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Hyperloop Academic Research: A Systematic Review and a Taxonomy of Issues

Article in Applied Sciences · June 2021

DOI: 10.3390/app11135951

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 applied
sciences
Review
Hyperloop Academic Research: A Systematic Review and a
Taxonomy of Issues
Konstantinos Gkoumas

Joint Research Centre (JRC), European Commission, 21027 Ispra, Italy; [Link]@[Link];
Tel.: +39-0332-78-6041

Abstract: Hyperloop is a proposed very high-speed ground transportation system for both passenger
and freight that has the potential to be revolutionary, and which has attracted much attention in the
last few years. The concept was introduced in its modern form relatively recently, yet substantial
progress has been made in the past years, with research and development taking place globally,
from several Hyperloop companies and academics. This study examined the status of Hyperloop
development and identified issues and challenges by means of a systematic review that analyzed
157 documents from the Scopus database on Hyperloop since 2014. Following that, a taxonomy
of topics from scientific research was built under different physical and operational clusters. The
findings could be of help to transportation academics and professionals who are interested in the
developments in the field, and form the basis for policy decisions for the future implementation of
Hyperloop.

Keywords: Hyperloop; vactrain; scientific research; taxonomy; technologies






1. Introduction
Citation: Gkoumas, K. Hyperloop
Academic Research: A Systematic
Mobility and transportation are among the most essential and important services to
Review and a Taxonomy of Issues. society. They encompass interconnected systems that are intended to cover the demand for
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951. https:// mobility of people and goods. Transportation systems are intrinsically complex, including
[Link]/10.3390/app11135951 elements, both physical and organizational, that interact with and influence each other
directly and indirectly, frequently in a nonlinear manner, and with the occurrence of feed-
Academic Editor: Nicola Bosso back loops. [1]. According to this perspective, the transportation system is essentially a
highly dynamic complex, large-scale, interconnected, open, socio-technical (CLIOS) sys-
Received: 24 May 2021 tem [2]. Nevertheless, present-day transportation modes (i.e., rail, road, air and waterborne
Accepted: 24 June 2021 transportation) are based on consolidated concepts, and improvements over the years have
Published: 26 June 2021 been essentially evolutionary, focusing on delivering a safe, efficient, reliable and accessible
transportation system.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral In the last decade, several transportation concepts and technologies have been identi-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in fied as very promising. The impact of disruptive transportation technologies, i.e., those
published maps and institutional affil- technologies with the potential to create disruptive innovation at industry and society
iations.
level [3], has been an important area of research and development. In the transportation
sector, information and communication technologies (ICT) and the Internet of Things (IoT)
are bringing a revolution to the sector, with the advent of connected and automated road
mobility being a notable example [4].
Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Hyperloop is one of those very promising and possibly disruptive future transporta-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. tion technologies. Its development has received extensive media coverage over the last
This article is an open access article years following the Hyperloop Alpha white paper by Elon Musk published in 2013 [5].
distributed under the terms and Hyperloop consists of a system of tubes where vehicles (pods) travel at high speed (the
conditions of the Creative Commons original concept claims a top speed of 1220 km/h) in a low-pressure environment. Other
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
than speed, Hyperloop’s main advantage is that the partial vacuum lowers the air resis-
[Link]/licenses/by/
tance (drag), thus, consuming less energy during acceleration and cruise [6]. An initial
4.0/).

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951. [Link] [Link]

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 2 of 18

feasibility study published already in 2016 identifies research topics related to Hyperloop
technologies [7].
After the white paper and the initial hype, several companies in the US brought
together engineers and venture capital money to perform research and development and
make Hyperloop a reality [8]. Later on, the same companies expanded to Europe, and
other Europe-based companies engaged in similar activities [9], including the planning
and development of Hyperloop test sites.
Furthermore, recent developments regarding the need for standardizationin Europe
and the US highlight the interest in the regulation of Hyperloop. In Europe, the “Sus-
tainable and Smart Mobility Strategy” was presented in December 2020 by the European
Commission and the accompanying action plan of initiatives will guide its work for the next
four years. Among the objectives of this plan is to “assess the need for regulatory actions
to ensure safety and security of new technologies and concepts such as Hyperloop” [10].
Before that, a new Joint Technical Committee (TC), CEN/CLC/JTC 20, was launched by
the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and the European Committee for
Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) to address the need for the standardization
of Hyperloop systems [11]. A year before, in 2019, the U.S. Department of Transporta-
tion (DOT) created the Non-Traditional and Emerging Transportation Technology (NETT)
Council, an internal body with the objective of identifying and resolving gaps, either legal
or regulatory, that may obstruct the deployment of Hyperloop, among other new technolo-
gies [12]. In January 2021, the NETT Council presented the “Hyperloop Standards Desk
Review” with the scope of assessing the status of Hyperloop standardization activities,
developing a foundation for future Hyperloop standardization efforts, and consequently,
paving the way towards the development of a preliminary framework of Hyperloop system
components and associated regulations and voluntary technical standards [13].
The dynamics of the technology and the progress made toward future Hyperloop
deployment in Europe is highlighted by a recent mapping of activities in the industry
and European institutions [14]. Nevertheless, to test the safety, efficiency and reliability of
Hyperloop in the field, beyond research and development (R&D), a long enough, full-scale
prototype track is necessary.
Beyond the US and Europe, in China and Korea, as patent activity shows, there is
substantial R&D from CRRC Yangtze Co., the Korea Railroad Research Institute (KRRI)
and the Korea Institute of Construction Technology (KICT) [14,15].
Considering the above, this study examines the status of Hyperloop scientific devel-
opments, identifying issues and challenges. It is based on initial considerations developed
in [14]. Compared to that previous study, a systematic review was performed, and the
fields of research were explicitly identified. Consequently, a taxonomy of scientific research
issues was developed by analyzing all Hyperloop research in the literature, using the
methodology developed by the European Commission’s Transport Research and Innova-
tion Monitoring and Information System (TRIMIS) [16]. Accordingly, the literature was
organized in relevant clusters and for each cluster combination, the issues were identified
as lower-level items in the taxonomy.
The findings could be of help to transportation academics and professionals who are
interested in developments in the field, and form the basis for policy decisions for the
future implementation of Hyperloop.
The paper consists of the following parts: after the introduction, the next section
discusses the materials and methods used in this study, drawing from the Scopus database
and a physical system decomposed into several clusters. Section 3 provides the results from
the analyses grouped under the different clusters. Section 4 provides an initial taxonomy
based on the performed analysis and a brief discussion. Section 5 provides the conclusions.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 3 of 18

2. Materials and Methods

The methodology presented in this section focuses on capturing research findings,
2. Materials and Methods
aiming at the identification of trends, and consequently, building a taxonomy of issues.
The methodology
The Scopus presented
database, which in this section
has scrupulous focuses
indexing onwas
rules, capturing
used asresearch
a [Link],
aiming at the identification of trends, and consequently,
For the analysis, the following steps were taken: building a taxonomy of issues.
The Scopus database, which has scrupulous indexing rules, was used as a source.
• AFor
search using specific
the analysis, keywords
the following steps(“Hyperloop”
were taken: or “tube transport” or “vactrain”)
was carried out, in the abstract, title, or keywords. Results were limited to those pub-
• A search using specific keywords (“Hyperloop” or “tube transport” or “vactrain”) was
lished after 2013 (when the modern concept of Hyperloop was introduced), and doc-
carried out, in the abstract, title, or keywords. Results were limited to those published
uments from health sciences were excluded due to the lexical ambiguity of “Hyper-
after 2013 (when the modern concept of Hyperloop was introduced), and documents
loop transport” term. The exact query used was: TITLE-ABS-KEY ("Hyperloop" OR
from health sciences were excluded due to the lexical ambiguity of “Hyperloop
"tube transport*" or "vactrain") AND PUBYEAR > 2013 and not SUBJAREA (MEDI
transport” term. The exact query used was: TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Hyperloop” OR “tube
OR NURS OR VETE OR DENT OR HEAL). This search performed in June 2021 re-
transport*” or “vactrain”) AND PUBYEAR > 2013 and not SUBJAREA (MEDI OR
sulted in 229 documents.
NURS OR VETE OR DENT OR HEAL). This search performed in June 2021 resulted
• An additional manual filtering of the documents one-by-one, on the basis of their title
in 229 documents.
or abstract limited, resulted in 161 documents. The aim of this filtering was to elimi-
• An additional manual filtering of the documents one-by-one, on the basis of their
nate those documents that were not relevant to the field due to lexical ambiguity and
title or abstract limited, resulted in 161 documents. The aim of this filtering was to
those that simply
eliminate outlined Hyperloop-related
those documents aspects.
that were not relevant to theThis
fieldleft
due96to
articles,
lexical 57 confer-
ambiguity
ence papers, three reviews, three notes, one letter and one book chapter.
and those that simply outlined Hyperloop-related aspects. This left 96 articles, 57 Figure 1
shows the distribution
conference of reviews,
papers, three the documents over the
three notes, oneconsidered timebook
letter and one period.
chapter.
Figure
Figure11shows
showsan
theoverview of the
distribution of results, which are
the documents destined
over to increase
the considered inperiod.
time 2021.

30

25
Number of documents

20

15

10

0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Year
Note Review Book Chapter Letter Article Conference Paper

Figure 1. Evolution of Hyperloop academic research.

Figure 1. Evolution of Hyperloop academic research.
Figure 1 shows an overview of the results, which are destined to increase in 2021.
After
After this
this step, an analysis
step, an analysisofofall
allabstracts
abstracts(and(and
in in case
case of doubt,
of doubt, of the
of the full full paper)
paper) took
took place, and the research was quantitatively assessed, focusing on several
place, and the research was quantitatively assessed, focusing on several clusters. Inspired clusters. In-
spired
by the by the decomposition
decomposition approachapproach from
from [14], this[14],
wasthis
done wasby done
meansbyofmeans of approach,
a system a system
approach, breaking
breaking the the Hyperloop
Hyperloop system intosystem into fiveparts
five physical physical parts2).(Figure
(Figure These 2). These
parts parts
cover the
cover
entirethe entire hyperloop
hyperloop system,
system, and andinteracting
outline outline interacting
subsystems. subsystems.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 4 of 18
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

Figure 2. Hyperloop
Figure 2. Hyperloop system
system decomposition (adapted from
decomposition (adapted from [14]).
[14]).

The five physical clusters are:

•• Hyperloop as as aasystem:
system:thisthisincludes
includesresearch
research that encompasses
that encompasses the the
entire system
entire and
system
that that
and cannot be considered
cannot be consideredunder otherother
under disaggregated
disaggregatedlevels. Examples
levels. may may
Examples include
in-
efficiency
clude and energy
efficiency studiesstudies
and energy of the of
system in operation.
the system in operation.
•• Substructure (including foundations and bridge work): focuses mostly on structural
engineering design for the supporting structure.
•• Tube: considers aspects related to the tube structure. structure.
•• Tube pod
Tube podinterface:
interface:focuses
focusesononresearch
researchononthethe interface
interfacebetween
betweenthe tube and and
the tube the pod.
the
Examples
pod. may may
Examples include aerodynamic
include aerodynamicphenomena
phenomena as a as
consequence
a consequence of the pressure
of the pres-
variation.
sure variation.
•• Pod: focuses on
Pod: focuses on aspects
aspects related
related to
to the
the pod
pod (e.g.,
(e.g., levitation,
levitation, suspension, powertrain,
suspension, powertrain,
electronics)
electronics)
In addition,
In addition, five
fivehorizontal
horizontal(operational)
(operational) clusters
clusters(energy, operations,
(energy, communications,
operations, communica-
aerodynamics, safety) were considered.
tions, aerodynamics, safety) were considered.
It should
It should be be noted
noted that
that this
this decomposition
decomposition (into (into five
five physical
physical andand five
five horizontal
horizontal
clusters) while meaningful, is not the only one possible. In fact,
clusters) while meaningful, is not the only one possible. In fact, in a design process in a design process it
it is
is impossible
impossible to to decompose
decompose a system
a system uniquely
uniquely [17].
[17]. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, thisthis provides
provides a rather
a rather ge-
neric and complete higher-level decomposition, which can be further broken down into
generic and complete higher-level decomposition, which can be further broken down into
lower hierarchies.
lower hierarchies. For For example,
example, the the “pod”
“pod” cluster
cluster cancan bebe further
further decomposed
decomposed into into sub-
sub-
clusters, covering the powertrain, the levitation and suspension blocks, etc. Likewise, the
clusters, covering the powertrain, the levitation and suspension blocks, etc. Likewise, the
horizontal clusters can be further elaborated to cover additional operations. In this sense,
horizontal clusters can be further elaborated to cover additional operations. In this sense,
the decomposition is scalable and provides the starting point for adding more elaborated
the decomposition is scalable and provides the starting point for adding more elaborated
layers of detail.
layers of detail.
These clusters, although developed independently for this study, also encompass
These clusters, although developed independently for this study, also encompass
and are aligned with the priority work areas identified by the CEN/CENELEC TC on
and are aligned with the priority work areas identified by the CEN/CENELEC TC on Hy-
Hyperloop standardization, which include pressures of operation, door sealing, vehicle-
perloop standardization, which include pressures of operation, door sealing, vehicle-tube
tube interface, communication protocols and emergency evacuation [13].
interface, communication protocols and emergency evacuation [13].
Sections 3.1–3.5 present the results for the five physical clusters. In the analyses, each
Sections 3.1 to 3.5 present the results for the five physical clusters. In the analyses,
paper is also linked to one of the five horizonal clusters. Finally, Sections 3.6 and 3.7
each paper is also linked to one of the five horizonal clusters. Finally, Sections 3.6 and 3.7
present an overview of research involving general discussions and Hyperloop network
present an overview
developments. Theseof research
last two, are involving
not linkedgeneral
to the discussions and Hyperloop
physical clusters network
since they focus on
developments.
discussion rather These
thanlast two,development
on the are not linkedof to the physical
specific clusters since they focus on
technologies.
discussion rather than on the development of specific technologies.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 5 of 18

3. Hyperloop Research Breakdown

3.1. Research on the Hyperloop System
This section focuses on scientific research documents dealing with the Hyperloop
system in general. Thirty-two papers were identified from the analysis.
An overview of the issues identified in the scientific literature under the five utility
clusters is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Issues identified in research on the Hyperloop system.

Authors Year Issue E O C A S

Tavsanoglu et al. [18] 2021 Pod to ground wireless communication X
Fernández Gago and
2021 Geometric design and linear infrastructure planning X
Collado Perez-Seoane [19]
Huang et al. [20] 2021 Optical wireless communication system X
Tbaileh et al. [21] 2021 Power requirements and impact on the electricity grid X
Han et al. [22] 2020 Wireless network architecture X
Brown et al. [23] 2020 Short-range communication X
Eichelberger et al. [24] 2020 Scheduling X
Zhang et al. [25] 2020 Pod to ground wireless communication X
Qiu et al. [26] 2020 Pod to ground wireless communication X
Janić [27] 2020 Energy consumption and CO2 emissions X
Lafoz et al. [28] 2020 Energy Storage Systems X
Zhang et al. [29] 2020 Pod to ground wireless communication X
Khan [30] 2020 Overall system development X
Narayan S. [31] 2020 Solar panel power X
Bempah et al. [32] 2019 Photovoltaic panel configurations for tube X
Huang et al. [33] 2019 Lateral drift under different low pressures X
Jin et al. [34] 2019 Dynamic characteristics under low-pressure X
Thakur et al. [35] 2019 Braking and deceleration X
Kim and Rho [36] 2019 Support facility and pods X
Dudnikov [37] 2019 Network operations X
Allen et al. [38] 2019 Pod to ground wireless communication X
Sutton [39] 2019 Process safety and generic safety cases X
Kauzinyte et al. [40] 2019 Simulation with aerodynamic constraints X
Deng et al. [41] 2018 System simulation X
Nikolaev et al. [42] 2018 Electric and software system X
Deng et al. [43] 2017 System simulation X
Janzen [44] 2017 Dynamic characteristics under low-pressure X
Kwon et al. [45] 2017 Photovoltaic panel configurations for tube X
Ali et al. [46] 2017 Handover algorithm X
Decker et al. [47] 2017 Conceptual feasibility study X
Zhou et al. [48] 2016 Energy consumption X
Brusyanin and Vikharev [49] 2014 Conceptual functional safety assessment X
Abbreviations: E: Energy; O: Operations; C: Communications; A: Aerodynamics; S: Safety.

3.2. Research on Hyperloop Substructure

This section focuses on scientific research documents dealing with the Hyperloop
substructure. Eight papers were identified from the analysis.
An overview of the issues identified regarding Hyperloop substructure, under the
five utility clusters, is provided in Table 2.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 6 of 18

Table 2. Issues identified in research on Hyperloop substructure.

Authors Year Issue E O C A S

Museros et al. [50] 2021 Structural design X
Zhao et al. [51] 2021 Vibration instability X
Ahmadi et al. [52] 2020 Dynamic bridge deck-pier interaction X
Ahmadi et al. [53] 2020 Dynamic amplification factors X
Kemp et al. [54] 2020 Floating hyperloop tunnel conceptual design X
Connolly and Costa [55] 2020 High speed dynamic load amplification X
Alexander and Kashani [56] 2018 Bridge dynamics X
Pegin et al. [57] 2018 Superstructure dynamic coefficients X
Abbreviations: E: Energy; O: Operations; C: Communications; A: Aerodynamics; S: Safety.

3.3. Research on Hyperloop Tube Structure

This section focuses on scientific research documents dealing with the Hyperloop tube
structure. Seven papers were identified from the analysis.
An overview of the issues identified in regard to Hyperloop tube structure, under the
five utility clusters, is provided in Table 3. As can be seen, the principal topic of research is
the airtightness of concrete tubes.

Table 3. Issues identified in research on Hyperloop tube structure.

Authors Year Issue E O C A S

Devkota et al. [58] 2021 Concrete tube airtightness X
Baek [59] 2020 Identification of anomalies in the tube X
Devkota and Park [60] 2019 Concrete tube airtightness X
Dudnikov [61] 2018 Concrete tube airtightness X
Devkota et al. [62] 2018 Concrete tube airtightness X
Choi et al. [63] 2016 Concrete tube airtightness X
Park et al. [64] 2015 Concrete tube airtightness X
Abbreviations: E: Energy; O: Operations; C: Communications; A: Aerodynamics; S: Safety.

3.4. Research on Hyperloop Tube-Pod Interface

This section focuses on scientific research documents dealing with the Hyperloop
tube-interface. Forty-eight papers were identified from the analysis.
An overview of the issues identified regarding the Hyperloop tube-pod interface,
under the five utility clusters, is provided in Table 4.

Table 4. Issues identified in research on Hyperloop tube-pod interface.

Authors Year Issue E O C A S

Bose and Viswanathan [65] 2021 Piston effect mitigation using airfoils X
Lluesma-R. et al. [66] 2021 Use of compressor to mitigate aerodynamic drag X
Zhou et al. [67] 2021 Radial gap and flow field X
Hu et al. [68] 2021 Cross passage and flow field X
Drag coefficient effect on the aerodynamic
Lluesma-R. et al. [69] 2021 X
performance
Vakulenko et al. [70] 2021 Effect of external air exchange system X
Uddin et al. [71] 2021 Drag-based aerodynamic braking X
Huang et al. [72] 2020 Transient pressure on the tube X
Galluzzi et al. [73] 2020 Stabilization of electrodynamic levitation systems X
Nick and Sato [74] 2020 Pod structure aerodynamic optimization X
Le et al. [75] 2020 Aerodynamic drag and pressure waves X
Wang et al. [76] 2020 Blockage ratio and aerodynamic drag X
Ma et al. [77] 2020 Air pressure and aerodynamic drag X
Chen et al. [78] 2020 Structural mechanics properties of tube-wall X
Jia et al. [79] 2020 Heat recycle duct and energy accumulation X
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 7 of 18

Table 4. Cont.

Authors Year Issue E O C A S

Yang et al. [80] 2020 Blockage ratio and aerodynamic drag X
Mao et al. [81] 2020 Vacuum level and heat transfer characteristics X
Sui et al. [82] 2020 Blockage ratio and aerodynamic drag X
Machaj et al. [83] 2020 Power consumption analysis X
Zhang et al. [84] 2019 Guidance performance through curves X
Strawa et al. [85] 2019 Pod in low-pressure environment X
Nowacki et al. [86] 2019 Energy demand X
Zhang et al. [87] 2019 Aerodynamic noise X
Niu et al. [88] 2019 Aerodynamic heating X
Oh et al. [89] 2019 Aerodynamics and blockage ration X
Arun et al. [90] 2019 Conceptual aerodynamic design X
Li et al. [91] 2019 Embarking and disembarking process X
Wang and Yang [92] 2019 Electrodynamic magnetic levitation system X
Chaidez et al. [93] 2019 Levitation methods power requirements X
Aerodynamic characteristics and pressure recycle
Jia et al. [94] 2018 X
ducts
Opgenoord and Caplan [95] 2018 Aerodynamic design X
High temperature superconducting magnetic
Zheng et al. [96] 2018 X
suspension
Wan et al. [97] 2018 Guidance performance through curves X
Sayeed et al. [98] 2018 Magnetic levitation system prototype X
Zhang et al. [99] 2018 Levitation force X
Kang et al. [100] 2017 Aerodynamic drag parametric study X
Zhou et al. [101] 2017 Energy consumption and blockage ratio X
Braun et al. [102] 2017 Aerodynamic design multi-objective optimization X
Heaton [103] 2017 Inertial forces from earthquake X
Opgenoord and Caplan [104] 2017 Aerodynamic design and boundary layer X
Wang et al. [105] 2017 Aerodynamic design X
Zhang et al. [106] 2016 Auxiliary pumping system X
Pekardan and Alexeenko
2016 Thermal lift generation and drag reduction X
[107]
Braun et al. [108] 2016 Aerodynamic design and lift generation X
Zhou et al. [109] 2015 Aerodynamics and thermal-pressure coupling X
Zhou et al. [110] 2014 Entropy and aerodynamic heat generation X
Ma et al. [111] 2014 Kinetic energy loss X
Pandey and Mukherjea [112] 2014 Aerodynamic design X
Abbreviations: E: Energy; O: Operations; C: Communications; A: Aerodynamics; S: Safety.

3.5. Research on Hyperloop Pod

This section focuses on scientific research documents dealing with the Hyperloop pod.
Twenty-seven papers were identified from the analysis.
An overview of the issues identified regarding the Hyperloop pod, under the five
utility clusters, is provided in Table 5.

Table 5. Issues identified in research on Hyperloop pod.

Authors Year Issue E O C A S

Negash et al. [113] 2021 Semi-active suspension system X
García-Tabarés et al. [114] 2021 Acceleration system based on a linear motor X
Lim et al. [115] 2020 Electrodynamic suspension X
Jayakumar et al. [116] 2020 Pod space frame X
Lim et al. [117] 2020 High-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnet X
Seo et al. [118] 2020 Propulsion/levitation/guidance LIM X
Choi et al. [119] 2019 Sub-sonic linear synchronous motor X
Guo et al. [120] 2019 Null-flux coil electrodynamic suspension structure X
Zheng et al. [121] 2019 Levitation and Linear Propulsion System X
Seo et al. [122] 2019 Propulsion/levitation/guidance LIM X
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 8 of 18

Table 5. Cont.

Authors Year Issue E O C A S

Tudor and Paolone [123] 2019 Influence of batteries to the propulsion X
Bhuiya et al. [124] 2019 Three-phase inverter for powertrain X
Naik et al. [125] 2019 Cold Gas Propulsion System X
Guo et al. [126] 2019 Electrodynamic suspension X
Cho et al. [127] 2019 Propulsion/levitation/guidance LIM X
Indraneel et al. [128] 2019 Levitation X
Soni et al. [129] 2019 Magnetic brakes X
Tudor and Paolone [130] 2019 Propulsion system and energy requirements X
Ji et al. [131] 2018 Propulsion/levitation/guidance LIM X
Abdelrahman et al. [132] 2018 Magnetic levitation X
Pradhan and Katyayan [133] 2018 Vehicle dynamics X
Klim and Hashemi [134] 2017 Vehicle wheels design X
Zhou et al. [135] 2016 Propulsion/levitation/guidance LIM X
Ma et al. [136] 2015 Electromagnetic braking X
Chin et al. [137] 2015 Pod sizing X
Zhang [138] 2014 Life support systems X
Abbreviations: E: Energy; O: Operations; C: Communications; A: Aerodynamics; S: Safety; LIM: Linear Induction Motor.

3.6. Discussion Papers on Hyperloop

This section focuses on scientific research documents that focus on general discussions.
Thirty papers were identified from the analysis.
Table 6 provides an overview of the topics discussed.

Table 6. General discussion papers.

Authors Year Issue

Noland [139] 2021 Systematic technology review
Hansen [140] 2020 Technology assessment
Gieras [141] 2020 Technical/technological aspects
Sutar et al. [142] 2020 Hyperloop concept
Gkoumas and Christou [14] 2020 Policy and technical context
Barbosa [143] 2020 Technology review
Kumar et al. [144] 2019 Technical/technological aspects
Janić [145] 2019 Technical/technological/policy aspects
Lipusch et al. [146] 2019 Financing
Deng et al. [147] 2019 Technical/technological aspects
Bersano and Fayemi [148] 2019 Innovation management and design theory
Leibowicz [149] 2018 Technical/technological/policy aspects
van Goeverden et al. [150] 2018 Performance compared to air and high-speed train
Melzer and Zech [151] 2018 Social media
Ahmad et al. [152] 2017 Preliminary patent analysis
Kerns [153] 2017 Hyperloop competitions
Violette [154] 2017 Hyperloop competitions
Dudnikov [155] 2017 Tube and pod technical parameters
(No author name available) [156] 2017 Hyperloop competitions
Halsmer et al. [157] 2017 Hyperloop competitions
González-G. and Nogués [158] 2017 Technical/technological aspects
González-G. and Nogués [159] 2017 Technical/technological aspects
Bradley [160] 2016 Development cases
Rubin [161] 2016 Development cases
Anyszewski [162] 2016 Competitions
Ross [163] 2016 Hyperloop concept
Palacin [164] 2016 Viewpoint
Thompson [165] 2015 Social aspects
Abaffy [166] 2015 Financing
Kosowatz [167] 2014 Viability
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 9 of 18

3.7. Research on Hyperloop Networks

This section focuses on scientific research documents that focus on the development
of Hyperloop networks. Ten papers were identified from the analysis.
Table 7 provides an overview of the topics discussed.

Table 7. Network papers.

Authors Year Issue

Merchant and Chankov [168] 2020 Scenario analysis in Europe
Neef et al. [169] 2020 Scenario analysis on infrastructure networks
Bertolotti and Occa [170] 2020 Agent-based model of supply chain system
Rajendran and Harper [171] 2020 Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, and Verify (DMADV) approach
Cho [172] 2019 Implications at local level
Pfoser et al. [173] 2018 Hyperloop and synchromodality
Voltes-Dorta and Becker [174] 2018 Implications at local level
Markvica et al. [175] 2018 Hyperloop impact in Europe
Schodl et al. [176] 2018 Large scale regional impact
Werner et al. [177] 2016 Implications at local level (cargo)

The relationship between vertical and decomposition clusters in the documents is

shown in the chord diagram of Figure 3. The 30 documents on Hyperloop discussions and
the 10 documents on Hyperloop network developments are excluded from the diagram.
The left part of the figure reports the utility clusters and, on the right, the physical clusters.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR Visualizations
PEER REVIEW of this kind highlight the most popular research topics and the relationship
10 of 19
between them, and help to identify research insufficiencies.

Hyperloop
Figure [Link] academic
3. Hyperloop academicresearch clusters
research clusters relation
relation overview.
overview.

As can be seen, and with regard to the physical decomposition, the majority of re-
search focuses on the pod-tube interface and aerodynamics (29 documents) and the pod
and operations (21 documents). Communication technologies were researched in nine
documents at a system level. The 21 documents focusing explicitly on safety issues, cover
all horizontal areas.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 10 of 18

As can be seen, and with regard to the physical decomposition, the majority of
research focuses on the pod-tube interface and aerodynamics (29 documents) and the pod
and operations (21 documents). Communication technologies were researched in nine
documents at a system level. The 21 documents focusing explicitly on safety issues, cover
all horizontal areas.

4. Initial Taxonomy of Issues

The next step was to build a preliminary taxonomy of research topics. As explained in
Section 3, all papers were read and grouped under the different clusters. Each paper was
also flagged for the respective research issues. Table 8 aggregates the findings from the 161
documents. For the utility clusters, an overview of the emerging issues is reported, while
for the physical and generic clusters, the research issues are reported in detail, aggregating
the identified issues from Section 3. It should be noted that the obtained taxonomy is not
unique, and further readings could identify additional elements.

Table 8. A taxonomy of overarching research clusters and research issues on Hyperloop arising from the scientific literature
analysis.

Research Clusters Researched Issues

1 Energy Energy consumption (may include aerodynamics, but focuses on heat dissipation)
2 Safety Safety process, evacuation, pod tightness, breaking
Utility cluster 3 Communications Pod-to-pod and pod-to-ground communication
overview 4 Aerodynamics Aerodynamic phenomena
5 Operations Hyperloop operations and research not covered in utility clusters 1–4
A System Optical wireless communication, pod-to-ground communication, communication
signal propagation, system simulation, functional safety, process safety, safety
cases, energy storage systems, lateral drift, energy consumption, network
architecture, scheduling, short range communication, power requirements, impact
on the electricity grid, short-range communication, scheduling, electric and
software system, photovoltaic panels, handover algorithm, geometric design,
linear infrastructure planning
B Substructure Structural design, bridge dynamics, geotechnical, earthquake, resonant dynamic
effects, vibration instability, bridge deck-pier interaction, bridge dynamics,
Physical
dynamic amplification factors, dynamic load amplification, floating Hyperloop
clusters
tunnel
C Tube Airtightness, anomaly detection
D Tube-pod interface Levitation friction, aerodynamic drag, blockage ratio, vacuum effects, piston effect
mitigation, heat generation, tube/pod combined design, energy loss, aerodynamic
noise, levitation force, kinetic energy, pressure recycle ducts, aerodynamic
breaking
E Pod Motor, propulsion, semi-active suspension, electrodynamic suspension, levitation,
guidance, design, sizing, battery, tightness, Linear Induction Motor,
high-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnet, batteries, wheel design,
additive manufacturing, inverter for powertrain, Cold Gas Propulsion
i Discussion Technical feasibility, financing, policy recommendations, new mobility paradigms,
Generic knowledge management, technology overview, education, competitions, general
clusters feasibility
ii Network Network feasibility, financial efficiency, network simulations, network operations,
scenario analysis, synchromodality, supply chain, regional impact

A variety of researched topics emerges from Table 8.

The Hyperloop as a system cluster (A) includes a lot of research on different opera-
tional aspects, in particular communications. In fact, this aspect appears to be challenging
at very high speeds in tunnel structures. Some other aspects related to the geometric design
and the linear infrastructure development are also covered in this cluster in an analytical
manner.
The Hyperloop substructure cluster (B) includes a great deal of research from the
fields of structural and bridge engineering. The major difference is the dynamic loads
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 11 of 18

imposed by the Hyperloop pods, which influence the design of substructure and need to
be accounted for.
Some research deficiencies were identified. This is the case for research focusing on
the Hyperloop tube cluster (C), and consequently, on infrastructure. Considering that
infrastructure costs are high (especially for a new system) the lack of research in this area
(e.g., materials, tube thickness) is visible.
At the same time, Hyperloop tube-pod interface cluster (D) research focuses on a
variety of issues linked in particular to aerodynamic performance under low pressure.
Research focusing on the Hyperloop pod cluster (E) covers many aspects that are
linked to the powertrain, suspension, magnetic levitation and guidance. A number of
similarities with high-speed rail and (especially) magnetic levitation (Maglev) trains are
apparent, something that may lead to research spillovers from the two transport modes.
Finally, the rather high number of discussion papers and those related to Hyperloop
networks highlight the overall interest in Hyperloop as a transport mode.

5. Conclusions
Hyperloop is a proposed very high-speed ground transportation system that has
great potential for the decarbonization of transportation, and it has received a great deal
of attention from transportation academics. This study aimed to provide a baseline with
regard to the topics and challenges identified in the scientific research, for the effective
testing and deployment of Hyperloop. The presentation of the issues follows a structured
methodology, and provides insights for future research. In particular, the adopted cluster-
ing is scalable, and consequently, more detailed sub-clusters could be easily identified. The
performed extensive literature review, to the authors’ knowledge, is the most complete of
its kind.
As discussed in the previous section, based on the detailed findings and the taxonomy
of issues identified under the overarching clusters, there is vast interest from the research
community on this topic.
These findings could play an important role in providing input to ongoing Hyperloop
standardization processes by looking into the different approaches for solving specific
issues. The findings also complement proprietary technologies developed by Hyperloop
promoters, since in many cases, academic research on the same topics is independent.
Therefore, it can provide a fresh perspective since academic research follows different
paths of knowledge compared to industry. This is more evident in specific clusters (e.g.,
substructure and tube) where structural engineering approaches are implemented, relying
on the long-standing expertise of researchers in the specific field.
Another possible use that emerges is the opportunity to compare the taxonomy with
research issues in legacy systems, e.g., high speed rail. In this way, it is possible to quickly
check (a) similarities in the research in the two systems, and consequently, possible research
spillovers, and (b) research issues not yet explored. The results from such an exercise could
provide valuable input to standardization and certification bodies.
The findings could ignite policy initiatives focusing on future decisions regarding
the Hyperloop. For this process to succeed, the continuous identification and assessment
of issues will be necessary, including challenges beyond technology (e.g., social aspects,
project financing), which will help to make the demonstration and deployment of Hy-
perloop possible. Outside policymaking, this paper helps academics and professionals
who are interested in the development of Hyperloop technologies by providing digested
information on scientific developments in this area.
Future research could focus on expanding this taxonomy to cover other domains of
knowledge, in particular, intellectual property applications from Hyperloop promoters
and nationally funded research.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5951 12 of 18

Data Availability Statement: Scopus data were used in the analyses.

Acknowledgments: Michalis Christou is acknowledged for fruitful discussion on the topic. The
views expressed here are purely those of the author and may not, under any circumstances, be
regarded as an official position of the European Commission. This research is based on data available
from or elaborated by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) TRIMIS team (the European Commission’s
Transport Research and Innovation Monitoring and Information System-[Link]
accessed on 20 June 2021). The Joint Research Centre is in charge of the development of TRIMIS, and
the work has been carried out under the supervision of the Directorate-General for Mobility and
Transport (DG MOVE) and the Directorate-General for Research and Innovation (DG RTD) that are
co-leading the Strategic Transport Research and Innovation Agenda (STRIA).
Conflicts of Interest: No conflict of interest. Outside policymaking.

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