[Land Reforms] British Land tenure System: features,

Consequences of Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari,

Mahalwari

Prologue

 General studies Mains Paper 3: Land reforms in India.

 But that is not ‘the end’ of land reform. Same topic and
points also relevant for

GS land reform topic indirectly

Mains associated with
paper

1  Freedom Struggle – its

various stages and
important contributors
/contributions
 Social empowerment
 poverty and
developmental issues
 Post-independence
consolidation

2  Ministries and
Departments of the
Government;
 Pressure groups and
formal/informal
associations and their
role in the Polity.
 Functions and
 responsibilities of the
Union and the States,
 Indian Constitution:
significant provisions
 The role of NGOs in
Development
processes.
 Issues relating to
poverty and hunger
 e-governance

3  Linkages between
development and
spread of extremism

Besides, Land reform topic is also part of many optional subjects

in UPSC Mains:

Optional Subject land reforms

included in:

Political Science Planning and

Paper 1 Economic
Development : Green
Revolution, land
reforms and agrarian
relations

Sociology Paper 2 Agrarian social

structure – evolution
of land tenure
 system, land reforms.

Geography Paper 2 land tenure and land

reforms;

Economics Paper 2 Agriculture: Land

Reforms and land
tenure system, Green
Revolution and
capital formation in
agriculture.

History Paper 2 1. Land revenue

settlements in
British India:
The Permanent
Settlement;
Ryotwari
Settlement;
Mahalwari
Settlement;
2. Economic
impact of the
revenue
arrangements;
3. Rise of landless
agrarian
labourers;
Impoverishment
of the rural
society.
 4. Land reforms

This [Land Reforms] Article series will (try to) cover following
issues:

1. Three land tenure system of the British: Their features,

implications
2. Peasant struggles in British Raj: causes and consequences
3. Land reforms, Before independence: by Congress
governments in Provinces, their benefits and limitations
4. Land reforms, After independence: abolition of Zamindari,
Land Ceiling and Tenancy reforms. Their benefits and
limitations
5. Land reforms by non-governmental action: Bhoodan,
Gramdan, NGOs etc. their benefits and limitations
6. Land reforms in recent times: Computerization of land
records, Forest rights Act, land reform policy etc. their
benefits and limitations.

Sources used for this [Land reform] Article series

1. IGNOU MA (Rural Development) Course code MRDE 003

2. Bipin Chandra: India’s struggle for independence
3. Bipin Chandra: Freedom Struggle, NBT
4. Bipin Chandra: Indian since independence
5. Sumit Sarkar: Modern India (1885, 1947)
6. Rajiv Ahir, Brief History of Modern India, Spectrum
7. Ramchandra Guha: India After Gandhi
8. pib.nic.in, Indianexpress, TheHindu, PRSIndia etc. as and
where necessary

What is land reform?

 Robin Hood took money from rich and redistributed among

the poor.
  Similarly land reform involves taking away land from rich
and redistributing among landless.
 Although land reform involves not just about ‘redistribution
of land’. It involves many other reforms, example:

Static (50s to 80s) 1. Abolish

intermediaries,
Zamindar,
Jagirdar etc.
2. land ceilings-
redistribute
surplus land
3. Tenancy
reforms

current (after 80s) 1. computerize

land records
2. forest rights act
3. land
consolidation

Formal definitions

definition Land reforms mean:

#1 Improving land tenure and

institutions related to
agriculture.

#2  redistribution of
property rights
 For the benefit of the
 landless poor.

#3  integrated program
 to remove the barriers
for economic and social
development
 Caused by deficiencies
in the existing
land tenure system.

Observe that word “tenure/Tenancy” keeps reappearing. So

what does that mean?

Tenancy:

 Tenancy in derived from the word ‘tenure’ = ‘to hold’.

 Tenancy= Agreement under “tenant” holds the land/building
of the original owner.

Players in Land Tenancy system?

 1. enforces tenancy
The State
contracts
2. Maintains law and
order.

Earns revenue for doing 1+2

 The owner: the guy who

Owner
owns land
 They pay Revenue to
the State.
 Rich farmers,
Zamindars etc. own
hundreds of acres of
land. Can’t cultivate it
on their own.
 Similarly minors,
disabled, widows,
soldiers, fishermen may
also own land but they
can’t cultivate for one
reason or another.
 So these people ‘lease’
their land to other
farmers (tenants).

 They cultivate on land

Superior
leased from the ^owner.
tenants  These are hereditary
tenants. Meaning they
cultivate same land
generation after
generation.
 They pay rent to the
 owner.
 They have almost the
same rights as the
owners.
 They can
sell, mortgage or rent
out the land.
 They cannot be evicted
against their will.
  Other names: tenants at
Inferior
will, subordinate
Tenants tenants, temporary
tenants, subtenants.
 They till the land leased
from other
tenants/owners.
 They pay rent to the
owners/superior
tenants.
 They have limited rights
over the land.
 They cannot sell or
mortgage the land.
 They can be evicted
easily.

 Sharecroppers=
Share
cultivate other person’s
croppers land (Owner,
Superior/inferior tenant)
 They get share from
the produce, and
remaining goes to the
tenant/owner.
 The equipment and
inputs items may be
provided owner/tenant
 They have no rights
whatsoever on the land.
 They cannot sell, rent or
mortgage the land.
 Can be evicted easily.
 1. They get paid in cash or
Landless
kind by the owners (or
laborers tenants)
2. Sometimes work under
begari/bonded labour.

Ok well and good. So far we know: what is land reform and who
are the players in a land tenancy system. We have to study land
‘reform’. Meaning some badass thuggary was going on,
otherwise if everything was well and good, then there was no
need for ‘reforms’! So what was the cause of
thuggary/grievance/resentment? Ans. Land tenure systems of
British.

Land Tenure System: British Legacy

In the initial years, East India company faced following

problems:

1. Demand for British goods in India=negligible. (Because

East India company was yet to destroy our handicraft and
artisans)
2. Under the Mercantilism policy of British: one country’s gain
required another country/colony’s loss. Therefore, British
Government prohibited East India company from exporting
gold and silver from England to pay for Indian goods
import.
3. Company needed truckload of ca$H to maintain an army for
defeating and subjugating native rulers.

East India company came up with following solution:

1. start collecting revenue from Indians

2. Use that Revenue to buy Indian raw material- export to
England
 3. Import finished goods back to India=> make profit.

But this solution had a problem: the revenue system under

Mughals and Native rulers=too complex for the British to
understand, and there were no coaching classes or Wikipedia to
help white men understand this complex system.

Lord Cornwallis comes with a novel idea: just ‘outsource’ the tax
collection work to desi-middlemen: Zamindars, Jagirdar,
Inamdars, Lambardar etc. Consequently, British introduced
three land tenure systems in India:

Tenure Presidency Features:

system

Permanent 1. Bengal  Who? Cornwallis + John

settlement 2. Bihar Shore. In Bengal + Bihar.
1793
 (BeBi)  Company ‘outsourced’
the revenue collection
work to Zamindars
 Very exploitative. Led to
many revolts. Hence
British didn’t implement it
in other parts of India.
 In Awadh/Oudh, Lord
Delhousie wanted to
implement Mahalwari but
then 1857’s munity broke
out. Later Lord Canning
introduced Talukdari sys
tem-similar to Permanent
settlement.

Ryotwari 1. Madras,  Who? Thomas Munro

2. Bombay and Read in Madras.
3. Assam (1820)
 Who? Wingate and
(MBA) Goldsmid in Bombay
(1835). In 1820 it was
tried in Poona but failed.
Later Wingate and
Goldsmid start Bombay
Survey System in 1835
for individual settlement
system.
 Company directly
collected revenue from
farmers.
 Madras was initially
under Permanent
settlement type system
 but Thomas Munro
convinced the directors
of East India company to
convert this area under
Ryotwari / direct
settlement system.

Mahalwari 1. Gangetic  Company ‘outsourced’

valley revenue collection work
2. north-west to Village community
provinces, itself. –Technically village
3. parts of headman (Lambardar)
central was made responsible for
India tax collection
4. Punjab  North West Provinces
initially had Permanent
settlement but
transformed to Mahalwari
system by Holt
Mackenzie.(1822)

Overall coverage

Tenure system % of Agri.land in

British Provinces

Zamindari 57

Ryotwari 38

Mahalwari 5
Total 100%

Permanent Settlement: Features

1. Cornwallis + John Shore. In Bengal + Bihar. 1793

2. All the land belonged to the state and was thus at their
disposal.
3. British designated zamindars (local tax collectors) , as
owners of the land in their district. This system was
adopted in several forms such as Zamindari, Jagirdari,
Inamdari, etc.
4. These zamindars had to collect revenue from farmers and
deliver to the British.
5. Converted Zamindars into landlords. The right to the land
conferred on the zamindars was
6. Revenue amount was fixed at the beginning and remained
the same permanently.
7. Zamindar were given freedom to decide how much to
demand from the cultivators. Stiff penalties on defaulters.
8. there was a provision of keeping a portion of taxes for the
zamindar himself.
9. Zamindar’s right over land was
1. Alienable: meaning British could take it away and give
it to another Zamindar, if first Zamindar did not meet
the Revenue collection ‘targets’.
2. Rentable: meaning Zamindar himself could further
outsource his work among more smaller zamindars
3. Heritable: meaning Zamindar dies, his son/brother etc
would get it.
10. Farmers became tenants. Two types
1. Tenants-at-will: farmers who cultivated on
Zamindar’s land. They had no rights. They could be
evicted as per whims and fancies of Zamindar.
 2. Occupancy Tenants: farmers who owned land. Their
occupancy rights were heritable and transferrable and
were not tampered with as long as they paid their
taxes.

Permanent Settlement: Consequences

#for British

 gave financial security for the British administration.

 Cost of running administration decreased. Because British
had to collect Revenue from only a few Zamindars instead
of lakhs of farmers.
 British got new political allies (Zamindars). They would
keep their own militia to suppress peasant revolts, and act
as ‘informers’ and remained loyal to British rule.

#learning from mistake

 Permanent settlement system led to many agrarian revolts.

 Government’s income declined over the years, Because
Revenue was permanently fixed + number of intermediaries
kept increasing.
 Hence, British learned from the mistake and did not extent
this permanent settlement/Zamindari system to the whole of
India. Instead, they established Ryotwari and Mahalwari
systems in the remaining parts.

#Farmers lose bargaining power

 Textile industry was the driver of industrial revolution in

Britain. = raw cotton imported + finished textile exported to
India.
 To prevent any ‘competition’ from Desi textile industries,
the British imposed variety of taxes and tariffs on
 them=>desi textile business collapsed. Lakhs of weavers
became unemployed, migrated to villages in search of
work.
 Since they did not own any land, they had to
become tenants-at-will for Zamindars.
 Now Zamindars had the monopoly of controlling livelihood
of thousands of people. They extorted more and more
taxes.
 Moreover, the “begar”, unpaid work which the tenants were
forced to perform on the zamindar’s land, took larger
proportions. On the average, it amounted to 20-25 % of the
lease.
 Western Bengal: Farmers got divided into two categories i)
Jotedars (Rich farmers) ii)Bargadar (Sharecroppers)
 Eastern Bengal: Jute cultivation. Independent farmers with
small to middlesize land holdings

#More outsourcing

 Permanent settlement system created landed aristocracy

for the first time in India. Zamindars used to chow down
part of the land Revenue collected. Thus they became
wealthy and lazy. They ‘outsourced’ their work to more
intermediaries / sub-tenants.
 It became quite common to have 10 to 20 intermediaries,
more or less without any specific function, between the
government and the farmers, And they all had a share in
the cultivation yield + other illegal taxes.
 As a result, 70-80% of farmer’s produce went to just
Revenue and commissions only=> poverty, debts.
 None of these middlemen or Zamindars invest money in
agricultural improvement or new technology. They just kept
increasing rents. Hence traditional agriculture did not shift
to capitalist agriculture, unlike other economies.
Ryotwari System

By Sir Thomas Munro at first in Madras State and then adopted

in Bombay, and Assam. But Why?

1. In permanent settlement areas, land Revenue was fixed.

But over the years, agriculture prices/exports should
increase but government’s income did not increase.
(Because middlemen-zamindars chowed it down)
2. Zamindars were oppressive- leading to frequent agrarian
revolts in the permanent settlement areas.
3. In Bihar, Bengal, there existed Zamindar/feudal lords since
the times of Mughal administration. But Madras, Bombay,
Assam did not have Zamindars / feudal lords with large
estates. So, hard to ‘outsource’ work, even if British
wanted.
4. No middlemen in tax collection=> farmer has to pay less
taxes=>increased purchasing power=>will improve demand
for readymade British products in India.

Consequently, all subsequent land tax or revenue settlements

made by the colonial rulers were temporary settlements made
directly with the peasant, or ‘ryot’ (e.g., the ryotwari settlements).

This model was based on English yeomen farmers.

Ryotwari System: Features

1. government claimed the property rights to all the land, but

allotted it to the cultivators on the condition that they pay
taxes. In other words, It established a direct relation
between the landholder and the government.
2. Farmers could use, sell, mortgage, bequeath, and lease the
land as long as they paid their taxes. In other words
Ryotwari system gave a proprietary rights upon the
landholders.
 3. IF they did not pay taxes, they were evicted
4. taxes were only fixed in a temporary settlement for a period
of thirty years and then revised.
5. government had retained the right to enhance land revenue
whenever it wanted
6. Provided measures for revenue relief during famines but
they were seldom applied in real life situation.

Ryotwari System: Consequences

 Farmers had to pay revenue even during drought and

famines, else he would be evicted.
 Replacement of large number of zamindars by one giant
zamindar called East India Company.
 Although ryotwari system aimed for direct Revenue
settlement between farmer and the government but over
the years, landlordism and tenancy became widespread.
Because textile weavers were unemployed= they started
working as tenant farmers for other rich farmers. In many
districts, more than 2/3 of farmland was leased.
 Since Government insisted on cash revenue, farmers
resorted to growing cash crops instead of food crops. And
cash crop needed more inputs=>more loans and
indebtedness.
 After end of American civil war, cotton export declined but
government didn’t reduce the revenue. As a result most
farmers defaulted on loans and land was transferred from
farmers to moneylenders.

Mahalwari System

 Location: Gangetic valley, north-west provinces, parts of

central India and Punjab. But why?
 In North India and Punjab, joint land rights on the village
were common. So, British decided to utilize this utilize this
 traditional structure in a new form known as Mahalwari
system.

Mahalwari System: Features

1. unit of assessment was the village.

2. taxation was imposed on the village community since it had
the rights over land.
3. The village community had to distribute these tax collection
targets among the cultivators
4. Each individual farmer contributed his share in the revenue.
5. Everyone was thus liable for the others’ arrears.
6. Farmers had right to sell or mortgage their property.
7. The village community did not necessarily mean entire
village population. It was a group of elders, notables of high
castes.
8. A village inhabitant, called the lambardar, collected the
amounts and gave to the British
9. British periodically revised tax rates.

Mahalwari system: Consequences

 Since Punjab, Northern India = fertile land. So British

wanted to extract maximum Revenue out of this region.
Land Revenue was usually 50% to 75% of the produce.
 As generations passed- fathers would divide land among
sons=> fragmentation=>farms became smaller and smaller
and productivity declined.
 But still British demanded Revenue in cash. So, farmers
had to borrow money to pay taxes in the case of crop
failures.
 As a result, more and more farms passed into the hands of
moneylenders. When farmer failed to repay debt,
Moneylender would take away his farm but he has no
interest in self-cultivation so he’d leasing it to another
farmer.
  Thus, sub-leasing, indebtedness and landlessness became
more and more common in Mahalwari region

Why is it called Modified Zamindari system?

 Because in Mahalwari areas, the Land revenue was fixed

for the whole village and the village headman (Larnbardar)
collected it. Meaning theoretically Village itself was a
landlord/zamindar.
 Other names for this system: Joint rent, ‘joint lease’,
‘brotherhood’ tract (mahal) holding and ‘gram wari’ etc.

Result of British Land Tenure system: Perpetual indebtedness,

exploitation. When we gained independence, picture was
following:

Farmers Agro-land of India

7% villagers (richest, Owned 75% of fertile

Zamindar and other land
intermediaries)

48% of villagers Owned 25% of fertile

(tenants, sub- land. (=imagine the
tenants) land fragmentation
and size of
landholdings)

45% of villagers Owned no land.

Worked as farm
laborers, petty
traders, craftsman
 etc.

Total 100% Total 100%

Consequences of British Tenure systems

Land becomes a property

Before British During British rule

 private  Introduced
ownership of private
land did not ownership of
exist land
 land belonged to  This divided
the village village into 1)
community landlords
 Land was never 2)tenants
treated as the 3)labourers
property of the  This this
kings - material
benevolent or transformation
despotic, Hindu, the agrarian
Muslims or society in India
Buddhist. witnessed
 Land was not profound social,
treated as economic,
individual political, cultural
cultivator’s and
property either. psychological
change.
 with
generations-
 land kept
dividing among
sons=>land
fragmentation,
diseconomies of
scale, lower
production.

Panchayat lost Prestige

Before British During British rule

Land matters and  Farmer had to

civil disputes were approach British
adjudicated by courts for
matters related
Panchayat within the
to Revenue,
village. property
attachment,
debt-mortgage
etc.
 Panchayats lost
their power and
prestige

Food insecurity

Before British During British rule

 farmers usually  Since British

grew foodcrops- demand
wheat, maize, revenue in
paddy, jowar, CASH, farmers
 bajra and pulses resorted to
growing cash
crops: indigo,
sugarcane,
cotton=> Area
under foodcrop
cultivation
declined
 Then, Lacks of
People would
die of starvation
during famines.
 Even after
independence,
and before
green
revolution- India
was not self-
sufficient in
grain
production.

 at independence India was faced with an acute food

shortage
 near-famine conditions in many areas.
 Between 1946 and 1953 about 14 million tonnes of
foodgrains worth Rs 10,000 million had to be imported =
this was nearly half of the total capital investment in the
First Five Year Plan (1951–56).
Canals

Before British During British rule

 Kings  British did

constructed construct new
ponds, canals canals
and wells to  Positive: more
improve area brought
agriculture under
 irrigation taxes cultivation,
were moderate. particularly in
Punjab.
 but most canals
caused salinity
and
swamps=>declin
ed productivity
over the years
 Taxes on
Irrigation were
quite high.
Therefore Canal
irrigation was
used to grow
sugar, cotton
and other cash
crops, instead of
food
crops=>food
insecurity,
starvation and
death during
 famines.

Cash economy & indebted farmers

Before British During British rule

 Land Revenue  British obliged

was paid in kind. the farmers to
 Village was a pay revenue in
self-sufficient cash and not in
economy with kind.
cooperative  The land
units. revenue was
 e.g. blacksmith increased
would make arbitrarily to
farm-tools, would finance British
get yearly wars and
payment in conquests. But
grains/kind. The farmers had
 Moneylending, no right to
mortgaging were appeal in the
negligible. court of law.
 Farmers had no
understanding of
cash economy +
frequent
droughts and
famines
 Hence they had
to borrow money
from
unscrupulous
grain traders
 and money-
lenders=>
compound
interest rate,
perpetual
indebtedness.
 Eventually, the
typical Indian
villager was
stripped of all
savings, caught
in debt trap,
mortgaging
almost
everything-
whether
personal
jewelry, land
and livestock, or
tools and
equipment.

 Collective village  A new village

life based on came-where
common existence was
economic based on
interests and competition and
resultant struggle among
cooperative independent
relations individuals.
  Farmers shifted from food crop to Cash crops. But cash
crops need more inputs in terms of seeds, fertilizer, and
irrigation, hence farmer had to borrow more.
 This brought moneylenders, Shroff, Mahajan, Baniya, into
limelight- they were in control of village land without any
accountability.
 Thus British land revenue system transfered ownership of
land from farmer to moneylender.
 towards about the end of the colonial period, The total
burden on the peasant of interest payments on debt and
rent on land could be estimated at a staggering Rs 14,200
million
 According to RBI’ss survey in 1954:

credit supplier gave ___% of

farmers’ loan
requirements

Moneylenders 93%

Government 3%

cooperative societies 3%

commercial banks 1%

Serfdom
Before: slavery/bonded labour/Begari almost non-existent. But
During British raj
  Zamindars gave loan to farmers/laborers and demanded
free labour in return.
 This practice prevented farmers/laborers to bargaining
wages.
 Begari, Bonded labour, or debt bondage became a
common feature in large parts of the country.
 Even in ryotwari areas, upper caste controlled the land.
Lower caste was reduced to sharecroppers and landless
laborers.

Rural Industry destroyed

Before British During and After

British rule
 India was  de-urbanization
steadily and de-
becoming more industrialization
urbanized, of India
 Significant  This led to even
portion of the greater
Indian pressures on
population living agriculture since
in large or small large categories
towns. of highly skilled
artisans and
non-agricultural
workers were
thrown out of
work.
 When the British
left, India had
become a
village-based
agricultural
economy.
 With an
enormous
population
pressure on
agriculture and
an adverse
land–man ratio
of about 0.92
acre per capita
at
independence.

 Even in Villages,  Trade tariffs and

 there was skilled excise duties
artisans like were set so as
weavers, to destroy Indian
potters, industries, and
carpenters, squeeze
metal-workers, domestic trade.
painters etc.  Bihar and
Bengal: severe
restrictions were
placed on the
use of inland
water-ways —
causing fishing
and inland
shipping and
transportation to
suffer.

Lack of Capitalist Agriculture

In most economies, the evolution is traditional
farming=>capitalist farming methods. But in India, it did not
happen, why?

1. Large landowners in zamindari and ryotwari areas leased

out their lands in small pieces to tenants.
2. Small tenants continued to cultivate them with traditional
techniques= low productivity.
3. Rich farmers/ zamindars lacked the riskbearing mindset for
capitalist mode of production (i.e. invest more money in
seeds, fertilizer, animal husbandry, contract farming, large-
scale capitalist agriculture using hired wage labour under
their direct supervision. etc).
 4. Even if they wanted to take ‘risk’, government did not give
any agricultural support, credit, insurance etc. yet
demanded high taxes.
5. It is not surprising, therefore, that Indian agriculture, which
was facing long-term stagnation, began to show clear signs
of decline during the last decades of colonialism.

farming technology in % of farmers

1951

wooden ploughs 97%

iron plough 3%

Use of improved Rare

seeds, artificial
fertilizers, etc

some more points

Drain of Independent Farmer /

Wealth tenant was hardly left
with any money to re-
investment in
agriculture. Most of his
‘surplus’ income/profit
went into paying taxes.
These taxes were used
for exporting raw
material from India to
Britain. = Drain of
 wealth.

Social when individuals or

Banditry small group of farmers
couldnot organize a
collective action against
Zamindars/government,
they started robbery
and dacoity.

When India got independence, the situation was:

VILLAGERS AGRO-LAND
ASSOCIATED WITH
FARMING

7% villagers (richest, Owned 75% of fertile

Zamindar and other land
intermediaries)

48% of villagers Owned 25% of fertile

(tenants, sub- land. (=imagine the
tenants) land fragmentation)

45% of villagers Owned no land.

Worked as farm
laborers.

Total 100% Total 100%

Mock Questions

5 marks

1. Important features of Munro settlement.

2. Mahalwari Settlement.
3. Superior and Inferior Tenants

12 marks: comment on following statements

1. British land tenure systems were moulded by greed and

desire to encourage certain type of agricultural exports.
2. Absentee landlordism was a consequence of Bengal’s
permanent settlement. Comment
3. Though the permanent settlement had serious defects, it
gave tranquility to the countryside and stability to the
government.
4. Permanent settlement disappointed many expectations and
introduced many results that were not anticipated.

15 marks

1. What the impact was of early British land tenure policy on

the villages of North and Western India?
2. Examiner the major factors shaping British Land revenue
policy in India. How did affect Indian society?
3. Describe the impact of British Policy on agrarian society.
4. What were the consequences of British rule on Indian
villages?
5. What were the three kinds of land settlement during British
rule in India? Briefly discuss their features and implications.
6. What do you understand by Commercialization of
agriculture? Discuss its impact on rural India.
[Land Reforms] Overall Achievements, Impact on Indian
society & Reasons for failure

Land Reforms: Overall Negative

In the previous articles, we discussed individual land reform

initiatives, their achievements and limitations. Now time for
overall positive and negative points of the Land reform initiatives
in India, by various Governments.

Jurisdiction

 ‘Land’ is a State subject under the Constitution=> different

States have evolved differently in the field of land
management.
 The Union can play only a limited role to play in this regard.
At most they can frame policy, release funds –but
implementation rests in the hands of State Government.
 Some states have moved quickly by passing necessary
legislations, while other states have adopted a slower and
piecemeal approach in this regard.
 Consequently there are considerable variations in the
results achieved by different states.
 Even in the same state- different regions show different
rate of progress.

UN report says: “In India there seems to be great inequality in

different states regarding the land reforms.…these land reforms
are not implemented in the true spirit.”
Outdated Land records
In Ryotwari areas (Bombay State, Madras State and Assam)

 Before independence, the government directly collected

land revenue from farmer. So, district officials kept up to
date land records for purpose of assessment and collection
of land Revenue.
 Village Accountant (VA) had to update the entries every
year.
 The superiors in the hierarchy closely supervised the work
of the VA.
 The records showed who owned the different plots of land
in the village, the area and boundaries of each plot, who
cultivated it, what crops were grown and how much was
payable to the government as land revenue.
 But after independence, this system fell into disarray.

Permanent settlement areas & Princely states: There was no

practice of the annual updating of records.

But after independence, state government did not pay attention

to land records.

 Gradually In most States, villages and field maps, records

of rights and land measurement records have become
obsolete.
 Tenancy reforms can only be implemented if there is proper
written records of tenancies and land ownership. This was
not always available because most of the time land leased
on oral agreement- nothing on paper.

Outdated land records = land disputes, land grabbing, court

cases, landowners evade ceilings=> Land reform remains
#EPICFAIL
Problem in North East

 The system of land records and land administration are

entirely different in the hilly and tribal tracts of north-eastern
States.
 In some of these areas, there was no legislation regarding
land and land related matters.
 Therefore, accurate land records do not exist.
 Jhuming or shifting cultivation is practiced. There is no
record of the area or the boundaries of plots allotted to
individuals. (+ the nuisance of illegal Bangladeshi Migrant
farmers)

Lack of budgetary $upport

 Cost of collecting land revenue (paperwork, staff-salary,

electricity etc.)= higher than the actual cash received under
land revenue. Therefore, many states don’t even bother
collecting land Revenue.
 Land revenue administration falls under “non-plan”
expenditure = doesn’t get much budgetary allocation.
 As a result, administration suffers because department
won’t hire many officers/employees, won’t bother building
new offices, buying new photocopiers, GPS survey devices,
jeeps etc.
 In many places, Village accountants don’t have a separate
office. Lack of photocopiers, computers= land records not
maintained properly.
 Many Tahsildars didn’t have telephones* and jeeps. So
they were out of touch from day-to-day bribery and
mismanagement by patwari @village level. (*we are talking
about 50-90s era, when India had more toilets than mobile
phones)
  Result? Land records are outdated => land disputes, land
grabbing and frequent litigations in courts. Poor people
suffer.

Bureaucratic apathy

officers  Today, many

live in patwaris, village
cities officers, Mandal
officers, revenue
inspectors etc. have
settled in small
towns/cities with
their families. They
sign files from
home, run office
through phone and
rarely visit the
villages.
 They write inquire
reports without
doing spot
inspections in
village.
 Villagers have to
visit town to get their
problem
resolved=costly
affair.
 Land mafia and rich
farmers get things
done by paying
bribes.
 WB: In West Bengal
there are no Village
 Accountants. The
Circle Inspector is
the functionary of
the Land
Administration
Department at the
lowest level. People
have to go to his
office for various
purposes.

bogus  Revenue officers

training are trained better in
court procedures
than in dispute-
resolution in a
humane manner.
 Hence they give
more emphasis on
form rather than
content, on letter
rather than spirit.
 They rely on
documents, stamp
papers, affidavits
but don’t bother to
make field visit, talk
with people to find
the ground reality.

Changed Today, District officers

focus (namely DM & SDM)
mainly focused on
  Conversion of Agri-
land into industrial
land
 SEZ/industrialization
related matter
 law and order
maintenance
 How to chow down
money from
MNREGA, IAY etc.
(or prevent it)

Hence, land reform

programs=low priority for
senior officers @District
level. They tend to ignore
the Tehsildar/Patwari’s
inefficiency/corruption.

Tarikh pe Because of above

Tarik reasons: a villager
cannot get problem
solved through
village/tehsil level officer.
He has to approach the
court. But

1. Majority of revenue
courts continue to
function in English
language, but
villagers don’t know
English.
 2. Revenue Courts
already choked with
thousands of cases
related to land. Poor
litigant cannot afford
making trips and
hiring lawyers

Result? In most cases

poor litigant will
compromise with the land
mafia/rich farmer/ex-
zamindar or just stop
pursuing the matter.

no Many state departments

coordinatio keep their own land-
n database e.g.
Agriculture, drinking
water, irrigation, animal
husbandry, forest etc.
But there is no linkage
amongst these different
data base.
In short, land reform= low priority for state government. All the
new initiatives (Computerization of records, Forest rights Act
have come from Union.)

Lack of Votebank
(From 50-90s)
  Target audience for land reforms= tenants, landless
agricultural labourers, SC/ST. But they were largely
unorganized (Except WB and Kerala). They were unable to
bring required pressure on the government for speedy
implementation of the land reforms.
 For political workers at grassroots are indifferent to land
reforms because it was easy to sway the ignorant voters on
desired political line according to religion and caste. The
Ignorance, poverty, illiteracy and inegalitarian system has
favoured such petty politics.
 Therefore land reform was more of a rhetoric rather than
real agenda of governments.

Powerless Panchyat

 Panchayats don’t have sufficient revenue sources of their

own.
 Money flow: Centrally sponsored schemes (named after
you know who)=>DRDA+Line deparments @State
government=>Panchayat.
 Result? Panchayats are too weak to do anything about
land reforms. + The proxy influence of rural elites
stonewall any land reform initiatives.

Lack of Civil Society/NGO action

In the noteworthy movements by civil society/NGO for land
reforms= Bhoodan/Gramdan, land satyagraha etc. But all these
things happened before 90s. Today civil society/NGOs very
vocal about transparency, anti-corruption, anti-rape laws,
nuclear projects, mining rights etc. but land reforms hardly get
any attention. Why?

1. It is easy to get national-international awards/funding,

media-recognition, political attention in these new topics.
 2. Just like “secularism”, the “land distribution” also has lost its
original meaning. So, if an NGO talks too much about land
redistribution- he might be labelled as naxal-sympethizer.
3. In land reform sector: (1) computerization of land
records=done by district administration and (2) for forest
rights act=>done through gram Sabha. So Jholachhap
NGOs don’t see opportunities for getting government
projects/funds to mint ca$h, unlike in the schemes for under
HIV/child-labour/education/SHG type activities.

The Naxal Angle:

The present Left wing extremism (LWE) has roots at two places:

West Bengal (1967) @Naxalbari

Andhra (1949) @Telengana and

@Srikakulam.

At that time, main cause of these movement = exploitation by

zamindar/landlords/forest contractors. But In the heydays of
naxal movement, focus of the state governments shifted from
agrarian/land reforms to law and order preservation. As a result:

1. Many villagers remained landless.

2. Rise of upper caste militia/private armies like Ranvir Sena,
Kunwar Sena etc.
3. Within village, Lack of growth in non-agricultural sector.
4. Tribal land alienation by mining mafia.

All these factors further helped the Maoists to recruit more

cadres from villages. District officials don’t goto Maoist affected
areas, look @all villagers with suspicion etc.etc.etc. Ultimately,
land reform cannot be carried out.
Thus, Left wing extremism (LWE) and Lack of Land Reform
(LLR) have formed a vicious cycle.

Appu
Task Force on Agrarian Relations set up by the Planning
Commission headed by P. S. Appu. (1972 )Made following
observations

1. Lack of political will=no tangible progress

2. The decentralization of power to the rural sector was seen
by the politicians as a threat to their national prominence.
3. The erstwhile superior tenants belonging mostly to the
upper and middle castes have benefittd.
4. (but) A majority of the agricultural laborers =politically
unorganized=could not benefit from the land reform
measures.
5. Land reform Acts were poorly drafting= many loopholes
and litigations.
6. Land records were outdated, most states didnot bother
updating.
7. Five year plans only gave lip service for land reforms but
didn’t allot significant funds.
8. Land reform has practically disappeared from the agenda of
most political parties. but This is an inevitable consequence
of the far reaching changes that have taken place in social
and economic fields;

Land reforms: Overall Positive

1. abolished exploitative the land tenure systems prevalent in

agrarian society
2. Distributed the surplus land among the landless and the
weaker sections of the society.
3. Provided security of tenure i.e. the tenants are assured
that they can cultivate the land for long time period.
 4. In some cases tenants even given ownership rights.
5. fixed rent in the range of 25-33%
6. Without use of violence.
7. The cumulative effect of abolition of zamindari, tenancy
legislation and ceiling legislation= motivated the cultivators
to invest and improve agricultural practices.
8. Even though these land reforms were met with limited
success, they made a significant positive impact
on poverty removal.
9. Land reforms+ Sanskritization + democratization +
Panchayati Raj= lower castes have become more
organized and assertive about their rights.
10. In areas where land reform has not been
implemented, the inequalities have persisted, caste
oppression is most acute and have generally experienced
low socio-economic development. (In other words where
Land reforms were properly implemented- inequality is less,
caste oppression is less and socio-economic Development
is better).
11. Historically unique effort at transformation of agrarian
relations within a democratic framework.
12. Brought fundamental changes in the agrarian
economy, rural social structure, and rural power structure.
Moved India society towards the egalitarian society.
13. Increased democratization of Indian polity and
reduction in influence of the dominant sections of the
society. Counter-argument: Impact was not so significant
like China/USSR.

To sum up, Land reforms are a major instruments of social

transformation in a backward economy based on feudal and
semi-feudal productive relationships. But in India, they met with
limited success mainly because of the political and bureaucratic
apathy.
Mock Questions

1. Analyze the role of tenancy reform laws as a measure of

land reforms.
2. Write a note on the measures taken by states to provide
security of tenure to farmers.
3. Land reforms in early decades after independence, have
failed to bring gender equity in rural power structure.
Elaborate.
4. Critically examine the Green revolution as a reason for non-
inclusive growth in rural India.
5. The blame for partial success of land reforms squarely falls
on the local bureaucracy. Comment.
6. Only the upper stratum of the peasants have benefited from
the land reforms. For the Landless, land reform remains an
‘unfinished business’.
7. Evaluate the impact of Land reforms measures by the state
governments in the early decades after independence.
8. Discuss, in brief, the contributions of land reforms in rural
development.
9. Critically examine the impact of land reforms on Indian
economy and society.
10. Critically examine the impact of social, economic and
political power structure on land reforms in rural India.

[Land Reforms] Peasant Revolts for Land reforms during

British Raj

Prologue

This [Land Reforms] Article series will (try to) cover following
issues for UPSC Mains GS/Optionals:
 1. Three land tenure system of the British: Their features,
implications. We saw in previous article.
2. Peasant struggles in British Raj: causes and
consequences. Discussed in this article.
3. Land reforms, Before independence: by Congress
governments in Provinces, their benefits and limitations.
Gandhi and Ranade’s views on Land reforms, All India
Kisan Sabha etc.
4. Land reforms, After independence: abolition of Zamindari,
Land Ceiling and Tenancy reforms. Their benefits and
limitations
5. Land reforms by non-governmental action: Bhoodan,
Gramdan, NGOs etc. their benefits and limitations
6. Land reforms in recent times: Computerization of land
records, Forest rights Act, land reform policy etc. their
benefits and limitations.

Peasant struggles in British India

Can be classified into following groups:

Before 1857’s  East India:

Mutiny Sanyasi Revolt,
Chuar and Ho
Rising, Kol Rising,
Santhal Rising,
Pagal Panthis and
Faraizis Revolt
 West India: Bhil,
Ramosis
 South India:
Poligars

After 1857’s  Indigo Movement

(1859-60)
Mutiny  Pabna Agrarian
Unrest (1873-76),
 Deccan riots
(1874-75),
 No-Revenue
Movement Assam,
Maharashtra, and
Punjab: (towards
the end of 19th
century)
 Champaran Indigo
Satyagraha (1917)

In the 20s and 2nd Moplah, Awadh

30s Kisan Sabha, Eka
movement, Bardoli etc.

During and  Congress

After WW2 Ministries in
provinces such as
Bihar, UP and
Bombay (will be
discussed
separately in third
article)
 Faizpur Congress
session (1936)
 All India Kisan
Congress
 Tebhaga
Movement in
Bengal
 Telangana
Outbreak in
 Hyderabad
 Varlis Revolt in
Western India

Peasant Revolts before 1857

click to enlarge

Note: I’m also including some tribal revolts that had connections
with land settlement/tenancy systems.

Sanyasi Revolt, 1772

 British government restricted people from visiting holy

places. Sansyasi got angry
 Joined by farmers, evicted landlords, disbanded soldiers
 Focal point: Rangpur to Dhaka
 Leader: Manju Shah Fakir
 Sanyasis defeated a company of sepoys and killed the
commander. They overran some districts, virtually running
a parallel government.
 This rebellion continued till the end of the 18th century.
  Governor General Warren Hastings launched a military
campaign against Sansyasis.
 From 1800, sanyasis probably joined the Marathas to fight
British.

Pagal Panthi, 1830s-40s

 Reason: Zamindari Oppression

 Area: North Bengal, Hajong and Garo tribes.
 Leader: Karam Shah and his son Tipu
 Result: Initially British agreed to Pagal Panthi demand,
made arrangement to protect the cultivators from Zamindar
 But later, launched massive military operation to suppress
Pagal Panthis

Santhal, 1855

 Reason: oppression of police, atrocities of landlords and

moneylenders, ill-treatment of small farmers by land
revenue officials. Government banned shifting cultivation in
forest areas.
 Area: Raj Mahal hills
 Leaders: Sindhu + Kanhu
 Result: The government could pacified these Santhals by
creating a separate district of Santhal Parganas.

some other revolts before 1857’s Mutiny:

Bhil  Reason: agrarian

hardship
1817 to 1819  Area: W.Ghats,
Khandesh

Chuar and Ho  Reason: famine,

1820 to 1837. land Revenue
 Area: Midnapur,
Chhotanagpur,
Singhbhum
 Tribes involved
 Chuar=Midnapur
 Ho and Munda=
Chhota Nagpur
and Singhbhum

Faraizis  Reason: Zamindari

Oppression
1838 to 1857  Area: East Bengal
 Leader: Faraizis
were followers of a
Muslim sect
founded by Haji
Shariatullah of
Faridpur

Kherwar/Sapha  Against revenue

Har settlements in tribal
areas.

Kol  Reason: British

transferred of land
from Kol headmen
(Mundas) to
outsiders like Sikh
and Muslim
farmers.
 Area: Chhota
Nagpur, Ranchi,
Singhbhum,
 Hazaribag,
Palamau and
western parts of
Manbhum.

Mophah, First  Malabar.

uprising  by Muslim tenants
against Hindu
1836-1854 Zamindars
(Jemnis).

Poligars  Reason: land

Revenue
 Area: Dindigul,
Malabar, Arcot,
Madras presidency

Tiru Mir  Bengal. Against

Hindu land lords,
1782-1831 who imposed
beard tax on
Farazis.

Revolts after 1857’s Mutiny

General features:

1. After 1857’s revolt, The British had crushed down native

princes and zamindars. Hence farmers themselves became
main force of agitations.
2. Target= sometimes government, sometimes moneylender,
sometimes landlord/ zamindar
3. Territorial reach. not organized on mass-scale
4. Often spontaneous. no coordination
5. lacked continuity or long term struggle.
6. never threatened British supremacy
7. farmers didn’t mind paying rent, revenue, interest on debt
but only agitated when they were raised to an abnormal
level.
8. lacked understanding of colonial economic system or divide
and rule policy of the British. Farmers’ agitations were
based within framework of old social order, hence often
 failed because government could woo a faction by granting
them concession and hence movement would collapse.

Indigo Movement (1859-60)

 European planters forced desi farmers to grow the indigo in

Eastern India, without paying right price.
 If any farmer refused- and started growing rice, he was
kidnapped, women and children were attacked, and crop
was looted, burnt and destroyed.
 If farmer approached court, the European judge would rule
in favour of the European planter.
 The privileges and immunities enjoyed by the British
planters placed them above the law and beyond all judicial
control.
 Finally Indigo peasants launched revolt in Nadia district of
Bengal presidency. Refused to grow Indigo. If police tried to
intervene, they were attacked.
 European Planters responded by increasing the rent and
evicting farmers. Led to more agitations and confrontations.
 Later got support from the intelligentsia, press, missionaries
and Muslims.
 Result: Government issued a notification that the Indian
farmers cannot be compelled to grow indigo and that it
would ensure that all disputes were settled by legal means.
By the end of 1860, Indigo planters should down their
factories and cultivation of indigo was virtually wiped out
from Bengal.

Harish Chandra editor of Hindu

Mukherji patriot. published
reports on indigo
campaign, organized
 mass meetings etc.

Din Bandhu Mitra wrote a play ‘Neel

Darpan’ to portray
the oppression of
indigo farmers.

Pabna Agrarian Unrest (1873-76)

 Area: East Bengal. Pabna=a jute growing district

 Reason: Zamindars enhanced rents beyond legal limits
through a variety of cesses (Abwab), Farmers had to face
costly legal affairs and forced eviction. Nuisance of
moneylenders.
 Leaders: Ishwar Chandra Roy, Shambhu Pal, Khoodi
Mollah.

Notable features

 Agrarian league formed to fight legal battle against the

zamindars and organized nonpayment of rent campaign.
 This league provided a sound platform to the peasants at a
time when there was no kisan sabha or any political party
to organize the peasants.
 by and large non-violent. No zamindar or agent was killed /
seriously injured. Very few houses looted, very few police
stations attacked.
 Hindu Muslim unity, despite the fact that most Zamindars
were Hindu and farmers were muslims.
 farmers demanded to become ryots of British queen and
not of Zamindars.
 Got support from Intellectuals: Bankim Chandra Chettarji,
RC Dutt, Surendranath Benerjee etc.
Result:

 This unrest resulted into Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885.

 But this act did not fully protect farmers from the zamindari
oppression
 Even non-cultivators were given occupancy right. It gave
rise to a powerful jotedar groups.
 Later some of the Jotedars became as exploitative as the
zamindars.

Deccan Riots (1874-75)

Area: In the ryotwari areas of Pune and Ahmadnagar of
Maharashtra

Reasons

 the land revenue was very high

 had to pay land Revenue even during bad seasons
 1860: American civil war=boom in demand of cotton export.
 But In 1864, war ends=>cotton export declines, yet
government raised land revenue.
 Farmers had taken loans from moneylenders, but now they
cannot repay=>Moneylenders took away their land, cattle,
jewelry and property.

Notable features:

1. The object of this riot was to destroy the dead bonds,

decrees, etc. in possession of their creditors.
2. Violence was used only when the moneylenders refused to
hand over the documents.
3. villagers led by traditional headmen (Patels)
4. Involved social boycott of moneylender. and social boycott
of any villager who didn’t socially boycott the moneylender.
 5. Later got support from Poona Sarvajanik Sabha led by
Justice Ranade.

Result:

1. Initially government resorted to use of police force and

arrest. but later appointed a commission, passed
Agriculturists Relief Act in 1879 and on the operation of
Civil Procedure Code.
2. Now the peasants could not be arrested and sent to jail if
they failed to pay their debts.

Ramosi, 1877-87

 Reason: Ramosis of Maharashtra were the inferior ranks

of police in Maratha administration.
 After the fall of the Maratha kingdom, they became farmers
=>heavy land Revenue demands by British.
 Area: Satara, Maharashtra, Deccan
 Leader: Chittur Singh (1822), Vasudev Balwant Phadke
(1877-87)
 Result: Government gave them land grants and recruited
them as hill police.

No-Revenue Movements (1893-1900)

In the Ryotwari areas. Main reason: hike in land revenue.

Assam  British increase land

Revenue by 50 to 70
per cent in Kamrup and
Darrang districts.
 Villager decided not to
pay Revenue. And
socially boycotted any
 farmer who paid land
Revenue.
 Rural elites, Brahmin
led the revolt. Social
boycott of anyone who
paid taxes to British.

Bombay  farmers wanted

revenue remission
under famine code
during 1896-1900.
 Tilak, Poona Sarvajanik
Sabha sent volunteers
to spread awareness
among farmers about
their legal rights under
Famine code.
 These campaigns
spread to Surat, Nasik,
Khera and Ahmedabad.

Punjab  Nuisance of
moneylenders.
 led to assault and
murder of
moneylenders by the
peasants.
 Result: Punjab Land
Alienation Act of 1902
which prohibited for 20
years transfer of land
from peasants to
moneylenders and
 mortgage.

Birsa Munda’s Ulgulan (1899)

South of Ranchi

Reasons

 Tribals practiced Khuntkatti system (joint holding by tribal

lineages)
 But rich farmers, merchants, moneylenders, dikus,
thekedars from Northern India came and tried to replace it
with typical Zamindari-tenancy system.
 These new landlords caused indebtedness and beth-begari
(forced labour) among the tribal.
 Birsa Munda organized the Munda tribals, attacked
churches and police stations.

Result:

 Birsa died in jail, while others shot dead, hanged or

deported.
 Government enacted Chotanagpur Tenancy Act 1908.
 recognized Khuntkatti rights

 banned eth Begari (forced labour)

Rajasthan: 1913-17

 Bijolia Movement and No tax campaign against Udipur

Maharana
 reason: The jagirdar levied 86 different cesses on farmers.
 leaders: Sitaram Das, Vijay Singh Pathik (Bhoop Singh),
Manik lal Verma
  Farmers refused to pay taxes, migrated to neighboring
states
 1922: Bhil movement against begari (forced labour)

Champaran Indigo Satyagraha (1917)

Area: Champaran district of Bihar. Ramnagar, Bettiah,
Madhuban.

 European planters forced Indian farmers to cultivate indigo

on 3/20th of their land holding. Popularly known as tinkathia
system.
 Under this system, European planters holding thikadari
leases from the big local zamindars forced the peasants to
cultivate indigo on part of their land at un-remunerative
prices and by charging sharahbeshi (rent enhancement) or
tawan (lump sum compensation)
 if the farmer did not want to grow indigo, he had to pay
heavy fines

1916 A farmer Raj Kumar Shukla

contacted Gandhi during
Congress Session
@Lucknow.

1917 Mahatma Gandhi launched

an agitation. Demanded a
detailed enquiry and
redressal of farmers’
grievances.

Result:
 1. Government appoints a committee, even included Gandhi
as one of the member.
2. Government abolishes tinkhatia system and pays
compensation to the farmers.
3. Gandhi gets new allies: Rajendra Prasad, JB Kriplani,
Mahadev Desai and Braj Kishore Prasad

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

 Severe drought in Khera District, Gujarat

 Kanbi-Patidar farmers. Making decent living through cotton,
tobacco and dairy. But Plague and famine during 1898-
1906 reduced their income. Yet government increased
Revenue demand.
 Prices of essential commodities: kerosene, salt etc
increased because of WW1.
 Farmers requested government to waive the land Revenue.
Government ignored.
 Gandhi + Sardar Patel launched “no-revenue” campaign

Result:

1. Government reduced revenue to 6.03%

2. Government ordered officials to recover Revenue only from
those farmers who were willing to pay.
3. Gandhi gets new ally: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

Peasant revolts in the 20s

General features

1. Often turned violent/ militant. Created a divide between

local leaders and Nationalist Leaders/Congress/Gandhi
2. Sign of fear among middle-class leadership that movement
would turn militant.
3. Government used full police force and suppression.
4. Farmers didn’t demand abolition of rent, zamindari. They
only wanted a fair system of land tenancy.

Kisan Movement, UP (1920s)

Awadh farmers were suffering because:

1. Lack of occupancy rights on land in many regions.

2. Exaction by landlords of tributes, cesses, gifts, forced
labour and excessive rent.
3. Periodic revision of land revenue in ryotwari areas.
 4. Heavy indebtedness to the village land lords or money
lenders.
5. World war I = steep rise in the price of food grains
benefiting middlemen and merchants at the cost of the
poor.
6. Farmers had to pay Larai Chanda (War contribution) during
WW1.
7. To counter Gandhi/Congress’s influence, the Government
wanted to win over Talukdars in Avadh. Hence, they gave
free hand to Taulkdars regarding rent collection, eviction
etc.
8. As a result, Begari (forced labour) and Bedakhli (evicting
tenant for land) became a common sight.
9. +caste domination: “Jajmani system” under which, lower
caste were oblighted to supply ghee, cloths etc
free/@discounted prices to upper caste.

1918 UP Kisan Sabha setup.

by Home Rule leaders Gauri

Shanker Mishra and Indra
Narain Dwivedi with the
support of Madan Mohan
Malviya.

1920 Baba Ramchandra

organized peasants of
Awadh against the landlords,
using Ramayana and caste
sloghans.
Methods of Awadh Kisan Sabha

1. asked farmers to stop working on bedakhli land (i.e. from

where earlier farmer was evicted)
2. asked farmers to stop giving Begari and Jajmani.
3. Social boycott of farmers who did not obey 1+2.
4. By 1921, this movement turned militant and spread to
districts of Eastern UP. involved looting, ransacking,
attacking zamindar properties.
5. agitators raided the houses of landlords and moneylenders,
looted bazaars and granaries

Result: Government amended Awadh Rent Act in 1921 and

AKS ceased violence.

Later All India Kisan Sabha emerged. Discussed separately in

third article along with Congress Provincial government .

Eka Movement (1920s)

 Eka=unity movement
 Initially by Congress+Khilafat Leaders. Later Madari Pasi
and other low caste leaders.
 Reason: oppression by Thekedar. High rents
 Involved religious ritual, in which farmer would take a tip in
Ganges and vow not to do begari, resist eviction etc.
 Even included some small zamindars who were unhapped
with British demands for high revenue.
 By 1922 severe repression by government=Eka Movement
vanished.

Second Moplah Uprising (1921)

Reasons:
 1. Hindu Zamindars (Jemnis) exploiting Muslim
Moplah/Mappila farmers in Malabar (Kerala)
2. rumors that British military strength had declined post
WW1.
3. Khilafat movement and general hatred towards British.

o Tipping point: Police raided a mosque to arrest a Khilafat

leader Ali Musaliar.
o Farmers attacked police stations, public offices and
houses, land records of zamindars and moneylenders
under the leadership of Kunhammed Haji.
o For months, British government lost control over Ernad and
Walluvanad taluks for several months.
o This movement was termed as Anti-British, Anti-Zamindars
and, to some extent, as anti-Hindu.
o Podanur Blackhole: British put 66 Moplah prisoners into a
railway wagon and completely shut it down. They all died of
asphyxiation.
o Result: Hundreds of Moplah lost lives- as a result they were
completely demoralized and didn’t join in any future
freedom struggles or even communist movements post
independence.

Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)

 Area: Bardoli, Gujarat

 Reason: land Revenue increased by 22%.
 Sardar Patel persuaded the farmers:
o not to pay Revenue, required them to take oath in the
name of their respective Hindu/Muslim gods.
o social boycott of anyone who paid revenue.
o Resist eviction and Jabti (Confiscation). Lock houses
and migrate to Baroda State
o social upliftment of Kaliparaj caste- who worked as
landless laborers.
  KM Munshi resigned from Bombay Legislative council.
 Bombay communists and railway workers also threatened
strikes and boycotts.

Result:

 Government setup Maxwell-Broomfield commission.

 Reduced land Revenue to 6.03%
 Returned confiscated land back to farmers.
 Vallabhbhai got the title of “Sardar”.

Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) 1930-31

 In UP, Congress asked Zamindars not to pay revenue to

Government. (no-revenue)
 And asked Farmers not to pay rent to Zamindars. (no rent)
 But Zamindars remained loyal to British =>as a result only
farmers participated in no-rent movement.

Misc. Peasant Movements in the 1920 and 30s

 Great Depression started in USA, spread in Europe=>

agricultural prices crashed.
 But Revenue, rents and taxes remained high,
impoverishing the peasants.
 farmers emboldened by Success of Bardoli Satyagraha of
1928
 Many Zamindar leaders stood up in 1937’s provincial
elections on Congress tickets but they were defeated
=farmers even more emboldened.

Bakasht Movement Bihar

Barhaiya Tal Bihar. To restore

 Bakasht land.
Leader: Karyananda
Sharma

Bengal, Bihar Refused to pay

Chaukidari tax

Bihar Kisan ran campaign

to abolish Zamindari,
restore Bakshat
lands. Matter Solved
when provincial
congress government
passed act.

Bihar Provincial
Kisan Sabha, 1929

Bombay, Central Against forest

Provinces grazing regulations

Hajong Tribals in Garo hills. to

reduce rent from 50%
to 25%. Leader Moni
Singh.

Maharashtra, No-Revenue
Karnataka, movement
Bundelkhand
Malabar, Kerala against feudal levies,
advance rents and
eviction. Result:
Malabar Tenancy act
was amended.

Punjab  Punjab Riyasati

Praja Mandal
(1928)
 Against Maharaj
of Patiala – he
had increased
land Revenue
by 19%
 farmers wanted
him to abolish
his land
reserved for
shikar (hunting)
 for reduction of
canal taxes.

Surat, Kheda Farmers refused to

pay Revenue.
Migrated to Baroda
State.

Peasant Revolts in the 40s

General features:

 During WW2, the peasant movements had declined.

 But after the end of WW2 (1945)- peasant leaders
anticipate freedom and new social order. Hence new
movements with renewed vigour.
 Earlier kisan movements usually didn’t demand abolition of
Zamindari. They merely wanted a fair system of land
revenue and land tenancy. But these new movements
strongly demanded for abolition of Zamindari.
 Even when they were unsuccessful, they created a climate
which necessitated the post-independence land reforms
and abolition of Zamindari.
  Earlier movements were by and large non-violent. But now
they turned militant e.g. Telangana movement in
Hyderabad state and the Tebhaga movement in Bengal.
Similarly All India Kisan Sabha openly preached militancy,
violance against Zamindars.

Tebhaga, Bengal, 1946

1. in this region: Rich farmers (Jotedars) leased the farms to

sharecroppers (Bargadar)
2. Flout Commission had recommended that Bargadar should
get 2/3 of crop produce and jotedar (the landlord) should
get 1/3rd of crop produce.
3. Tebhaga movement aimed to implement this
recommendation through mass struggle.

Who  Bengal
Provincial Kisan
Sabha
 communist
groups
 lower stratum of
tenants such as
bargardars
(share
croppers),
adhiars and
poor peasants,
tea plantation
workers etc.

against zamindars, rich

whom farmers (Jotedars),
moneylenders,
 traders, local
bureaucrats
Suharwardy’s Government introduced Bargardari Bill. But
overall, Limited success:

1. Brutal police suppression.

2. difference of opinion
o tribal elements wanted more militant protest
o poor and middle level farmer support declined
o urban professional did not support (Because many of
them had given their village land to Bargadars)
3. Riots started in Calcutta, demand for partition.

Telangana, Hyderabad State (46-51)

 Who? Farmers of Telengana and Madras, Praja Mandal

org., Communist party.
 Against whom? Nizam’s officials, landlords, moneylenders,
traders
 Biggest Peasant guerrilla war in Modern Indian history.
 Reasons?

1. Under Asafjahi Nizam- bureaucratic domination by Muslim

and Hindu elites
2. Vethi: forced labour and payments in kind by Jagirdar.
Tribals were turned into debt slaves.
3. high rents, forced eviction and other forms of badass
thuggary associated in a feudal area.

Why guerrilla war?

1. Arms act was implemented in slack manner. Easy to buy

country made guns.
 2. Congress, Arya Samaj etc. did not want Nizam/Razakars to
setup an independent Hyderabad country after
independence. So they gave moral support, funding.

Result

1. revenue and rent records destroyed

2. bonded labour/vethi disappeared, decline in untouchability
3. Agricultural wages were increased.
4. Destroyed aristocracy/feudalism from Hyderabad. Paved
way for formation of Andhra State and Vinoba’s Bhudan
movement.

Why decline?

 Operation Polo: In 1948, Indian government sent army to

overthrow Nizam.
 even after liberation of Hyderabad, the Communist had
internal political difference. The class war turned into petty
murdering of forest officials and moneylenders. As a result
movement lost support.

Varli, Bombay Province

 Varli=tribals in W.India.
 Kisan Sabha supported them. Later under the influence of
communists.

 Against whom? forest-contractors, the moneylenders, the

rich farmers, landlords, British bureaucracy.

Mock Questions

5 marks

1. Pabna 9. Baba Ramdev

 movement. Chandra.
2. Indigo
Movement 10. Eka
(1859-60) Movement
3. Deccan Riots
11. Kheda
(1874-75)
Satyagraha
4. Sanyasi Revolt
5. Bardoli Peasant 12. Ramosi
Movement Revolts
(1921)
6. Indigo 13. Birsa
Movement Munda’s
(1959-60) contribution in
7. Pagal Panthis Freedom
and Faraizis struggle
Revolt
8. Peasant 14. Tebhaga
Movement in Movement
Avadh
15. Telengana
movement
(1946-51)

12 marks

1. The most important contribution of the peasant movements

that covered large areas of the subcontinent in the 30s and
40s was that they created the climate which necessitated
the post-independence agrarian reforms. Comment
2. Write a note on Peasant movements under Gandhi’s
leadership
3. Write a note on Peasants movements under Sardar Patel’s
leadership.
4. Write a note on the characteristics of peasant movements
in India from 1857 to Second World War.
 5. Write a note on the growth of Peasant movements after
1920s.
6. Underline the critical link between the long history of the
national and peasant movements in India and the nature
and intensity of the land reform initiatives taken after
independence.
7. What were the important peasant struggles that took place
on the eve of Indian independence?

[Land Reforms] Role of Indian Congress in Land reforms

during the British Raj, Gandhi’s Views on Land Reforms,
All India Kisan Sabha

Prologue

so far we’ve seen

1. Three land tenure system of the British: Their features,

implications.
2. Peasant struggles for land reforms in British Raj:
causes and consequences .

Now in this article we’ll see Role of Indian Congress in Land

reforms during the British Raj. This can be studied under two
heads:

1. When Congress formed ministries in the different provinces

(1937), what did they do?
2. What resolutions did they pass in various sessions?

+ additional topics: Gandhi’s views on Land reforms, Ranade’s

view on Land reforms and the rise of All India Kisan Sabha.
#1: Congress Provincial Governments 1937

After the provincial elections in 1937, Congress formed

government in

Firs 1. Madras
t 2. Bombay
3. Central Provinces
4. Orissa
5. Bihar
6. UP

late Assam, North West

r Frontier Province
And they implemented certain land reforms in these provinces:

@Bihar
Good

1. Enacted “Restoration of Bakasht Land Act”- to give back

land to farmers who were evicted between 1929-1937.
2. enacted Bihar Tenancy Act
3. Reduced the salami rates.
4. Abolished all increases in rent since 1911. As a result,
rents were reduced by ~25%
5. gave under-ryots occupancy rights after twelve years of
cultivating the land.
6. rents had to be reduced if soil degraded, owner didn’t
provide irrigation etc.
7. Existing arrears of rent reduced.
8. interest on rent-arrears reduced from 12.5 to 6.25%
9. Debt Relief act: Reduced interest rate on debts to 9%
 10. Prohibited all illegal exactions. if landlord charged
illegal dues, he could be jailed for 6 months.
11. In sharecropping, landlord’s maximum share was kept
at 9/20 part of the produce.
12. if tenant doesn’t pay rent- he cannot be arrested, his
property cannot be attached

Not-Good

 Kisan leaders wanted Congress government to abolish

zamindari and redistribute the land among poors.
 But the Congress Government in Bihar was backed by the
zamindars
 Therefore, zamindari abolition law couldnot be made.
 Bihar Kisan Sabha resorted to militancy- use of Lathis and
violence to prevent rent payments, forcibly occupying
Zamindari land etc. Congress government resorted to use
of police and section 144=> relations between Kisan Sabha
and Congress deteriorated.

@Uttar Pradesh
Good:

 The Congress leaders was more ‘leftist’ than in Bihar.

Hence laws/regulations were more pro-farmer
 Reduced rents
 Tenants of Awadhs and Agra were given hereditary
occupancy. (Meaning Zamindar can’t evict family’s farm if
the father died.)
 Rent of hereditary tenant can be changed only after 10
years.
 Tenant cannot be arrested, if he doesn’t pay rent.
 Nazrana (forced gifts) and Begari (Forced labour) were
abolished.
Not-Good:

 Governor did not give his assent to the Tenancy Bill even
after two years of its passage. Hence most reforms couldn’t
be implemented.

@Bombay

 During Civil Disobedience movement (CDM) the British had

attached lands of farmers who did not pay Revenue
 The congress Government restored the land back to those
farmers
 Forest Grazing fees were abolished.
 40,000 bonded labour (Dubla/serfs) were liberated
 Debt Relief act: Reduced interest rate on debts to 9%.
Although it was opposed by Lawyers who supported
Congress. (Because lawyers earned a lot from debt related
court cases).

@Other Provinces

Orissa Passed: Tenancy act to

reduced interest rate on
arrears from 12.5 to 6% and
provide for free transfer of
occupancy holdings.

Failed: bill to reduce rents in

Zamindari areas. because
governor didn’t give assent.

Kerala  Congress Socialist

Party and Communists
had setup peasant
 associations (Krishak
Sangathan)
 organized a campaign
towards amendment of
the Malabar Tenancy
Act.

Andhra  Congress ministry

passed law to give debt
relief to farmers

Bengal  agitations against Canal

Tax
 Hat Tola Movement: in
north Bengal against a
levy collected by the
landlords from peasants
at Hat (weekly market).

Punjab  Agitation against the

Union Ministry
dominated by landlords
of western Punjab for
resettlement of land
revenue and against
increase in canal tax
and water rate.

Madras  Grazing fees reduced.

 Debt Relief act:
Reduced interest rate
on debts to 6.25%
 Committee under
 Revenue minister
T.Prakasam, made
recommendations to
reduce Zamindar’s rent
by 75% (and thus
virtually abolishing
Zamindari).
 CM Rajagopalachari
planned to implement
this reform, withou
paying Zamindars any
compensation. But
before a bill could be
drafted, the ministry
resigned.

most  laws regulating the

states activity of the
moneylenders and
providing debt relief.

Overall Limitations

1. Time limit: They were in power for barely 28 months. They

had resigned in 1939. So, long term reforms could not be
carried out. Example: In Madras State CM Rajagopalachari
planned to reduce rents by 75%, abolish Zamindari without
paying Zamindars any compensation. But before a bill
could be drafted on the, the ministry resigned.
2. Vote power: In Orissa the British governor refused assent
to a bill that aimed to reduce Zamindar’s income by 50-
60%.
 3. Appeasement: Had to maintain unity for anti-British
struggle. so, could not afford to annoy upper caste/rich
farmers beyond a level. Congress ministries did not pursue
abolition of zamindari in UP and Bihar (despite resolutions
from Congress PCCs in UP and Bihar).
4. Power Limit: Under the Act of 1935, Provincial
governments lacked the power to abolish Zamindari, even if
they wanted.
5. Creamy Layer: By and large only superior tenants
benefited from these Acts/laws. The subtenants/inferior
tenants/agri.labourers were overlooked. May be because
they did not form ‘vote-bank’ as Act of 1935 provided for a
restricted franchise.

#2: Congress Resolutions 4farmers

@Karachi session, 1931
list of ‘Fundamental Rights and Economic Programme’ for future
India,

drafted by Dr.Rajendra Prasad. It included following provisions

for land reforms:

1. Reduction in agricultural rent or revenue paid by the

peasantry
2. Farmers with uneconomic holdings, will be exempted from
rent payment
3. Debt Relief for farmers. control of Usury
4. Serfdom/Bonded labour will be abolished.
 5. Farmers and workers will have right to form unions to
protect their interests.
6. Progressive income tax on agricultural income.

Limitation: Didn’t include the demand to abolish Zamindari /

Estates of landlords.

@Kisan Conference, President: Sardar

1935 Patel. passed
resolution for:

 zamindari
abolition
 peasant
proprietorship
without
intermediaries

@Firozpur Session, 1936

 thirteen point program for All India agrarian reforms

 Reduction in rent and revenue,
 exemption from rent on uneconomic holdings,
 Reduce canal and irrigation rates
 living wage for agriculture labors
 recognize of peasant associations
 introduce cooperative farming

In a way, this Firozpur session’s Agrarian reform program=

repeating Karachi Session’s points + some new demands from
All India Kisan Sabha’s manifesto.
@election manifesto,1937

1. The appalling poverty, unemployment and indebtedness of

the peasantry is resulted from antiquated and repressive
land tenure and revenue systems.
2. We will give immediate relief to farmers for revenue, rent
and debt burden.
3. Structural reform of the land tenure, rent and revenue
systems

Other resolutions/Manifestos

1938 National Planning

Committee.
Chairman: Nehru

1944 Bombay Plan

1945 Election manifesto by

Congress Working
Committee

All of above talked about:

1. abolish intermediaries between farmer and state (Zamindar,

Jagirdar, Talukdar etc)
2. Cheap loans to solve the problem of rural indebtedness
3. Collective farming should be encouraged. Although
collective farming did not gain much attention because
there was hardly any peasant mobilization for this.
1946 Provincial Election

 An interim government headed by Nehru was formed at the

Centre and the Congress governments in the provinces
 They set up committees to draw up bills for abolition of the
zamindari system.

Rise of All India Kisan Sabha

1920 Awadh Kisan Sabha formed

with support of Nehru and
Ram Chandra.

1923 NG Ranga formed first

Ryot’s association in Guntur,
Andhra.

1928  Bihar Kisan Sabha

formed by Swami
Sahajanand Saraswati.
 Akali leaders formed
Punjab Riyasati Praja
Mandal.

1929 Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha

1931 Krushak Sangha throughout

Orissa

1935 South Indian federation of

Peasants and agri.laborers
 with NG Ranga as Secretary.
Up to 1920, the peasant leaders were associated with the
Congress. But later the rift widened because:

1. In Eastern UP, the Kisan groups wanted government to

convert Sharecroppers (Bargadars) into tenants. So they
can get all legal protections available under Tenancy laws.
2. But the Swarajist group did not want such reform. (due to
pressure from Zamindar/rural elite groups)
3. differences of opinion between the supporters of Non-
Cooperation and those who preferred constitutional
agitation
4. In the princely states, Congress followed the policy of non-
interferance and did not help farmers against high
Revenues.
5. In Ryotwari areas- Government itself collected taxes. So
Gandhi would ask farmers to stop paying rent. But in case
of Zamindari areas, Gandhi would ask farmers to continue
paying rent to the Zamindars and Talukdars.
6. Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, prominent Kisan leader from
Bihar- was turning towards leftist-militant type of agitation.
He advocated use of Lathis (sticks) against Zamindars and
their goons. Hence Congress stopped supporting him.

As a result, by mid 30s, the peasant leaders and unions became

disillusioned with Congress. They felt a need to setup a Kisan
Sabha at the national level, to coordinate the efforts of regional
Kisan Sabhas/associations.

 1st Sept 1936: First All India Kisan Congress @Lucknow. All
India Kisan Day was celebrated on 1st September every
year.
 Swami Sahajanand Saraswati (of Bihar) as its President
and N.G. Ranga (of Andhra) as General Secretary.
  1938: Became All India Kisan Sabha
 Launched campaigns in Andra, Bihar and UP
 started Kisan Bulletin, editor Indulal Yagnik.
 Gave Kisan Manifesto:

Kisan Manifesto, 1936

1. Protect farmers for from economic exploitation,

2. 50% reduction in land Revenue
3. security of tenure for tenants,
4. reduction in interest rates charged by moneylenders
5. abolition of begar (forced labour)
6. reasonable wages for labourers,
7. promote cooperative farming
8. transfer uncultivated government land, and Zamindari lands
to poor and landless farmers.

Limitation of All India Kisan Sabha

1. leadership was concentrated in the hands of Bhumihar and

other rural elites
2. landless, SC, ST found no representation in its leadership
3. Kisan Sabha wanted abolition of Zamindari but not abolition
of Sharecropping (Bargadari)
4. As Swami Sahjanant turned towards militant methods of
protest, the Congress ordered its workers not to participate
in any activities of Kisan Sabha.
5. Congress ministries in Provinces used section 144, police
force to curtail the activities of Kisan Sabha. (especially in
UP, Bihar, Orissa and Madras)

Gandhi’s Views on Land Reforms

 ‘Land and all property is his who will work it’, = similar to
concept of land to the tiller.
  During Non-cooperation movement
o he asked tenants and landlors to join and fight against
the most powerful zamindar- the British.
o In the Ryotwari regions (where British directly
collected taxes), Gandhi asked farmers to stop paying
revenue.
o but in Zamindari areas, Gandhi did not ask farmers to
stop paying rent. (Because he did not want to
antagonize those Zamindars/intermediaries). He
explicitly industructed UP farmers….”We want to turn
Zamindars into friends. Therefore we many not
withhold taxes from Government or rent from
landlord.”
 During Civil Disobedience movement,
o he issued a manifesto to the Uttar Pradesh farmers
asking them to pay only 50 per cent of the legal rent.
 During Gandhi-Irwin Pact:

Gandhi’s demand Irwin’s response

wanted Irwin to return didn’t agree

the land confiscated
from farmers. And if
such land was sold to
third parties then
original farmer be
paid some
compensation.

reduce land revenue agreed for only

in all areas some areas.
  In Early 30s to UP farmers, “non-occupancy tenants should
pay 8 anna rent to the Zamindar and occupancy tenant
should pay 12 anna rent to Zamindar. Let me warn you
against listening to any advice that you have no need to
pay the zamindars any rent at all.”
 Quote: Peasants could seize the zamindar’s lands and,
while there could be some violence, but the zamindars
could also ‘cooperate by fleeing’.
 Quote: After Independence, the zamindars’ land would be
taken by the state either through their voluntary surrender
or through legislation and then distributed to the cultivators.
BUT It would be fiscally impossible to compensate the
landlords.

Justice Ranade’s Views on Land reforms

Once UPSC asked about Sir Tejbahadur Sapru’s views on

Indian Nationalist. (2006) So similar to that…What were Justice
Ranade’s views on Land reforms?

1. Replace the existing semi-feudal agriculture with capitalist

agriculture.
2. Transform rich peasants into capitalist farmers.
3. Transform tenants to independent proprietors – subjected
to low tax and cheap loans.
4. Quote: ‘A complete divorce from land of those who cultivate
it is a national evil, and no less an evil is it to find one dead
level of small farmers all over the land. A mixed constitution
of rural society is necessary to secure the stability and
progress of the country.’
5. Post-independence, by and large same model was adopted
by Government: replace landlordism and give protection to
small farmers.
6. Through Poona Sarvajanik Sabha: Supported Deccan riots
and campaign against moneylenders in Maharashtra
Mock Question

2 marks

1. NG Ranga
2. Indulal Yagnik.
3. Swami Sahajanand Saraswati

12 Marks

1. Write a note on Gandhi’s views on Land reforms.

2. Write a note on Justice Ranade’s views on Land reforms.
3. Write a note on Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s view on Land
reforms.
4. Enumerate the initiatives taken by Congress ministries in
the Provinces for land reforms during British India. To what
extend did they succeed in bringing land reforms?
5. Describe the role of Congress in land reforms in pre-
independent India.
6. “We want to turn Zamindars into friends. Therefore we
many not withhold taxes from Government or rent from
landlord.” Comment
7. “A complete divorce from land of those who cultivate it is a
national evil, and no less an evil is it to find one dead level
of small farmers all over the land.” Comment.
8. Write a note on the Congress resolutions for Land reforms
in British India.

15 marks

1. In a sense this brief interlude of Congress rule served as a

mirror of the future for both the dominant classes in rural
India and the oppressed and both learnt their lessons
though perhaps somewhat unevenly. Comment
2. Write a note on the bitter sweat relations between All India
Kisan Sabha and Congress.