I NTRODUCTION TO

CHAPTER

32
A NIMALS

The diversity of animal life is staggering. Animals

have adapted to Earth’s lushest environments and
to its harshest environments. This Sally Lightfoot
crab, Grapsus grapsus, lives on the bare volcanic
rock of the geologically young Galápagos Islands.

SECTION 1 The Nature of Animals

SECTION 2 Invertebrates and Vertebrates
SECTION 3 Fertilization and Development

650 CHAPTER 32
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 SECTION 1

T H E N AT U R E O F A N I M A LS ●
OBJECTIVES
Identify four important
If you are asked to name an animal, you might respond with characteristics of animals.
● List two kinds of tissues found only
the name of a familiar large-bodied animal, such as a horse,
in animals.
a shark, or an eagle. But the kingdom Animalia is much more ● Explain how the first animals may

diverse than many people realize. have evolved from unicellular

organisms.
● Identify four features found only
in chordates.
CHARACTERISTICS ● Identify two functions of the
body cavity.
Animals are multicellular heterotrophic organisms that lack cell ● List the structural features that

walls. Some animals, called vertebrates, have a backbone. Other taxonomists use to classify animals.
animals, called invertebrates, do not have a backbone.
Invertebrates account for more than 95 percent of all animal VOCABULARY
species alive today. Most members of the animal kingdom share animal
other important characteristics, including sexual reproduction vertebrate
and movement. invertebrate
specialization
Multicellular Organization ingestion
The bodies of animals are multicellular. Some animals contain large zygote
numbers of cells. For example, some scientists estimate that the differentiation
body of an adult human contains 50 trillion to 100 trillion cells. chordate
Unlike the cells of unicellular organisms, the cells of multicellular notochord
organisms do not lead independent lives. Each cell depends on the dorsal nerve cord
presence and functioning of other cells. pharyngeal pouch
In all but the simplest animal phyla, there is a division of labor symmetry
among cells. Specialization is the evolutionary adaptation of a cell radial symmetry
for a particular function. Just as a general contractor makes use of dorsal
carpenters, electricians, and plumbers to build a house, a multi- ventral
cellular organism makes use of specialized cells to perform anterior
particular functions, such as digesting food, removing wastes, or posterior
reproducing. bilateral symmetry
A tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a common func- cephalization
tion. Most animal bodies are composed of combinations of differ- germ layer
ent kinds of tissues. The formation of tissue from many individual
cells is made possible by cell junctions, connections between cells
that hold the cells together as a unit. The members of most animal
phyla have organs, body structures that are composed of more
than one type of tissue and that are specialized for a certain
function. [Link]
Without multicellularity, the enormous variety found in the ani- Topic: Multicellular
mal kingdom would not exist. The size of unicellular organisms is Organisms
limited. Moreover, all of their functions, such as reproduction and Keyword: HM61002
digestion, must be handled within a single cell. Multicellularity and
cell specialization have enabled organisms to evolve and adapt to
many environments.

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 651

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 Heterotrophy
Plants and some unicellular organisms are autotrophic. They make
food using simple molecules from their environment and an energy
source, such as the sun. Animals, on the other hand, are hetero-
trophic. They must obtain complex organic molecules from
other sources. Most animals accomplish this by ingestion. During
ingestion, an animal takes in organic material or food, usually in
Word Roots and Origins the form of other living things. Digestion then occurs within the
animal’s body, and carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, and other
ingestion organic molecules are extracted from the material or cells the ani-
from the Latin ingestus, mal has ingested.
meaning “carry in”
Sexual Reproduction and Development
Most animals can reproduce sexually, and some can also repro-
duce asexually. In sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes
fuse. The zygote, the diploid cell that results from the fusion of
the gametes, then undergoes repeated mitotic divisions. Mitotic
division of a cell produces two identical offspring cells. How
does an adult animal, with its many different organs, tissues, and
cell types, arise from a single cell? In the process called develop-
ment, the enlarging mass of dividing cells undergoes differentia-
tion. During differentiation ( DIF -uhr- EN -shee-AY-shuhn), cells
become specialized and therefore different from each other. For
example, some cells may become blood cells, and others may
become bone cells. The process of differentiation is the path to
cell specialization.

Movement
Although some animals, such as barnacles, spend most of their lives
FIGURE 32-1 attached to a surface, most animals move about in their environ-
Capturing fast-moving prey requires ment. The ability to move results from the interrelationship of two
exquisitely timed coordination between
the nervous tissue and muscle tissue in
types of tissue found only in animals: nervous tissue and muscle tis-
the body of this heart-nosed bat, sue. Nervous tissue allows an animal to detect stimuli in its environ-
Cardioderma cor. ment and within its own body. Cells of nervous tissue, called
neurons, conduct electrical sig-
nals throughout an animal’s body.
Multiple neurons work together
to take in information, transmit
and process it, and initiate an
appropriate response. Often, this
response involves muscle tissue,
which can contract and exert a
force to move specific parts of
the animal’s body. The bat shown
in Figure 32-1 continuously
processes information about its
position in space and the position
of its prey. It can adjust its mus-
cular responses so rapidly that it
can intercept insects in flight.

652 CHAPTER 32
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION
The first animals probably arose in the sea. The structural charac-
teristics of invertebrates suggest that they were the first multicellu-
lar animals and that they evolved from protists. Because protists are
both heterotrophic and eukaryotic, scientists have inferred that mul-
ticellular invertebrates may have developed from colonies of loosely
connected, flagellated protists, such as the one shown in Figure 32-2.
What path did cell specialization take in these early organisms?
Colonial protists may have lost their flagella over the course of evo-
lution as individual cells in the colony grew more specialized. They
may have been similar to modern colonial protists that do show
some degree of cell specialization, such as some species of algae. In FIGURE 32-2
these species, the gametes are distinct from nonreproductive cells. The first animals may have evolved
A similar division of labor in early colonial protists may have been from colonial protists similar to the
one shown in this drawing.
the first step toward multicellularity.
Scientists often use a type of branching diagram called a
phylogenetic diagram, such as the one in Figure 32-3, to show how
animals are related through evolution. Taxonomists have grouped FIGURE 32-3
animals into several phyla (singular, phylum) by comparing ani- This phylogenetic diagram represents
mals’ fossils, body symmetry, patterns of embryo development, a hypothesis for the relationship among
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and other macromolecules. Taxonomy members of the animal kingdom
is an ever-changing branch of science; therefore, it should not be based on rRNA analysis. Notice on
the diagram the locations of similarities
surprising that the actual number and names of animal phyla con- in body tissues, body symmetry, and
tinue to change and be debated. Many taxonomists recognize 30 or embryo development. For updates
more different animal phyla, though some phyla contain a very on phylogenetic information, visit
small number of species. [Link]. Enter the keyword
HM6 Phylo.

a
ia ) hor es) ifer
a
lida
dar s nop r Rot ifers) nne ented a ta
a Cni darian Cte nopho t A tod s) rma
o r i f e r
s ) ( c n i (cte h e s (ro ( s egm s) N ema dworm p oda ) i n ode rms)
P nge t ca m n hro s Ec h d e ta
(spo lmin llus wor (rou Art hropod ino rda )
yhe s) Mo llusks) art (ech Cho rdates
Plat worm ( m o (
c h o
t (
(fla

Protostomes Deuterostomes

Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry

No true tissues Tissues

ANCESTRAL COLONIAL PROTIST

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 Invertebrates
Invertebrate body plans range from the absence of body symmetry
and true tissues, as is found in sponges, to bilateral symmetry and
specialized body parts found in arthropods, such as the spider
shown in Figure 32-4. Invertebrates do not have a backbone.
Invertebrates make up the greatest number of animal species.

Chordates
The name chordate (KAWR-DAYT) refers to animals with a notochord,
a firm, flexible rod of tissue located in the dorsal part of the body.
At some stage in development, all chordates have a notochord, a
dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal pouches, and a postanal tail. The
dorsal nerve cord is a hollow tube above the notochord.
FIGURE 32-4 Pharyngeal (fuh-RIN-jee-uhl) pouches are small outpockets of the
The palm spider, Nephila sp., is an anterior digestive tract. The postanal tail consists of muscle tissue
arthropod, with a segmented body and and lies behind the posterior opening of the digestive tract. A few
body parts specialized for trapping, chordates retain their early chordate characteristics all their lives.
killing, and eating its prey.
In most vertebrates, a subphylum of the chordates, the dorsal
nerve cord develops into the brain and the spinal cord, and the
notochord is replaced by the backbone. In aquatic vertebrates, the
[Link] pharyngeal pouches have evolved into gills for breathing.
Topic: Vertebrates
Although vertebrates are only one small subphylum of animals,
Keyword: HM61602
they merit discussion from a human perspective. Humans are ver-
tebrates, and the ecology of humans includes extensive interaction
with other vertebrate species.

Careers
in BIOLOGY

Veterinarian
Job Description Veterinarians surgical follow-ups, exams, and other
are doctors who are trained to protect routine needs. Dr. Walther emphasizes
the health of animals, such as pets and that a veterinarian’s role extends beyond
livestock. Some veterinarians also pro- just treating the family pet. “Vets also
tect animals and people from the dis- work to conserve animal resources; for
eases that they each carry. example, they help study and preserve
endangered species in Africa.”
Focus on a Veterinarian Veterinarians are also at the forefront in chemistry, and physics; four years of
Dr. Jack Walther grew up on a ranch, so protecting animals and people against additional schooling to earn doctor of
animals were always part of his life. diseases, such as Lyme disease and West veterinary medicine (D.V.M.) degree
Today, Dr. Walther practices two days Nile virus. “As a vet, you help not only the • Skills—self-motivation, curiosity,
each week in a veterinary practice with animal world, but also humanity.” patience, ability to work indepen-
another veterinarian. When he arrives dently, ability to work with animals
each day, animal patients who have Education and Skills
experienced overnight injuries or illnesses • High school—three years of science
are already waiting. Dr. Walther handles courses and four years of math courses For more about careers, visit
these emergencies. He also sees patients • College—bachelor of science including [Link] and type in the
with appointments for vaccinations, course work in biology, mathematics, keyword HM6 Careers.

654 CHAPTER 32
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 (a) NO SYMMETRY (b) RADIAL SYMMETRY (c) BILATERAL SYMMETRY

FIGURE 32-5
BODY STRUCTURE (a) The sponge lacks a consistent
pattern of structure. (b) The sea
Animal bodies range from those that lack true tissues and an orga- anemone, an aquatic animal, displays
radial symmetry. (c) The squirrel displays
nized body shape to those that have very organized tissues and a bilateral symmetry and cephalization.
consistent body shape.

Patterns of Symmetry
A body plan describes an animal’s shape, symmetry, and internal
organization. Symmetry is a body arrangement in which parts that
lie on opposite sides of an axis are identical. An animal’s body
plan results from the animal’s pattern of development. Sponges
have the simplest body plan of all animals. Sponges, as shown in
Figure 32-5a, are asymmetrical—they do not display symmetry.
Animals that have a top and bottom side, but no front, back, right,
or left end, display radial symmetry—a body plan in which the
parts are organized in a circle around an axis. Cnidarians, such as
the sea anemone in Figure 32-5b, are radially symmetrical.
Most animals have a dorsal (back) and ventral (abdomen) side,
an anterior (toward the head) and posterior (toward the tail) end,
and a right and left side, as shown by the squirrel in Figure 32-5c.
Such animals have two similar halves on either side of a central
plane and are said to display bilateral symmetry. Bilaterally sym- Word Roots and Origins
metrical animals tend to exhibit cephalization (SEF-uh-li-ZAY-shuhn)—
the concentration of sensory and brain structures in the anterior
cephalization
end of the animal. As a cephalized animal moves through its envi- from the Greek word kephale,
ronment, the anterior end precedes the rest of the body, sensing meaning “head”
the environment.

Germ Layers
Germ layers are tissue layers in the embryos of all animals except
sponges, which have no true tissues. The embryos of cnidarians
and ctenophores have two germ layers. All other animals have
three germ layers. Every organ and tissue arises from a germ layer.

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 655

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 Digestive tract Body Cavities
Most animals have some type of body cavity, a fluid-filled space that
forms between the digestive tract and the outer wall of the body dur-
ing development. Some animals, such as flatworms, have three germ
layers but have a solid body. These animals lack a body cavity.
Fluid-filled body cavity In the roundworm shown in Figure 32-6, the body cavity aids in
FIGURE 32-6 movement by providing a firm, fluid-filled structure against which
The body of a roundworm is held erect muscles can contract. The body cavity also allows some degree of
by its fluid-filled body cavity, which is movement of the exterior of the body with respect to the internal
firm but flexible, like a balloon filled organs, resulting in more freedom of movement for the animal.
with water. Finally, the fluid in the body cavity acts as a reservoir and medium
of transport for nutrients and wastes, which diffuse into and out of
the animal’s body cells.

Body Structure and Relatedness

Biologists use similarities in body plans and patterns of develop-
ment to help them classify animals and hypothesize about the evo-
lutionary history of animals. Biologists use information from extant
(living) species and extinct species to develop phylogenetic dia-
grams, such as the one shown in Figure 32-3. Animal phyla shown
on the same branch of the phylogenetic diagram, such as flat-
worms and rotifers, are thought to be related to each other more
closely than they are to other animals and are characterized by
similarities in morphology and rRNA sequences. Conversely, ani-
mals shown in different parts of the diagram are thought to be
more distantly related.
• Multicellularity and a limited degree of cell specialization char-
acterize the sponges. Sponges have no organized body shape
and no true tissues.
• True tissues in two layers are found in the cnidarians and the
ctenophores.
• True tissues in three layers and bilateral symmetry characterize
all of the other animal phyla.

SECTION 1 REVIEW
1. What are the four characteristics common to CRITICAL THINKING
most animals? 7. Recognizing Relationships Animals such as
2. Identify how nervous tissue and muscle tissue sponges lack nervous tissue and muscle tissue.
are interrelated. What does this tell you about sponges?
3. Summarize how unicellular organisms may have 8. Relating Concepts In 1994, Western scientists
given rise to the first animals. first observed the Vietnamese saola, a hoofed
4. What are the features that all vertebrates share mammal. The saola was shown to be related to
at some point in their development? wild cattle and buffalo. How do you think scien-
tists identified the saola’s closest relatives?
5. Identify the body-symmetry type that includes
both an anterior end and a posterior end. 9. Evaluating Information How is cephalization
advantageous to an animal in finding food?
6. Name three body features that taxonomists use
to help develop phylogenetic trees.

656 CHAPTER 32
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 SECTION 2

I N V E R T E B R AT E S A N D OBJECTIVES

V E R T E B R AT E S
● Compare symmetry, segmentation,
and body support in invertebrates
and vertebrates.
● Describe the differences in the

Comparative anatomy, the study of the structure of animal respiratory and circulatory systems
of invertebrates and vertebrates.
bodies, is one of the oldest disciplines in biology. Some modern ● Compare the digestive, excretory,
scientists work to establish the relationships between different and nervous systems of
animals, while others try to establish the relationships between invertebrates and vertebrates.
● Contrast reproduction and
the form and function of morphological features of animals and development in invertebrates and
the role of these features in animal ecology. vertebrates.

VOCABULARY
segmentation
INVERTEBRATE exoskeleton
gill
CHARACTERISTICS open circulatory system
closed circulatory system
Although it may be difficult for us to see many similarities hermaphrodite
between a clam and an octopus, they are classified in the same larva
phylum. Adult invertebrates show a tremendous amount of mor- endoskeleton
phological diversity. vertebra
integument
Symmetry lung
Most invertebrates display radial or bilateral symmetry. The radial kidney
symmetry of a jellyfish, which drifts rather than swims, allows the
animal to receive stimuli from all directions. Most invertebrates
have bilateral symmetry, which is an adaptation to a more motile
lifestyle. Bilateral symmetry allows for cephalization, which is pre- FIGURE 32-7
sent in varying degrees in different animals. Some bilaterally sym- The California sea hare, Aplysia
metric invertebrates, such as the sea hare shown in Figure 32-7, are californica, is a shell-less mollusk
not highly cephalized. Members of Aplysia do not have a true brain that has a simple nervous system.
and are capable of only basic responses to the environment. Other
invertebrates, such as squids and octopuses, are highly cephalized
and have a distinct head and a nervous system dominated by a
well-organized brain.

Segmentation
Segmentation in animals refers to a body composed of a series of
repeating similar units. Segmentation is seen in its simplest form in
the earthworm, an annelid in which each unit of the body is very
similar to the next one. Within the phylum Arthropoda, however,
segments may look different and have different functions. In the
arthropod shown in Figure 32-8 on the next page, fusion of the ante-
rior segments has resulted in a large structure that includes the
animal’s head and chest regions.

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 Support of the Body
Invertebrate bodies have diverse means of support. Sponges have
a simple skeleton that supports their soft tissue; the dried, brown,
irregularly shaped “natural sponge” found in stores is this skele-
ton. The bodies of some other invertebrates, such as roundworms,
are supported by the pressure of their fluid-filled body cavity.
An exoskeleton is a rigid outer covering that protects the soft
tissues of many animals, including arthropods, such as crus-
taceans, which include crayfish, shown in Figure 32-8. An exoskele-
FIGURE 32-8 ton limits the size and may impede the movement of the organism.
In animals such as this crayfish, Also, an exoskeleton does not grow and must be shed and replaced
Procambarus sp., segments are fused, as the animal grows.
producing larger structures. The head and
chest structure in this crayfish results Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
from the fusion of several segments.
Segments may also give rise to other Animals produce carbon dioxide, CO2, as a byproduct of metabo-
structures, such as limbs. The crayfish’s lism. Therefore, carbon dioxide in the blood must be exchanged
exoskeleton is also clearly visible. with oxygen, O2, from the environment. This process, called gas
exchange, occurs most efficiently across a moist membrane. In the
simplest aquatic invertebrates, gas exchange occurs directly
across the body covering. Aquatic arthropods and mollusks, how-
ever, have gills, organs that consist of blood vessels surrounded by
a membrane and are specialized for gas exchange in water.
In most animals, the circulatory system moves blood or a simi-
lar fluid through the body to transport oxygen and nutrients to
[Link]
cells. At the same time, carbon dioxide and wastes are transported
Topic: Invertebrates
Keyword: HM60812
away from the cells. Sponges and cnidarians have no circulatory
system, so nutrients and gases are exchanged directly with the
environment by diffusion across cell membranes. Arthropods and
some mollusks have an open circulatory system, in which circula-
tory fluid is pumped by the heart through vessels and into the
body cavity and is then returned to the vessels. Annelids and other
mollusks have a closed circulatory system. In a closed circulatory
system, blood is pumped by a heart and circulates through the
body in vessels that form a closed loop. The exchange of gases,
nutrients, and wastes occurs between body cells and very small
blood vessels that lie near each cell.

Digestive and Excretory Systems

In sponges, digestion occurs within individual cells. In cnidari-
ans, a central chamber with one opening serves as the digestive
system. Most other invertebrates, however, have a digestive
tract, or gut, running through their body. In these animals, food
is broken down in the gut, and the nutrients are absorbed by spe-
cialized cells that line the gut.
In simple aquatic invertebrates, wastes are excreted as dis-
solved ammonia, NH3. In terrestrial invertebrates, specialized
excretory structures filter ammonia and other wastes from the
body cavity. The ammonia is then converted to less toxic sub-
stances, and water is reabsorbed by the animal before the waste
is excreted.

658 CHAPTER 32
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Nervous System
The extraordinary degree of diversity among invertebrates is ZYGOTE
reflected in their nervous systems. Sponges have no neurons,
although individual cells can react to environmental stimuli in
much the same way that protozoa can. Neurons evolved in cnidari-
ans, which have a very simple, loosely connected nervous system.
Within a single invertebrate phylum, Mollusca, we can trace a step- YOUNG LARVA
wise progression of cephalization and the evolution of the brain.
The mollusks have very diverse nervous systems. Recall the sea
hare, shown in Figure 32-7. Although its head is not well defined
and its nervous system can perform only simple information proc-
essing, the sea hare can learn to contract a part of its body in
response to certain stimuli. Contrast this simple behavior with that OLDER LARVA
of a highly cephalized mollusk, such as the octopus. The octopus
shows very complex decision-making behavior, and it can build a
shelter from debris it finds on the ocean floor.

Reproduction and Development PUPA

Invertebrates are capable of some form of sexual reproduction,
and many can also reproduce asexually. Some invertebrates,
such as earthworms, are hermaphrodites. A hermaphrodite
(huhr-MAF-roh-DIET) is an organism that produces both male and
female gametes, allowing a single individual to function as both
a male and a female. ADULT
Invertebrates may undergo indirect or direct development.
FIGURE 32-9
Animals that undergo indirect development have an intermediate
Animals with indirect development, such
larval stage, as is shown in Figure 32-9. A larva (plural, larvae) is a as this beetle, have an intermediate,
free-living, immature form of an organism that is morphologically larval stage. A larva is an immature form
different from the adult. Larvae often exploit different habitats and that exhibits physical traits that are
food sources than adult organisms do. As a result, organisms in different from those of the adult form.
each stage are more likely to survive. Many insects, which consti-
tute a class of arthropods, have indirect development.
In contrast, in direct development, the young animal is born or
hatched with the same appearance and way of life it will have as an
adult; no larval stage occurs. Most invertebrates undergo indirect
development. A few, such as grasshoppers, undergo direct
development.

VERTEBRATE
CHARACTERISTICS
Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone. Classes of verte-
brates include fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
All vertebrate classes except fishes spend part or all of their life on
land. Many characteristics of terrestrial vertebrates are adapta-
tions to life on land and fall into two broad categories: support of
the body and conservation of water.

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 Segmentation and Support of the Body
Although it is not immediately apparent, vertebrates are seg-
mented animals. Segmentation is evident in the ribs and the
vertebrae (vuhr-tuh-bree), the repeating bony units of the backbone.
As terrestrial vertebrates evolved from aquatic vertebrates, their
limbs and associated muscles evolved to give the animals better
support and greater mobility. For example, the legs of amphibians,
the first land vertebrates to evolve, are positioned to the side of
the body, as shown in Figure 32-10a. However, the legs of mammals,
such as the deer shown in Figure 32-10b, are positioned directly
beneath the body, allowing the animal to move faster and with a
longer stride. Humans show an extreme version of this trait: we are
bipedal, and our head is positioned directly over our body.
Vertebrates have an endoskeleton, an internal skeleton made of
bone and cartilage, which includes the backbone. The endo-
skeleton grows as the animal grows.

Body Coverings
The outer covering of an animal is called the integument
(in-TEG-yoo-muhnt). Although the integuments of fishes and most
amphibians are adapted only to moist environments, the integu-
ments of most terrestrial vertebrates are adapted to the dry con-
ditions of a terrestrial environment. All animal bodies are
composed of water-filled cells, and if the water content of the cells
is reduced appreciably, the animal will die. Thus, the outer cover-
ing of terrestrial vertebrates, such as reptiles, birds, and mammals,
is largely watertight. Integuments also serve other purposes. The
(a)
moist skin of an amphibian functions as a respiratory organ for the
exchange of gases. The scales of a reptile help protect it from
predators. The feathers of birds and the fur of mammals efficiently
insulate the body.

Respiratory and Circulatory Systems

Gas exchange occurs in the gills of aquatic vertebrates, including
fishes and larval amphibians, but these gills do not function out of
water. Lungs are organs for gas exchange composed of moist, mem-
branous surfaces deep inside the animal’s body. Lungs evolved in
terrestrial vertebrates.
Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system with a multicham-
bered heart. In some vertebrates, the multichambered heart sepa-
rates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, improving the
efficiency of the circulatory system over that found in other verte-
(b)
brates and many invertebrates.
FIGURE 32-10
(a) The legs of amphibians, such as this Digestive and Excretory Systems
tree frog, Agalychnis saltator, are sharply Digestion occurs in the gut, which runs from the mouth, at the
bent and positioned away from the body. anterior end, to the anus, at the posterior end. In many verte-
(b) The legs of terrestrial mammals, such
as this deer, Odocoileus virginianus, are
brates, the gut is very long and folded, which helps increase the
straighter than those of amphibians, surface area over which nutrients can be absorbed. The human
providing greater mobility and speed. digestive tract is about 7 m (23 ft) long.

660 CHAPTER 32
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 Both vertebrates and invertebrates must deal with the very
Quick Lab
toxic ammonia their bodies produce. Most vertebrates must expel
wastes while conserving water. Like invertebrates, most verte-
Identifying Animal
brates convert ammonia to less toxic substances. In most verte-
Characteristics
brates, organs called kidneys filter wastes from the blood while
Materials 3 ! 5 in. note cards
regulating water levels in the body.
(20), 5 pictures of vertebrates,
5 pictures of invertebrates
Nervous System
Procedure
Vertebrates have highly organized brains, and the control of specific
1. Working in pairs, one partner
functions occurs in specific centers in the brain. The structure and will write one different verte-
function of the nervous system vary among vertebrate classes. For brate characteristic on each
example, much of a fish’s brain processes sensory information. of 10 note cards. The other
Fishes have limited neural circuitry devoted to decision making. A partner will write one different
fish’s responses to stimuli in its environment are rigid, that is, they invertebrate characteristic on
vary little from situation to situation and from fish to fish. each of 10 note cards.
Other animals, such as dogs, display complex and flexible 2. Place the animal pictures upside
behavior. Much of the tissue in the dog’s brain is given over to deci- down in a stack. One partner
(the dealer) will shuffle and
sion making, and its brain is large with respect to body size.
deal all the cards and turn over
one animal picture.
Reproduction and Development
3. The nondealer plays first by
In most fish and amphibian species, eggs and sperm are released laying down as many cards
directly into the water, where fertilization takes place. In reptiles, as possible that describe
birds, and mammals, the egg and sperm unite within the body of characteristics of the pictured
the female, increasing the likelihood that an egg will be fertilized. animal. If no card matches, the
The fertilized eggs of many fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and play is passed to the other
birds develop outside the body. A developing embryo is nourished player. When neither partner
by the egg yolk and protected by jellylike layers or a shell. The can play, another picture is
turned up and play continues.
zygotes of some fishes, amphibians, and reptiles remain inside the
4. Play ceases when neither
body of the female, nourished by the yolk until they hatch. In con-
student can play or when no
trast, most mammals give birth to live offspring. Embryos of pla- pictures are left.
cental mammals develop in the female’s body, nourished by the
Analysis What are the disadvan-
mother’s blood supply until the young are born. With the excep- tages of using only morphological
tion of amphibians and some fishes, vertebrates undergo direct characteristics to identify an
development. So, the young and the adults can share the same organism?
resources—an advantage if those resources are plentiful.

SECTION 2 REVIEW
1. Identify the primary function for the body cover- CRITICAL THINKING
ing of terrestrial animals. 6. Inferring Relationships How might the seg-
2. Compare the structure of exoskeletons and mented bodies of arthropods help them survive?
endoskeletons. 7. Recognizing Relationships How is the structure
3. Compare a closed circulatory system to an open of the nervous system related to an animal’s
circulatory system. behavior?
4. Compare the nervous systems of vertebrates 8. Comparing Concepts Compare the advantages
and invertebrates. and disadvantages of the two types of develop-
5. Describe briefly invertebrate and vertebrate ment (direct and indirect development).
development.

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 661

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 MILESTONES
IN Developmental Biology
Timeline People have known only since the the 1800s that eggs and sperm unite at
fertilization. In a little more than a century, researchers have come to
1817 Christian Pander
identifies germ understand a great deal about how one cell divides repeatedly to form a
layers.
mass of cells and how a complex multicellular organism develops from
1828 Karl Ernst von Baer that mass of dividing cells. As in many areas of biology, the speed and
discovers mam-
malian eggs and
sophistication of research in developmental biology has been remarkable.
the fate of neural

U
folds and opposes ntil the 19th century, biologists In 1969, Lewis Wolpert proposed that
preformation. believed that embryos grew from very morphogens, or pattern-directing sub-
small versions of complete organisms. In stances, diffuse through a body region—a
1875 Oscar Hertwig
1817, a Russian naturalist named Christian limb bud, for example—and cause fingers
observes
fertilization. Pander observed developing chicks and or toes to form in a certain order.
described the three embryonic layers now In 1983, researchers discovered genes
1883 August Weismann called ectoderm, mesoderm, and endo- called homeotic genes that help control
publishes germ derm. In 1828, Karl Ernst von Baer pub- where limbs, such as the legs or anten-
plasm theory. lished a paper in which he concluded that nae, grow on a fruit fly embryo.
the neural fold of an animal embryo gives Another recent line of research centers
1924 Spemann and rise to the animal’s nervous system and on stem cells. Stem cells are undifferenti-
Mangold discover
notochord. ated cells that are found in embryos and
the neural
organizer. In 1875, German embryologist Oscar adult tissues and that can give rise to new
Hertwig first observed the union of the cells. Researchers have recently discovered
1950s to present nuclei of male and female gametes at fertil- that adult stem cells exist in many more
Stem cell research ization. Soon after, in 1883, another German types of tissues than were once thought
begins and biologist, August Weismann, laid out his possible. A related line of research led to
continues. germ plasm theory. This theory states that the birth of Dolly in 1996, the first mammal
1969 Lewis Wolpert
the body has germ cells, which pass along to be cloned from an adult somatic cell.
studies pattern hereditary traits, and somatic cells, which
formation and do not pass along traits to new generations. Review
positional informa- In 1924, German embryologists Hans Review
tion in embryos. Spemann and Hilde Mangold studied how
1. What does the germ plasm theory state?
cells “know” when to divide and what to
1983 Researchers dis- do in a growing embryo. They hypothe- 2. Critical Thinking Why are “organizer
cover homeotic
sized that one group of cells might “orga- cells” important to the growing embryo.
genes. 3. Critical Thinking How does the pro-
nize” the rest of the cells. Spemann and
Mangold discovered that cells that were duction of genetic clones affect the
1996 Scottish
researchers clone transplanted from the blastopore region of germ plasm theory?
Dolly the sheep a blastula to another region of the blastula
from a mammary caused a new nervous system to form.
cell. Today, scientists are still searching for the [Link]
Present Researchers signal these “organizer cells” give. Part of Topic: Development of
find stem cells in that search has been the study of pattern Mammalian
many types of formation, or how cells respond to signals Embryo
adult tissues. and form cells and tissues that have par- Keyword: HM60398
ticular functions.

662
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 SECTION 3

F E R T I L I Z AT I O N A N D OBJECTIVES

DEVELOPMENT
● List the steps of fertilization and
development through gastrulation.
● List two body parts formed from
each germ layer.
Development of a multicellular animal from an egg cell is a ● Identify the three different body
cavity structures of animals.
truly remarkable process. Each cell in an animal has the same ● Name the categories of animals
set of genes that are used to build the animal, yet animals have that undergo spiral cleavage and
many different kinds of cells. From the fertilized egg come large radial cleavage.
● Contrast the two processes of
numbers of cells—trillions in humans—that consistently give coelom formation.
rise to structural features of the animal body.
VOCABULARY
fertilization
cleavage
FERTILIZATION AND EARLY blastula
gastrulation
DEVELOPMENT gastrula
archenteron
In animals, fertilization is the union of female and male gametes blastopore
to form a zygote. Fertilization results in the combination of the ectoderm
haploid sets of chromosomes from two individuals into a single endoderm
diploid zygote. mesoderm
acoelomate
Gametes pseudocoelom
In most animal species, the sperm cell, shown in Figure 32-11, is coelom
specialized for movement—it is very streamlined and small. The protostome
head of the sperm contains chromosomes, and the tail of the deuterostome
sperm is composed of a long flagellum. schizocoely
The egg, also shown in Figure 32-11, is typically large because enterocoely
it has a large store of cytoplasm and yolk. The size of an egg
produced by a given species seems to depend on how long the
food supply in the yolk must last. For aquatic animals in which
the embryo begins to feed itself early, eggs are small, and there
FIGURE 32-11
is little yolk. In sharp contrast, the embryos of birds must live
The small, flagellated sperm is adapted for
on the yolk until they hatch. In these eggs, the yolk volume is motility and speed. It must seek out and
very large. fertilize the much larger, yolk-filled egg.

Fertilization
At the start of fertilization, the sperm’s cell membrane fuses with
the egg’s cell membrane, and the nucleus of the sperm enters the
cytoplasm of the egg. The fusion of the cell membranes of the egg
and sperm causes an electrical change in the egg membrane that
blocks entry to the egg by other sperm cells. The sperm nucleus
merges with the egg nucleus to form the diploid nucleus of the
zygote. Once a zygote is formed, replication of DNA begins, and the
first cell division soon follows.

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 663

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 Cleavage and Blastula Formation
The series of cell divisions that occurs immediately following fertil-
1 2-CELLED ization is termed cleavage. Figure 32-12, steps 1 , 2 , and 3 show
STAGE that as cleavage progresses, the number of cells increases, from 2
to 4, then to 8, and so on. During cleavage, mitotic divisions rapidly
increase the number of cells, but the cells do not grow in size. Thus,
cleavage yields smaller and smaller individual cells. Cleavage
increases the surface area–to-volume ratio of each cell, which
2 4-CELLED enhances gas exchange and other environmental interactions.
STAGE In most species, cleavage produces a raspberry-shaped mass of
16 to 64 cells, as shown in step 4 . As the number of dividing cells
further increases, the mass becomes a hollow ball of cells called a
blastula, shown in step 5 . The central cavity of a blastula is called
the blastocoel (BLAS-toe-SEEL).
3 8-CELLED
STAGE Gastrulation and Organogenesis
At the start of the next stage of development, shown in Figure 32-13,
an area of the blastula begins to collapse inward. As shown in
steps 1 and 2 , reorganization of the cells of the hollow blastula
begins with the inward movement of cells at one end of the blas-
4 BLASTULA
tula. This process, called gastrulation, transforms the blastula into
a multilayered embryo, called the gastrula, shown in step 3 .
Gastrulation is marked by changes in the shape of cells and the
Blastocoel
way the cells interact with each other.
As the inward folding continues, the now cup-shaped embryo
5 BLASTULA enlarges, and a deep cavity, called the archenteron, or primitive
(cross gut, develops. The open end of the archenteron is called the
section)
blastopore. Forming the outer layer of the gastrula is the outer
germ layer, the ectoderm, shown in blue in step 3 . The inner germ
FIGURE 32-12 layer, the endoderm, is shown in yellow. In most phyla, the gas-
During cleavage, the zygote divides trula does not remain a two-layer structure. As development pro-
repeatedly without undergoing cell gresses, a third layer, the mesoderm, forms between the endoderm
growth, producing a many-celled hollow and the ectoderm.
blastula.
Each of the germ layers formed during gastrulation develops
into certain organs in a process called organogenesis. The endo-
derm forms the lining of the urinary system, the reproductive sys-
tem, and most of the digestive tract; it also forms the pancreas,
liver, lungs, and gills. The ectoderm forms the outer layer of skin,
hair, nails, and the nervous system. The mesoderm forms many
body parts, including the skeleton, muscles, the inner layer of skin,
the circulatory system, and the lining of the body cavity.
Endoderm
Ectoderm
Blastocoel Archenteron
Blastocoel
FIGURE 32-13 Blastocoel

Echinoderms, such as the sea urchin, Blastopore

undergo the gastrulation process shown
here. The blastula reorganizes and forms
the cup-shaped gastrula. Other phyla
have somewhat different patterns of
gastrulation. 1 EARLY GASTRULATION 2 MID-GASTRULATION 3 GASTRULA

664 CHAPTER 32
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 PATTERNS OF Endoderm
Mesoderm Skin
DEVELOPMENT Ectoderm
Tissue-filled
region
The distinct patterns of cleavage and formation of body-plan fea-
tures found in different animal phyla are clues to the phylogenetic
history of the organisms.

Types of Body Cavities Gut

(a) ACOELOMATE
Animals, such as flatworms, that do not have a body cavity are
called acoelomates (uh-SEE-luh-MAYTS). The interior of the animal is Body cavity
Skin (pseudocoelom)
solid, as shown in Figure 32-14a. The endodermic gut, shown in yel-
low, and the outer covering of the animal, shown in blue, are con-
nected by the solid tissue of the mesoderm.
However, most animal phyla have body cavities that separate
their digestive tract from the outer body wall. Within this group,
there are differences in how the body cavity develops. In some
phyla, including rotifers and roundworms, the mesoderm lines the Muscle Gut
interior of the coelom but does not surround the exterior of the tissue
endodermic gut. A cavity that is not completely lined by mesoderm (b) PSEUDOCOELOMATE
is called a pseudocoelom (SOO-doh-SEE-luhm), which means “false
body cavity.” Roundworms have pseudocoeloms such as the one Skin
Body cavity
(coelom)
shown in Figure 32-14b and are thus called pseudocoelomates. In
pseudocoelomates, mesoderm lines the fluid-filled body cavity,
and the endodermic gut is suspended in this fluid.
A cavity completely lined by mesoderm is called a coelom
(SEE-luhm), as shown in Figure 32-14c. Animals that have coeloms
are called coelomates (SEE-luh-MAYTS). In coelomates, mesoderm lines
Gut
the body cavity and surrounds and supports the endodermic gut. Muscle
The mesoderm also forms the tissues of attachment for the organs tissue
located in the coelom, such as the liver and the lungs. Mollusks, (c) COELOMATE
annelids, arthropods, chordates, and echinoderms are coelomates. FIGURE 32-14
In three-layered acoelomates (a),
Cleavage and Blastopore Fate the endodermic gut is surrounded
Recall from Figure 32-3 that echinoderms and chordates share a by a solid layer of mesoderm. In
branch of the phylogenetic diagram of animals; and mollusks, pseudocoelomates (b), the endodermic
gut is suspended in a fluid-filled cavity
annelids, and arthropods share another branch. There are two dis- that is surrounded by mesoderm. In
tinct patterns of development in animals with a coelom. In the coelomates (c), the endodermic gut is
embryos of mollusks, arthropods, and annelids, the blastopore surrounded by and suspended by
develops into a mouth, and a second opening forms at the other mesoderm, which also surrounds the
coelom, or body cavity.
end of the archenteron, forming an anus. These organisms are
called protostomes (PROHT-oh-STOHMZ), which means “first mouth.”
Many protostomes undergo spiral cleavage, in which the cells
divide in a spiral arrangement. In the embryos of echinoderms and
chordates, the blastopore develops into an anus, and a second
opening at the other end of the archenteron becomes the mouth.
These organisms are called deuterostomes (DOOT-uhr-oh-STOHMZ),
which means “second mouth.” Most deuterostomes undergo radial
cleavage, in which the cell divisions are parallel to or at right
angles to the axis from one pole of the blastula to the other.

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 665

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 (a) SCHIZOCOELY Protostomes and deuterostomes also differ in how early the
Blastocoel Archenteron cells of the embryo specialize. If the cells of some protostome
(primitive gut) Anus
Coelom
embryos are separated at the four-cell stage of development, each
cell will develop into only one-fourth of a complete embryo, and
Gut
the developing organism will die. Thus, the path of each cell is
fixed early in the development of the protostome in a pattern
called determinate cleavage.
In contrast, if the cells of most four-celled deuterostome
Blastopore embryos are separated, each cell will embark on its own path to
Coelom
Mouth
become a separate organism. This type of development is called
indeterminate cleavage. Indeterminate cleavage is responsible for
(b) ENTEROCOELY the development of identical twins in humans.
Archenteron
Blastocoel (primitive gut) Coelom Formation
Coelom Mouth
The way in which the coelom forms in many protostomes differs
Gut from the way it forms in many deuterostomes. Figure 32-15a shows
coelom formation in protostomes. Cells located at the junction of
the endoderm and ectoderm (at the rim of the cup-shaped
embryo) move toward the interior of the gastrula. Rapid division of
these cells (shown in pink) in the blastocoel forms the mesoderm.
Blastopore
Coelom The mesoderm then spreads and splits to form the coelom. This
Anus process of coelom formation is called schizocoely (SKIZ-oh-SEEL-ee),
Endoderm or “split body cavity.”
Figure 32-15b shows coelom formation in deuterostomes. The
Mesoderm
mesoderm forms when the cells lining the dorsal, or top, part of
Ectoderm the archenteron begin dividing rapidly. These rapidly dividing cells
(shown in pink) form pouches that become mesoderm. The
FIGURE 32-15 coelom develops within the mesodermal pouches. This process of
In protostomes, the coelom arises in a coelom formation is called enterocoely (EN-tuhr-oh-SEEL-ee), which
process called schizocoely (a), and the
blastopore becomes the mouth. In means “gut body cavity.” During both enterocoely and schizocoely,
deuterostomes, the coelom arises by mesodermal cells spread out to completely line the coelom, and
enterocoely (b), and the blastopore the blastocoel disappears. Thus, in both protostomes and
becomes the anus. deuterostomes, mesoderm lines the interior of the outer body wall
and surrounds the gut.

SECTION 3 REVIEW
1. Beginning with fertilization, list the steps of CRITICAL THINKING
development through mesodermal formation. 6. Inferring Relationships Which adaptive advan-
2. Name the three germ layers and two body parts tage is associated with indeterminate cleavage?
that arise from each layer. 7. Recognizing Relationships What is the rela-
3. Compare the development of protostomes and tionship between endoderm formation and
deuterostomes. coelom formation in echinoderms?
4. Identify how the mesoderm is formed in 8. Predicting Patterns While exploring a tide
schizocoely, and differentiate it from the pool, you find a periwinkle, which is a marine
process in enterocoely. snail. Which kind of development does a peri-
5. Identify the type of cleavage that can give rise winkle have? Explain.
to identical human twins.

666 CHAPTER 32
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

SECTION 1 The Nature of Animals

● Animals are either invertebrates—lack a backbone—or ● At some stage of their lives, chordates have a notochord,
vertebrates—have a backbone. dorsal nerve cord, postanal tail, and pharyngeal pouches.
● Animals are multicellular organisms that lack cell walls ● Most animals have tissues and radial or bilateral
and are heterotrophic. Most animals reproduce sexually symmetry. Bilateral symmetry is associated with
and can move. cephalization. Most animals have a body cavity that aids
● Movement and response to the environment are movement and the transport of nutrients and wastes.
governed by an animal’s nervous and muscle tissues. ● Animals are classified by degree of cell specialization,
● The first animals may have evolved from colonial protists. number of tissue layers, type of symmetry, and most
recently, by sequencing of rRNA.

Vocabulary
animal (p. 651) zygote (p. 652) pharyngeal pouch (p. 654) anterior (p. 655)
vertebrate (p. 651) differentiation (p. 652) symmetry (p. 655) posterior (p. 655)
invertebrate (p. 651) chordate (p. 654) radial symmetry (p. 655) bilateral symmetry (p. 655)
specialization (p. 651) notochord (p. 654) dorsal (p. 655) cephalization (p. 655)
ingestion (p. 652) dorsal nerve cord (p. 654) ventral (p. 655) germ layer (p. 655)

SECTION 2 Invertebrates and Vertebrates

● Symmetry, segmentation, and type of skeleton are ● In a closed circulatory system, blood is pumped by a
related to the lifestyle of an animal. heart and circulates throughout the body in tubelike
● Invertebrates include morphologically diverse phyla, vessels that form a closed loop.
the members of which are mostly radially or bilaterally ● Vertebrates have highly organized brains in which
symmetrical. specific functions occur in specific centers of the brain.
● In an open circulatory system, circulatory fluid is pumped The larger the decision-making portion of the brain is, the
by the heart through vessels and into the body cavity and more complex and flexible the behavior of the animal.
is then returned to the vessels. ● Most animals reproduce sexually. Fertilization and
development may be external or internal.

Vocabulary
segmentation (p. 657) open circulatory hermaphrodite (p. 659) integument (p. 660)
exoskeleton (p. 658) system (p. 658) larva (p. 659) lung (p. 660)
gill (p. 658) closed circulatory endoskeleton (p. 660) kidney (p. 661)
system (p. 658) vertebra (p. 660)

SECTION 3 Fertilization and Development

● Development includes cleavage, blastula formation, ● Acoelomates are animals without a body cavity.
gastrulation, and organogenesis. The germ layers include Pseudocoelomates are animals whose body cavity is not
ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. completely lined by mesoderm. Coelomates have a body
● Ectoderm forms, among other things, the outer layer of cavity completely lined by mesoderm.
skin; endoderm forms many internal organs; and ● Protostomes have spiral cleavage and schizocoely.
mesoderm forms the skeleton and muscles. Deuterostomes have radial cleavage and enterocoely.

Vocabulary
fertilization (p. 663) archenteron (p. 664) acoelomate (p. 665) schizocoely (p. 666)
cleavage (p. 664) blastopore (p. 664) pseudocoelom (p. 665) enterocoely (p. 666)
blastula (p. 664) ectoderm (p. 664) coelom (p. 665)
gastrulation (p. 664) endoderm (p. 664) protostome (p. 665)
gastrula (p. 664) mesoderm (p. 664) deuterostome (p. 665)

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 667

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 CHAPTER REVIEW

USING VOCABULARY 15. Identify the structure that the archenteron

becomes in a developing animal.
1. For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings 16. Name two body parts formed by each of the fol-
of the terms differ. lowing: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.
a. radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry 17. Identify how a closed circulatory system differs
b. open circulatory system and closed circulatory from an open circulatory system.
system
c. vertebrate and invertebrate 18. Compare schizocoely with enterocoely.
d. spiral cleavage and radial cleavage 19. CONCEPT MAPPING Use the following
2. Explain the relationship between cell specializa- terms to create a concept map that
tion and differentiation. shows development from blastula to coelom
formation in a deuterostome: blastula, gastrula,
3. Choose the term that does not belong in the fol- archenteron, blastopore, anus, mouth, germ
lowing group, and explain why it does not belong: layers, ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm, and
notochord, cephalization, dorsal nerve cord, and coelom.
radial symmetry.
4. Word Roots and Origins The word blastopore
comes from the Greek blastos, which means CRITICAL THINKING
“bud,” and poros, which means “passage.” Using
this information, explain why the term blastopore 20. Recognizing Relationships Considering that an
is a good name for the structure it describes. endoskeleton can support more weight than an
exoskeleton, would a large-bodied animal with an
exoskeleton be more likely to live in the water or
UNDERSTANDING KEY CONCEPTS on land? Explain.
21. Recognizing Relationships On mammals and
5. Describe each of the four characteristics that birds, the head is positioned higher with respect
define animals. to the body than it is on amphibians and reptiles.
6. Explain how neural tissue and muscle tissue work Why might it be helpful to have a head posi-
together in an animal’s body to allow the animal tioned over the body?
to respond to its environment. 22. Interpreting Graphics Observe the animal pic-
7. Describe the probable changes that early colonial tured below, and answer the following questions.
flagellates underwent as they evolved into the a. Which kind of symmetry does the animal
first animals. display?
8. List the four features common to all chordates at b. Is this animal cephalized?
some time in their life. What has happened to c. How many germ layers does this animal
two of these features in an adult human? have?
d. How many openings does this animal’s diges-
9. Summarize what happened to the position of the tive system have?
body with respect to the legs as vertebrates e. Does this animal have neurons?
adapted to life on land.
10. Explain how having a body cavity aids movement.
11. Infer the relationship between two phyla that are
represented on the same branch of a phyloge-
netic tree. Which features are used to determine
the relationship?
12. Identify the most probable type of movement
that an organism with bilateral symmetry would
exhibit.
13. Contrast segmentation in invertebrates with seg-
mentation in vertebrates.
14. Sequence the development of the nervous system
from cnidarians to mammals.

668 CHAPTER 32
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 Standardized Test Preparation
DIRECTIONS: Choose the letter of the answer choice DIRECTIONS: Complete the following analogy.
that best answers the question. 7. Ectoderm : skin :: mesoderm :
1. What is the name for the process that leads to A. lungs
cell specialization in multicellular organisms? B. nerves
A. evolution C. vertebrae
B. fertilization D. intestines
C. differentiation
D. asexual reproduction INTERPRETING GRAPHICS: The diagrams below
2. What process takes place as a zygote begins to illustrate different organisms. Study the images to
divide after fertilization? answer the question that follows.
F. meiosis
G. cleavage
H. gastrulation
J. organogenesis
3. Which animals do not have true tissues?
A. sponges
B. chordates
C. cnidarians
D. ctenophores Sponge Beetle Jellyfish

4. What are the basic tissue types in an embryo

called? 8. Which of the organisms has radial symmetry?
F. coeloms F. beetle
G. germ layers G. sponge
H. notochords H. jellyfish
J. pharyngeal pouches J. both the beetle and the sponge

INTERPRETING GRAPHICS: The diagrams below SHORT RESPONSE

illustrate a certain type of body-cavity development. Ctenophores and cnidarians are considered closely
Study the diagrams to answer the questions that related to one another. Chordates and echinoderms
follow. are also considered closely related to one another.
Explain how it was determined that cnidarians are
less closely related to chordates and echinoderms
than they are to ctenophores.

EXTENDED RESPONSE
Three types of body-cavity organization exist in
animals—acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and
coelomate.
Part A Explain how acoelomates and pseudo-
coelomates differ from coelomates.
5. The diagrams represent the development of Part B Explain how the lining of the body cavity
which of the following animals? develops in coelomates.
A. fish
B. sponge
C. octopus
D. cnidarian
6. With which of the following is the process illus-
trated above associated? If you find particular questions
F. acoelomates difficult, put a light pencil mark beside them and keep
G. deuterostomes working. (Do not write in this book.) As you answer
H. spiral cleavage later questions, you may find information that helps
J. indeterminate cleavage you answer the difficult questions.

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 669

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 SKILLS PRACTICE LAB

Dissecting a Sheep’s Heart

OBJECTIVES
3. Place a sheep’s heart in a dissecting tray. Turn the
■ Describe the appearance of the external and internal heart so that the ventral surface is facing you, as
structures of a sheep’s heart. shown in the diagram below. Use the diagram of
■ Name the structures and functions of a sheep’s heart. the ventral view to locate the left and right atria,
the left and right ventricles, the aorta, the superior
PROCESS SKILLS and inferior vena cava, and the pulmonary arteries.
■ observing structures Turn the heart over. Use the diagram of the dorsal
■ identifying view to locate once again the structures just named,
■ demonstrating as well as the pulmonary veins.
4. Use a blunt metal probe to explore the blood vessels
MATERIALS that lead into and out of the chambers of the heart.
■ sheep’s heart 5. Locate a diagonal deposit of fat along the lower
■ dissecting tray two-thirds of the heart. This serves as a guideline to
■ blunt metal probe mark the wall between the two ventricles. Use this
■ scissors fatty deposit to guide your incision into the heart.
■ scalpel
■ tweezers (a) DORSAL VIEW

Pulmonary
Background arteries Aorta
Superior vena cava
1. The heart has a left and a right side. It has two
upper chambers, the left and right atria, and two Inferior vena cava
lower chambers, the left and right ventricles. Why do
Right atrium
multiple chambers result in a more efficient heart?
2. Blood enters the heart from the body through the
superior or inferior vena cava. The blood then enters
Pulmonary Right ventricle
the right atrium and flows through valves into the
veins
right ventricle. Blood flows from the right ventricle
through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. What Left
atrium
process occurs in the lungs? (b) VENTRAL VIEW
Left
3. Oxygenated blood flows from the lungs through the ventricle
Aorta
pulmonary veins to the left atrium. Then, it flows Pulmonary
arteries
through valves into the thick-walled left ventricle.
Blood flows from the left ventricle through the large
aorta to the rest of the body.
Superior Left
vena cava atrium
Procedure
1. In this lab, you will observe the external structure of Right Left
atrium ventricle
a sheep’s four-chambered heart and dissect the
heart to study its internal structure.
Right
2. Put on safety goggles, gloves, ventricle
and a lab apron.

670 CHAPTER 32
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
 6. Follow the cutting diagram below very carefully to and the cut previously made for line 2. Begin to cut on
study the anatomy of the right side of the heart. line 6 on the left atrium where cut 4 began. Extend
7. Again, turn the heart with the ventral surface this cut around and through the pulmonary artery
facing you and the apex pointing downward. upward on the aorta to the right of cut 5.
Use scissors to cut along line 1. CAUTION Always 13. With tweezers, carefully lift up the resulting flap to
cut in a direction away from your face and body. expose the structure underneath.
Cut just deep enough to go through the atrial wall. 14. Observe the thick septum dividing the left and right
Continue the cut into the right ventricle. With a probe, ventricles. Also, note the greater thickness of the walls
push open the heart at the cut, and examine the inter- of the left ventricle.
nal structure. 15. Locate the tricuspid valve between the right atrium
(a) VENTRAL VIEW (b) VENTRAL VIEW
and ventricle. Locate the mitral valve between the
left atrium and ventricles. Observe that the valves
are connected by fibers to the inner surface of the
ventricle. Use a probe to explore the openings in
the valves.
16. With a scalpel, cut across a section of the aorta
3 and a section of the vena cava. Compare the
5 thickness of their walls.
6
17. Dispose of your materials according to the
3 directions from your teacher.
4 18. Clean up your work area, and wash your hands
2
before leaving the lab.
1
5
4 Analysis and Conclusions
1. Trace the path of blood from the right atrium to
the aorta.
2. Pulmonary circulation carries blood between the
heart and the lungs. Systemic circulation carries
8. Cut along line 2, and extend the cut upward toward blood to the rest of the body. In which chambers
the pulmonary artery. Cut just deep enough to go of the heart does pulmonary circulation begin and
through the ventricle wall. Complete the cut on line 3. end? In which chambers does systemic circulation
Cut downward along the pulmonary artery, around begin and end?
through the wall of the right atrium, and upward 3. What is the function of the septum separating the left
along the right superior vena cava. and right ventricles?
9. With tweezers, carefully lift the resulting flap to 4. What is the function of the mitral and tricuspid valves?
expose the structures underneath. 5. Why are the walls of the left ventricle thicker than the
10. Follow the cutting diagram above very carefully to walls of the right ventricle?
study the anatomy of the left side of the heart.
11. Start to cut on line 4 at the top of the left atrium, and Further Inquiry
continue into the left ventricle. Cut just deep enough The heartbeat originates in a small bundle of tissue in the
to go through the ventricle wall. right atrium. This bundle is the sinoatrial, or S-A, node.
12. Cut on line 5 across the middle of the left ventricle Read about the S-A node. What does it do? Why is the S-A
into the aorta. Leave a small margin between this cut node known as the pacemaker?

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMALS 671

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