The Skeletal System
Spongy bones
• Small needle-like pieces of bone
➢ The skeleton is usually thought of • Many open spaces
as the framework of the body. • It consists of interconnecting rods
Parts of the skeletal system or plates of bone called trabeculae
• It has less bone matrix and more
• Bones (skeleton) space than compact bone.
• Joints
Classification of Bones
• Cartilages
• Ligaments Long bones
Two subdivisions of the skeleton • Typically longer than they are wide
• Shaft with heads situated at both
• Axial skeleton
ends
• Appendicular skeleton
• Contain mostly compact bone
Functions of Bones • All of the bones of the limbs
(except wrist, ankle, and kneecap
• Support the body
bones)
• Protect soft organs
• Ex., Femur & Humerus
o Skull for brain and
vertebrae for spinal cord. Short bones
o Rib cage for thoracic cavity
organs (lung & heart). • Generally cube-shaped
• Allow movement due to attached • Contain mostly spongy bone
skeletal muscles • Includes bones of the wrist and
• Store mineral and fats ankle
o Calcium and phosphorus • Sesamoid bones are a type of
o Fat in the internal marrow short bone which form within
cavity tendons (patella)
• Blood cell formation • Ex., Carpals & Tarsals
(hematopoiesis) Flat bones
Bones of the human body • Thin, flattened, and usually curved
• The adult skeleton has 206 bones • Two thin layers of compact bones
• Two (2) basic types of bone tissue: surround a layer of spongy bone
• Ex,. Skull, ribs, & sternum
Compact bone (cortical bone)
Irregular bones
• Homogeneous
• The solid, outer layer surrounding • Irregular shape
each bone. • Do not fit into other bone
• It has more matrix and is more classification categories
denser with fewer pores than • Ex., Vertebrae & Hip bones
spongy bone.
Anatomy of a Long Bone Epiphyseal line
• Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
Diaphysis
• Seen in adult bones
• Shaft
• Composed of compact bone
• It is the center portion of the Marrow (medullary) cavity
bone.
• Cavity inside of the shaft
Epiphysis • Contains yellow marrow (mostly
fat) in adults. Mostly adipose
• Ends of the long bone
tissue.
• Composed mostly of spongy bone,
• Contains red marrow for blood cell
with an outer layer of compact
formation in infants
bone.
• In adults, red marrow is situated in
cavities of spongy bone and
epiphyses of some long bones.
Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue Bone markings
membrane
• Surface features of bones
Perforating (sharpey’s) fibers o Sites old attachments for
muscles, tendons, and
• Secure periosteum to underlying
ligaments
bone
o Passages for nerves and
Arteries blood vessels
• Categories of bone markings:
• Supply bone cells with nutrients
o Projections or processes –
Articular cartilage grow out from the bone
surface. outward
• Covers the external surface of the
▪ Terms often begin
epiphyses
with “T”
• Made of hyaline cartilage
(trochanter,
• Decreases friction at joint surfaces tuberosity,
tubercle)
o Depressions or cavities –
Epiphyseal plate (growth plate) indentations. inward
• Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen ▪ Terms often begin
in young, growing bone. with “F” (facet,
• It is located between the epiphysis fissure, fossa)
and the diaphysis.
Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone
• Osteon (haversian system) Bone growth (ossification)
o A unit of bone containing
• Epiphyseal plates allow for
central canal and matrix
lengthwise growth of long bones
rings
during childhood
• Central (haversian) canal
o New cartilage is
o Opening in the center of an
continuously formed
osteon
o Older cartilage becomes
o Carries blood vessels and
ossified
nerves
▪ Cartilage is broken
• Perforating (volkmann’s) canal
down
o Canal perpendicular to the
▪ Enclosed cartilage is
central canal
digested away,
o Carries blood vessels and
opening up a
nerves
medullary cavity
▪ Bone replaces
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone cartilage through
the action of
• Lacunae osteoblasts
o Cavities containing bone
• Bones are remolded and
cells (osteocytes)
lengthened until growth stop
o Arranged in concentric
o Bones are remolded in
rings called lamellae
response to two (2) factors:
• Lamellae ▪ Blood calcium levels
o Rings around the central
▪ Pull of gravity and
canal
muscles on the
o Sites of lacunae
skeleton
• Canaliculi o Bones grow in width (called
o Tiny canals appositional growth)
o Radiate from the central
canal to lacunae Types of Bone Cells
o Form a transport system
• Osteocytes – mature bone cells
connecting all bone cells to
• Osteoblasts – bone-
a nutrient supply
forming/building cells.
Formation of the Human Skeleton • Osteoclasts – giant bone-
destroying cells
• In embryos, the skeleton is
o Break down bone matrix
primarily hyaline cartilage
for remodeling and release
• During development, much of this of calcium in response to
cartilage is replaced by bone parathyroid hormone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas: • Bone remodeling is performed by
o Bridge of the nose
both osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
o Parts of ribs
o Joints
Bone Fractures • Two (2) sets of bones:
o Cranium
• Fracture – break in a bone
o Facial bones
Types of bone fractures: • Bones are joined by sutures.
• Only the mandible is attached by a
Closed (simple) fracture – break that does
freely movable joint.
not penetrate the skin
Paranasal Sinuses
Open (compound) fracture – broken bone
penetrates through the skin • Hollow portions of bones
surrounding the nasal cavity.
Complicated fracture – the soft tissues
around a closed fracture are damaged. Functions:
• Lighten the skull
• Bone fractures are treated by • Give resonance and amplification
reduction and immobilization to voice
Common Types of Fractures
Comminuted – bone breaks into many The Fetal Skull
fragments. Usually two major fragments • The fetal skill is large compared to
and a smaller fragments. the infant’s total body length.
Compression – bone is crushed. o Fetal skull is ¼ body length
compared to adult skull
Depressed – broken bone portion is which is 1/8 body length.
pressed inward. • Fontanels – fibrous membranes
Impacted – broken bone ends are forced connecting the cranial bones.
into each other. o Allow skull compression
during birth.
Spiral – ragged break occurs when o Allow the brain to grow
excessive twisting forces are applied to a during later pregnancy and
bone. infancy.
Greenstick – bone breaks incompletely. o Convert to bone within 24
months after birth.
Repair of Bone Fractures
The Vertebral Column
• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling)
is formed. • Each vertebrae is given a name
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage according to its location.
to form a callus. • There are 24 single vertebral
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by bones separated by intervertebral
a bony callus. discs.
o 7 cervical vertebrae are in
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a
the neck.
permanent patch.
o 12 thoracic vertebrae are in
The Skull the chest region.
o 5 lumbar vertebrae are • Consists of three (3) parts:
associated with the lower o Sternum
back. o Ribs
• 9 vertebrae fuse to form 2 ▪ True ribs (pairs 1-7)
composite bones: ▪ False ribs (pairs 8-
o Sacrum (5 fused vertebrae) 12)
o Coccyx (4 fused vertebrae) ▪ Floating ribs (pairs
• Primary curvatures are the spinal 11-12)
curvatures of the thoracic and o Thoracic vertebrae
sacral regions
The Appendicular Skeleton
o Present from birth
o Form a C-shaped curvature • Composed of 126 bones
as in newborns. o Limbs (appendages)
• Secondary curvatures are the o Pectoral girdle
spinal curvatures of the cervical o Pelvic girdle
and lumbar regions.
o Develop after birth
o Form an S-shaped The Pectoral (shoulder) Girdle
curvature as in adults.
• Composed of two (2) bones:
A Typical Vertebrae o Clavicle – collarbone
▪ Articulates with the
• Body
sternum medially
• Vertebral arch (pedicle & lamina)
and with the
• Vertebral foramen
scapula laterally.
• Transverse processes o Scapula – shoulder blade
• Spinous process ▪ Articulates with the
• Superior and inferior articular arm bone at the
processes glenoid cavity.
Sacrum and Coccyx • These bones allow the upper limb
to have exceptionally free
• Sacrum movement.
o Formed by the fusion of
five (5) vertebrae. Bones of the Upper Limbs
• Coccyx • Humerus
o Formed from the fusion of o Forms the arm
3-5 vertebrae. o Single bone
o “tailbone” or remnant of a o Proximal end articulation:
tail that other vertebrates ▪ Head articulates
have. with the glenoid
The Bony Thorax cavity of the scapula
o Distal end articulation:
• Forms a cage to protect major ▪ Trochlea and
organs. capitulum articulate
with the bones of • Formed by two (2) coxal (ossa
the forearm coxae) bones.
• Composed of three (3) pairs of
• The forearm has two (2) bones: fused bones.
o Ulna – medial bone in o Ilium
anatomical position. o Ischium
o Pubis
Proximal end articulation:
• Pelvic girdle = two (2) coxal bones,
o Coronoid process and sacrum
olecranon articulate with • Bony pelvis = two (2) coxal bones,
the humerus. sacrum, and coccyx
• The total weight of the upper body
rests on the pelvis
• It protects several organs:
o Reproductive organs
o Urinary bladder
o Radius – lateral bone in o Part of the large intestine
anatomical position.
Proximal end articulation:
Gender Differences of the Pelvis
o Head articulates with the
capitulum of the humerus. • The female inlet is larger and
more circular.
• Hand • The female pelvis as a whole is
o Carpals – wrist shallower, and the bones are
▪ Eight (8) bones lighter and thinner.
arranged in two (2) • The female ilia flare more
rows of four (4) laterally.
bones in each hand. • The female sacrum is shorter and
o Metacarpals – palm less curved.
▪ Five (5) per hand • The female ischial spines are
o Phalanges – fingers and shorter and farther apart; thus the
thumb outlet is larger.
▪ Fourteen (14) • The female pubic arch is more
phalanges in each rounded because the angle of the
hand. pubic arch is greater.
▪ In each finger, there
are three (3) bones.
▪ In the thumb, there Bones of the Lower Limbs
are only two (2)
• Femur – thigh bone
bones.
o The heaviest, strongest
bone in the body.
o Proximal end articulation:
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
▪ Head articulates o Two (2) longitudinal
with the o One (1) transverse
acetabulum of the
coxal (hip) bone
o Distal end articulation: Joints
▪ Lateral and medial
• Articulations of bones.
condyles articulate
• Functions of joints:
with the tibia in the
o Hold bones together
lower leg.
o Allow for mobility
• Two (2) ways joints are classified:
o Functionally & Structurally
Functional Classification of Joints
• The lower leg has two (2) bones:
o Tibia – shinbone; larger and • Synarthroses – immovable joints
medially oriented. • Amphiarthroses – slightly
Proximal end articulation: moveable joints
• Diarthroses – freely moveable
o Medial and lateral condyles joints
articulate with the femur to
form the knee point. Structural Classification of Joints
• Fibrous joints – generally
o Fibula – thin and sticklike; immovable
lateral to the tibia. • Cartilaginous joints – immovable
▪ Has no role in or slightly moveable
forming the knee • Synovial joints – freely moveable
joint.
• The Foot Fibrous Joints
o Tarsals – seven (7) bones.
▪ Two (2) largest • Bones united by collagenic fibers
tarsals – calcaneus • Types:
(heel bone) & talus o Sutures
o Metatarsals – five (5) bones ▪ Immobile
form the sole of the foot. o Syndesmoses
o Phalanges – fourteen (14) ▪ Allows more
bones form the toes. movement than
sutures but still
Archers of the Foot
immobile.
• Bones of the foot are arranged to Ex., distal end of tibia and fibula.
form three (3) strong arches:
• Gomphosis Joint Movements
o Immobile
• Nonaxial – no movement,
Cartilaginous Joints immobile. eg. Carpal bones
• Uniaxial – joints allow movement
• Bones connected by cartilage
in only one plane. eg. Elbow joints
• Types:
• Biaxial – joints allow movement in
o Synchrondrosis
two planes (adduction and
▪ Immobile
abduction, flexion and extension).
o Symphysis
eg. Wrist
▪ Slightly moveable.
• Multiaxial – allow movements in
Ex., pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints any plane. eg. Shoulder
How many moveable joints do we have in
our body? – 230
Inflammatory Conditions Associated with
Synovial Joints
Joints
• Articulating bones are separated
• Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa
by a joint cavity.
usually caused by a blow or
• Synovial fluid is found in the joint
friction.
cavity.
• Tendonitis – inflammation of
Features of Synovial Joints tendon sheaths.
• Arthritis – inflammatory or
• Articular cartilage (hyaline
degenerative diseases of joints.
cartilage) covers the ends of
o Over 100 different types.
bones.
o The most widespread
• Articular capsule encloses joint
crippling disease in the
surfaces and lined with synovial
United States.
membrane.
o Initial symptoms: pain,
• Joint cavity is filled with synovial
stiffness, swelling of the
fluid.
joint.
• Reinforcing ligaments.
Clinical Form of Arthritis
Structures Associated with the Synovial
Joint • Osteoarthritis
o Most common chronic
• Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs.
arthritis.
o Lined with synovial
o Probably related to normal
membranes.
aging processes.
o Filled with synovial fluid.
• Rheumatoid arthritis
o Not actually part of the
o An autoimmune disease –
joint.
the immune system attacks
• Tendon sheath
the joints.
o Elongated bursa that wraps
around a tendon.
o Symptoms begin with
bilateral inflammation of
Size of cranium in relationship to body:
certain joints.
o Often leads to deformities. • 2 years old – skull is larger in
• Gouty arthritis proportion to the body compared
o Inflammation of joints is to that of an adult.
caused by a deposition of • 8 or 9 years old – skull is near adult
uric acid crystals from the size and proportion.
blood. • Between ages 6 – 11 – the face
o Can usually be controlled grows out form the skull.
with diet.
o More common in men.
Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal
System Curvatures of the spine
• At birth, the skull bones are • Primary curvatures are present at
incomplete. birth and convex posteriorly.
• Bones are joined by fibrous • Secondary curvatures are
membranes called fontanels. associated with a child’s later
• Fontanels are completely replaced development and are convex
with bone within two (2) years anteriorly.
after birth. • Abnormal spinal curvatures
(scoliosis and lordosis) are often
Skeletal Changes Throughout Life
congenital.
Fetus
• Long bones are formed of hyaline
Osteoporosis
cartilage.
• Flat bones begin as fibrous • Bone-thinning disease afflicting:
membranes. o 50% of women over age 65
• Flat and long bone models are o 20% of men over age 70
converted to bone. • Disease makes bones fragile and
bones can easily fracture.
Birth
• Vertebral collapse results in
• Fontanels remain until around age kyphosis (also known as dowager’s
2 hump)
• Estrogen aids in health and normal
Adolescence
density of a female skeleton.
• Epiphyseal plates become ossified
and long bone growth ends.
