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78 Theories ofthe Damoeratie Sate
seansformed in recnt decades, and bos both made themselves fe
bevond US borders, Cnspicuoualyeising in American social cence,
bur very important everwhere else was a thir clasical theory ofthe
stats, Mais 0 which we now te,
cepter 4
semomnemans
Marxism
ten Kael Marx did in London is March 1883 he was a stateless
inelicial wiehour a wil His fore) was atended by jst IL
ourners sod actacted. few prest mentions, These may
Urpeomting origins fora theorist to aciere global significance, Bot
Marsiem became a wockdwie belief stem, professed by Communist
pines which SD peace afer Macw’s dente governed tied ofall
‘Miman Senge. Maraion also influenced pany onthe left o
Satie sho bierywjcted Communist eegies a oaltarian sn
Sintdemocrat, prose perversion of all that Mane nenaes nthe
Suggs fr equal feeder for everyone when he urged: "Workers ofthe
trl unite! You have aothing to lose bur you chins. Mare bimtel
bce delved ‘Tam acta Mares, ejecting the spl versions of
ifidess propounded by daiples
‘Mars was's comple and auaneed gue, whose wigeanginginfl=
cone aftcte hs genuine insight and ongialy. Inialy = sauonalist
‘Sik hen 2 ioral humane, Mack became a radial socialist and
‘eto of nsletual suse Fe lee a cous of ork tha tought 0
‘Serpeer mach of histor al of plies and all of manors dheough 8
les of ans tugale ara sheory of how all human soietes develop
sd change, He ied largely lnalss because of his incest and
Teese ding with viral all other sinker the soeialse move
‘Bet of his day, often over gezsonal sues or small pone of doctrine.
Yeti dos have uncergone pero revival an rom te 1950 ut
the 180s, resworkingy of Mares seat by western inelectals in
teed the developmen: of many academic dsipies, especialy eo
omic, sociology, cual and lterary sas, hieory and polis]
uleeopy.
‘Nesuom oferta comprehensive exlenstory theory ofthe develop
met of man soles, Within its grand historia sweep, the focus
how capital came ino being, how capitalism wor, and how i
el evenually ene the world sage. To Mares, the Ba fae of the
Satesn shies ir capitan cones, whch mea ema seve the
‘nents ofthe dominate clas within cha economie system, or serve
‘he eetem set Thi they of th se Bepne wt he wor oF Mare
mela the middle of he nineteenth cenary. Since then, Maras the
, 80_Theoren of the Democrat
Marcon $1
ois have taken the theory of she capitals state in 3 numberof aie
feet dcctions
‘Commune putes inspited by Mares ideals have cared out su
cesefil evolutions in courier sack as Russia, Chin Yowosaia,
(Cabs and Viemany aa rach partes have Bea isaled in power
tthe coupes (nctasing most of Easter Eutope atthe end of World
‘War I), These porter were chon fced wieh the problem of how v0
fonganize s non-apitslie eon. Is st cass they adopted 2 Form
Steely planned ecosorne production hat sold organize Beary
Trusty, bur nce praduce goods st consemersseaally wasted.
‘With th fall ofthe Bein Wl fe 1989, the dense 0! the Soi
Union ia 1991, and se adoption By the Chinese Commusist Pay of 3
‘Spt ezonori pcm open to orig inexament nhs ate Ne.
Toth eeneiy, Naim looked oe terminal decline. Ths implosion
[osm thet Maram sted on te sow forlorn hope that an seen
fhe scosomie stem to captlam fe posible. Bue Maevim at a5
‘hplanatory theory of te capi ste oe neesaly acted by
the flare of Marsa (rely speaking, Slarsm-Leninsm) a8 2
polial prose. At any rate the Marae eheor Of he este one
tthe clascal ows chats the vene for coetemporiy theories ofthe
Sexe an 93 knowlege of thin theory is exeental even fr those who
{enor wah to deine ino the tuly steane completiser of ecew
‘Mais wae toon. We look fie 3¢ the orgs an evelopment of
the Mlarust approach, then ais view of ov socey elas 0 pot
{eslacsvy, flowed by is acount of Bow the ate Opa
Origins and Core ideat
Marx grounded his advocacy of revoltionary change in compehar
five analyse of human hao which he saw as 2 scence Sat pus
lees in iuieance Darwi'eacoune of elas nthe natural or
When it comer to soca, Mare (1963: 15) sted in The Eighteen
Bramaite of Lonis Bonaparte that "Men make thei own Bstory, bat
they do nt make cast as hey pleases ter Jo at make it unde!
Smstancer chosen By therelves, our under cocumstane=s already
‘iting, ven sd eranarited foes the pas To his flower, the
Ghote aspect meant that Mansum was cern knowledge and aoe 38
lfslogy. As hr co-author Engls sad at Mares graveude i 1385
"This was a man of srene’ Underpinning the Marxism to bea
science ae the iden of 3 dleus in human history, thick we wil
fxplain shortly, and an asoxited materialist log of all homo socal
{Evelopment. Mace’: thery of revlon provided pracal suit
‘on how co achieve sacl soil change: Vlaimie Leni, lender of he
SURES Revolution in 1917, the intended nwo signieant changes in
Ein theors placing the Commune Pars leadeship a the cence
Sagislurons and afirming (corey thot eevoluione would esr
SUSZpomindasialed cura scien, These aeration also meant
Beng aoe shore term dicstoranip of te proletariat oughly, the
Sra ls) of the sor Mars nad anepate, but rather an excended
“Ertrontip ofthe Communis Party.
Lngertanding the cielectic
tn is youth in Germany (before bing exied zo Landon) Marx was
Enucnced bythe philosophy of Geors Hegel later lo the inspiration
foe francis Fulama's Hera epitaist ‘end of hor’ see Chapter
IN Howl some the power of is i moving for, snd i #6
Aaa ae an Weal. Margin conrase, became 4 ater Sing
Soo at moves. only b¢ atonal economic: forces, ne eae
oueven Mary ftained so key elements of Hegel troughs, he
[Perped tht tore wean nclcmable patern of proresve detelop-
EES rowaeds pefewion im nsan fio. Second, he ceted any
[Palalior model of ts progen belieeing that ancer could only
[Etim »furndsnta lsh Senseen vo opronng soil forces —
feels xs an accepted “then eventual conicong WI
Shroste, or “anithede Evom this ath would emerge 2 new "=
Is combining the Best ofthe these and snachesm Ths process of
ogre developmen Sas on overcoming clues was what Hegel
ean by the dilese
For Hes hes and anthesis were bois of eas. For Mars thesis
and anes wer tobe found inte economy and fs asocaed power
tucuer The thesis was the developmen impule of the dominant
rade of prado, he aches the resistance that eventually stened
he boundanes of the mode of production. So the feudal modo peo
Guaton tha ad long eharaceraes Europe fetared classes of sets
esas who were subsersen so artxoceate andiwds The sbees oF
‘emo of production evenly prodtesd surplus seaarces im ehe
andr of laleds sich ws the impens forse develonment of om
‘neces industry a ake sconoms #0 apply goods tothe ld
Ton, Commerce snd indo in arm created are chs of capil
who evenly waned 29 cape the festicions of the feudal stem,
tnd eo eae frely = th astonsconsiute te anthesis of feudalism
The English ce war ofthe Lets the French rvolaton of 179, and
She Armed ci war ofthe 1860s cool they al be understood a8 ap
fair revolutons, oF shar Mare himself would call Bourgeois revo 82 _Thoortes of the Domocratie tote
Mareen 83
ions, ia whic the shackles of feudal (oe in she American ste,
Slavery) were dow off ad the merging capialie elses seer
polities! power apne the old landed aritocrcy. Sock 4s whole
then moved fom feudalism che highe plane or yates of capo,
bat
Toe Mars, matter cereily did nor stp ther, fr capa
a thesis and anthesis The thesis came wth capac’
ew products, mote effiint production methods, now market and
fence profi. The antithesis arose it the fores oF iowa ad
‘poston shar dynamic esptam generssee, Once capalam ws
inmiested a6 the dominaat scone natem or mode of production,
apts would seck ever moc efficient ways of making profi: Ts
Ted to the crestion of lactone concencated ip urban Cees, Wis
masts of properjless indus worker in Mae's tem, the poe
{Se} subjected to ever more dehumancing for of labour, ne 30
‘ecoming alenate fom ther work and what they produced. Wesker
‘would be exploited ever more effctesy people ia onde 1 pr
Chee more profie Marx spoke of the expropttion of apie tue
from workers by captalam, Workers were nly paid easion Of the
full exchange value of the labour power.
‘As produstion was increasingly mochanized, so Marx Believed shat
‘ne fate oF prof would be squeezed bythe cot of capital andthe ac
bof demand for products ftom poorly paid workers (who were lo co
Sunes). Fling geots woul fore the bourgeois nea evee hacer
ret of exploiting workers, bur this woul de noting ares
ross! devine caste fe woud also reduce dean foe products,
Periodically there must he temerdous cries ofthe economic stem
reesions and depressions whete works, would be lad of facts
le dle and social unrest would moun. Tho forces wold cvenealy
lead to the growth of evolutionary consiouiess among the work
who Would ie up 20 see piel power and oreo the cepts
Systm. (Later, Lenin added rnstance by colonae’ peoples of sper
sleepovers #9 he mi)
‘The nal “synthe for Mare could only occur wih a succes
workers revolution (te Figuze 4.1) There would need to bea dec
lined worker pay to take advantage of eve condions and ore
‘ashe revolution ~and Mars hmscl ys nwolsd in orgeseng ach
parties iteration Thee was no such seroluion in Mates owe
lfime, and a scenes e as tluctant to predic wt ih then
foo. Bur clearly he looked forward roa Tree and prosperous soc,
whee economic exploitation ofthe woskers ws 2 hing of the sat
nd the tesnolopl advances made under capa coal ally be
10 aed ef benef everyone, ping sca a sc
Fgwe 4 The diate ude capitis
Revoution ana soca ers
In The Fightenh Bramsive of Louis Bonaparte, Mace (1963: 121)
‘Sripuced rvolusonary stem with 4 moe that peso erp
‘moll on a scemiglystooth Lawn, “And when ihe Revolucion]
bor seomplisbed the second hal? of pesimiacy work, Europe wil
leap up fom i seat and exale “Wal burrowed, old mle”. But Marx
spprecata! only too wel the magy factor that replay prevented
Works from sebeling against capris contol and he dertands 2nd
sks ha evolution pleat upon the working clas. Revolcon may be
fccompanied by, and. in the. shoce eit even perpetuate, what
Praeworsd (1988) stems the "walle of taneon a redution ia peo
ction levels and Liang standards sseined for Years whe recovery
fromthe cis takes pace, back 0 the previous trad eae of capitalist
developmen. Revolution, is ether words, ogres huge snsfie of ie
‘anes and lving sandaeds by workers
‘Aad tae expenerce of living trough rvoton will ecw be
complex one with she Baal outcome uncles, Revolutionary silt
lenders might make mistakes, tbl ial aies might deve them 2nd
vic sds, sete authocites mig be able to zeprs isa upesings,
be fight back even afer ery Lots, as happened ithe stage pore
to anempred cevlions of 1848 in sve Europes course the
acs Commune of 1871 and in Rosia in 1905. While the dec sg 84_Theoris ofthe Democratic State
sens that hiory moves ever onward and upward shor sex rszes
Sons downward are pouble and punl be tey “bast inthe Boor
{Nihal of spalun oe attempted reolsnons that ace defeated
Social exes come in eitferee kinds. Some ae positve fom a Sars
‘ewpoint by helping to radials the working class, Others are poe
Tilly very nace “lke sie 1979 lanan relation, oversowing the
Shah onl co taal a theoceack goverment by religious mula,
The icttorsnp of ne proitariat,
‘Mars though these would need to be 2 disciplined workers! pars eo
fake advantage of css conditions sad organize the revoliton, showeh
bs own ellos im his respeet produced vey mised resus. The revolt
tion was o be stabilized inthe shoe tem By what Mace mentioned
Ubut di noe deverbe in dept) as he “dcttorship of he prleracat
over potentially counterrevolusonary forces. Admiting @catorhip
inca the tealusonay process proved vo ave profound comsequcns.
“lasimi yeh Leni, leader of te Bolshevik pty thas catied out the
Russian Revolston te 1917, took dictatorship several tepeforher le
choved thar flere cevolson segue bigs diacpird, iota.
filly stor and hain Commie party under eoordisated leas
‘sokip Lenin did a Believe the working clas left to sown deviss
ould eer devlog the conscousnes ceca for revolution In 1903,
13 years before te Russian fvoltion Leon Trosky hen a crite of
he Bolhevi eate im Our Pail Tasks
Lenin's method lads to this the port organization a fst subst
toes it forthe party a 2 wholes Then th conta! comme
{asetutes ise foe the party organization and finally 2 single de
tstorsbwitues inel foe the central emi.
“Tromy would have done well ozemember his own words foe this i
catty what happened afer ee revolution, and Teotsky bimelf wat
ventunly on the reciing end. Under Joreph Sein, who succeded
{spin as General Serene ofthe Commas Pars it 1928, the det
fora apecin of the Save eave nana aaa of persoaaliy” su
unding Sta
Immperaism and revolutionary aetatership
Marx expected that revolutionary change would begin in the most
‘dvanced indus nations of his day (Briain, Franee, Germany ad
ethane the US), Halles by prolonged economic eres athe dassent
Marcon 85
of ingrestng samber of workers into worsening pore In fat, 26
Uielopes capuale society has ever expenenced a communi resolu
‘Eo. faced ith he practical seed eo jase a eevolucon in largely
SSuran Russ, Lenin took fom Troweky the ies tha the to Bey
‘s6ten evolutions thay Mare fora (Boureni and soils could
Pesomprcises or twessoped gather Taking advantage ofthe chaos of
{Be il Douro revoluton agaist feudalism, 4 Communist van
‘Bird pact soulé punk slmowesmmediately for workers contol Tn
Eatone i917, Lenin ich Trotky a his nde) pt theory ito peace
Shipusbed through 2 Bolbeik soup deat nmodiacelypeotamed
3 Rises socialist revolution just 9 months afer the Tai egme
iad been overthrown in + beral revolron- Lar in. China, Mao
JPelong tok te theory wll freer away From Mare in assrcing that
fie pone pessaes could cary out te revolution ~ a clas hat Mare
Fon! he scoraed 3s belonging 102 past fetal era Bese 1927
fn 1849 Mao's Chinese Commanist Paty ed pease ems 3 PO
iipged and eveneallyvctoousrevoluuonacy a,
‘Epn's ico of pecan epimated mnting communis 20
lution inbackwsed counines. Capvaliom fad gone gobs, cxsoiieg
LGbour and sources of raw mate actos the lobe in undeveloped
une a8 wells ote forebly opening up new markets tere. Some
OPE ponte penersted could then he sed fo make fe Bes fo the
Stores nthe developed capieainecountes, so guenchng thee evo"
Jtvony dee. Thus the inal spark for evasion sould be eo come
from workers a undersloped count
‘The consequcnse was teat Commis paces in practise came co
power i sociuses where tee preferrd support Sse the nda! pro
[ES isa small minany ofthe popttion and sthere te tk of
uuing an incurs! economy war aessniy 2 vee prolonged ene
se Face! oth an eon and a socey deb tated By wa, Frok
on and cl war, and eolroning a host of exteral enemies, the Sori
Commissar boat organising he sconomy hroushcerlied oo
trol= whch required the creation of mane sats Bursts). Tas
Seemed zo he tne ony akeanve o svestabshing eapriism as 4 way
to develop she economy. Belong inthe 1920s, Sein’ sexe
"emp to sonver the Soviet Union fom an agrcutua 0a indus
{esl economy in shore arr. Thi lan snvoled the forse corpora
{on of she peasy ito colle Laems, wich confiscation of
"grcatwal production wo sll on iemational mares, 0 2.0 obras
zane for ndustalstion Inthe sunt munsres of thousands
ot penple red even ap aeulia pod wer exported
‘The economis’ change was Brutally ffeive in. producing heavy
industeys which in tun enabled the Soviee Union to manafatre the 86 Theories of the Demoratc Sate
‘weaponry ro withsand and evntasly defor Nosh arcs in
1941-1945, But the pola! repression of Comminim had oo
fedentng features rom 1917 onwards the guasrelgionsiealog
ical systems of tate-communist regimes, Mars, Fogel, Leis and in
CCinat ao Became Sains’ of ideological prophets their pictures ce
fed st norms May Day parades snd thee nt in eery shoe) text
bok Inthe univeties of Communit counties ther wating were
ttened as authortatv, scenic tts, 1 be pred over and ced
[ovpel, bor sary interpret line ith curens pare orthodoxy
‘The alleged. “detaroship of the proeariat™in te Soviet Union
became, at Trorky had foreten in 1906 che disttoship in practice of
CComumanisepary eles ad ofthe stare bureaucracy, fun bY Sali’:
trom bans. Trotty il was murdered in ee om Sein’ orders
[940, Nor did he model ropa the Borders of he Savin Union et
imposed by the USSR on mont of Eastern Europe afer 1945, and
bpd 3: orthodoxy by communis paris throuphout the wo
fhe Soviet Union and iy stalls tolerian dratonbip awed
{he md 1970s and in China wal the cay 1980s = afce which they
Drogresvely bactme sore gona authontarizn segines, maining
3 polities! dictatorship, bur ao loageeseckias vo orpaize ll aspects of
Sal apd exomomic ie
Reforms Marasoe
Before she Soriet Union's lob imposition of Maesist-Leninin orto
ddoxy upon communis parues bagan in the 1920s, there were abo
ssrands‘of Maps that adoped a more reformist apprasct eo te
State in capil sven These san too could be teased back
‘Mas himsell, who io 1882 in an arsle ip the New York Tribune
scxed dat shied in itn, universal aul sufrage could Weal 0
“The pla supremacy ofthe worting las without an need fr vi
lent revolution, And in an 1872 specs co a socials conference in the
Hogue Mace acknowledged:
Someday she wotkee mus seize polities power inorder o build up
the nee orzanzaion of labour: he must overthrow the old polis
‘which bast se ald iaitions, if he i noe to lowe Heaven
Ear, lke the old Christan who aepeced an drined pole
Bur we have noe aseted thatthe ways to achieve that goal age
everhare the same. Yo Know faethe iin, Morse so
ttadkions of various covatsies mat be taken into consideration,
fd vedo nor deny tha there are countries ~ such se Ameri,
England, and were ore falar wich your insetions, 1 would
Mansion $7
pethops aio add Holland — where the workers can atin their gal
Srpeceal
Aer Max did, Engels slo evenly conceded she the eco
ave nas oe lace whe he finer fhe working tat Cold
iCfuoued ~eiugh he an bleved har rua boul coats on
tise Hon sachs woken drs sono spain wis
“ip Cermany atthe beiaiag ofthe ewes cotary Kast Kaus
sn Eduard Bernt of he Socal Desc: Pat SPD) Seca the
iEndng figure in what Lenin diperged as "vevionst” Marc
faust Acard that he SPD wat sncluonary pec bt aot mo
Slacking pry For many socal Gemocat, hen ad sine the
Uae end sr the same av for Maw slwer tose oF ee
teual sad prosperoes peopl wher capes was no more.
‘Communist orthodoxy ts enoced ter 1317 had wo time foe this
scary sacking neta democracy 9 sham At the hose ot
SE's contol ofthe Soviet Union andthe Comment Erni,
‘Wattra soa denneracy ws couoey denounced soc fc
to diferent in Kind fom Nazim =a level of anes now hard 1
fntom. Ia the posci9s5 period Communsteximes denounced
‘When wee sts se spi the highest mos saps) form
Duar monopoly spats
Social democrats pie of cour conse’ many people whose
alin sie ere deal an my Maram wh Sap ape
fin bet wanted 19 purse soll juste only av Ea athe Howes]
‘Gono sate oul ls, Over sheers othe tench center
SEP adel venon of tui democracy gral dglced the
tore eadictansapiati varie, hough many iteceal pet bates
sre fought slong the sap The SPD fll eradicated Marsa from
IS pau only 1959 si Bad Gonder entrees At Let
th" 1980s the Bish Labour Pary bad t purge fr ranks of the
‘ane fation of Marsns: inaly sven commen partis ithe
west bead ed eo shed tee basse of eevoluionae? theory. The
lelian Communi party, wich poe upto «third of vows i fee
cnocrase lesions In 1974, acer adopted 3 rclrmise “Baro
Sommunisn Along. wit ics ‘Spans and. Feech coumerpars i
eribraeed letra! poltcs and promotion ofthe welface sate, and
tought alliances with other pater to advance progresve eons
Exrocommunis parts fet he 1980
eomer rand of Wesern noneevoliionsey Marit had no
cbvious agenda for pois chenge se all. Some Marx saderes
have developed anaes and cates of the capitalist sae, but fll 88 Theor of the Demoeratie State
shor of svg wh xl ih don wih The, hn
‘Rah suppoc tadeal cuoses i er Own penonl pols, ba they
fate i or authing wo sy, hon corte to how the tate an
‘Soon a whole lg be ange fore bee
Society and Politics
hte we have surveyed the concept tha provide he base vocabulary
fof Marsist analy, when somes understanding the social basis of
Doce the fundamental concept is clash and he mos: imporant
rower is scugge between clase, To thi euion we examine Why
Bie clas srugale should be pervasive according to Mareiss ~ 2nd
‘via practice waten seme co subdued os even abs
Claes confer and cle seugghe
Marsiscsbelee clans antagonism and snuggle always deine che
ove substance of police Ae Mars. anc Engels put iin che
Commune Maniferto, "The hissy ofall huhero exiting scien
Re Rico of ase struggles The main socal clases dapend on che
‘Scomomse system, and see dained i tera of shee rlatonsh to the
Tominsne mode of production. So ie feudal society, the to mai
tues ate the Landed autctacy aad the peasantry. Ie capitalist
soci. the min lasses ae the bourgeose or capil who own the
Incas of production, and the prolearar or workes emplored by
‘hen Orherclawes may be pesent for example, 3 middle cast of
Taragect ind stall busines operatory and 3 lampenprlearae
Unatclas of unemployable people. Bat these eter classes have much
Staller reer sn sly, espoclly when i comes t0 het elavonsip
trih che sates The fia canes ate seen a cohesive (or poremsall
Cokes) block ie an aniagonsi eanontip wes each other Clas
fernvee mame of degre, aways am absolutes clases do not shade
inuo one another The sate te thea nesded manly manage tht
sstegonnci elatonshi
“Tus sctre of cohesive clases in etenally confcting relationships
swith ish oer i ery diferene from the plas picture of 2 mult
Diciy oF groups defined om many deren bases competing for iniie
nce idscosed ia Chapter 2). i also sekingly diferene from the
{ibd of market eral smphass on competing inivdeas thar we wil
‘amine inthe next chapter. For Marts, the consciousness of iad
‘ile rested by their poison ina soul lass. Thee spo essen al
oman mature (ar there i for ier of all kinds), Because who
Marsiom_ $9
ane ave at any tine i determina by this lass posiion. However,
‘Sen seribers of surdinate clases may sue from fase concious
SE, being under the lauence of the eclogypromulgaed by the
Taling last and 3 yet to realie cei wn real clas posizon, Another
‘Remon fom he es tht conscoumnes i deerined by las oe
oni geome 0 people ike Mare imal intl ho san etn
‘amide tee cle pouion and obsere the larger preture of how the
trrld works and haw history 8 moving
"Since Marks day, developed capi societies have seen masve
stot thei job base trom manatctring rp sersice, sch that tay
Mars manulactuing peoleariat is acuelly + small noi of the
working populaon. Moreover, Mares expecation ofa incesing
Ponvisson of socal conditions bewenn esis has ot been borne
fhe The cron of European liar sittin the tenet cntiry
Provided a comprehensive safe) act of benefits tha insure workers
nd managers alike agaist unemployment, ines and old age
iegaslies of income, eal, ie chance an hesth remain, snd have
‘Eaopr wovteaed sins the 1980s, nd the consequences are fle scaly
bye 45 mallon Americans without any foe of esta asurance. Bat
one ofa Ras tanned into ss miseretion ahd cas pola
{hg a anscipated by Nar
"Tee other mporant changes hae le lage numbers of worket
saunter wth “espa ogee. Fi workers who ov thet
‘en houses Sect whenever house prices sclera ater than oneal
‘oAiuon. Second, many. people In western cousins have inhested
ssi ia aequiing‘sdocasonal capa for themselves. Thid, fom
the 1950 the [97D te goth of ocespasonal pensions ed ther
‘espns ino 1 dependency on ing stock musket Since the 13804
the scope of occupational pensions fas declined i the US, UK and
‘tse, but rman high ns Japan Sota Koren anemic of Esto,
Marsee authors have srgled £9 cope wh thane changes 9 ot
structure Indus workers who ae forme, seerployed cote:
‘or, oe employes in defence indies may all resi sade unionist
fnd'se hole to socialism. Marin any she permanent unc
oped underclass nein May's own teat a lompenpekearae idk
fo leas in class sugle and Iapasle of mobliaason. They ao
ow sscousze the impoctanes of ctossciassidassicasions based on
"ate, rion, ethnics srl county or repon of origin. These lines of
eshge cn be maniplated hy employers an poveraments #036 £9
Fragmene wockers int val groups unable to take efleeiveeolive
svn. For example, poor wes in wastes soci ean fel pivieged
‘Sompared co tava or stinic minontes. Marsste once expected that
| ‘ao ethic and religoe done woul devine nslgntcane eh 90 Theories of the Demrratic Sate
‘dust modesieion and erenesly die out, Marxist ave bad
ome to erm with shot persence and appareney cone rene
In tome countries stra confictsberwoen pubic sear employes
ad pavate ser workers have persuaded private sector Worker £0
‘ene wih aes love sax prc (Dulas 1986,
By she 19905 eas appaene har shoe tends were eo parasite #8 10
require 3 fndamental rethink of how to Menufy clases and cass
Boundaries One sesponie tsspe she atonal Masxseppeoich of
sticking to sdeeang she working cas within incvdual apie
societies, but abardogs she egeallsadisonal vison ofthe prolerariat,
rmanaal workers Workers ate defined send au anyone who ees
‘ede, who bas no coneal over thle work tisks and who san be
expla unis orasied. Ti Largs working lou sl esouns for
‘Sound teenth of te Amersin or Berk workiors
“The ses response concede nat aieancel stl soils Bare
fel imied item ans cntices Aa mess, oper leet nd mil
fable proscar sell edit, bu now on a globalized and nor a
‘atonal basis
"The covlutionary imasination ofthe ewetith century took 2
Social efszence poise the peveranan collec” tore ooh he
‘working case tht srieratd fom te Stood lust Revolon,
‘ofthe great industrial plans of Ptrouad and Turi, Bark sd
Glasgow, Detoie and Billsnoare, Gaara and Sa Paulo Bute
live toda ami the rong of this working class ell, wick
was Sstematcally amanced inthe great embers fesive and
apical rstesctoring of the pase geneasion. Today working
tla is coneareaead in new ples = fo example inthe factory
Complexes of tke Peat River desi sathern China ~ snd i
lends of workplaces ~ apecmsckets and cll ene, fr insane
But these aoveies do not ream tha api is any lst dependent
bm ks Labout, ever dae our may ae lead #9 any Sensi
physical produce. Caliniso 2906 251)
“This second response extends Lenin's analysis of impecali, placing
lm stogge ona global gage a
Ianval Wallesten 2005) poineoat sat the whole word aow |
fully owned by sled states and tenes thatthe promptly open
“froniee zones shat sled European ad Americar impetalio of che
sincteendh ad exely twentieth sneer are gone for goad and cana
evar, There no longee any part of Nature that can be simp and
Srually pillaged for profi a0 salty-valve arcs where dosti
workers Gn he dispatched ro seck ther forms, aor compli soe
Marine 91
tre where pollution and her problems canbe spy dumpel by cor
Portions. Walleain argues furer that, derision of the
fort's huge agsclural populations, rpecialy in Indi, Chind and
Tien Areca, is abo proending fase So that she “rexerve ery” oF
Tabour thar se alowed capitie to pets wages doveeard Sor
decades se being denned, Pally Wallet thinks that the long
nye spread of lieral democracy and human Fights 1 now encom
fas the large majority of the work's population wil peogessnely
ash op wages snd en she conan ates expoiation ofthe Suh’
Socken, Topstar thse tends wl Fore 3 feslancing of the words
‘Sonomic apd pli power i favour of the lal proleeea.
eolegies and consclousness
Marxian bewen las rss efined by is eaonship
fo the mane Of production in te economic sem, and clas for
fel thar hasan 4 sore coascounsets of en poston ad
tae should Ke done about it Tat incon ables Marsa to
pln hy che peoktarar so fen fi olive pv the ak signed
tpivin the Marxie heory of eto
te tks 1920s the elon Maren Antonio Grams developed te soa
cepa “hegemony? to explain wiy workers im espa wcities 20
‘ea ace nor cebelious Capitals ean promote 4 hogan set of
‘ess, accepted by all slgsfane casein voles. Thee det a0 di
Seminaed y eduction ests, shurches, newspaper rio snd sk
‘ahon. Ths taken or grand set of Delite and vac defines
the boundaries of nutimatethoushs, debates and poles! coafice
Everyone Becomes convinced hat there is alternative to th way
‘hinge are. So awl democratic parties may eal for a limited sds
‘ion of tacome = but oe for dm ced fo aa unuseceonomil ser
Even democracy is complicit by giving workers the luson thar they
ave a ssl sy. Foe Moore (19575878) 3 "semoeratie republic ete
pian polisal shell or capitan. Maret concur wah ite theo
fis thas elections the competion of interest groups apd lgsaive
Akbare see asidethow
Lubec profess a commiamens to human sights that ace univer:
sal applicable ro and enjoved by all members of sos. Marxist theo
st poine out that sm practice th enor tse Pate property sgh
Work in favous of those with large amounts of property and apne
Those wih litle oe no propery The rights fee expeesion may be
joyod vary esaly by wedthy media proprietors $8 the osenalite
‘hey hie Such a nihe sles easly enjoyed by radical eis of te cap
"alae gem, who wil offen ind therwelesinvenigaed by the plc, 92 _Theore ofthe Democrat State
shunned by crployers and harested by the criminal jus ysten for
‘arr poecal views. Fesedom of sociation rarely a problem for the
‘teat, but workers ma find ws pused to cestrct where, when and
wth cam assemble and nga.
Government and Policy Making
Marsiss insist shar government poliey making should sever be ana
ijeed a solaton from the dkectialproesee and class cont thi
Src basis t economic and 30 f politcal le. They examine che state
dis workings n oli fashion, i erm of how te ste gener
ied by and then replat, cles sruggle. Among Marxists there are
“ce main ssoune the sce expels society. The ist eats the
‘fare stan itamene of ope suing expat clas. A second account
pes ou thatthe se sat somtimes be an abies of class condi.
{The thd emphsnas the acca fonctions thatthe sate mS Re
foum for she maiotnance and sabi of the apie system, We
‘amine thse views in
“The State as instrument of capitalist contol
‘Marx hse! orginally consepraaiad che state in capt socein
in nerument ins conoid by he aiag elas. Ax Mare aed
nga pur i in the Communi Mafesto: “The exeouave of the
oven tage but ¢comminee for managing the common sis of
‘he whole bourgeosies Thos he state i seafled by personnel closely
Sonnested with and sontoled by she capitals cls There are St
Scout and pola! connections esween the owners and manages of
itty corporations and leaders of government, be they sled offs
‘hurcauecrs. Today, proponents of thi arama view
‘Seve wih ce sbeor'sobvecaion eae in the USA business leaders
trove decay ini goveramental oie [se Chapter 3, In Europe te
Tinks rus move icc through parties, polieal donations and social
eeworks As Lonin pur fy the Hera democratic state i ‘ed BF 4
‘Rous thea to capil intere and to courses of action Eat
"vance economic grow and enforce capitalist domination
Tn ihe ih te cena purpose of policy-makers isthe comtainmes
cof presutt Hom below’ [Suibend 1969), 1 eepress workers, diver
Soce! aueation fom oppceston and equa, and deflecepoiical
Timest onto acres dicsionsry sus. However, because Rens and
orporstonscomipece agains each other, nd because they offen lok
nip co thee shoresers poi eperally ia overexpoiing thei
Maren 93
worker the state may Someries intervene in ways tha sabilze capi
Re the one tems nur ase sonerneless oppose by specific capital
cay (potanc, inspec porous the cresbon of 3 Limited wallace
iat Ghd a somemhas more erewhanded repulsion of about mack
ieSvcrament tay be necded > Read off sal unrest. But long
by gover of lageacae divergence berveen the sate ans boot
ow incre is feasible in ental view. fe parila, once
oe re of petal sat ene slacken he inser ew
‘Sefer that capi neres il cthesy see ro corel ceiribo-
il aati They wl once again wan to roll bck welfare wate
BE ZEx ciminae socal regulation of captalae processes, and et
SSelequalises expand unchecked. Thee ernds can Se observed in
‘22fbauwed oval equates of counmis sock asthe United Se,
{ated Rigdon and Aasteaa since the 1980s,
‘ne state as ariter Denvezn classes
‘Mac and especially Engels alo envisaged shat somes the stare
MUL Act aun ater etn socal clases, a tines when lass
Soule was evenly balanced, Periods of tis Ki had occred in the
SSege berween the sing bourgoosie and che asocrts and mon-
oot the ena mode of peoducton irom she sean to thee
Sch contin Europe. tn cpa society, the Bourgeile2d the
‘een clave rhe at ines be uly balanoed. Ths anal gts
BOSaE ier of stare power far more coiceovee chee ster, and
Tbe oe some capralae tates fo ade cadcalydiflerzne approaches
from oes,
The Bighcont) Dramaive of Louis Napoleon Mace appiod chit
sug a explain Fans lps vo sieatoeship under Napoleon
1558 Napoleon ll cased tp econ te ness of worker ap
flats and agrcaltral landowners, The developmens of fain ond
‘Suna in tke 1920s and 1950s cool abo be nerpreted as adially
onal forces being able fo take coiel ofthe ete a. ress of &
illeg config between she Bourseosie and pole Smal, the
Fersutence of diatorhpe im Spar, Porsgal and Greece int the
{Dos andere Feguen or to mary coups in Latin American and
ua comers ntl the late 1980s, al sugars thar capitals fas 20
‘Rarwat push towasde liberal democracy sead mary oF eae
Clas oe poet ineris can penoaally take advantage of abs
“Stung of cpiest and rorsapitait fore e seize contol ofthe ae.
‘beer ae cegimes may subvert liveral democracy, or they may ace
ising pelongedtcansiconcowacts eral democracy, especially in
the now sumerousseidemocraces Regimes as dssimiar a modern D4_Thecries ofthe Democratic Sate
Russia and Singapore als show tha acbite sate arrangements a by
‘no means emporsy phenomens, ut can insted tech over decades,
Some Marsus argued that the atbier sate his become exerive
ein extabished liberal democracies Poulaezas 1978), For eanee,
‘when the French Fourth Republe in the lie 1950s became locked
‘sous decolonizason cones tha cool! nlther win noe reoe to
abandon, fs in Veram and sen in Ageia, was forced to acept
‘what wat almost s soup dat by General Cicer de Gall. He rook
power as President, legimated himsl ia relsendny and changed te
Frenc consution fom a paclamentary t9 an extutve dominated
system, with adie elected and powerkl president. In other coun
tes sich asthe USA and UK; where competion bermeen partir eo
contol sae power i appacentiy more esliem, plies! conol seer
Seiter state aangement takes the form of 8 ruling onsen Span
Sing actos ehe main pary competitors Party lasers enensbly om
ete for poplar suppor, bus mprazice the sare po-cpitais poles
ecimplemente! weceser wine secure
Tn ‘Corporate plial syteme sich a2 Aussi, Germany and eh
Scandinavian couteis, poly gts made by arcenen between Pook
exetutive branch offal, business leer amd ion leaders Tae
Sgreements may oe mayo he submited to patament fort cubic:
stamp. On a Maris account this Kind of formal sorpocatism Ijin
anothe way co co-op labout anion leaders aad preven he workers
lurupcing capi. Part ofthe corporat Sargia + tha union
leaders discipine thee memlers, and sop them stking. tr eetien
unions get guarantees when ecomer to Wage rte, socal insurance
tnd other matesal Benefits ~ bie Marsies believe that the Berga &
slays hes seed in favour of busines
“The sate a cbiter balances cau force, but for Macs cs never
substantively sete Ie manages clas sonic, bt i des nt 30 en
tabi. The arbiter sae iss iss on mantining socal ove, Mtr
and semindemocranc regimes often impceon,exscute wr isappene
iefoving dissenters, and crash trade rion mlancy. They cat oven
oesasionally take populist action gsineecaptlstraeresty seh
‘tnponingconos foreign exchange markets and movers of eae
ial or mandating prise feces in iaionary crs. Bat once the rst
ispot thse mensures ve gucky abandoned
‘The functional sate
A thi Marxist view see he state as performing key mscesiary fans
‘ons forthe capitalise economic stcemy some of which ike the rai
tenance of order) may even look ke they ate in cvetyane' ners
“is view Sis in Macy's mote cei work o economics in Des
apa. On tis account mater itie win aca savages the ate
Sparta, fr the sates vompald co Umpement pee much the
‘ie pli policy respective of whether w ran'by& cts
‘[Link] or crons socal dere ps
fesonall representing the worker. The presence of abunee of socal
Idoences nd newoetacomne-ing spits, pltiars sd bares
tats (ofthe sore treed nthe inumencioe Mars nd ee
Sonus of ce sate) are ieleare. Everything depends ncn om he
Ses stra postion in son wo the apuaise economy
‘ealsness 1969
remove among the sks the state mst perform ithe tetion of
socal and economic conditions conse to cpa ceri ouch
SS scunng pate poverty rphn slowog laws of coment and
ioiining 2 presale mong sip) Ths ke sccomelseos
{erate ofthe ste =the eed Boos the ascumelscon of coe
{which icin tum achiwed by promoting of cononie gromts
{Greoaoe 1988, According to Block (199% che se may dal
hove a grea intrest m he wellbeing of capt economic grow
than do captalis themselves. Policans and goverment manages
wile butt sty quickly by aa seonomc dowaturspobtans fe
eli and tots, and. governs bureaus lose sevens
Conversely the economy is fusing, se lac of potas in pom
and goverment burecraves wil be tanh happee Thun tee
Bemaent icesve for goternters co diver and provide oe police
that ace as conducive ot pombe to sseiing bases mvesnen ad
the contdesce of franca marker. Indieal corporations ma hap
fly support deciaons that are Bad for capitan ae 0 whale oe
Scinple if they cn sci goreramear conse fot hewseles thot
‘teinffcien snd involve eng tones
in this lighe capiam without she sat is asdly conctivabl
Varegulted competion wool! cay descend nto chaos, We cod
inagine an economy in which tare was compel unrpaaed cons
feotion beween corporations at nite in ex dyna noel
Jovtr Goveramart even plc action tach mutes depends on
Sorporaions oe tc vcin's lanes sing money to fee plce
Imvnigatons, meaning the iw eaoremen fours the weet
evar propery could be ascued only by for contolled {ar wrest
‘peas by each individual propery owner and ganized cent
weld havea competsve advange fs tv te maa Capel of
ain in te 1990) A soil sen where peat popery see,
lat contact ae enforced, ands hase nara posted
ssonageous ales. ere nh econo cal ek 96 Theoret of the Democratic Sate
tecive setion problem’ esting his soe of soil system: cach ind
‘ul captalbe corporation wosld catonlly put is own immed
[feces in profi sy, and eck 20 avoid contbutng eo the “public
‘odd of scurng the capraleoeder (ei Thi ithe same problem we
euued sy Chapee 2 where it gees sche way of indus who
Share 2 ueral inst forming, foning and conibuting © 20
imreist group to advance sha ieee Foc expats taken a 3 whole,
{BESenc cnn as a answer ti collie action problem. Once che
incre pace politeans and bureaucrats have an aed terest
‘hroring tha capri flourses ~ because state reveries thems
Shu so the financial seiinrvest of polieians and goverment maa
gers come to depend on that Hoisting. In aion to providing the
Ses legal and pipe! infasrerare, de sete aces co abe api
{Bm by aimaning socal order eheough pole, court and prison,
Te analysing she sbb and flow of government policies Marxist isi
shar we should aimaps Took atthe big pictur especialy coneering
ow the varus practic of clas domirion and the stacare of che
‘ae inaation tothe enor combine 9 produce paula pacers
Si foverment secon. The purse araegy of focusing on one small
‘TeBion may be quae sisleading ~f for example thst devon can be
inpepreced aes concesion 0 molfy a ptentaly oublsome secon
Sethe working clas. To take am example, in 1973 = Beh
Conservative government got ng a serous conc with ting coat
fnives (who worked forthe gorerame-owned Naval Coal Board
{Tad were eucal o power guncravon ithe UNI. At coal fosks bess
forum low the Prine Minster pur te cOUnTS on9 an EMERY o>
omic foocng, and in eal 197 called a general election eo derrmine
(tho ruled countrys the ines ion or the government, I ast
Soren were equivocal about who was responsible for che ers ans
Tavreed 2 minority Libose (sacl democasie) government, which
fromplr sled tie. svike with a. geneous finale setlement
Prurats rit sce thi outcome as oot ofthe polis! power of ee
nites union, Br a 1985 the power of the mine workers sad Chir
inom was broken by 3 sffeens Conservative. goverment ander
Sinngare Diath, catfll pspared with new ans-onion lepton,
iatio encourage 9 break-away modest ners union, ad baving
‘reensely divesed power supplies away fom coal A few sears ler
Sehot was kf ofthe oa industry was pivaszed, and by she mid 1990s
the UR coal indir eased to est Completely deprived of thei ceo
omic esos, the rang sowne and rags whose song omen
‘hey spre sussined ihe mont sal ske of 1973-74 sometimes
‘Kigenerned into contes of crime and drograking. So while the fis
(enflatappaceny showed the sete responaing va liberal democrats
Maron 97
rocestes 10 foster worker? intrest, win sole generation the
er milancy nas completely crushed and thee industry destroyed
wee atances of ove? conflict amaze the ways ia which an
Py independent sate apparatss ats against a pose eb
Tes working cos Buta far more peevasve and impotent ears of
lowe om i co convince works the poor, dialed youth ad ds
‘eidet ete minora thi the policaeconome sem operates
eri ners too The later ir ale by Marsts the “Tegiimation’
1 att, ecaua i iolved raking the capitalist pla eanomy
sree eecmate nthe cy of those who actual safer rox fom
eater in ewo rnin was, The feb ehough actly proving
veeryal resources to cushion the working clas from economic rests
SES other neabilis generated by the capa economy. The
"Spon ofthe welfare sae can be inerpsted in these ems (Oe
Sood workers are inuured by government against unemployment
over, old ages sckacss and nj The second way chat legacy
ovety a shreath the many sat function nar ceeate and sustain Le
Sous ensuring tar the Ise that tvour the capitals lass ae also
‘feeped by all other classes,
Tbe dupe when he owas sl influenced by Marxism and before be
tetuae ibe the Comin social theost Jurgen Habermas (1976)
TSSke of eicmason rte in weich ch eapale sae fled to
ers eke competing demands upon The basic demand was the
astmulstiow iapertive ming forse scacaral postion ofthe
Sit in eeladon to she conomy. The legiimanion imperative posted
Sisto ver diferent dircions, inter of is nea to sPpeae
otis to the citgenry, Jad provide income security trough sox
(ie "This sor of analsais was developed forher by Olle (1958),
Atho pokied co 2 systema cons i te welface sa, torn Between
wre Rodeos’ and decommodiicazon Decommasiicton is by
‘Snicon the we of nerentinie ssl polices curb the msabiiy
Shcspitism, sich polices may salle the polial and economic
SLeERISbor he incooe secant they cesteundeemines senses to
ote nd so imerrapes the supply of wlng labour to busines.
hein aeking parallel ore fo she alysis of marke heals i
aned in Chapet Marks liberals believe te solution sobwncs «0
