PART IV : FINAL

Critical Evaluation and Promotion

of Local and Oral History

1 Cuartela ‖ Readings in Philippine History

 5
Peace and Indigenous
People Education

CONTENTS
5.1 Peace Education
5.1.1 Local Communism: New
People’s Army Brief
History and Ideology
5.1.2 Local Terrorism:
Government Peace
Treaties with the Muslim
Filipinos
5.1.3 Establishment of
BARMM (Bangsamoro
Autonomous Region in
Muslim Mindanao)
5.2 Indigenous People
Education Peace education promotes nonviolence,
5.2.1 The Socio-Cultural social harmony, and critical thinking about
Issues and Settings of issues like human rights and environmental
Tribal Groups in the
sustainability, empowering learners to
Philippines
5.2.2 Historical Context become proactive agents of positive
5.2.3 Current Issues change. Indigenous education aims to
preserve the traditions, knowledge
OUTCOMES systems, and languages of indigenous
LO6: Propose communities while empowering individuals
recommendations/ and addressing historical injustices through
solutions to present-day
community-based learning and traditional
problems based on their
understanding of their ecological knowledge. It plays a vital role in
root causes and the transmission of ancestral wisdom,
anticipation. rooted in principles of self-determination
and cultural diversity preservation.
OBJECTIVES Peace education and indigenous
1. Trace the historical and
education share values of justice, respect,
ideological roots of the
Philippine communist and interconnectedness, and integrating
party and Muslim peace education into indigenous learning
separatists. contexts can nurture conflict resolution
2. Determine why the skills while respecting indigenous ways of
Philippine government
life. Learning both paradigms can address
and leftist groups resort
to war to protect the societal issues, contribute to a harmonious
country and achieve global community, and resolve conflicts
their respective goals. related to land rights, cultural preservation,
3. Evaluate the socio- and socioeconomic disparities while
political status of
fostering peace, understanding, and
indigenous people and
their role in personal and sustainable development.
collective action.

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 Critical Evaluation and Promotion
Finals
of Local and Oral History

ACTIVITY

Instructions: Create a visual representation or a written reflection

capturing your understanding of peace and the role of education in
preserving indigenous cultures. You can use symbols, images, or
words to convey your thoughts. Afterward, briefly share your
reflections with the class, highlighting key elements that stood out to
you.

ANALYSIS

Instructions: Identify individually the three fundamental principles or

ideas associated with peace education and three central elements
linked to indigenous people's education. Consider potential
intersections or connections between these identified principles and
elements.

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 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

COURSE DISCUSSION

PEACE EDUCATION within the Partido Komunista ng

Pilipinas. Over several decades,
Local Communism: the PKP carried out various
New People’s Army electoral boycotts and utilized a
Brief History and Ideology guerrilla army to combat
Communism, as an Japanese and US colonialism as
ideology, has gained traction well as Filipino elites. However,
among selected countries in Republic Act No. 1700 barred
Europe, America, and Asia the Partido Komunista ng
throughout the twentieth Pilipinas, along with its
century. However, the Philippine successors (such as the CPP-
government and its democratic NPA), from engaging in political
public space have not embraced activities such as running for
the communist ideology, but public office. Even though PKP's
instead, have been dealing with leaders and elites have
a communist minority since the renounced or abstained from
mid-twentieth century: the armed conflict, Sison continues
Communist Party of the to advocate for violence.
Philippines-National People's In 1967, Jose Maria Sison,
Army (CPP-NPA). In essence, the founder of the Communist
the CPP-NPA aims to overthrow Party of the Philippines (CPP),
the current government and initiated the First Great
establish a new form of Rectification Movement to
leadership led by the working reorganize the country's
class and independent from US communist movement properly.
influence. It's worth noting that However, Sison was expelled
the CPP is the organization's from the PKP for criticizing its
name, while the NPA is its leaders, which led him to
military wing, which is why they establish the CPP in 1968 under
are commonly referred to as the the pseudonym Amado
CPP-NPA. Guerrero. In the same year,
Jose Maria Sison, the Sison met Bernabé Buscayno, a
founder of the CPP-NPA and an former activist who once
ex-student activist, led a commanded the Huk Rebellion
Maoist-oriented youth group in the 1950s. Together, they
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 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

created the National People's popularity.

Army on March 29, 1969, with In 1970, Jose Ma. Sison
Buscayno serving as the first published the book "Philippine
commander of the newly formed Society and Revolution" where
militant wing. he presented the CPP-NPA's
The city of Capas in Tarlac guiding principle and identified
became the original base of three major issues in the
CPP-NPA in which it had then Philippines: bureaucrat
sixty combatants and thirty-five capitalism, feudalism, and U.S.
rifles. CPP-NPA focused its imperialism. Sison advocated for
attention on its demographic a protracted people's war of
growth and strengthened its Maoism to bring about change
support from the peasantry with in Filipino society. In response,
party activists who rallied before the Philippine government
the government. Recruitment launched a significant military
efforts by the CPP-NPA campaign to eradicate CPP-
continued unabated despite NPA's small central group
clashes with government armed fighters.
forces. Fuelled by the The Plaza Miranda incident
momentum of the First Quarter in Manila on August 21, 1971,
Storm, a leftist wave of student was a calamitous event that was
demonstrations, rallies, and planned by the CPP-NPA Central
marches, the organization was Committee. In February of that
able to recruit new members year, Sison and the committee
and maintain its growth from discussed the attack on the rally
January to March 1970. During of the main opposition party,
this event, a group of student the Liberal Party. Sison's goal
leaders pushed for constitutional was to provoke another
change. However, Marcos government crackdown that
responded with a brutal would lead to more support or
crackdown on the recruitment for CPP-NPA. During
demonstrations, which caused the rally, three CPP-NPA
outrage among the public. This members threw four grenades
led to an increase in support for on stage, which resulted in the
CPP-NPA, as well as other deaths of most opposition
participants who joined the members and candidates. As
party and its armed wing, expected, the opposition party
ultimately surpassing PKP's dutifully accused President

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Marcos of being behind the opponents during this period.

incident. In response to the CPP-NPA activists living in urban
bombing, Marcos pointed the areas fled to the organization's
finger at the CPP-NPA and acted rural strongholds, with some
against leftist political activities, eventually joining the armed
including the suspension of struggle. Meanwhile, student
habeas corpus. While this move activists also left the cities and
increased his power, it also joined the CPP-NPA. The
caused hundreds of student organization was able to
recruits to join the CPP-NPA. establish strong relationships
Meanwhile, Sison, representing with local leaders in the
CPP-NPA, denied any countryside during the martial
involvement in the attack. law era.
In July of 1972, the The National Democratic
Chinese government shipped Front of the Philippines (NDF or
weapons directly to the CPP- NDFP) was established in 1973
NPA in the Philippines. This was by a commission formed by the
during a time when China was CPP-NPA. The primary aim of
publicly supporting the group the NDF was to bring together
after it was founded in 1969. various leftist groups under one
Fortunately, most of the umbrella organization and
weapons were seized by the create a unified front. Since the
Philippine Armed Forces, which CPP-NPA was still illegal under
then launched another round of Republic Act No. 1700, the NDF
extensive military operations was sometimes referred to as
against the community group. their political wing by media and
The CPP-NPA was accused academic sources. While the
of plotting to assassinate the CPP-NPA dominated and led the
defense minister by the NDF, the Philippine government,
Philippine government in among others, has referred to
September. Many viewed this the larger entity formed by their
accusation as a ploy to justify cooperation as "CPP-NPA-NDF"
Marcos' declaration of martial or "CNN."
law, which occurred in the same In 1974, Sison published
month and further consolidated "Specific Characteristics of Our
his power while curtailing People's War", detailing the
political freedoms. The regime CPP-NPA's initial five years and
arrested thousands of Marcos' providing guidelines for

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sustained armed resistance. elections. As the Manila-Rizal

Among these guidelines was the Committee worked to gain
decentralization of armed support for candidates who
operations. Sison instructed opposed Marcos, the central
CPP-NPA units to operate leadership rejected the idea and
independently, launch attacks instead called for an armed
from remote mountainous struggle and a total boycott of
regions, and limit their assaults the elections. Despite the
to small-scale police and fraudulent election results in
military ambushes. favor of Marcos' government,
The CPP-NPA lost support the CPP-NPA's membership
from the Chinese government in continued to grow.
1976 when the Philippines and On January 17, 1981,
China re-established relations Marcos lifted martial law,
after years of severed ties due allowing some political
to the rise of the Chinese expression from the opposition
Communist Party in 1949. This and lessening the pressure on
year saw the arrest and the CPP-NPA. Despite the
imprisonment of several government's focus on the
significant CPP-NPA members, Muslim separatist rebels in the
including Buscayno. Rodolfo south, the CPP-NPA intensified
Salas took over as the NPA's its attacks throughout the
commander, and after Sison's country and formed
capture the following year, he relationships with legal
also became the CPP's oppositional organizations.
chairman. Despite the loss of While Philippine forces were
key figures, the CPP-NPA was making progress against the
able to expand beyond Luzon separatist rebels, the CPP-NPA
and into Visayas and Mindanao was gaining momentum and
– the Philippines' other major expanding its guerrilla
regions. The Philippine military operations. With a surge in
was engaged in fighting both recruits, the CPP-NPA formed
the CPP-NPA and Muslim military battalions in Luzon and
separatist rebels in the south, Visayas, allowing them to
with priority given to the latter. attempt new tactics beyond
The CPP-NPA experienced small guerrilla units.
significant internal tensions In addition to its large-
during the 1978 Philippine scale operations, the CPP-NPA

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also established small senator who was assassinated,

assassination units – known as ran against Marcos, causing
"sparrow" units – composed of many CPP-NPA members to
one to five operatives who ignore the central leadership's
targeted government forces in boycott order. The People Power
urban areas. The Philippine Revolution, a series of mass
army launched its most protests in support of Aquino
significant military campaign and against Marcos, lasted for
against the CPP-NPA in 1984, several days and eventually led
and violence related to the to Aquino's victory. After her
group peaked in 1985. That election, Aquino released
year, 1,282 military and police political prisoners, including
personnel, 1,362 civilians, and Sison and Buscayno. Sison was
2,134 CPP-NPA members died. the only one who returned to
The group conducted CPP-NPA-related activities, but
particularly lethal campaigns in shortly after his release, he
Mindanao, using guerrilla tactics went into self-exile in the
in urban areas. However, Netherlands. Despite denying
paranoia about Philippine continued involvement with the
government infiltration CPP-NPA, he continued to play a
prompted massive purges within prominent role in the movement
the group, particularly in as a chief political consultant to
Mindanao, resulting in the the NDF. Meanwhile, Salas was
deaths of many members replaced as CPP chairman by
suspected of collaborating with Armando Liwanag, who many
the state. Despite its violent believe is an alias for Sison.
activities, the CPP-NPA The Aquino administration
continued to foster relationships and the CPP-NPA attempted to
with rural communities negotiate peace and establish a
throughout the 1980s, teaching, ceasefire in December 1986.
working alongside peasants, and Unfortunately, the peace talks
serving as guards against were brief. In January 1987,
bandits. members of the CPP-NPA
The 1986 elections infiltrated a group of peasants
created a divide within the CPP- who were protesting for
NPA due to the candidacy of agricultural reform outside
Corazon Aquino. Aquino, the Malacañang Palace. The CPP-
wife of a popular oppositional NPA members were hoping to

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provoke a violent government a waste of resources.

response that would justify Sison's writing led to the
ending the peace talks. As a emergence of the Second Great
result, government forces fired Rectification Movement, which
at the protesters, killing caused a division within the
thirteen. Following intense CPP-NPA between two groups:
pressure from the United States rejectionists (RJs) and
and influential domestic elites, reaffirmists (RAs). The RJs, who
Aquino declared a total war on disagreed with Sison's ideology,
the CPP-NPA. Consequently, the were either expelled or left
group conducted a series of voluntarily due to their belief in
attacks, particularly in Manila, lawful protest or their opposition
that alienated moderate to what they called Sison's
supporters and led to a decline "Stalinism." The RJs formed
in membership. their political parties or joined
The CPP-NPA faced other legal organizations that
significant organizational advocated for social change,
setbacks in the late 1980s and such as trade unions or non-
early 1990s. The Philippine governmental organizations.
government detained several Although some rejectionists
key leaders, while internal carried out local militant
purges resulted in the deaths of activities, their groups were
several CPP-NPA members. The typically small and easily
group's future was also dismantled. The RAs, on the
weakened by internal debates. other hand, supported Sison's
On December 26, 1991, Sison, ideas and remained within the
writing under the pseudonym CPP-NPA.
Armando Liwanag, published The CPP-NPA’s history is
"Reaffirm Our Basic Principles complex, with various factions
and Rectify Errors." In the breaking away from the group
publication, he emphasized the over the years. One such faction
need for the CPP-NPA to was the Alex Boncayao Brigade
recommit to its basic principles, (ABB), established in the mid-
which included protracted 1980s as an urban-based
people's war, armed struggle, guerrilla force. Despite the
and rural-based strategy, ABB’s departure from the CPP-
instead of pursuing negotiations NPA in the early 1990s, it
or legal action, which would be continued to engage in militant

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activities. Meanwhile, the reinvigorating its rural, mass-

majority of the CPP-NPA – based approach. However, the
known as the reaffirmists – Philippine military argued that
remained loyal to Sison’s the repeal of Republic Act No.
principles and refocused their 1700 in 1992 was a factor that
efforts on rural areas. In July contributed to the group's
1992, the CPP-NPA’s Central resurgence. The repeal allowed
Committee approved Sison’s the CPP to participate in
policies during their plenary elections as a legal political
session. party, yet the group continued
There are discrepancies to reject electoral participation.
regarding the official leadership Despite their rejection of
of the CPP-NPA after the early peaceful means, the CPP-NPA
1990s. While some sources has participated in peace
have listed Liwanag as CPP-NPA negotiations with the Philippine
chairman from the 1990s government, typically through
onwards, others have claimed the NDF. Even after the repeal
that Benito Tiamzon took over of Republic Act No. 1700, the
this position after the Second NDF has continued to be the
Great Rectification Movement. official representative of the
However, regardless of who CPP-NPA in talks with the
holds the formal title of government.
chairman, Tiamzon and his wife The Joint Agreement on
Wilma have been running the Safety and Immunity
CPP-NPA’s operations from Guarantees (JASIG), signed by
within the Philippines since the NDF leadership in 1995 under
early 1990s. Meanwhile, Sison – the administration of President
known by the alias Liwanag – Fidel Ramos, marked a
has reportedly continued to significant breakthrough in
exert his influence on the peace negotiations. It promised
organization's strategic direction unrestricted and safe mobility
from the Netherlands. for all parties involved in the
During the 1990s, the talks, including Philippine
CPP-NPA experienced a renewed government officials, CPP-NPA
vigor, as it regained much of the members, and other NDF
support it had enjoyed in the members, without any fear of
1980s. The group attributed this search, surveillance, or arrest.
resurgence to its strategy of Another crucial agreement, the

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Comprehensive Agreement to hindered the talks. The CPP-NPA

Respect Human Rights and has continued to conduct
International Humanitarian Law attacks and clashes with
(CARHRIHL), was signed in Philippine forces, and the
1998 to protect civilians from parties have been unable to
the violence that arose between agree on conditions for the
the government and the CPP- resumption of negotiations. A
NPA. However, after CARHRIHL, rift has grown between Sison in
the talks broke down, and the Netherlands and the local
conflict resumed at high levels CPP-NPA leadership due to the
with the rise of Joseph Estrada former's growing willingness to
to the presidency. engage in peace talks and the
Throughout the 2000s, latter's continued reluctance.
the Philippines experienced a
pattern of alternating between Local Terrorism:
negotiations and violence. Government Peace Treaties
Although Gloria Macapagal- with the Muslim Filipinos
Arroyo had some negotiations For almost half a century,
with the CPP-NPA when she the Moro people, an indigenous
replaced Estrada in 2001, Muslim population residing in
negotiations stalled after the Mindanao, have been in armed
United States listed the CPP- conflict with the Government of
NPA as a terrorist organization the Republic of the Philippines
at Arroyo's request in 2002. (GRP). The conflict began in
Throughout the 2000s, 1972 after President Marcos
Philippine forces increased their declared martial law.
operations against the In 1969, the Moro
organization, and in 2010, they National Liberation Front (MNLF)
claimed to have drastically emerged as a response to the
reduced their ranks. When increasing marginalization and
Benigno Aquino III became discrimination experienced by
president that year, the the Moro people.
government made another In 1972, the group
attempt to negotiate with the resorted to armed struggle to
CPP-NPA. Unfortunately, the establish a self-governed Moro
ceasefire was broken by the identity in Bangsamoro, which
CPP-NPA, and human rights would be situated within the
violations by both sides territorial provinces and

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peninsular regions of Mindanao, the Quadripartite Ministerial

Sulu, and Palawan. The MNLF Commission Members of the
would eventually splinter into Islamic Conference and the
the Moro Islamic Liberation Secretary-General of the
Front (MILF), who have Organization of Islamic
predominantly continued the Conference. The Third Section,
resistance after the MNLF and Provision No. 16, allowed for a
the GRP signed the 1996 Final degree of autonomy for the
Agreement on the Moro people. As stated in the
implementation of the 1976 provision, "The Government of
Tripoli Agreement. The ongoing the Philippines shall take all
conflict has taken the lives of necessary constitutional
tens of thousands and caused processes for the
more than 3 million people to implementation of the entire
flee their homes. Agreement."
Nevertheless, positive In July of 1979, President
developments have been made, Marcos issued Presidential
such as the re-establishment of Decree No. 1618 to enforce the
the International Monitoring autonomy of Regions IX and
Team and Ad Hoc Joint Action XII. This degree of autonomy
Group in June 2015. was unsatisfactory to many
Additionally, a Task Force for Moro, resulting in the unraveling
Decommissioned Combatants of the Agreement and the
and their Communities has been splintering of the MNLF to
established to further promote produce the Moro Islamic
peace. Liberation Front (MILF) in 1984.
The Tripoli Peace Agreement
Marcos Negotiations with the and its guiding principles have
MNLF remained an essential point of
Peace negotiations were reference in all subsequent
conducted during the Marcos peace talks.
Regime, culminating in the
signing of the Tripoli Agreement Aquino Negotiations with the
in 1976. The agreement was MNLF
signed between the Government Resuming peace talks with
of the Republic of the Philippines the MNLF, Corazon Aquino, who
and the Moro National Liberation took over from Marcos from
Front, with the participation of 1986-1992, achieved a

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breakthrough in 1987 with the Phase I included a three-year

Jeddah Accord. The agreement transition period that aimed to
aimed to foster discussion on merge MNLF elements with the
establishing a democratic Armed Forces of the Philippines
process for Mindanao. (AFP) and provide extensive
The 1987 Constitution, socio-economic rehabilitation in
created after the democratic the region. Phase II consisted of
overhaul of the Philippines post- the devolution of powers and
Marcos, placed limitations on the repeal of the Organic Act
this. According to Article X, (RA 6734).
Sections 15-21 of the While this was satisfactory
constitution, regional for the MNLF, the MILF
restrictions were established. RA continued armed resistance,
6734, passed in August 1989, reaffirming their commitment to
established an Organic Act for the establishment of a self-
the Autonomous Region in determining Bangsamoro
Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) after territory.
a plebiscite. However, the MNLF
declined the Organic Act and the Domestic and Diplomatic
plebiscite formulated ARMM, Stages Processes with the
leading to a halt in negotiations MILF
until 1992. Following the 1996
Agreement, a peace process
Ramos Negotiations with the began with what the MILF
MNLF describes as the ‘Domestic
The Ramos Period, which Stage’, with solely internal
began in 1992, brought a shift actors participating and
in administrative priorities, negotiating in the peace talks
leading to peace negotiations. that focused on establishing and
After four years of exploratory maintaining a ceasefire, creating
talks and an interim ceasefire, a suitable environment to
the Philippine Government and further progress in discussions
the MNLF signed the Final of the ‘Bangsamoro Question’ in
Agreement on the a more formal atmosphere. The
Implementation of the 1976 Diplomatic Stage of the peace
Tripoli Agreement in 1996. The talks began with the signing of
1996 agreement was designed the Agreement on the General
to be a two-phase process. Framework for the Resumption

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of Peace Talks in 2000. During process implementation phase is

this stage, the international set to finalize with both parties
community played a key role in agreeing to an Exit Document.
facilitating the negotiations. It's interesting to note that this
While a majority of the process has been spearheaded
MILF-GRP agreements were by Professor Miriam Coronel-
produced during this stage, one Ferrer, who has been serving as
of the more notable agreements the Chair of the GPH Peace
is the Memorandum of Panel since 2012. Notably, she
Agreement on the Ancestral is also one of the few female
Domain Aspect of the GRPMILF negotiators leading such an
Tripoli Agreement on Peace of initiative for the government.
2001 (MoA-AD), which was
controversially drafted and Establishment of BARMM
initialed in August 2008, but (Bangsamoro Autonomous
later struck down as Region in Muslim Mindanao)
unconstitutional by Supreme
Court ruling G.R. 183591. Situated in the Southern
Viewed by many as the Philippines, the BARMM
strongest manifestation and (Bangsamoro Autonomous
solution of the Moro Region in Muslim Mindanao)
determination, the ruling briefly emerged as an autonomous
halted the peace process, entity succeeding the ARMM
however, negotiations resumed (Autonomous Region in Muslim
after a restructuring of the GRP Mindanao). Its establishment
Peace Panel, and a mutually followed a two-phase plebiscite
acceptable agreement between conducted on January 21 and
the Government of the February 6, 2019, culminating
Philippines and MILF was in the endorsement of the
reached. The Framework Bangsamoro Organic Law as its
Agreement on the Bangsamoro foundational legislation, a
(FAB) has codified the confirmation promptly
replacement of ARMM with the announced by the Commission
autonomous Bangsamoro on Elections (COMELEC) on
Region. Even agreements as January 25.
recent as 2015 are in place to The creation of
support the establishment of the Bangsamoro marked the end of
Bangsamoro Region. The peace prolonged peace negotiations

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between the Philippine part, the second part was

government and various conducted in neighboring
autonomist factions, notably the municipalities and barangays in
Moro Islamic Liberation Front the provinces of Lanao del Norte
(MILF), which contested the and Cotabato, determining their
legitimacy of the ARMM and accession to the Bangsamoro
advocated for a region with region. Following the second
enhanced powers devolved from phase of the plebiscite, 63
the national government. The barangays in Cotabato province
Aquino administration engaged were incorporated into the
in talks with the MILF, resulting Bangsamoro government,
in the 2014 Comprehensive expanding the territorial
Agreement on the Bangsamoro. jurisdiction of the autonomous
Subsequent deliberations and region.
discussions on specific Bangsamoro supplanted
provisions led to the formulation the ARMM as the sole Muslim-
and ratification by the Philippine majority autonomous region in
Congress of a fundamental law the Philippines. Currently, in a
for the region, now known as transitional phase until 2022,
the Bangsamoro Organic Law. the Bangsamoro government is
President Rodrigo Duterte viewed as a testing ground for
signed this bill into law on July broader discussions on
26, 2018. constitutional reform and
Despite concerns about federalism in the country.
the constitutionality of the
region, given its adoption of a
parliamentary system within a
country with a presidential
system, no judicial ruling
contested the organic law.
Consequently, the COMELEC
orchestrated a two-part
plebiscite. The first part
involved ARMM citizens deciding
whether to disband the ARMM
and promptly replace it with
Bangsamoro. Following the
affirmative outcome of the first

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INDIGENOUS PEOPLE Notably, the Bontoc and Ifugaos

EDUCATION are renowned for their rice
terraces, which are nestled in
The Socio-Cultural Issues the mountainous interior of the
and Settings of Tribal Groups region.
in the Philippines A significant number of
indigenous peoples in central
The number of indigenous Luzon have adopted Protestant
groups in the Philippines is Christianity after being
estimated to be nearly 100, not converted by American
including Muslim factions. missionaries in the early
However, the actual size of the twentieth century and educated
indigenous population is in missionary schools. However,
unclear. The National the level of integration with
Commission on Indigenous lowland Christian Filipinos varies
Peoples approximates that there among different groups. Some
are about 11.3 million have intermarried, while others
indigenous peoples in the remain isolated. Despite this
Philippines, accounting for diversity, there is a lack of
roughly 11-12% of the overall consensus regarding the exact
population. Nonetheless, some names and numbers of these
civil society estimates propose indigenous communities.
that this number may be as While some indigenous
high as 10 to 20% of the total peoples in the Philippines have
populace. roots in early waves of Malay or
From wood carving, Proto-Malay migrants, others
basket-making, and weaving to such as the Aeta and Ati are
embroidery, appliqué, and Negritos who have long been
bead-making, these established in the country.
communities showcase a great These groups are believed to be
variety of cultural expressions the descendants of the
and social organizations. The archipelago's earliest settlers
indigenous peoples, who range who may have traveled there
from the Bontoc and Ifugaos to through land bridges from the
those practicing shifting Asian mainland around 30,000
cultivation or hunter-gathering, years ago.
have made their mark on the The indigenous peoples of
lush landscape of Luzon. the Philippines are typically

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divided into two main groups the Tinguian of Abra province,

based on their location: the who practice both wet-rice and
Igorot (meaning 'mountain dry-rice cultivation. The Isneg of
people') in Luzon, and the northern Kalinga-Apayao, the
Lumad (meaning 'indigenous') Gaddang of the border between
in Mindanao. Other tribes in Kalinga-Apayao and Isabela
Luzon and the Visayas regions provinces, and the Ilongot of
are identified by their collective Nueva Vizcaya all engage in
names, such as Manobo and shifting cultivation. While
Mangyan. Negritos had once dominated
In Luzon, ten upland tribal the highlands, they were
groups have been identified: reduced to small groups living in
Ifugao, Bontoc, Kankanay, widely scattered locations by
Ibaloi, Kalinga, Tinguian, Isneg, the early 1980s, primarily along
Gaddang, Ilongot, and Negrito. the eastern ranges.
These groups were mainly wet The central and southern
rice farmers who had been regions of the Philippines are
cultivating elaborate rice home to a significant
terraces for centuries. The concentration of indigenous
Ifugaos were in the Ifugao communities. The Lumad tribal
province, the Bontocs in the groupings of Mindanao,
Mountain and Kaling-Apayao including Ata, Bagobo,
provinces, and the Kankanays Guiangga, Mamanwa,
and Ibalois in the Benguet Magguangan, Mandaya, Banwa-
province. The Ibaloi tribe was on, Bukidnon, Dulangan,
among the ethnic groups that Kalagan, Kulaman, Manobo,
were significantly influenced by Subanon, Tagabili, Takakaolo,
Spanish and American Talandig, and Tiruray or
colonialism as well as lowland Teduray, reside in these areas.
Filipino culture. This was due to However, these groups have
the extensive gold mines in encountered, and continue to
Benguet, proximity to the city of face, long-term displacement
Baguio, well-established roads and legalized land
and schools, and consumer dispossession, which also
industry searching for traditional impacts other indigenous
folk art. Other mountain tribes communities in the country.
in Luzon include the Kalinga of The Mindanao are
Kalinga-Apayao province and resource-rich and were formerly

17 Cuartela ‖ Readings in Philippine History

 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

under-populated compared to ancestral or communal land,

the northern island peoples of which the indigenous Lumad
Luzon. Consequently, believed to be sacred and not
throughout the twentieth subject to individual ownership,
century, Christian lowland was no longer recognized.
Filipinos migrated into areas The Lumad of Mindanao,
previously dominated by Lumad along with their supporters in
and Moros. These movements the lowland Christian Filipino
were initially encouraged by the community, successfully
American authorities when the incorporated two crucial
Philippines was under their rule provisions into the 1987
and received further impetus Constitution.
from central government The first provision, Article
authorities after independence XII (5), requires the state to
through the development of safeguard the land rights of
plantation agriculture, logging indigenous cultural
concessions, and hydroelectric communities, to ensure their
and geothermal energy economic, social, and cultural
schemes. As a result, Lumad prosperity.
communities are now The second provision,
outnumbered in their ancestral Article XIV (17), mandates the
lands. state to support the
preservation and development
Historical context of the unique cultures,
During colonization, the traditions, and institutions of
Spanish crown claimed authority these indigenous communities.
over the islands and ownership Despite their tireless
of the land. Afterward, US efforts, the Lumad people still
authorities institutionalized their face significant challenges in
power to dispose of all land, acquiring their lands. The
nullifying previous land grants government retains land rights
made by Moro or Lumad chiefs, and national development
as well as others throughout the policies are still largely
Philippines, without government influenced by powerful economic
approval. Only individuals or and political forces.
corporations could register Lumad communities are
private land claims, which confronted with harassment and
meant that the concept of illegal manipulation as they seek

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 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

to regain their taken lands. verdict by the Supreme Court of

They demand the revocation of the Philippines, that these
all plantation permits and challenges were resolved
logging concessions, as well as favorably.
self-governance within their Despite the 1997
ancestral lands based on their Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act
customary laws and traditions. enshrining the rights of
However, these pursuits are indigenous people, there are
met with considerable still many obstacles facing their
resistance and pose an uphill full recognition and
battle for the Lumad people. implementation. The National
After the fall of President Commission on Indigenous
Ferdinand Marcos' regime, the People’s (NCIP) removal from
Philippines experienced a surge the President's Office to the
of democracy which brought Department of Agriculture in
forth several beneficial changes. 2004 weakened its position and
One of these changes was the influence, while the
adoption of the Indigenous disbandment of Task Force 63, a
Peoples' Rights Act in 1997, body that promotes inter-
which established the National agency cooperation on
Commission on Indigenous indigenous peoples' issues,
Peoples (NCIP). This act showed that state authorities
recognized the native land were not prioritizing indigenous
rights of indigenous peoples, peoples' rights.
along with their limited rights to In response to
self-determination and cultural recommendations from the UN
freedom. Moreover, it allowed Special Rapporteur on the rights
the possibility of obtaining a of indigenous peoples, the NCIP
'Certificate of Ancestral Domain took steps to improve
Title'. indigenous representation in the
Progress in protecting the planning and execution of its
rights of indigenous peoples has activities.
not proven to be as impactful in The National Forum,
their pursuits as expected. This convened in November 2006,
is partly attributed to legal resulted in the formation of the
obstacles and challenges IPCB, which operates at the
regarding their constitutionality. national, regional, and
It was only in 2002, after a provincial levels. The tripartite

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 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

composition of the IPCB insurgency.

includes representatives from
NCIP, indigenous people's Current Issues
organizations, and NGOs. Although many indigenous
Although there have been communities live in remote rural
criticisms regarding the areas, an increasing number of
membership of the IPCB, it is a them are moving to cities in
positive step towards increasing search of better opportunities
indigenous participation in the and social services.
development and Unfortunately, they are often
implementation of NCIP policies. forced to leave their ancestral
Despite being granted the right lands due to militarization, tribal
to mother tongue education conflicts, and the expansion of
under the Indigenous Peoples’ large-scale development
Rights Act of 1997, this right projects that do not benefit local
remains largely unimplemented. communities or women.
In response, the Institute Many indigenous women
for Indigenous Peoples’ are unable to secure jobs in the
Education has established a few mining industry and must leave
‘pilot schools' to accommodate to find work in urban areas like
the culture and traditions of Baguio or Manila, suffering from
indigenous peoples, but extreme poverty. Due to their
teaching in indigenous limited formal education and
languages is not included in the skills that may not translate to
official state curriculum. Private urban contexts, they often face
indigenous schools, which poverty and exclusion.
occasionally teach in local In Baguio, where over
community languages, still face 60% of the population is
obstacles from the Department indigenous, approximately 65%
of Education authorities in the of indigenous migrants
registration process. experience extreme poverty.
Moreover, in recent years, Many of these migrants are
these schools have been women who work as vendors on
targeted by armed groups, city streets and are frequently
many of whom are believed to harassed by the police as part of
be affiliated with security forces, the government's anti-peddling
over suspicions that they are initiative.
supporting the communist The conflict between the

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 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

New People's Army (NPA) and Democratic Front of the

the military has spanned 50 Philippines (NDFP). Throughout
years and resulted in over 40 rounds of talks spanning five
40,000 deaths. The Lumad different Philippine
people, 18 indigenous administrations, the two parties
communities in Mindanao, have met in Oslo, Norway in August
been the most severely 2016 for the first official peace
affected. Many Lumad civilians talks in five years. Representing
have been caught in the a coalition of communist
crossfire, experiencing organizations, the NDFP
militarization within their includes the Communist Party of
communities, and have been the Philippines (CPP) and its
subjected to extrajudicial armed wing, the NPA. The
killings and torture. Thousands parties discussed several key
have been displaced while points, including a timeline for
fleeing violence by security negotiations, a ceasefire,
forces. A joint report submitted immunity for NDFP members,
by KATRIBU National Alliance of and an amnesty for detained
Indigenous Peoples in 2016 political prisoners.
shows that 102 extrajudicial While the last point led to
killings of indigenous peoples a standstill in negotiations with
were committed by the previous the previous government, the
Aquino administration. 2016 talks resulted in an open-
Despite President Rodrigo ended ceasefire, which
Duterte's calls to end the killings maintained a fragile peace
of Lumad, these murders have throughout the year. However,
continued under his an official bilateral ceasefire
administration, with military, agreement remained elusive,
vigilantes, and private security and the negotiations eventually
forces suspected of carrying out broke down in 2017 when
the attacks. Notable opponents President Duterte claimed that
of mining, oil palm plantations, the NPA had failed to meet the
corruption, and government terms of their ceasefire
abuses have been among the agreement. Although he offered
victims. to resume talks in early 2018,
In 2016, a peace roadmap the situation remains uncertain.
was established, which involved Nevertheless, localized
negotiations with the National peace talks have taken place,

21 Cuartela ‖ Readings in Philippine History

 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

leading to the surrender of alternative education institutes

approximately 8,000 individuals to marginalize the indigenous
by the end of 2018. land and cultural rights.
Alongside the communist According to local estimates,
rebellion, an Islamist insurgency there were 95 attacks on Lumad
has also contributed to schools in the southern
widespread insecurity in Philippines between September
Mindanao: while the agreement 2014 and 2015, averaging eight
was reached in 2018 with the cases per month.
largest group, the Moro Islamic One of the most infamous
Liberation Front (MILF), to hold incidents occurred in September
a plebiscite in January 2019 on 2015 when an armed troop
the creation of a larger raided an alternative Lumad
autonomous Muslim region school in the southern
known as Bangsamoro, many Philippines. The attackers
ISIS-affiliated extremist groups rounded up teachers, students,
continue to operate outside the and hundreds of other civilians
framework of any peace from their dormitories and took
agreement. them to a small village called
The civil conflict in the Diatagon in Lianga, Surigao del
southern Philippines has Sur. Two indigenous leaders,
inadvertently affected the known for their work defending
Lumad communities, who have the ancestral lands of their
been caught in the crossfire and community against mining
accused of supporting companies, were executed in
communist ideologies. The front of the crowd. Dionel
military has particularly Campos, the chairperson for
targeted alternative education, Mapasu, was one of the victims.
alleging that indigenous schools Campos was a staunch advocate
promote communism. This for the rights of indigenous
distrust has led to the peoples to their ancestral land.
government suggesting military- Emerito Samarca, the head of
run schools, which has sparked the alternative school, was
controversy. found dead in one of his
The Save Our Schools classrooms with his throat
Network has accused the army slashed and two gunshot
and pro-government militias of wounds in his abdomen.
premeditated attacks on Samarca was a vocal opponent

22 Cuartela ‖ Readings in Philippine History

 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

of large-scale development distances to reach public

projects that fueled violence and schools places an
displacement in the southern insurmountable burden on many
Philippines. The government Lumad families.
denied any involvement in Indigenous activists in the
Samarca's murder, instead southern Philippines argue that
claiming that the attackers the right to free and culturally
merely dressed up in army tailored education is
fatigues that matched the fundamental to preserving
insignia of the nearest battalion. indigenous heritage and rights,
This event resulted in the which are often intimately tied
displacement of approximately to ancestral lands and
3,000 Lumad indigenous people resources. Unfortunately, the
who were forced to flee their government's failure to
homes. investigate crimes against
The unjust persecution of Lumad schools has left these
Lumads, driven by the belief communities more vulnerable to
that they are supporting the further attacks and
NPA insurgency, has led to encroachments.
indiscriminate killings and Despite legal efforts to
widespread displacement of recognize indigenous
indigenous communities. communities' land rights, there
Despite Duterte's leadership, is still much work to be done.
there has been little According to the 1997
improvement: in 2017, he Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act,
accused indigenous schools of over 5.4 million hectares of land
supporting the rebellion and have been covered by 221
threatened to bomb them. The Certificates of Ancestral Domain
situation continues to hinder Title (CADTs) as of March 2018.
Lumads' access to education, as However, these certificates have
they already have some of the only addressed the land rights
lowest educational levels in the of 1.2 million people, leaving
Philippines. The centralized many communities
school system often treats them unrecognized. Obtaining a title
as outsiders and second-class is also a complex and time-
citizens, further aggravating the consuming process. In 2012, an
problem. Additionally, the time additional procedure was
and cost of traveling long introduced to resolve

23 Cuartela ‖ Readings in Philippine History

 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

jurisdictional issues between of deceit, intimidation, and even

agencies, but this has only assassinations of their people to
added to the delays. After secure these FPICs for
obtaining a title, it must be companies. The defense of
registered with the Land ancestral lands has been linked
Registration Authority to protect to a series of murders of
it from land incursion. indigenous leaders. Projects
Unfortunately, less than half of such as mining, the Subic-Clark-
the 182 CADTs issued by Tarlac Expressway, and eco-
September 2016 have been tourism ventures have forced
registered. the indigenous Aetas to vacate
Despite certification the area surrounding Mount
recognizing land as indigenous, Pinatubo. Additionally, the
it is still susceptible to Department of Agrarian
development projects that may Reform's Comprehensive
proceed upon obtaining a Agrarian Reform Program
certificate of 'Free, Prior and continues to directly redistribute
Informed Consent' (FPIC) from indigenous lands to non-
the affected indigenous indigenous settlers.
communities. Many indigenous
peoples have reported instances

24 Cuartela ‖ Readings in Philippine History

 Module 5 Peace and Indigenous People Education

Summary

Peace education is a holistic pedagogical approach aimed at fostering a

culture of nonviolence, conflict resolution, and social justice. It goes
beyond traditional academic boundaries, emphasizing critical thinking
about global issues, empathy, and the empowerment of individuals to
contribute actively to a peaceful society. Peace education addresses
diverse topics, including human rights, environmental sustainability, and
the interconnectedness of global citizenship.

Indigenous people's education focuses on providing culturally relevant and

contextually appropriate learning experiences for indigenous communities.
It seeks to preserve and celebrate unique traditions, languages, and
knowledge systems, empowering individuals within these communities.
This form of education goes beyond conventional structures, incorporating
traditional ecological knowledge and community-based learning, while also
addressing historical injustices and contributing to the preservation of
cultural diversity.

The intersection of peace education and indigenous people's education lies

in shared values of justice, respect, and interconnectedness. Integrating
peace education into indigenous learning contexts can nurture conflict
resolution skills and empower individuals to engage in peaceful advocacy,
respecting and preserving indigenous ways of life. Both paradigms
contribute to the broader global goals of fostering peace, understanding,
and sustainable development.

Check For Understanding/Case Discussion

Each student is encouraged to engage in a collaborative vision board

activity by contributing images, symbols, or words that represent their
collective understanding of how the principles of peace education and
indigenous people's education can intersect and impact society positively.
The vision board should reflect shared aspirations, potential collaborative
initiatives, and ways in which these educational paradigms can contribute
to a more harmonious and inclusive future.

25 Cuartela ‖ Readings in Philippine History

 Critical Evaluation and Promotion
Finals
of Local and Oral History

ASSESSMENT

Name: __________________________________ Score: ___________

Degree Program/Year/Section: ____________ Date: ____________

Instructions: Read the following thought experiment and answer the

question(s) that follow(s).

Imagine that you are a historian and political scientist. One day,
you decided to travel to different places in Mindanao for adventure
since you want to experience their culture and meet various ethnicities
and people in the southern part of the country.
However, during your mountain tour and hiking along with seven
national tourists somewhere in Zamboanga, you promptly and
unexpectedly encountered a group of terrorists killing and punishing a
tribal group. Your group was surprised since the local government and
even the tourist guide were not informed of the attack.
Since your group was cornered by the terrorists and can’t skip
immediately, you witnessed the dying members of the tribes, and
based on your calculation only twenty-five are still alive.
Enigmatically, one of the leaders approached you and offered a
moral dilemma: 1) you can kill one of the remaining twenty-five
members and all of you including your group and the twenty-four
members of the tribe will be freed or 2) you may decline the offer and
all the tribal members will be killed but your group can go and skip the
scenario.

Questions:
What would you do? Are you willing and ready to kill one to save all
your lives including the other members of the tribe? But what if the
one that you need to kill is an infant, a child, or elderly, would you kill
either of them? Explain.

Criteria:
Content Clarity and Substance (including logic) – 50 pts.
Organization and Presentation – 40 pts.
Technicality (e.g., grammar) and Creativity – 10 pts.

Readings in Philippine History ‖ Cuartela 26

 Critical Evaluation and Promotion
Finals
of Local and Oral History

REFERENCES

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critique of an interface. Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World
Studies, 8(1), 7-95.
Abubakar, C.A. (2004). Review of the Mindanao peace processes. Inter-
Asia cultural studies, 5(3), 450-464, DOI:
10.1080/1464937042000288732
Bursan-Lao, Y. (2014). Philippines: Women and inclusivity in the
Mindanao peace process. Accord, 25, 28-29.
Domingo, F. (2013). The leadership crisis in the Communist Party of the
Philippines—New People’s Army. Retrieved on November 27, 2021
from https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/the-leadership-crisis-in-
the-communist-party-of-the-philippines-new-people%E2%80%99s-
army
Jones, G. (4 August 1989). Ex-communists party behind Manila bombing.
The Washington Post. Retrieved from
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communists-party-behind-manila-bombing/b987c165-4f26-4609-
aeb5-cd05134c0cec/
Lim, B. (1999). The political economy of Philippines-China relations
[PASCN Discussion Paper No. 99-16]. Retrieved from
https://pascn.pids.gov.ph/files/Discussions%20Papers/1999/pascndp9
916.pdf
Muyot, A.T. & Yambao, V.P.F. (1999). Steps taken to ensure
implementation of international humanitarian law in the Philippines.
International Review of the Red Cross, 81, 303-316.
Rosca, N., & Sison, J.M. (2004). Jose Maria Sison: At home in the world—
Portrait of a revolutionary. Open Hand Publishing.
Santos, Jr., Soliman M., and Santos, P.V.M. (2010). Primed and
purposeful: Armed groups and human security efforts in the
Philippines. Small Arms Survey.

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