Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2.

Physical Layer Characteristics

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1.2 Physical Layer Characteristics

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Complete 1.2.1 Physical Layer Standards

1.2.1 Physical Layer Standards

In the previous topic, you gained a high level overview of the physical layer and its place in a
network. This topic dives a bit deeper into the specifics of the physical layer. This includes the
components and the media used to build a network, as well as the standards that are required so
that everything works together.

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

The protocols and operations of the upper OSI layers are performed using software designed by
software engineers and computer scientists. The services and protocols in the TCP/IP suite are
defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

The physical layer consists of electronic circuitry, media, and connectors developed by engineers.
Therefore, it is appropriate that the standards governing this hardware are defined by the relevant
electrical and communications engineering organizations.

There are many different international and national organizations, regulatory government
organizations, and private companies involved in establishing and maintaining physical layer
standards. For instance, the physical layer hardware, media, encoding, and signaling standards are
defined and governed by these standards organizations:

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
National telecommunications regulatory authorities including the Federal Communication
Commission (FCC) in the USA and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI)

In addition to these, there are often regional cabling standards groups such as CSA (Canadian
Standards Association), CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization), and
JSA/JIS (Japanese Standards Association), which develop local specifications.

Complete 1.2.2 Physical Components

1.2.2 Physical Components

The physical layer standards address three functional areas:

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Physical Components
Encoding
Signaling

Physical Components

The physical components are the electronic hardware devices, media, and other connectors that
transmit the signals that represent the bits. Hardware components such as NICs, interfaces and
connectors, cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards associated with the
physical layer. The various ports and interfaces on a Cisco 1941 router are also examples of
physical components with specific connectors and pinouts resulting from standards.

Complete 1.2.3 Encoding

1.2.3 Encoding

Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined "code".
Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable pattern that can be recognized by both the
sender and the receiver. In other words, encoding is the method or pattern used to represent digital
information. This is similar to how Morse code encodes a message using a series of dots and
dashes.

For example, Manchester encoding represents a 0 bit by a high to low voltage transition, and a 1 bit
is represented as a low to high voltage transition. An example of Manchester encoding is illustrated
in the figure. The transition occurs at the middle of each bit period. This type of encoding is used in
10 Mbps Ethernet. Faster data rates require more complex encoding. Manchester encoding is used
in older Ethernet standards such as 10BASE-T. Ethernet 100BASE-TX uses 4B/5B encoding and
1000BASE-T uses 8B/10B encoding.

The transition occurs at the middle of each bit period.

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Incomplete 1.2.4 Signaling

1.2.4 Signaling
A tabbed content container. Content can be text, graphic or both.

The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals that represent the "1" and
"0" on the media. The way that bits are represented is called the signaling method. The physical
layer standards must define what type of signal represents a "1" and what type of signal represents a
"0". This can be as simple as a change in the level of an electrical signal or optical pulse. For
example, a long pulse might represent a 1 whereas a short pulse might represent a 0.

This is similar to the signaling method used in Morse code, which may use a series of on-off tones,
lights, or clicks to send text over telephone wires or between ships at sea.

The figures display signaling

Click each button for illustrations of signaling for copper cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless
media.

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Copper Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Wireless Media

Incomplete 1.2.5 Video - Bandwidth

1.2.5 Video - Bandwidth

This is a media player component. Select the play / pause button to watch or listen.

Press the Play button to watch the video.

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Complete 1.2.6 Bandwidth

1.2.6 Bandwidth

Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different rates. Data transfer is usually
discussed in terms of bandwidth. Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data. Digital
bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount
of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps),
or gigabits per second (Gbps). Bandwidth is sometimes thought of as the speed that bits travel,
however this is not accurate. For example, in both 10Mbps and 100Mbps Ethernet, the bits are sent
at the speed of electricity. The difference is the number of bits that are transmitted per second.

A combination of factors determines the practical bandwidth of a network:

The properties of the physical media

The technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics all play a role in determining
the available bandwidth.

The table shows the commonly used units of measure for bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth

Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps

Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps

Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps = 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps

Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps

Incomplete 1.2.7 Bandwidth Terminology

1.2.7 Bandwidth Terminology

Terms used to measure the quality of bandwidth include:

Latency
Throughput
Goodput

Latency

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to
another.

In an internetwork, or a network with multiple segments, throughput cannot be faster than the
slowest link in the path from source to destination. Even if all, or most, of the segments have high
bandwidth, it will only take one segment in the path with low throughput to create a bottleneck in the
throughput of the entire network.

Throughput

Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.

Due to a number of factors, throughput usually does not match the specified bandwidth in physical
layer implementations. Throughput is usually lower than the bandwidth. There are many factors that
influence throughput:

The amount of traffic

The type of traffic
The latency created by the number of network devices encountered between source and
destination

There are many online speed tests that can reveal the throughput of an internet connection. The
figure provides sample results from a speed test.

Goodput

There is a third measurement to assess the transfer of usable data; it is known as goodput. Goodput
is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time. Goodput is throughput minus
traffic overhead for establishing sessions, acknowledgments, encapsulation, and retransmitted bits.
Goodput is always lower than throughput, which is generally lower than the bandwidth.

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Incomplete 1.2.8 Check Your Understanding - Physical Layer Characteristics

1.2.8 Check Your Understanding - Physical Layer

Characteristics

Check your understanding of physical layer characteristics by choosing the correct answer to
the following questions.

Incomplete Question 1

Question 1
This is a multiple choice question. Once you have selected an option, select the submit button below

Which media uses patterns of microwaves to represent bits?


copper


wireless


fiber-optic

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

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Incomplete Question 2

Question 2
This is a multiple choice question. Once you have selected an option, select the submit button below

Which media uses patterns of light to represent bits?


fiber-optic


wireless


copper

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Incomplete Question 3

Question 3
This is a multiple choice question. Once you have selected an option, select the submit button below

Which media uses electrical pulses to represent bits?


wireless

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics


fiber-optic


copper

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Incomplete Question 4

Question 4
This is a multiple choice question. Once you have selected an option, select the submit button below

Which of these is the name for the capacity of a medium to carry data?


goodput


bandwidth


throughput

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.2. Physical Layer Characteristics

Incomplete Question 5

Question 5
This is a multiple choice question. Once you have selected an option, select the submit button below

Which of these is a measure of the transfer of bits across the media?


goodput


throughput


bandwidth

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.4. UTP Cabling

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1.4 UTP Cabling

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Complete 1.4.1 Properties of UTP Cabling

1.4.1 Properties of UTP Cabling

In the previous topic, you learned a bit about unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) copper cabling. Because
UTP cabling is the standard for use in LANs, this topic goes into detail about its advantages and
limitations, and what can be done to avoid problems.

When used as a networking medium, UTP cabling consists of four pairs of color-coded copper wires

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.4. UTP Cabling

that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath. Its small size can be
advantageous during installation.

UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designers
have discovered other ways that they can limit the negative effect of crosstalk:

Cancellation - Designers now pair wires in a circuit. When two wires in an electrical circuit are
placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other. Therefore, the
two magnetic fields cancel each other and also cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals.
Varying the number of twists per wire pair - To further enhance the cancellation effect of
paired circuit wires, designers vary the number of twists of each wire pair in a cable. UTP cable
must follow precise specifications governing how many twists or braids are permitted per meter
(3.28 feet) of cable. Notice in the figure that the orange/orange white pair is twisted less than
the blue/blue white pair. Each colored pair is twisted a different number of times.

UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal
degradation and effectively provide self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.

Incomplete 1.4.2 UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors

1.4.2 UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors

UTP cabling conforms to the standards established jointly by the ANSI/TIA. Specifically, ANSI/TIA-
568 stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LAN installations and is the standard most
commonly used in LAN cabling environments. Some of the elements defined are as follows:

Cable types
Cable lengths
Connectors
Cable termination
Methods of testing cable

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.4. UTP Cabling

The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are defined by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE). IEEE rates UTP cabling according to its performance. Cables are
placed into categories based on their ability to carry higher bandwidth rates. For example, Category
5 cable is used commonly in 100BASE-TX Fast Ethernet installations. Other categories include
Enhanced Category 5 cable (5e), Category 6, and Category 6a.

Cables in higher categories are designed and constructed to support higher data rates. As new
gigabit speed Ethernet technologies are being developed and adopted, Category 5e is now the
minimally acceptable cable type, with Category 6 being the recommended type for new building
installations.

The figure shows three categories of UTP cable:

Category 3 was originally used for voice communication over voice lines, but later used for data
transmission.
Category 5 and 5e are used for data transmission. Category 5 supports 100Mbps and
Category 5e supports 1000 Mbps.
Category 6 has an added separator between each wire pair to support higher speeds.
Category 6 supports up to 10 Gbps.
Category 7 also supports 10 Gbps.
Category 8 supports 40 Gbps.

Some manufacturers are making cables exceeding the ANSI/TIACategory 6a specifications and refer
to these as Category 7.

UTP cable is usually terminated with an RJ-45 connector. The ANSI/TIA-568 standard describes the
wire color codes to pin assignments (pinouts) for Ethernet cables.

As shown in the figure, the RJ-45 connector is the male component, crimped at the end of the cable.

RJ-45 UTP Plugs

The socket, shown in the figure, is the female component of a network device, wall, cubicle partition
outlet, or patch panel. When terminated improperly, each cable is a potential source of physical layer
performance degradation.

RJ-45 UTP Sockets

This figure shows an example of a badly terminated UTP cable. This bad connector has wires that

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.4. UTP Cabling

are exposed, untwisted, and not entirely covered by the sheath.

Poorly Terminated UTP Cable

The next figure shows a properly terminated UTP cable. It is a good connector with wires that are
untwisted only to the extent necessary to attach the connector.

Properly Terminated UTP Cable

Note: Improper cable termination can impact transmission performance.

Incomplete 1.4.3 Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

1.4.3 Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring conventions.
This means that the individual wires in the cable have to be connected in different orders to different
sets of pins in the RJ-45 connectors.

The following are the main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions:

Ethernet Straight-through - The most common type of networking cable. It is commonly used
to interconnect a host to a switch and a switch to a router.
Ethernet Crossover - A cable used to interconnect similar devices. For example, to connect a
switch to a switch, a host to a host, or a router to a router. However, crossover cables are now
considered legacy as NICs use medium-dependent interface crossover (auto-MDIX) to
automatically detect the cable type and make the internal connection.

Note: Another type of cable is a rollover cable, which is Cisco proprietary. It is used to connect a

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.4. UTP Cabling

workstation to a router or switch console port.

Using a crossover or straight-through cable incorrectly between devices may not damage the
devices, but connectivity and communication between the devices will not take place. This is a
common error and checking that the device connections are correct should be the first
troubleshooting action if connectivity is not achieved.

The figure identifies the individual wire pairs for the T568A and T568B standards.

T568A and T568B Standards

The table shows the UTP cable type, related standards, and typical application of these cables.

Cable Types and Standards

Cable Type Standard Application

Ethernet Both ends T568A or both Connects a network host to a network device such as
Straight-through ends T568B a switch or hub

Ethernet One end T568A, other Connects two network intermediary devices (switch to
Crossover end T568B switch or router to router)

Connects a workstation serial port to a router console

Rollover Cisco proprietary
port using an adapter

Incomplete 1.4.4 Activity - Cable Pinouts

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Module 1: Physical Layer | 1.4. UTP Cabling

1.4.4 Activity - Cable Pinouts

For this activity, correctly order the wire colors to a ANSI/TIA cable pinout. Select a wire case color
by clicking it. Then click a wire to apply that casing to it.

Select the pin case, then the cable pin to apply the casing.

For this activity, correctly order the wire colors to a ANSI/TIA cable pinout. Select a wire case color
by clicking it. Then click a wire to apply that casing to it.

Select the pin case, then the cable pin to apply the casing.

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