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ELECTRONICS

RESISTORS

In general, components used in electronics circuits are very small and carry small currents (normally a
few milliamps). Resistors are used in electronics to make sure the current through a component or set of
components does not exceed a certain value.

E.g.1 The circuit below shows a 10KΩ resistor in series with a component X.

The minimum possible resistance of the circuit is 10 kΩ. Thus then the maximum current which can flow
through component X is given by

V 6V
Imax= R =¿ 10 KΩ = 0.6mA
min

COLOUR CODES

Resistors are marked with colored bands indicating their resistance. The first and second bands show
the first two significant figures of the resistance and the third gives the number of zeroes. A fourth band
shows the percentage uncertainty with which the resistance is known (tolerance).

Resistor Colour Code

Black 0 Green 5

Brown 1 Blue 6

Red 2 Violet 7

Orange 3 Grey 8

Yellow 4 White 9
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Value = 6400Ω

4th band = tolerance : gold =± 5 % , silver =± 10 % , no colour =± 20 %

POTENTIAL DIVIDER : Changes the p.d. applied to a device. If a circuit or a part of a circuit requires a
lower voltage supply than that available, two resistors may be connected in series as a Potential divider,
as shown below

V out becomes the supply for the circuit requiring less than V.

V
We know that I=
R

But R = R1 + R2

V
Therefore I =
R 1+ R 2

V R2
So V out = IR2 ¿
R 1+ R 2
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E.g.1 (a) Find the output voltage V out of the potential divider shown below.

V
Current through resistors, I =
R

But R = R1 + R2

V 6v
I= = =¿ 6 V = 2V
R 1+ R 2 5000 Ω+10 000 Ω 15000 Ω 5000 Ω

2
Therefore V out = IR2 = Ax 10000 Ω=4 V
5000

(b) A calculator with an input resistance of 2.5 KΩ is now connected between terminals A and B. What is
the p.d. across the calculator?
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VARIABLE RESISTANCE

(a) RHEOSTAT: A Rheostat is a simple resistor with two terminals, whose resistance can be varied by
moving a sliding contact or turning a knob. Thus the resistance of a rheostat varies between 0Ω
and some maximum value.

When resistance of rheostat = 0Ω

V 3V
Current, I through circuit = , I = = =1A
R 3Ω

V across bulb, V = IR = 1Ax3Ω=3V

When the resistance of rheostat = 9Ω

V
Current through circuit, I =
R

But R = R1 + R2

V 3V 3
Therefore I = = = =0.25 A
R 1+ R 2 9 Ω+3 Ω 12

V across bulb = IR2 = 0.25Ax3Ω=0.75V (bulb dim or off)

(b) POTENTIOMETER : It is a variable Potential Divider . A variable resistor with three terminals is
used and a sliding contact is connected to the center one. All three connections are being used.
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E.g1. Find the maximum and minimum p.d. which can be across the bulb in each of the circuits below.

(a)

(b)
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The advantage of Potentiometer over a Rheostat is that the p.d. can be varied between 0V and max.

POWER RATINGS

All electronic components have a power rating stated by the manufacturer. This is the maximum power
which can be developed in the resistor without causing damage.

E.g.1 A 100Ω resistor has a power rating of 1.0 w. Determine whether or not the resistor will be
damaged if there is 5.0 V.

V
Power dissipated in resistor, P = VI but I=
R
2 2
V 5 25
Therefore P= =¿ = = 0.25w
R 100 100

Since P ¿ 1.0 w, the resistor will not be damaged.

INPUT TRANSDUCERS

An input transducer is a component which enables a circuit to respond to a change in environment.

1. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS(LDR)

An LDR is a semiconductor component whose resistance decreases when the intensity of the
light incident on it increases. (i.e. in the dark it has a high resistance)
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When more light is incident on the LDR, its resistance decreases and so the current
increases .The rheostat can be used to adjust the calibration of the instrument. LDR are
used in street lights.

2. THERMISTOR : A thermistor is a component whose resistance decreases as its temperature

When the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases and so the
milliammeter reading increases. Thus the meter can be calibrated directly in °C. The rheostat is
used to adjust the range of the thermometer and its sensitivity. A thermistor of low heat
capacity should be used to enable fast response to a change in temperature.
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SWITCHING CIRCUITS

Using a relay switch, one circuit may be used to switch on another. In electronics, Reed Relays are
commonly used. These consists of a small coil wound around a glass tube containing two ‘reeds’ made
of magnetic material. When a current flows through the coil reeds become magnetized and attract each
other( i.e. they become opposite poles) completing the circuit connected to AB. When the circuit in the
coil is switched off the reeds separate

E.g.1 Fire Alarm

When there is fire outbreak the thermistor is heated, its resistance decreases and enough current flows
through the relay coil to switch on the mains circuit.
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E.g 2. (i)Security Light

When there is light falling on the LDR, its resistance is low and so p.d. across it is low and therefore the
p.d across the relay coil is low as well as the current through the relay coil is low. Thus the reeds are not
magnetized and no current flows through the bulb. When there is no light falling on the LDR its
resistance is high and so the p.d across it is high. Therefore the p.d across and the current through the
relay coil are high. Thus the reeds are magnetized and current flows through the bulb.

Note (i) The LDR and rheostat function as a potential divider. The resistance of the rheostat can be
varied to adjust intensity of light at which the relay switches on.

(ii) If the LDR and rheostat are interchanged, the circuit will switch on the bulb in light and off in the
dark.
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TIME DELAY CIRCUITS

A Capacitor is a component which consists of two parallel conducting ‘plates’ separated by an insulator
(modern ones are cylindrical, made by rolling the conductors and insulator together). A capacitor acts as
a store of charge.

When charging a capacitor the + of the battery attracts electrons from plate X and the – of the battery
repels electrons to plate Y. A positive charge builds up on plate X (since it loses electrons) and an equal
negative charge builds up on Y (since it gains electrons)

Charged Capacitor

When the switch is closed, the bulb light for a few seconds, the time depends on the capacitance of the
capacitor and the resistance of the bulb.

Capacitors may be used in conjunction with relays as shown below.

When switch is first closed the capacitor tends to ‘short circuit’ the relay so it does not switch on for a
few seconds (until some charge has built up on the capacitor). When the switch is opened, the capacitor
discharges through the relay, keeping the bulb on for a few seconds.

E.g. A circuit which switches on a lamp a few seconds after it becomes dark.

When it becomes dark the resistance of the LDR increases, and so the p.d across it, the capacitor and the
relay coil increases. At first a large current flows through the capacitor until it becomes charged enough
for current to flow through the relay coil to switch the lamp on.
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DIODE

A diode is a two terminal device which lets current pass through it in one direction only.

Symbol

A diode can be used as a rectifier i.e. converting alternating current into direct current.

(a) Half Wave Rectification : A single diode is used.

(b) Full Wave Rectification

The solid lines shows the direction of current and the broken lines also shows another alternative
direction of current as the current keeps on changing direction. But no matter which direction the
current flows in the bridge the + and – terminals across the resistor do not change.