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Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash: An Agricultural Residue with Potential Rubber Filler
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Chapter

Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash: An

Agricultural Residue with Potential
Rubber Filler Applications
Ntalane S. Seroka, Raymond Taziwa and Lindiwe Khotseng

Abstract

South Africa produces approximately 7 million tons of sugarcane bagasse annually

as an agricultural residue, which is treated as waste and its disposal is known to have
negative impacts on the environment. To lessen reliance on petroleum and polymers,
consideration is given on use of sugarcane bagasse ash as substitute materials for the
development of fillers for rubber and other large-scale commodity polymers. This
work reports on the mechanical, physiochemical, and structural properties of sugar-
cane bagasse ash to define the compatibility with the specific polymers that will pave
way to the engineering of composites to utilize the potential benefits of these residue-
derived fillers. The structural and morphological properties of the untreated and
treated sugarcane bagasse ash were performed using XRD, FTIR, and SEM-EDX,
respectively. The obtained results confirmed the successful treatment of the sugarcane
bagasse ash. The study was successful in showing that sugarcane bagasse ash as
potential filler in rubber polymer matrix is a natural resource of silica, which is
sustainable and cost-effective, thus should be harnessed for industrial purposes in
South Africa.

Keywords: sugarcane bagasse ash(SCBA), fillers, rubber materials, composites,

eco-friendly

1. Introduction

Sugarcane commonly known as “saccharum officinarum L” is a commercially

grown crop in harvesting season under climate conditions of slightly sunny and
colder. And, it is produced annually in most parts worldwide, with 100 million tonnes
produced by both Brazil and India. South Africa produces about 19.3 million tonnes of
sugarcane annually followed by Nigeria and Uganda with two of largest producers of
sugar cane on African soil [1–3].
Sugar cane in South Africa is grown in the Kwa-Zulu Natal Province and Mpuma-
langa Province as shown in Figure 1. Sugar cane production in the Kwa-Zulu Natal
Province is composed of gross farming located across the two provinces whereby
about 22,949 registered sugarcane growers produce annually 20 million tons of
sugarcane from approximately 14 million supply sections, extending from southern
Kwazulu-Natal to Mpumalanga Lowveld as shown in Figure 1 [4].
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Rubber Materials

Figure 1.
Represents sugarcane plantations regions in the Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa.

Sugarcane primarily it is the source of sugar and juice, and can be used as a raw
material in various industries for production of sugar, jiggery and syrups. In spite of
that these industrial processes generate considerable quantities of residual bagasse,
which is often used to produce heat energy via combustion. Interestingly, about 25–30
wt residual lignocellulose bagasse (RSB) is produced per kg of sugarcane processed in
sugar mills [5–8]. The crop accumulates to approximately 380 kg/pa of silicon in a
12-month-old-crop. In addition, silicon in this state is a solid waste as silica (SiO2). It
has been reported that natural silica is safe to handle, cheap and simple work-up
extraction from various sources. The fate of bagasse ash poses a challenge to the
environment [9].
Nowadays, research has swiftly shifted focus to the industrial agricultural wastes
to address the ever-growing concerns for the inadequate disposal of residues produced
from agro-wastes. Consequently, led to the development of hybrid composites via
reinforcements in polymer science. The use of substitute materials such as sugarcane
bagasse as a filler in rubber and cementious application, has become a global concern
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Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash: An Agricultural Residue with Potential Rubber Filler Applications
DOI: [Link]

to look at ways to minimize the disposal of wastes especially those which are non-
biodegradable and pose a threat to the eco-system. Therefore, recycling and re-use of
these residues released as wastes from industries has been efficient route to minimize
the disposal of wastes which are not environmentally friendly and pose a threat to the
quality of life (micro-organisms) [10].
Notably the re use of recycled fillers as reinforcements from renewable sources has
received an increased attention with the aim of synthesizing alternate materials in
addressing shortcomings related to the fairly and low sustainable of conventionally
reinforced polymer composites. Carbonaceous nanomaterials from various sources
such as wood, jute, cotton and bagasse have been introduced into a polymer matrix as
reinforcements which have recently gained momentum in polymeric composites, this
is due to their production means being inexpensive, fast and do-able [11].
Additionally, sugarcane bagasse their composites possess good chemical, physical
and mechanical properties and is considered a low-cost and low-density material which
possesses potential application-specific mechanical strength and stiffness values [12].
Thus, researchers reported on the mechanical properties of the composites (elasticity
and elongation at break) whereby they measured using the average of the three prop-
erties in Table 1. In relation to the stress–strain, the mechanical properties in terms of
tensile strength, the values measured from sugarcane bagasse ash SCBA with optimized
silane treatment were found to be the most desired and excellent.
For modified application of silane coupling agent, Bis[3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl]
Tetrasulfide (TESPT), in the SCBA-Natural Rubber interaction, SCBA particles were
homogenously dispersed in the NR matrix, from the method reported in [13, 14]. The
samples with a significant amount (phr) of SCBA were studied to understand and aim
for greater interfacial adhesion within the treatments. Hence, the composites
displayed improved mechanical response, the bold in the table imply to the best
results observed in the samples. Moreover, the use of SCBA can be a feasible substitute
material as filler in Natural Rubber (NR) due to excellent mechanical properties [14].
Interestingly, sugarcane bagasse has been used as reinforcing phase in cementitious
and polymer composites. And, it comprises of waste generated from industrial produc-
tion of sugar, fuel and other beverages derived from sugarcane. Sugarcane bagasse ash is
mostly composed of silica in various forms structurally including crystalline, vitreous
and amorphous. The amorphous silica from SCBA has been utilized as a filler in polymer
composites. Wimolmala and Sombatsompop reported for the first time the utilization of
SCBA with a particle size in the range 45–145 μm as a filler in a rubber matrix with a
concentration of 15 phr (per hundred rubber). Although, they incorporated high con-
tent of N-cyclihexyl-2-benzothiazole sulphonamide (CBS), which, in spite of improving

Property Pure 25 per hundred 25 per hundred rubber 25 per hundred rubber (phr)
gum rubber (phr) (phr) in situ silane with optimized silane
pristine treatment treatment

Stress 4.02 4.23 4.96 11.47

(MPa)

Modulus 0.32 0.37 1.03 0.62

(E)(MPa)

Strain 974 625 442 857.4

(%)

Table 1.
Mechanical properties of the composites with and with no silane coupling agent.

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Rubber Materials

the crosslinks sections and the mechanical resistance of the composites, significantly
minimized their life time. Traditionally, the alkaline treatment is utilized followed by a
strong acid for neutralization to produce silica gel, as illustrated below [13–15]:

SiO2 ðsÞ þ 2NaOHðaqÞ ! Na2 SiO3ðaqÞ þ H2 OðaqÞ (1)

Na2 SiO3ðaqÞ þ 2HClðaqÞ ! SiO2ðgelÞ þ 2NaClðaqÞ þ H2 OðlÞ (2)

Other studies have reported the use of sugarcane fibers as reinforcing filler, which
implies the environmentally-friendly application of this natural resource. In this cur-
rent study, the structural and morphological properties of sugarcane bagasse ash were
studied as well as thermal properties potential for reinforcements in rubber materials.
The use of citric acid (an organic acid) during treatment step to remove any inorganic
impurities from the ash proved to be useful tool in realizing green methodology for
the use of sugarcane bagasse ash [16].
Nanomaterials have allowed researchers to effectively manipulate and exploit
materials at the nanometer scale to produce new functionalities. And, to fine-tune
their properties from an atomic level, to get desired properties to suit particular
applications. In essence, rubber materials are desired to be inexpensive, due to the bio-
materials (filler/polymer matrix) and their fabrication methods as well as their
resources which is of paramount importance as compared to conventional silica from
non-natural resources. In this work surface treatment was performed using citric acid
potentially to improve the interfacial adhesion of waste and its higher interactions
with elastomeric matrix. The structural, morphological and thermal properties of
SCBA potential for filler matrix interaction were analyzed.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Material used

The chemicals utilized in the preparation were citric acid ≥99.5%, purchased from
Sigma Aldrich. Sugarcane was procured from Sugar Illovo South Africa Company. The
synthesis was done using deionized water from the Milli-Q water purification system
(Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA).

2.2 Preparation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA)

The sugarcane bagasse (a, b) cultivated around the tropical and coastal regions of
South Africa is used in this work, shown in Figure 2. Firstly, the incomplete combus-
tion of the bagasse to ash (c, d) was carried out in open space and then heated in an
oven at 40°C overnight to obtain uniform particle sizes from dried ash. In a typical
procedure the residue of (d) sugarcane bagasse 2.0 g heated at 700°C for 4 hours
(residence time) in a muffle furnace at 10°C/min heating rate (gradient time) to burn
away volatile organic matter illustrated in Figure 2D.

2.3 Leaching with citric acid

In the first treatment, the bagasse ash was mixed with citric acid in 250 ml beaker
and then underwent reflux in a 250 ml volumetric flask stirred at 450 revolution per
minute (rpm) at 80°C for 2 hours, shown in Figure 2D, E. The ash was then washed
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Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash: An Agricultural Residue with Potential Rubber Filler Applications
DOI: [Link]

Figure 2.
Presents images of a typical sugarcane plantation (A), stalks (B), and bagasse (C) from the south African sugar
industry, calcination in a muffle furnace (D), and conversion to sugarcane bagasse ash (E).

with double deionized water and decant until the pH of the supernatant reached 6.5.
The resulting ash was then dried in an oven at 40°C overnight and ground into fine
powder using mortar and pestle.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Structural and morphological characterization.

The crystallinity identification was cross-examined using X-ray diffraction (XRD)
on a Bruker AXSD8 Advancement instrument, (Ithemba Labs, South Africa) with Cu-
Kα1, λ = 154,050 A. The Bragg angle array was 2Ɵ = 10–90°C with a scanning step
0,035°C. The new surface functionalities were studied using IR by identifying the
functional groups and bonding of elements present in the samples. The analysis was
undertaken at room temperature with a wavelength range 400–4000 cm1 and phase
composition determined using a PerkinElmer FTIR spectrometer (spectrum two).
Scanning electron microscopy analysis was performed using SEM (TESCAN, VEGA)
to observe surface morphology of the sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA). The samples
were prepared on an aluminum stub and carbon sputtered on a carbon coater before
analysis.

3.1 Characterization of synthesized materials

3.1.1 Powder X-ray diffraction and FTIR analysis

The X-ray diffraction pattern of untreated (i) and treated (ii) Sugarcane bagasse
ash (SCBA) is presented in Figure 3a. The x-ray diffraction pattern reveals diffraction
5
Rubber Materials

peaks associated with the presence of quartz silica @ 2Ɵ = 27 (JCP phase from ICDD:
01–083-0539), and broad peak corresponding to the amorphous nature of silica in the
bagasse sample @ 2Ɵ = 12 and between 2Ɵ = 22 and 28. The attributed traces of silica
in the form of quartz in the bagasse ash was reported to be as a result of accumulation
of minerals from the soil. The obtained bagasse proves to be heavily impure as shown
in Figure 1a (i) for untreated bagasse ash. The acid treated bagasse, Figure 1a (ii) ash
show crystalline peaks attributed to silica as well as smooth peaks as compared to the
untreated bagasse ash [17].
Figure 3b, presents FTIR spectra of untreated (i) and acid-treated (ii) bagasse ash.
The key functional groups existing in the bagasse ash were identified and characteris-
tics peaks for SCBA with absorption bands between 1046 and 1221 cm1 corresponds
to asymmetric vibration of the Si-O-Si bonds. The peaks at 464 and 775, correspond to
Si-OH present on the surface of the particles. The peaks at 1361 and 1740 are associ-
ated with organic matter in the material and C=O, respectively. The peaks at 3014 and
3457 are as a result of organic matter in the ash C-O and OH group, respectively.
SCBA material it is possible to observe the pronounced peaks and intense peaks for
the acid leached sample in Figure 3b (ii). It is noteworthy to realize the evolution and
disappearance of functional groups and the appearance of key functional groups. This
confirms successful incorporation of new functionalities on the acid leached sample
(ii) Figure 3b. Moreover, the highly narrow and pronounced band at around
1046 cm1 which is associated with crystalline silica, is in agreement with the results
obtained from XRD diffractograms(s) [17, 18].

3.1.2 SEM–EDX analysis

The surface morphologies for the untreated and treated ash were cross
examined using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), presented in Figure 4A
untreated bagasse and (c) for acid-treated bagasse ash. The SEM images, it is
possible to observe the agglomerates of irregular morphology and sizes as well
as spherical-rice like particles present in the samples. Although, organic acid
leaching process was effective on the surface morphology as observed in
(d) with rice-like shape observed, the morphological differences confirm the
surface characteristics analysis (FTIR) discussed earlier, where the pretreatment

Figure 3.
Presents XRD spectra of (a) untreated bagasse ash (i) and treated bagasse ash with citric acid (ii), and FTIR
spectra of (b) untreated bagasse ash (i) and treated bagasse ash with citric acid (ii).

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Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash: An Agricultural Residue with Potential Rubber Filler Applications
DOI: [Link]

Figure 4.
SEM images of (A) untreated bagasse ash, corresponding EDX spectrum (B) and image of (C) treated bagasse ash
with citric acid and corresponding EDX spectrum (D).

with citric acid significantly improved the formation of silica for the acid-leached
sample [18, 19].
The EDX results exhibit that the chemical composition of SCBA untreated and
treated with citric acid obtained by SEM–EDX shown in Figure 4B and d, respectively,
that acid treatment is an effective tool to mitigate impurities from the increment of Si
matter in the samples for acid-leached. In addition, the acid-treated bagasse ash reveal
closely packed particles due to the increased formation of hemicellulose removal bonds.
The acid leaching treatment results in the degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose-
inspired bonds, thus the resulting cellulose chains generate new hydrogen bonds to
replace the removed ones. In essence, improves filler polymer interaction [20].
Table 2 shows that citric acid is a useful organic acid for the pretreatment process.
The increased morphology of silica in the powders of the ash is as result of the
selective removal of the synthesis residues using citric acid, thereby reducing metallic
impurities present as compared to the morphology from the untreated ash.
The samples show that pretreatment of the ash results in significant reduction in
carbon content as shown in Table 1 above, and silicon increased from 1.78% to 5.27%.
It is quite evident that the pretreatment step is a useful tool and sufficient in
purifying the bagasse ash by reducing inorganic impurities to achieve high yield of
silica implied by the mathematical expressions below [21]

100 g of SBA introduces approximately 76:34 g of SiO2 (3)

Therefore,unknown ðXÞ amount of SCBA will introduce 73:21 g of SiO2 (4)
100 x 73 7300
The aforementioned implies, ¼ ¼ ¼ 95:625 gofSCBA (5)
76:34 76:34
For; Al2 O3 since 100 g SCBA introduces 6:7 g of Al2 O3 ,
95:625 x 6:7 640:688
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ ¼ 6:407 gofAl2 O3
100 100
(6)

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Rubber Materials

Element Untreated SCBA (%) Acid-treated SCBA (%)

C 74.92 69.36

O 22.45 25.37

Si 1.78 5.27

K 0.26 —

Ca 0.59 —

Table 2.
Chemical composition of raw bagasse ash.

Fe2 O3 : Since 100 g SCBA introduces 6:3 g of Fe2 O3 ,

95:625 x 6:3 602:438
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ 6:024 gofFe2 O3
100 100
(7)
CaO : Since 100 g SCBA introduces 2:8 g CaO,
95:625 x 2:8 267:75
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:678 gofCaO
100 100
(8)
MgO : Since 100 g SCBA introduces 3:2 g MgO,
95:625 x 3:2 306 (9)
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:06 gofMgO
100 100
P2 O5 : Since 100 g SCBA introduces 4:0 g P2 O5 ,
95:625 x 4:0 382:5
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:825 gof P2 O5
100 100
(10)
Na2 O : Since 100 g SCBA introduces 1:1 g Na2 O,
95:625 x 1:1 105:188
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:052 gofNa2 O
100 100
(11)
K 2 O : Since 100 g SCBA introduces 2:4 g K 2 O,
95:625 x 2:4 229:5
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:295 gof K 2 O
100 100
(12)
LOI : Since 100 g SCBA introduces 0:9 g LOI,
95:625 x 0:9 86:063
then : 95:625 g of SCBA will introduce ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:861 gofLOI
100 100
(13)

3.1.3 Thermal analysis

Thermal properties were investigated using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)

from room temperature to 800°C, reported in [22]. The current study gave insightful
information on the thermal characteristics of bagasse ash as shown in Figure 5. The
TG curves essentially showed the total mass degradation of Figure 5a 12% and
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Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash: An Agricultural Residue with Potential Rubber Filler Applications
DOI: [Link]

Figure 5.
TGA curves of (a) untreated sugarcane bagasse ash and treated bagasse ash with citric acid. Reproduced with
permission from [22], copyright (2022), MDPI.

Figure 5b 18%, respectively. It is noteworthy to realize 3 distinct stages of rapid

weight loss attributed to moisture drying, volatile organic matter and rapid decompo-
sition of hemicellulose and cellulose. The results are similar to the findings reported in
[23, 24]. No further mass loss was observed as a result of thermal stability of
nanosilica present in the samples, which account to 84% in mass, as reported in [25].

4. Conclusions

Based on the findings, we concluded that acid-leaching significantly improved the

chemical, physical and thermal properties of bagasse ash. The ash is mostly carbona-
ceous material. And, the major component of SCBA is silica from the elemental
composition studies. The SCBA contains both amorphous and crystalline silica. The
reduction of inorganic impurities makes the bagasse residue potential to serve as a
filler in polymer composites, and presents a promising and feasible alternative substi-
tute material for the rubber industry. The advantage of this finding is that the use of
organic acid proved essentially and equally compatible for the current study as eco-
friendly and green method for acid-leaching process.
Furthermore, the filler material will enhance the thermal and mechanical proper-
ties of the polymer matrix. These new route to recycle the agricultural residue from
the sugarcane industry is pre-conceived as eco-friendly and cost-effective due to the
readily available of the plant in tropical countries, and could be used as reinforcing
filler in polymer matrix interaction. Therefore, presents a niche application in south
Africa as it has never been done before.

Acknowledgements

Funding: This research was funded by National Research Foundation (NRF), South
Africa, grant number: 138079 and Tertiary Education Support Program (TESP),
Eskom Holdings SOC Limited Reg No 2002/015527/06.
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Rubber Materials

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author details

Ntalane S. Seroka1*, Raymond Taziwa2 and Lindiwe Khotseng1

1 Department of Chemistry, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa

2 Faculty of Science Engineering and Technology, Department of Applied Science,

Walter Sisulu University, South Africa

*Address all correspondence to: 3754640@[Link]

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License ([Link]
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
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Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash: An Agricultural Residue with Potential Rubber Filler Applications
DOI: [Link]

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