VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Q: What is adsorption, absorption, leaching, LLE., Distillation, azeotropic

distillation, extractive distillation, and steam distillation?
Answer:
Certainly! Let me explain each of these terms:
1. Adsorption:
 Definition: Adsorption is the process by which molecules or ions
adhere to the surface of a solid or liquid material. It is a surface
phenomenon and is different from absorption, where substances are
taken up within the bulk of the material.
2. Absorption:
 Definition: Absorption is the process in which one substance
permeates or is dissolved by another. It usually refers to the uptake
of a gas or liquid by a solid or liquid material. Unlike adsorption,
absorption involves the substance being taken up within the bulk of
the material.
3. Leaching:
 Definition: Leaching is a process where a solvent (usually a liquid) is
used to extract or remove a solute from a solid material. This is
commonly used in metallurgy to extract minerals from ores.
4. Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE):
 Definition: Liquid-liquid extraction, also known as solvent extraction
or partitioning, is a method to separate compounds based on their
relative solubilities in two immiscible liquids. This technique is often
used in the extraction of organic compounds from aqueous solutions.
5. Distillation:
 Definition: Distillation is a separation process that utilizes the
differences in boiling points of components in a liquid mixture. It
 involves heating the mixture to vaporize the more volatile
components and then condensing the vapor back into liquid form.
6. Azeotropic Distillation:
 Definition: Azeotropic distillation is a type of distillation that involves
the use of an azeotrope, a mixture of two or more substances that
behaves like a single substance during distillation. Azeotropic
distillation is employed to separate components that form
azeotropes.
7. Extractive Distillation:
 Definition: Extractive distillation is a variation of distillation where a
third component, called an entrainer or solvent, is added to the
mixture to modify the relative volatility of the components, making
the separation more efficient.
8. Steam Distillation:
 Definition: Steam distillation is a special type of distillation used for
temperature-sensitive materials. It involves passing steam through a
mixture, and the volatile components are carried away with the
steam. This technique is commonly used in the extraction of essential
oils from plants.
2. Q: Why do we inject steam in steam distillation?
Answer:

In steam distillation, steam is injected into the mixture to facilitate the separation
of volatile components, especially when distilling substances that may be
sensitive to high temperatures. The key reasons for injecting steam in steam
distillation are:
1. Lowering Boiling Points:
 Steam has a lower boiling point than many organic compounds. By
introducing steam into the mixture, the effective boiling points of the
 components are reduced. This is particularly useful when distilling
compounds that decompose at their normal boiling points.
2. Reducing Thermal Decomposition:
 Some organic compounds are sensitive to high temperatures and
may decompose or undergo chemical changes at their normal boiling
points. Steam distillation allows for a gentler and more controlled
heating process, minimizing the risk of thermal decomposition.
3. Enhancing Volatility:
 Steam helps in making certain components more volatile by carrying
them along as they vaporize. This aids in the separation of the
volatile components from the mixture.
4. Improving Efficiency:
 The use of steam can improve the efficiency of the distillation
process by promoting the vaporization of the desired components.
This is especially important when distilling essential oils from plant
materials, where the goal is to extract volatile aromatic compounds
without causing degradation.
5. Preventing Coking or Fouling:
 Some substances may have a tendency to form coke or foul the
distillation apparatus when heated directly. Steam can help prevent
these issues by maintaining a more controlled and even temperature
throughout the process.
3. Q: Bubble point, Dew point, and vapor-liquid equilibrium?
Answer:
Bubble point, dew point, and vapor-liquid equilibrium are terms commonly used
in the field of thermodynamics and phase equilibria to describe the conditions at
which a liquid and vapor coexist in equilibrium.
1. Bubble Point:
  Definition: The bubble point is the temperature at which the first
bubble of vapor is formed when a liquid is heated under constant
pressure. In other words, it is the temperature at which a liquid starts
to vaporize. At the bubble point, the system is in equilibrium, and
further heating will result in more vapor being formed.
2. Dew Point:
 Definition: The dew point is the temperature at which the first
droplet of liquid is formed when a vapor is cooled under constant
pressure. It is the temperature at which a vapor starts to condense.
At the dew point, the system is in equilibrium, and further cooling
will result in more liquid being formed.
3. Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium (VLE):
 Definition: Vapor-liquid equilibrium refers to the condition where a
liquid and its vapor coexist in equilibrium at a given temperature and
pressure. In a VLE situation, the rates of vaporization and
condensation are equal, and there is no net change in the amount of
each phase over time. The VLE behavior is typically represented on a
phase diagram, which shows the conditions under which vapor and
liquid phases are in equilibrium.
4. Q: Equilibrium, static and dynamic?
Answer:
Equilibrium:
 Definition: Equilibrium refers to a state of balance or stability in a system
where there is no net change over time. In the context of physics and
chemistry, it often involves the balance between opposing processes, such
as rates of reactions or the distribution of particles between different
phases (e.g., solid, liquid, gas).
Static Equilibrium:
 Definition: Static equilibrium is a type of equilibrium where a system is at
rest, and there is no net movement or change in position. In a system in
 static equilibrium, the forces acting on it are balanced, and there is no
acceleration. An example is a book sitting on a table – if it's not moving, it's
in static equilibrium.
Dynamic Equilibrium:
 Definition: Dynamic equilibrium is a type of equilibrium where there is a
continuous movement or activity, but the overall system remains in
balance. In dynamic equilibrium, the rates of opposing processes are equal,
resulting in a constant, but not necessarily equal, concentration of
substances. A common example is the equilibrium established during a
reversible chemical reaction, where the forward and reverse reactions
occur at the same rate.
Key Differences:
1. Motion:
 Static Equilibrium: No motion or change in position.
 Dynamic Equilibrium: Continuous movement or activity, but with a
balanced overall system.
2. Forces:
 Static Equilibrium: Forces are balanced, resulting in no net force.
 Dynamic Equilibrium: Rates of opposing processes are balanced,
leading to a constant concentration or state.
3. Examples:
 Static Equilibrium: A parked car, a stationary object.
 Dynamic Equilibrium: Chemical reactions in dynamic equilibrium, a
person walking at a constant speed.
 5. Q: Why do we use n-hexane in leaching?
Answer:
n-Hexane is commonly used in leaching processes for several reasons:
1. Solvent Properties:
 n-Hexane is a non-polar solvent. Many compounds that are targeted
for extraction through leaching are non-polar or have low polarity. n-
Hexane's non-polar nature makes it effective in dissolving and
extracting these non-polar compounds.
2. Low Boiling Point:
 n-Hexane has a relatively low boiling point (about 69 degrees Celsius
or 156 degrees Fahrenheit). This makes it suitable for extraction
processes where low temperatures are preferred to prevent thermal
degradation of the extracted compounds.
3. Volatility:
 Being a volatile solvent, n-Hexane easily evaporates from the
extracted solution, leaving behind the solutes of interest. This
characteristic is advantageous in processes where the recovery of the
extracted compounds in a concentrated form is desired.
4. Selectivity:
 n-Hexane's selectivity in dissolving non-polar compounds makes it
suitable for specific applications, such as the extraction of oils, fats,
and certain organic substances. It may not be suitable for extracting
polar compounds.
5. Safety and Environmental Considerations:
 n-Hexane is considered a relatively safe solvent to handle, and it has
been widely used in industrial applications. However, it is important
to note that safety precautions should be taken, as n-Hexane is
flammable. Additionally, there has been some environmental
concern regarding the use of n-Hexane, so alternative solvents may
be considered in environmentally conscious processes.
 6. Cost-Effectiveness:
 n-Hexane is often cost-effective, which makes it a practical choice for
industrial-scale leaching processes.
6. Q: n-hexane properties, BP & FP?
Answer:
Certainly! Here are some key properties of n-hexane:
1. Chemical Formula: C6H14
2. Molecular Weight: 86.18 g/mol
3. Common Name: n-Hexane
4. Structural Formula:
 CH3(CH2)4CH3
Physical Properties:
1. Boiling Point (BP):
 The boiling point of n-hexane is approximately 69 degrees Celsius
(156 degrees Fahrenheit). This relatively low boiling point makes it
suitable for applications where lower temperatures are preferred.
2. Freezing Point (FP):
 The freezing point of n-hexane is approximately -95 degrees Celsius (-
139 degrees Fahrenheit). This indicates that n-hexane is a liquid at
room temperature and has a very low freezing point.
3. Density:
 The density of n-hexane is about 0.66 g/cm³ at 20 degrees Celsius.
4. Solubility:
 n-Hexane is a non-polar solvent and is practically insoluble in water.
It is highly soluble in non-polar solvents and organic compounds.
5. Vapor Pressure:
  The vapor pressure of n-hexane is relatively high at room
temperature. This property contributes to its volatility and ease of
evaporation.
6. Flash Point:
 The flash point of n-hexane is around -26 degrees Celsius (-15
degrees Fahrenheit). The flash point is the temperature at which a
substance can ignite in the presence of an ignition source.
7. Appearance:
 n-Hexane is a colorless liquid with a faint, sweet odor.
8. Flammability:
 n-Hexane is highly flammable. It can form explosive mixtures with air,
and appropriate precautions should be taken when handling it in the
presence of open flames or other potential ignition sources.
7. Q: What is a hydraulic cyclone and what is its working?
Answer:
A hydraulic cyclone, also known as a hydrocyclone, is a device used for the
separation of particles suspended in a liquid by utilizing centrifugal force. It is
widely used in various industries for processes such as classification, dewatering,
and desliming. The basic structure of a hydraulic cyclone consists of a cylindrical
or conical-shaped vessel with an inlet at the top for the liquid-solid mixture and
an overflow and underflow at the bottom for separated phases.
Working Principle of a Hydraulic Cyclone:
1. Inlet:
 The mixture of liquid and suspended particles is introduced into the
hydraulic cyclone through the inlet located at the top.
2. Centrifugal Forces:
 As the mixture enters the cyclone, it is subjected to centrifugal forces
due to the high rotational motion of the liquid within the device. The
 centrifugal forces cause the denser particles to move toward the
outer wall of the cyclone.
3. Separation:
 The centrifugal forces result in the formation of a rotating fluid inside
the cyclone. This rotation creates a pressure gradient, with higher
pressure toward the outer wall and lower pressure toward the
center.
4. Overflow and Underflow:
 Due to the pressure gradient, the lighter particles and liquid move
toward the center of the cyclone and exit through an overflow at the
top. These are typically the finer particles.
 The heavier particles move toward the outer wall and are collected
at the bottom of the cyclone as an underflow.
5. Adjustment and Control:
 The efficiency and cut size of the hydraulic cyclone can be adjusted
by controlling factors such as the inlet pressure, geometry of the
cyclone, and the size distribution of the particles in the feed.
Advantages of Hydraulic Cyclones:
 Simple design and low maintenance.
 Suitable for a wide range of particle sizes.
 Can handle high throughput.
 Effective in applications where the specific gravity of particles varies widely.
Applications:
 Mineral Processing: Used for classification and separation of minerals
based on density.
 Water Treatment: Employed for sand and sediment removal in water
treatment processes.
  Oil and Gas Industry: Utilized in the separation of solids from liquids in
drilling mud systems.
 Food Industry: Applied in food processing for separation and concentration
of suspended solids.
8. Q: IN which cases do we prefer steam distillation?
Answer:
Steam distillation is preferred in various cases, especially when specific conditions
or requirements need to be met during the distillation process. Here are some
common cases where steam distillation is chosen:
1. Temperature-Sensitive Compounds:
 Steam distillation is suitable for extracting or distilling temperature-
sensitive compounds. Since steam has a lower boiling point than
many organic compounds, it allows for the separation of volatile
components without subjecting them to high temperatures that
might cause decomposition.
2. Extraction of Essential Oils:
 Steam distillation is commonly used in the extraction of essential oils
from aromatic plants. It helps retain the aromatic properties of the
oils by avoiding exposure to high temperatures.
3. Purification of Liquids:
 Steam distillation is employed for the purification of liquids,
especially when impurities have significantly different boiling points
from the desired component. The steam can help carry over the
volatile component, leaving impurities behind.
4. Separation of Mixtures:
 When separating azeotropic mixtures (mixtures with constant boiling
points), steam distillation can be used to break the azeotrope by
introducing steam into the system.
 5. Isolation of Thermally Sensitive Compounds:
 Steam distillation is suitable for the isolation of thermally sensitive
compounds, such as some natural flavors, fragrances, and
pharmaceutical intermediates.
6. Reduction of Decomposition:
 For substances prone to decomposition at their boiling points, steam
distillation provides a gentler and controlled process, reducing the
risk of thermal degradation.
7. High Molecular Weight Compounds:
 Steam distillation is often used for the distillation of high molecular
weight compounds that may decompose at their normal boiling
points.
8. Laboratory Scale Distillations:
 In laboratory settings, steam distillation is often chosen for its
simplicity and effectiveness in separating volatile components.
9. Extraction of Heat-Sensitive Materials:
 In certain industrial processes, steam distillation is used for the
extraction of heat-sensitive materials from natural sources.
10.Environmental Considerations:
 In cases where minimizing the use of organic solvents is important
for environmental reasons, steam distillation can be a preferred
method as it typically requires only water and steam.
9. Q: What are ion exchange and resins?
Answer:
Ion Exchange: Ion exchange is a chemical process in which ions are exchanged
between a solid phase (usually a resin) and a liquid phase (usually a solution). This
process is based on the principle of electrostatic attraction and involves the
substitution of ions of the same charge between the solid and liquid phases. The
solid material used in the process is often referred to as an ion exchange resin.
Ion Exchange Resins: Ion exchange resins are polymer beads or other porous
materials that contain functional groups capable of exchanging ions with the
surrounding solution. These resins are designed to selectively remove or
exchange certain ions from a solution while releasing others.
Key Components of Ion Exchange Resins:
1. Polymer Matrix:
 The main structure of the resin is typically a polymer matrix, which
provides a three-dimensional network for ion exchange sites.
2. Functional Groups:
 Attached to the polymer matrix are functional groups responsible for
ion exchange. These groups can be acidic or basic, and their chemical
nature determines the type of ions that can be exchanged.
3. Exchangeable Ions:
 The exchangeable ions are the ions that can be swapped between
the resin and the surrounding solution. The choice of resin and its
functional groups will determine the selectivity for specific ions.
Ion Exchange Process:
1. Adsorption:
 The ions from the solution are adsorbed onto the ion exchange resin,
replacing previously bound ions.
2. Exchange:
 The adsorbed ions are exchanged with ions present in the solution.
The resin releases the previously bound ions into the solution while
capturing new ions.
3. Equilibrium:
 The process reaches equilibrium when the concentration of ions on
the resin and in the solution stabilizes. At this point, the resin is
saturated with certain ions.
Applications of Ion Exchange:
1. Water Softening:
 Ion exchange resins are commonly used to remove hardness ions
(calcium and magnesium) from water, softening the water for various
industrial and domestic applications.
2. Water Purification:
 Ion exchange is used in water treatment to selectively remove ions,
such as heavy metals, from water.
3. Chemical Processing:
 Ion exchange resins are employed in chemical processes for
separation and purification of specific ions.
4. Nuclear Industry:
 In the nuclear industry, ion exchange is used for the purification of
nuclear fuel and the treatment of radioactive waste.
5. Hydrometallurgy:
 Ion exchange is applied in hydrometallurgical processes for the
extraction and separation of metal ions from leach solutions.
6. Biotechnology:
 Ion exchange chromatography is used in biotechnology for the
purification of proteins and other biomolecules.
10.Q: Cations, anions, hardness and its types, and why we remove hardness?
Answer:
Cations and Anions:
 Cations: Cations are positively charged ions. They are formed when an
atom loses one or more electrons.
 Anions: Anions are negatively charged ions. They are formed when an atom
gains one or more electrons.
Hardness: Hardness in water is a measure of the concentration of divalent metal
ions, primarily calcium (Ca^2+) and magnesium (Mg^2+), in the water. These ions
are responsible for the formation of scale deposits and can interfere with the
lathering of soaps.
Types of Hardness:
1. Temporary Hardness:
 Temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonate ions
(HCO3^-) of calcium and magnesium in water. It can be removed by
boiling the water, which causes the bicarbonates to decompose,
releasing carbon dioxide and forming insoluble carbonate
precipitates.
2. Permanent Hardness:
 Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of non-carbonate
salts of calcium and magnesium, such as sulfates and chlorides. It
cannot be removed by boiling and usually requires the use of ion
exchange or other water softening methods.
Why Remove Hardness:
1. Scale Formation:
 Hard water leads to the formation of scale deposits in pipes, water
heaters, and appliances. These deposits can reduce the efficiency of
heating elements and decrease the lifespan of equipment.
2. Soap Scum:
 Hard water reacts with soap to form insoluble scum, reducing the
effectiveness of cleaning agents and requiring more soap for
lathering.
3. Reduced Appliance Efficiency:
 Hard water can reduce the efficiency of appliances like water
heaters, dishwashers, and washing machines, leading to increased
energy consumption and maintenance costs.
 4. Clogging of Pipes:
 Scale deposits in pipes can lead to reduced water flow, clogging, and
increased maintenance requirements.
5. Skin and Hair Issues:
 Hard water can be harsh on the skin and hair, leading to dryness and
irritation.
Methods to Remove Hardness:
1. Boiling:
 Boiling removes temporary hardness by causing the precipitation of
calcium carbonate. However, it does not eliminate permanent
hardness.
2. Ion Exchange:
 Ion exchange involves replacing calcium and magnesium ions with
sodium ions, effectively softening the water. Ion exchange resins are
commonly used for this purpose.
3. Lime-Soda Ash Softening:
 This method involves adding lime (calcium hydroxide) and soda ash
(sodium carbonate) to water, leading to the precipitation of calcium
and magnesium as insoluble carbonates.
4. Reverse Osmosis:
 Reverse osmosis is a membrane filtration process that can effectively
remove hardness ions from water.
5. Chemical Softening:
 Chemical softening methods involve the addition of specific
chemicals to precipitate and remove hardness ions.
 11.Q: Other methods of water purification, adsorbent, adsorbate, entrainer?
Answer:
Other Methods of Water Purification:
1. Filtration:
 Filtration involves passing water through a physical barrier to remove
suspended particles. Various types of filters, such as sand filters and
membrane filters, are used for this purpose.
2. Distillation:
 Distillation is a process where water is heated to create vapor and
then condensed back into liquid. This method helps remove
impurities, especially those with higher boiling points than water.
3. Ultraviolet (UV) Disinfection:
 UV disinfection uses ultraviolet light to kill or inactivate
microorganisms in water, providing a chemical-free method for
disinfection.
4. Chlorination:
 Chlorination involves adding chlorine or chlorine-based compounds
to water to kill bacteria and other microorganisms. It is a common
method for disinfecting drinking water.
5. Ozonation:
 Ozone (O3) is a powerful oxidizing agent used to disinfect water. It
can effectively kill bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens.
6. Activated Carbon Adsorption:
 Activated carbon is used as an adsorbent to remove organic
impurities, chlorine, and some heavy metals from water through
adsorption.
7. Reverse Osmosis:
  Reverse osmosis uses a semipermeable membrane to remove
contaminants, including ions, particles, and microorganisms, from
water.
8. Ion Exchange:
 Ion exchange involves the exchange of ions between a solid resin and
water to remove ions responsible for water hardness or other
impurities.
Adsorbent and Adsorbate:
 Adsorbent: An adsorbent is a material that attracts and holds molecules of
another substance on its surface. In water purification, activated carbon is a
common adsorbent.
 Adsorbate: An adsorbate is the substance that is adsorbed onto the surface
of an adsorbent. In the context of water purification, organic compounds,
chlorine, and certain impurities can act as adsorbates.
Entrainment:
 Entrainment: Entrainment refers to the unintentional carryover of one
substance by another. In the context of water purification, an entrainer is a
substance added to assist in the separation of one component from a
mixture. For example, in extractive distillation, an entrainer is used to
enhance the separation of components.
12.Q: How do we find ethanol and water composition from the mixture?
Answer:
Determining the composition of an ethanol-water mixture can be done through
various methods, and the choice of method depends on the specific
requirements, available equipment, and accuracy needed. Here are some
common methods:
1. Distillation:
 Distillation is a common method for separating and determining the
composition of ethanol-water mixtures. Ethanol and water have
different boiling points, allowing for their separation based on their
 vapor pressures. By distilling the mixture and collecting fractions at
different temperatures, the composition can be determined. The
composition of the distillate can be analyzed using techniques such
as refractometry, density measurement, or gas chromatography.
2. Refractometry:
 Refractometry is a technique that measures the change in the
direction of light as it passes through a substance. The refractive
index of a solution is related to its composition. By measuring the
refractive index of an ethanol-water solution, the composition can be
determined using calibration curves or tables.
3. Density Measurement:
 Density is influenced by the composition of a solution. By measuring
the density of an ethanol-water mixture, particularly with a known
correlation between density and composition, you can estimate the
composition of the mixture.
4. Gas Chromatography:
 Gas chromatography is a more sophisticated method for analyzing
the composition of liquid mixtures. It involves injecting a sample into
a gas chromatograph, where the components are separated based
on their volatility and affinity for the stationary phase. The resulting
chromatogram can be used to determine the composition of the
mixture.
5. Refractive Index and Density Combinations:
 Combining measurements of refractive index and density can
enhance the accuracy of composition determination. Many
commercial instruments are available that combine these
measurements and use mathematical models to estimate
composition.
 6. Using Tables and Charts:
 Empirical tables and charts that relate properties such as refractive
index, density, or specific gravity to composition are available. These
tables can be consulted to estimate the composition of ethanol-
water mixtures.
13.Q: Applications and examples of adsorption, leaching, absorption, ion
exchange. Cooling towers?
Answer:
Applications & Examples:
1. Adsorption:
 Application: Adsorption is widely used for purification, separation,
and the removal of contaminants from gases and liquids.
 Example: Activated carbon adsorption in water treatment to remove
organic impurities, color, and odor.
2. Leaching:
 Application: Leaching is commonly used in the mining and
metallurgical industry to extract metals from ores.
 Example: Leaching of copper from its ore using sulfuric acid to
produce copper sulfate solution.
3. Absorption:
 Application: Absorption is used for gas-liquid contact in processes
such as gas scrubbing and air pollution control.
 Example: Absorption of sulfur dioxide (SO2) from industrial flue
gases using a solution of sodium hydroxide.
4. Ion Exchange:
 Application: Ion exchange is used for water softening, purification,
and removal of specific ions from solutions.
  Example: Water softening using ion exchange resins to replace
calcium and magnesium ions with sodium ions.
Cooling Towers:
Cooling towers are devices used to remove heat from industrial processes or
HVAC systems by transferring it to the atmosphere through the process of
evaporation. Various separation processes are involved in the operation of
cooling towers:
1. Evaporation:
 Cooling towers operate on the principle of evaporative cooling.
Water is circulated through the tower, and a portion of it evaporates,
taking away heat and cooling the remaining water.
2. Air Scrubbing:
 The air flowing through the cooling tower acts as a scrubbing agent.
It removes heat from the water vapor through direct contact and
aids in the evaporation process.
3. Contaminant Removal:
 Cooling towers are designed to remove impurities and contaminants
from the circulating water. This helps prevent scale formation and
corrosion in the cooling system.
4. Make-Up Water Treatment:
 Ion exchange resins may be used to treat make-up water, removing
hardness ions and preventing scale formation in the cooling tower.
5. Chemical Treatment:
 Chemical additives may be introduced to the water to control pH,
inhibit corrosion, and prevent the growth of microorganisms,
ensuring efficient and safe operation.
 14.Q: Vaccum distillation vs steam distillation?
Answer:
Vacuum distillation and steam distillation are two different techniques used in the
process of distillation, each with its specific applications and advantages.
Vacuum Distillation:
1. Definition:
 Vacuum distillation is a distillation process carried out under reduced
pressure (lower than atmospheric pressure). By reducing the
pressure, the boiling points of components in the mixture are
lowered, allowing distillation to occur at lower temperatures.
2. Purpose:
 The primary purpose of vacuum distillation is to separate
components that have high boiling points, are thermally sensitive, or
tend to decompose at their normal boiling points. This technique is
often used in industries such as petrochemicals to separate high-
boiling-point fractions from crude oil.
3. Advantages:
 Lower operating temperatures reduce the risk of thermal
decomposition.
 Useful for the separation of compounds with high boiling points.
 Enables the distillation of thermally sensitive materials.
Steam Distillation:
1. Definition:
 Steam distillation is a technique that involves passing steam through
a mixture, vaporizing volatile components in the mixture. The
vaporized components are then carried over with the steam and
condensed back into liquid form.
2. Purpose:
  Steam distillation is primarily used for the extraction of volatile
compounds, especially essential oils from plants. It is particularly
useful when distilling substances that may decompose at their
normal boiling points.
3. Advantages:
 Effective for the extraction of essential oils and aromatic compounds.
 Allows for the separation of components with similar boiling points.
 Reduces the risk of thermal decomposition for temperature-sensitive
materials.
Key Differences:
1. Operating Pressure:
 Vacuum Distillation: Operates under reduced pressure.
 Steam Distillation: Operates at or near atmospheric pressure.
2. Purpose of Distillation:
 Vacuum Distillation: Primarily used for high-boiling-point
components and thermal sensitivity.
 Steam Distillation: Primarily used for the extraction of volatile
compounds.
3. Temperature:
 Vacuum Distillation: Operates at lower temperatures due to reduced
pressure.
 Steam Distillation: Involves the use of steam to vaporize
components, allowing distillation at moderate temperatures.
4. Applications:
 Vacuum Distillation: Common in petrochemical industries for
refining processes.
  Steam Distillation: Common in the extraction of essential oils,
flavors, and fragrances from plant materials.
15.Q: Pressure role in distillation?
Answer:
Pressure plays a crucial role in distillation processes, influencing the boiling points
of components in a mixture and affecting the efficiency and feasibility of the
separation. The key aspects of pressure in distillation include:
1. Boiling Point Elevation:
 Increasing pressure raises the boiling points of liquids. This is due to
the fact that at higher pressure, a substance needs more energy
(heat) to overcome the increased pressure and change from a liquid
to a vapor phase.
2. Atmospheric Pressure:
 The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere
(atm), which is equivalent to 101.325 kilopascals (kPa) or 760
millimeters of mercury (mmHg). At this pressure, water boils at 100
degrees Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit). As you go to higher
altitudes, atmospheric pressure decreases, and water boils at lower
temperatures.
3. Vacuum Distillation:
 Lowering the pressure (creating a vacuum) reduces the boiling points
of components in a mixture. Vacuum distillation is commonly used to
separate components with high boiling points or those that are
sensitive to high temperatures.
4. Fractional Distillation:
 In fractional distillation, a column with a series of trays or packing is
used to achieve multiple vaporization-condensation cycles. The
pressure within the column decreases with height. Components with
different boiling points condense at different tray levels, allowing for
the separation of a mixture into its individual components.
 5. Azeotropic Distillation:
 Azeotropic distillation involves using pressure to break azeotropic
mixtures (mixtures with constant boiling points). By adjusting
pressure, it is possible to alter the composition of the vapor phase
and separate components that would otherwise form an azeotrope.
6. Reflux Ratio and Pressure:
 The reflux ratio, which is the ratio of the condensed vapor returned
to the distillation column to the vapor leaving the column, can be
influenced by pressure changes. Adjusting pressure affects the
efficiency of the separation and the composition of the distillate.
7. Boiling Point Differences:
 The effectiveness of distillation depends on the differences in boiling
points between the components in the mixture. Controlling pressure
can be a means to increase or decrease these boiling point
differences, impacting the separation.
16.Q: At which composition do ethanol and water form azeotropes?
Answer:
The ethanol-water system forms several azeotropic mixtures at different
compositions. An azeotrope is a mixture of two or more components that, during
distillation, behaves like a single substance with a constant boiling point and
composition. In the case of ethanol and water, there are two notable azeotropes:
1. Maximum Boiling Azeotrope (95.57% Ethanol):
 This azeotrope, also known as the ethanol-rich or maximum boiling
azeotrope, has a composition of approximately 95.57% ethanol and
4.43% water by weight. The boiling point of this azeotrope is around
78.15 degrees Celsius (172.67 degrees Fahrenheit). When ethanol
and water are distilled at this composition, the vapor phase and the
liquid phase have the same composition.
 2. Minimum Boiling Azeotrope (4.41% Ethanol):
 This azeotrope, also known as the water-rich or minimum boiling
azeotrope, has a composition of approximately 4.41% ethanol and
95.59% water by weight. The boiling point of this azeotrope is around
78.2 degrees Celsius (172.76 degrees Fahrenheit). Similar to the
maximum boiling azeotrope, the vapor and liquid phases have the
same composition during distillation.
These azeotropes represent specific compositions where the boiling points are
constant during the distillation process, making separation more challenging. In
the case of ethanol-water mixtures, the azeotropes play a role in industrial
processes such as the production of ethanol for fuel or beverage purposes. The
use of additional techniques, such as molecular sieves or specialized distillation
processes, may be necessary to separate ethanol and water beyond their
azeotropic compositions.
17.Q: Graph for steam distillation?
Answer: