBio-Drop-in-paper.pdf
258
BIO-TIC.Overcoming hurdles for innovation in industrial biotechnology in Europe, Biobased Chemical Building
Blocks. 2014.
259
https://www.total.com/energy-expertise/projects/bioenergies/pla-bioplastic
260
http://www.corbion.com/
261
https://www.total-corbion.com/
262
http://www.corbion.com/about-corbion/sustainability/life-cycle-assessment

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fermentation unit to produce lactic acid.263 Lactic acid exists as two optically active types
referred to as L lactic acid and D lactic acid, where L lactic acid is the dominating route
commercially. For production of PLA, lactic acid is converted to lactide which goes through
open ring polymerization to produce PLA.

The production route for lactic acid and PLA is under pathway A using sugar crops and
pathway B using starch crops and is depicted below:

Figure 40. One platform (C6 sugars) biorefinery pathway using sugar or starch crop for lactic acid and PLA

Alternatively, it is possible to use the sugars derived from lignocellulosic biomass

(pathway E) for fermentation into lactic acid.

Alternative pathways

As lactic acid is a dedicated bio-based chemical as explained above, an identical fossil-

based product doesn’t exist. PLA produced from lactic acid, based on the different
applications (e.g. drinking cups, food containers), can replace fossil-based plastics
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). These can be
considered as fossil-based counterparts or benchmarks for PLA. They are primarily derived
in Europe from chemicals produced via the steam cracking of naphtha. PP is produced from
the polymerization of propylene. PET is produced from esterification of two intermediate
products monoethylene glycol (MEG) and purified terephthalic acid (PTA), followed by
polymerization. PS is produced from polymerization of styrene which is primarily attained
from ethylbenzene that is made by catalytic alkylation of benzene with ethylene. The major
alternative pathways for the production of PLA using biomass or fossil feedstock are
depicted in Figure 41.

263
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 Figure 41. Alternative pathways for PLA production using biomass or fossil feedstock264

Assessment with respect to fossil-based counterparts – Advantages /

disadvantages of LA / PLA

Technical performance: PLA is one of the first renewable polymers able to compete with
existing polymers, combining unique functional properties like transparency, glossy
appearance, durability (scratch and impact resistance) and stiffness. It has good
processability (shape, mold, print). These special characters make PLA a perfect fit for
some market sections, such as: fibres, disposable cups, salad boxes, and cold food
packaging. Good breathability and moisture vapor permeability allows it to be used for
packaging for vegetables, fruits, and bread. It is approved for food contact. Its lower
density compared to PET allows lower weight to be used for the same application.265

However, it has relatively poor barrier properties, hence PLA as is not good for packaging
water sensitive products. The higher water permeability of PLA makes it not suitable to
replace PET in long shelf life applications. This is solved by blending with other polymers
or with the use of additives for example a new generation of high barrier PLA based flexible
substrates from Natureworks and Metalvuoto.266 PLA has also faced problems related to

264
For the production of benzene and xylene another source for catalytic reforming is pygas produced from naphtha
cracking. For simplicity this is omitted in Figure 23.
265
https://www.natureworksllc.com/~/media/News_and_Events/NatureWorks_TheIngeoJourney_pdf.pdf
266
https://www.natureworksllc.com/News-and-Events/Press-Releases/2016/03-17-16-Metalvuoto-Ingeo-PLA-barrier-
film

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heat resistance. New type of resins was accordingly developed with higher heat resistance
based on stereochemically pure lactides by Total-Corbion.267 Natureworks has also
developed new formulations to enhance properties.268

Environmental performance: Compared to conventional fossil-based plastics, PLA offers

additional end-of-life options of biodegradability and composability.269 This allows organic
recycling and supports circular economy goals by diverting organic waste from landfill. PLA
conforms to the EN 13432 standard for industrial composting. Additionally, it is possible to
mechanically recycle PLA using near-infrared sorting, however this is currently not
performed as it requires a separate large-scale stream to be economical for the waste
processors. The EU Waste Directive can support in bringing this into practice. Furthermore,
it is possible to chemically recycle PLA back to its monomer lactic acid using hydrolysis268.
The lactic acid then can be converted back into PLA.

Compared to the fossil-based counterparts, it was estimated that PLA offers about a 70%
reduction in GHG emissions and 50% reduction in non-renewable energy use.270 Land use
change is an important consideration for climate impact. On request of Corbion, GRAS
GmBH conducted satellite imaging of the sugarcane plantation areas which was combined
with the mapping of high carbon stock and biodiversity protected areas. 271 This study lead
to the conclusion that Corbion’s sourcing areas did not show significant land
transformation.

Cost performance: PLA is not cost competitive with the conventional fossil-based plastics.
It will benefit from economy of scale with larger scale production and from further
optimization of the process. With the increased policy ambitions towards reducing
dependence on fossil resources and reducing the climate impact there is a growing demand
for PLA. Cost competitive availability of lignocellulosic biomass derived sugars will further
support this transition.

Other important considerations

Sustainability of biomass feedstock:

Corbion predominantly produces PLA bioplastic from raw sugar from sugarcane in Thailand.
NatureWorks produces PLA from corn in USA. Natureworks estimated that their PLA
production uses currently less than 0.05% of the annual global corn crop production, and
as such contributes little to no impact on international or local food chains. Similarly,
Corbion estimated that 0.12% of the Thai available arable land is used annually for the
sugarcane used in their plant270.

Corbion, is a member of both SEDEX- ensuring an ethical supply chain, and Bonsucro - a
global non-profit initiative dedicated to reducing the environmental and social impacts of
sugar cane production.272 Natureworks has a ISCC Plus certification - 3rd party certification
scheme certifying the sustainable production of renewable raw materials including the
certification of the chain of custody, and Working Landscapes Certificate - an independent
third-party scheme certifying sustainable agricultural production for emerging biomaterials
sectors, including the bioplastics industry.273

Lactic acid can be made from fermenting sugar from any sugar source. Looking into the
future, and to address possible future concerns with respect to feedstock competition with
food, both Natureworks and Total-Corbion has been conducting research on using sugars

267
https://www.total-corbion.com/about-pla/performance/
268
https://www.natureworksllc.com/Products/3-series-for-injection-molding/High-Heat-PLA-Technology
269
https://www.natureworksllc.com/What-is-Ingeo/Where-it-Goes
270
https://www.natureworksllc.com/What-is-Ingeo/Why-it-Matters
271
http://www.corbion.com/media/550170/corbion_whitepaper_feedstock_sourcing_11.pdf
272
https://www.total-corbion.com/about-pla/raw-material-sources/
273
https://www.natureworksllc.com/What-is-Ingeo/Where-Ingeo-Comes-From/Feedstock-Certifications

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from lignocellulosic biomass (that corresponds to pathway E). Natureworks is also now
assessing using cutting-edge concepts for turning CO2 or CH4 directly into lactic acid.274

Biomass utilization efficiency:

Different types of bioplastics, produced using different production processes, require

different amounts of feedstock. In terms of feedstock efficiency, PLA is one of the most
efficient biopolymers: yielding 1 kg of PLA polymer per 1.6 kg of fermentable sugar
feedstock. Other bioplastics can require 2 – 3 times more sugar feedstock to produce the
same amount (1 kg) of plastic270. Feedstock efficiency has a positive impact on land use
and, in addition, all environmental impacts related to agriculture.

BUILDING BLOCK: DEDICATED – LACTIC ACID + POLYMER: POLY LACTIC ACID (PLA)

Production route and major examples

Acetic acid is widely used as a raw material in the production of industrial chemicals &
solvents. It is also used in food, pharmaceutical, textile, and cosmetics industry. It is a
drop-in chemical, chemically identical to fossil-based acetic acid. The market of acetic acid
is expected to expand owing to growing demand for applications like purified terephthalic
acid (PTA) and vinyl acetate monomer (VAM). PTA is used in the production of PET which
is used in packaging and textile industries. VAM is utilised in the production of chemicals
for solvents, paints and coatings and adhesives.275

There are diverse ways of producing acetic acid. It can be produced from ethanol derived
from fermentation or methanol derived from syngas. Godavari Biorefineries Ltd. restarted
its production of bio acetic acid at its Sakarwadi facility in Maharashtra from August 2018.
It is produced by oxidation of molasses-based ethanol.276 It is also possible to convert
sugars into acetic acid directly using acetogens (naturally occurring bacteria). ZeaChem in
USA works on this fermentation process using lignocellulosic biomass such as wood, straw
and corn stover as feedstock.277 This enables 100% carbon conversion.

Alternatively, acetic acid can be attained as a side-product from wood pulping. It can be
extracted from spent sulphite liquor from sulphite pulping and attained after several
purification steps. Lenzing produces acetic acid in this way.278

Biorefinery pathways

Different biorefinery pathways can lead to the production of acetic acid as depicted in
Figure 42. It can be produced from fermentation of sugars. It is possible to use the sugars
derived from sugar crops (pathway A), starch crops (pathway B) or from lignocellulosic
biomass (pathway E). The sugars are used for production of ethanol which then can be
directly oxidized to acetic acid or oxidized to acetaldehyde first and then converted to acetic
acid. As explained above, alternatively sugars can be converted to acetic acid directly by
acetogens.

Alternatively, acetic acid can be extracted from spent sulphite liquor from sulphite pulping
of wood (pathway D).

274
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275
https://www.grandviewresearch.com/press-release/global-acetic-acid-market-
analysis#:~:text=The%20global%20acetic%20acid%20market,revenue%2C%20from%202020%20to%202027.&t
ext=VAM%20is%20the%20largest%20application%20market%20of%20acetic%20acid
276
http://news.bio-based.eu/re-startingproduction-of-bio-based-acetic-acid-from-august-2018/
277
https://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2015/03/02/zeachem-biofuels-digests-2015-5-minute-guide/
278
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It is also possible to produce acetic acid through methanol (see section on methanol
above). Methanol is most typically generated from synthesis gas from pathway I attained
by gasification of lignocellulosic biomass, residues and wastes. Methanol is converted to
acetic acid through a catalytic carbonylation process.

Figure 42. Biorefinery pathways for acetic acid production

Alternative pathways

The alternatives to bio acetic acid are the fossil-based acetic acid and the CO2-based acetic
acid. Acetic acid produced from all these different options is chemically identical.

For the production of fossil-based acetic acid three chemical routes exist: methanol
carbonylation, acetaldehyde oxidation and alkane oxidation.279 Methanol carbonylation has
become the dominant fossil-based acetic acid production technology, accounting for over
65% of global capacity.280 This involves a liquid phase reaction between methanol and
carbon monoxide in the presence of catalyst. In the acetaldehyde oxidation route
acetaldehyde is first prepared by oxidation of ethylene followed by further oxidation to
form acetic acid. In the alkane oxidation route alkanes derived from petroleum, such as
butane and ethane, are catalytically oxidized to generate acetic acid (with several other
by-products)278.

Methanol can also be produced from CO2 as described in Figure 39 which then can be
converted to acetic acid using the same carbonylation step.

The alternative pathways for the production of acetic acid using CO2 or fossil feedstock are
depicted in Figure 43.

279
https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/production-pathways-of-acetic-acid-and-its-versatile-applications-in-the-
food-industry
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 Figure 43. Alternative pathways for acetic acid production using CO2 or fossil feedstock

Assessment with respect to fossil-based counterpart –

Advantages/disadvantages bio acetic acid

Technical performance: Bio acetic acid is 100% bio-based and it is identical to fossil-based
acetic acid (i.e. has the same molecular structure). It thereby offers direct drop-in
replacement for fossil-based acetic acid.

Environmental performance: Lenzing estimated its acetic acid (produced as a side-product

from sulphite pulping of wood, pathway D) to have a carbon footprint which is 85% lower
than that of fossil-based acetic acid.281 Looking at the fermentation routes it is seen that
GHG results are very sensitive to the choice of purification steps used in attaining the
required purity, if close to significantly better performance is required in comparison to
fossil-based acetic acid.282

Cost performance: Bio acetic acid production has higher production costs due to low
productivity of the route via methanol and ethanol. The direct fermentation to acetic acid
with 100% carbon efficiency would therefore be interesting. The production of acetic acid
from sulphite pulping has also high purification and separation requirements to extract it
from the spent liquor and bring it to the required specs.

Other important considerations

Sustainability of biomass feedstock: Acetic acid can be made from fermenting sugars. For
this sugar crops and starch crops are used. Looking into the future, and to address possible

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future concerns with respect to feedstock competition with food, research on using sugars
from lignocellulosic biomass is ongoing. Also to increase the carbon efficiency and thereby
reduce feedstock conversion, direct fermentation routes from sugars to acetic acid (not via
ethanol) are investigated for example by ZeaChem276.

The production route of acetic acid by extraction from spent sulphite liquor does not have
any demand on agricultural land as it is derived from a residual stream used for energy.
For the production route through methanol derived from syngas, the biomass feedstock
considered is lignocellulosic biomass, residues or wastes with minimal or no competition
with food.

Valorisation of residues and wastes: Bio acetic acid production through extraction from
spent sulphite liquor allows creating value from residual streams. In most sulphite pulp
mills, the spent liquor is concentrated using multiple effect evaporators and then burned
for energy production. Lenzing looks at creating as much value as possible by converting
wood into spectrum of products including acetic acid, furfural, xylose, lignosulfonate,
sodium sulphate and soda ash besides their main product dissolving pulp277. Then the
remaining spent liquor is used for creation of heat and electricity.

Material vs energy use: Bio acetic acid can be produced through ethanol and methanol.
Renewable fuel mandates around the world favour the blending of biomethanol and ethanol
in fuels instead of use for chemicals. The principles of the circular economy on the other
hand favour the use for value-added chemicals/materials.

SURFACTANT: FATTY ALCOHOL ETHOXYLATE

Production route and major examples

Fatty alcohol ethoxylates are non-ionic surfactants widely used in process industries, such
as: personal care, household care, cosmetics, agrochemicals, textiles and paper. They are
used in a wide range of products, including: dishwashing liquids, laundry detergents,
cleaning agents, shampoos and shower gels.

They are produced from ethoxylation process where ethylene oxide is reacted with fatty
alcohols. In this ethoxylation process the fatty alcohol groups, like lauryl alcohol, stearyl
alcohol, behenyl alcohol, oleyl cetyl alcohol etc., are made to react with ethylene oxide
thereby leading to the formation of fatty alcohol ethoxylates, like lauryl alcohol ethoxylate,
stearyl alcohol ethoxylate, behenyl alcohol ethoxylate etc. All of these ethoxylate products
vary in physical appearance and have different properties, like pour point, cloud point,
density, viscosity, and flash point, depending on the level of ethoxylation process from
which they are formed.283

Fatty alcohols are derived from vegetable oils (and waste oils and fats) or from
petrochemical sources. Ethylene oxide used is typically obtained from petrochemical
sources. However, Croda made 100% bio-based fatty alcohol ethoxylate by producing bio-
ethylene oxide at its Atlas Point manufacturing site in the US and using bio-based fatty
alcohol180. The bioethylene oxide is produced from ethanol derived from corn or sugar cane.
The fatty alcohol is derived from palm oil, palm kernel oil or coconut oil.284

Biorefinery pathways

Fatty alcohol ethoxylates are produced from the reaction of fatty alcohols with ethylene
oxide. Fatty alcohols are produced under pathway C, process variant 4, as depicted in
Figure 24. The process involves the transesterification of the oil to give methyl esters which

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are then hydrogenated to give the fatty alcohols. If bio-based ethylene oxide is used, they
are produced under pathway A using sugar crops, and pathway B using starch crops by
dehydration of ethanol into ethylene followed by oxidising the ethylene into ethylene oxide.
The biorefinery pathway for the production of 100% bio-based fatty alcohol ethoxylate is
depicted below:

Figure 44. Biorefinery pathway for the production of 100% bio-based fatty alcohol ethoxylate

Alternatively, it is possible to use the sugars derived from lignocellulosic biomass

(pathway E) for fermentation.

Alternative pathways

Fatty alcohol ethoxylates surfactants are produced via ethoxylation of fatty alcohol with
ethylene oxide. The source of fatty alcohol (FA) could be either oil crops, waste oils and
fats or petrochemicals. The physical properties of the final product is the same (provided
that they have the same carbon chain length and ethoxylate distribution).285 For
petrochemical FA production two main options exist; the Oxo process and the Ziegler
process. The Oxo process involves using syngas for hydroformylation of long chain olefins.
The Ziegler process involves hydrogenation, ethylation, growth reaction, oxidation and
hydrolysis of ethylene284. The Oxo process is the dominant route for fossil-based FA
production.

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 Figure 45. Alternative pathways for fatty alcohol ethoxylate production using biomass or fossil feedstock286

Fatty alcohol ethoxylates can replace other non-ionic surfactants of alkyphenol epoxylates
with nonylphenol epoxilates being the major example. Nonylphenol ethoxylates are
produced by reaction of nonylphenol with ethylene oxide. Production of nonylphenols is
based on the reaction of phenols with isononene at elevated temperatures and in presence
of a catalyst.287 Nonylphenol ethoxylates discharged in wastewater after use are converted
to nonylphenols as a consequence of biological degradation. Nonylphenol has attracted
attention due to its persistence in the aquatic environments, its bioaccumulation and its
potential role as an endocrine disruptor (disrupt the natural balance of hormones in
affected organisms).288 In Europe, due to environmental concerns, the production and use
of nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates is prohibited. Alcohol ethoxylates are less
problematic for the environment due to their ability to degrade more quickly than
nonylphenols, and more and more products have been substituted over the years.289

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For the production of olefins ethylene and propylene there is also input of ethane and propane as feedstock to
steam cracker. These are omitted in Figure 45 for simplicity.
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Assessment with respect to fossil-based counterpart –
Advantages/disadvantages bio fatty alcohol ethoxylate

Technical performance: Fatty alcohol ethoxylates are non-ionic, biodegradable and have
low toxicity. They provide identical performance to fossil-based counterparts290.

Environmental performance: Croda - offering 100% bio-based fatty alcohol ethoxylate -

reports that a lower carbon footprint is achieved but the percentage of reduction is not
reported. It is indicated that renewable energy is used in manufacturing. The palm oil used
is RSPO certified. The product allows reduced reliance on fossil naphtha and natural gas as