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Contact UMI directly to order. ® UMI Bell & Howell Information and Leaming 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 USA ‘800-521-0600Production and Evaluation of a Self-Instructional Method for Teaching Jazz Guitar Michael Berard A Thesis in The Department of Education Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Educational Technology) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada Tune 1998 © Michael Berard, 1998National Library Bibliothéque nationale of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services ‘395 Wellington Street ‘Ottawa ON KIA ONS Canada 295, rue Welington Canada The author has granted a non- exclusive licence allowing the National Library of Canada to reproduce, loan, distribute or sell copies of this thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats. The author retains ownership of the copyright in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author’s permission. (awa ON KTA ONE services bibliographiques L’auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive permettant la Bibliotheque nationale du Canada de reproduire, préter, distribuer ou vendre des copies de cette thése sous la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. L’auteur conserve la propriété du droit d’auteur qui protége cette thése. Ni la thése ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent étre imprimés ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation. 0-612-39417-4 CanadaABSTRACT Production and Evaluation of a Self-Instructional ‘Method for Teaching Jazz Guitar Michael Berard This thesis equivalent concems the development and evaluation of a self instructional method for jazz guitar. The method was designed to teach chords, scales and arpeggios to jazz guitarists enrolled in a university music program. A second purpose in the design was to create a method which focuses on presenting this, information in a manner which is oriented towards jazz improvisation. As such, the method incorporates examples and exercises which are primarily rooted in jazz. The method is predominantly text based with numerous musical examples and is accompanied by a cassette which includes recordings of the various musical examples and exercises contained within the method. The method was evaluated using a single group, pretest, posttest design. The dependent measures were obtained through a pretest administered prior to the trial period and through a posttest and an attitude questionnaire administered at the end of the trial period. The subjects were 14 jazz guitar majors studying at Concordia University in Montreal, Canada. The purpose of the evaluation was predominantly formative. As such, the results of the evaluation were used to analyze the effectiveness of each of the objectives. The 14 subjects were divided into small groups and instructed to each use 1 of 4 sections of the instructional method for a period of ten days. Overall, the objectives of the method were successfully met and ifthe subjects indicated positive attitudes towards the instruction. An objective by objective analysis of the dependent measures indicated weaknesses in specific areas of the method. A discussion of the conclusions drawn from the findings follows with recommendations for revisions to the instructional method. It was concluded that revisions should be made and that other forms of evaluation need to be applied. ivAcknowledgments Sincere thanks to all of the following people who helped me in their own unique and special ways to complete this work. Dr. Richard Schmid Dr. Dennis Dicks Dr. Allan Crossman Dr. Heidi Schnackenberg David Wells Dr. P. David Mitchell ‘Susan Elliott Cheryl Doxas All of my guitar students at Concordia UniversityTABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF APPENDICES... CHAPTER Ls Rationale... Statement of the Problem.. CHAPTER3... Instructional Design. ‘Needs Assessment. ‘One-on-one evaluation Analysis of skills Instructional Objectives. Subdivisions of Objective 1 19 Subdivisions of objective 2... Instructional Strategy. ‘The nature of jaz instruction Instructional presentation Hypothesis.Subjects.. = : . oe 38 Materials Proved nnn : : 39 Criterion Measures. Experimental Design .. CHAPTER 5. Results Interpretation of data. Analysis of clustered objectives.. Item by item analysis. 3 Discussionern o4 Objectives requiring review Recommendations for revisions. ——t a 65 Attitude questionnaire 73 Conclusion Reference viiLIST OF FIGURES viiiLIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Sample Pretest and Posttest Appendix B: Attitude Questionnaire and Responses. Appendix C: Raw Data. Appendix D: Instructional Design Plan.. ‘Appendix E: Guitar MethodCHAPTER 1 Rationale ‘As with an increasing number of university departments and faculties, the music department at Concordia University in Montreal, Canada is experiencing financial restraints and is being forced to meet their educational goals within a tighter budget. This being the case, cuts have been made in several areas in the faculty with regards to the course curriculum. One notable cut is in the area of private study. Private study is essentially a course which provides individualized instruction on a wide variety of musical instruments. Private study includes instruction in the areas of classical and jazz music. Within each of these areas, there is instruction offered on most of the orchestral instruments, classical guitar, voice, organ and those instruments commonly associated with jazz and popular musical styles. For each instrument, there will usually be one or several instructors. These instructors will teach only the instrument and style in which they are considered to be an expert. As such, there are a large number of instrumental instructors who teach private study in the department of music. Each instructor is responsible for planning curriculum and selecting texts and instructional material for the instrument they teach. During the lesson times, the instructor will present new information and concepts us well as monitor the progress the student has made on assigned work. Students are assigned work based on their own individual musical abilities and weekly progress. Often instructors rely on their own teaching resources which might include collectionsfrom various texts as well as their own notes and resources. This is not to say that no curriculum exists, but rather that instruction is more individualized. Since the course of private study is basically one-on-one, there is a certain amount of flexibility with the delivery of the materials and the interpretation of the assigned work. Instrumental instructors are most often hired on a per hour basis and therefore have little if any time outside of the lessons to spend with the students. Students will basically only see their instructor during a 45 minute scheduled weekly time slot. In such a scenario, students may encounter several problems. If for one reason or another a student encounters difficulties in completing his/her assigned work, or if the instructor is not available, an entire week’s work may be lost. If one considers the possibility that not all students have the same learning styles or practice routines, then it is conceivable that students leave a lesson without fully grasping all that transpired. Once the lesson is completed, students are basically on their own. The study of jazz guitar is an area which comprises a large percentage of the total number of students enrolled in private study. With each new academic year, jazz guitarists make up the largest number of students who apply for and are accepted into the program. As jazz guitar is my personal realm of expertise, this project will focus on private study in the area of jazz guitar. At Concordia University, students receive one instrumental lesson per week for a total of 26 weeks. As the student teacher ratio is one-to-one the cost of this course far exceeds that of all other courses offered by the music department and perhaps all courses in the university. Along with the actual cost of the course is the amount ofspace required within the department of music. With a teacher/student ratio of 1:1, the space requirements of the course are enormous. This in itself places enormous pressure on the department. In an effort to work within tighter financial boundaries the department has chosen to limit the number of hours of instruction over the 26 week period. To this end, the lessons were reduced from 1 hour per week to 50 minutes per week in the first year of cuts and from 50 minutes per week to 45 minutes per week in the second year of cuts. This reduction in instructional time reduces both the cost of the course and the physical space requirements within the department. Although the overall instruction time has been reduced, instrumental instructors are expected to provide the same level of instruction to students and naturally students are required to meet the same educational goals. With this decrease in instructional time the challenge is placed on the individual instructors to find ways to meet these same educational goals within this new framework. One way to meet this challenge is to organize the course in ways which maximize the 45 minute lesson time. Lessons could be organized so that the students are able to look at material ahead of time and prepare for lessons effectively. As it stands now, the 45 minutes of lesson time are used to cover a number of wide ranging activities. A typical guitar lesson would include any number of the following components: ‘* review of work from the previous lesson * presentation of a new concept(s) ‘© answering questions from the learner* looking at music which the learner is playing in one of his/her other courses sight reading of music © work on chords ‘© work on scales and arpeggios © work on improvisation * work on sound ‘© work on technique Although not all of these components will be covered in each lesson, one or two items might be discussed every other week or intensely for two or three lessons. Depending on the strengths and weaknesses of the learner, the jazz guitar instructor will focus on one specific area and less on others with the intention of developing the greater weaknesses first. Basically, there seems to be a lack of time to accommodate the wide range of activities and the scope of the material to be covered. Previously, compressing all of this into a time frame of 1 hour per week seemed difficult, now with only 45 minutes per week, it has become even more difficult. An effective way to solve this instructional problem would be to design material which is primarily self-guided. 1 feel that the implementation of a uniform self-instructional learning package can compensate for the lack of time available for this course. An instructional package of this nature, which focuses on a number of the key elements of the course, would provide a means for instructors to use the 45 minute time frame more effectively.Such a leaming package would also provide students with the opportunity to look over material, listen to musical examples and come to lessons having already prepared a portion of the work. If students are able to prepare for lessons by preparing materials on their own, the lesson time can then be used to fine tune and trouble shoot. It is hoped that a self-instructional learning package would allow the learners to take on a greater responsibility in the learning process. This in turn would transform the lessons into a more productive use of the available time. Since less time will be needed for the presentation of new material, more time becomes available. The book might also act as a reference which would allow students the opportunity to review material, formulate questions and find answers to problems on their own. In order to achieve this goal, such a learning package will need to provide a similar experience to that which is currently experienced during the individual lessons. During one lesson, a typical scenario would include both student and instructor with their musical instruments. The instructor will often demonstrate the correct way to play a scale or perhaps demonstrate a possible interpretation of a musical component. As words do not always effectively convey the message which is to be taught, the very existence of the one-to-one instrumental instruction where the instrumental expert is present is the ideal leaming situation. It is critical in instrumental instruction that the learner have the opportunity to hear an expert execute the music. Not only are the actual sounds and pitches demonstrated by the instructor, but also interpretation, sound, style and emotions. Merrill, Zhongmin & Jones (1990) discuss the issue of “situated cognition.” Merrill states that, “much of what we lear issupported by the environment in which we perform and that learning is better when these contextual supports are part of the learning environment.” (p. 53) Tennyson. (1990) also supports this statement. He writes, “the key to both effective acquisition and employment of knowledge is the organization of the information according to contextual applications” (p. 9). In instrumental instruction, the correct context will need to include a performance of some kind. To achieve a similar experience outside of this one-on-one learning environment, it is critical that students be provided with listening examples which illustrate the musical elements being taught. Much of what is difficult or impossible to explain can be effectively communicated through sound. Aspects of tone, pitch, style and phrasing are better taught through sound examples and not through text or diagrams. To this end, sound recordings will be an integral part of the previously described learning package. The package will also make use of standard musical notation, diagrams of fingerings and text-based explanations of the concepts and activities being discussed. These will be needed as substitutes for the visual element of watching the instructor perform the various musical examples. The use of video to capture the visual element would certainly provide learners with the component of watching the instrumental instructor demonstrate various examples and techniques. This option was not pursued for several reasons. If one is to look at the normal day of a music student in a university music program and analyze their schedule and practice habits, this option does not prove such a good one. As students spend a large portion of their time at the university, this is the place wherethey will do the majority of their practice. The availability of video playback equipment on Concordia University’s campus is limited and therefore not a practical option. The aim of the learning package is to provide instructional resources and educational activities which are similar to the experience of the individualized lessons. This, it is hoped, would effectively extend the experience of this unique learning environment beyond the current 45 minutes of lesson time which the students currently receive. It is hoped that students will have a new educational resource which simulates the environment currently available only during one-on-one contact with a private instrumental instructor. With this, students will take on a greater responsibility and hopefully achieve more on their own. The intention of this package is to create a method using various media (sound, text and graphics) which stimulates musical growth by capturing the fundamentally important aspects of individualized instrumental instruction. The ability to see, hear and comprehend music are the goals of this method.(CHAPTER 2 Statement of the Problem In light of the information presented, the purpose of this project was to develop and evaluate a self-instructional method on jazz guitar for use as a text for students enrolled in a course of private instruction in jazz guitar at Concordia University in Montreal, Canada. The level of instruction for this method was geared towards students studying at the university level. Although there are a number of jazz guiter books available today, it is the opinion of this author that the majority of these bocks do not suit the needs of most university jazz guitar courses. An extensive search 0 the literature revealed no studies on jazz guitar materials or the production of them. Several dissertations dealing with the production and evaluation of jazz related teaching materials for Bb trumpet, piano and clarinet were found (Aitken, 1975; Damron, 1973; Konowitz, 1971). These studies focused on a similar objective to this project in that the focus was to develop and evaluate teaching materials in the area of jazz. Jazz education is relatively new in the curriculum (Aitken, 1975; Konowitz, 1971; Leibman, 1996) as compared to classical, which has been in existence and part of the music curriculum for centuries. Jazz education has formally been in existence only since about 1950 where it began as a one person faculty in a number of high schools, colleges and universities in the United States (Leibman, 1996; Suber, 1979). At thattime, there existed very few books, and jazz educators found themselves in a position. where they had to develop their own materials (Suber, 1979). Many of the books currently available for jazz guitar can be generally described as being too specific to one topic and lacking in the presentation of prerequisite knowledge for the skills being taught. Books which focus on instrumental concepts and techniques are specific to one particular aspect of an instrument or one particular style of performance, Often a particular book may present an aesthetic appreciation which is not in line with that of the instructor and can leave the learner on his/her own to try and arrive at an appropriate interpretation. It is often the case that the instrumental instructor will not use a specific text for the course. In the majority of cases, instructors rely on their own notes and bits and pieces of material from favorite or popular resources. They may also require students to take their own notes. In a survey of literature for teaching trumpet in the jazz style, McCauley (1973) reported that a “considerable number of instructors chose to formulate their own course of study.”(p. 26) Although this can prove successful, I believe that having all of the information in one well-organized and sequenced volume will benefit both the students and the instructors. Also important to consider is that jazz education is relatively new in colleges and universities. Because of this, there still exists a limited number of resources in many areas of the jazz studies curriculum. A comprehensive text which provides clear explanations, examples and exercises, and which is geared to the curriculum and level of a college or university instrumental course would help to address this situation,In light of this, the instructional method I have designed is unique from the perspective that it has been designed to meet the needs of a specific group of leamers. These leamers are students enrolled in a course of private instruction in jazz guitar at a college or university. It is complete in the sense that it offers a full compliment of explanations and exercises in a self-instructional format. Used in conjunction with an instrumental jazz. guitar teacher, the method will allow the learners to prepare for instrumental lessons thus allowing for more effective use of the available contact time. 10CHAPTER 3 Instructional Design Needs Assessment An analysis of a learning situation using any of the various needs assessment techniques can reveal relevant information which provides educators and educational designers an opportunity to clearly assess the abilities and potential of the learners. Needs assessment (NA) is used to establish a discrepancy between the actual performance and the optimal performance of the learners (Rossett, 1987). Rosset (1987) defines NA as “analysis activities trainers use to examine performance problems or new technologies.” (p. 14) Bonner (1988) describes needs assessment as. the determination of “the gaps between actual and desired states.” As there is not actually a problem in the performance of the students discussed in this work, but rather a gap between the performance level they are currently attaining and what they could potentially attain, the goal in assessing the needs of the learners is geared more towards the Bonner perspective than the Rossett. My own ten years of teaching experience has allowed me to gather a comprehensive understanding of the leamers at the particular educational institution where I work. As a qualified instructor in jazz guitar and a professional recording and performing artist, I safely qualify as a Subject Matter Expert (SME) in this area as well. During the time I have worked at my current place of employment, I have rTobserved what the actuals are, and I believe there is a gap between the current state and the desired state I wish my students to reach. Unofficial needs assessment data were informally gathered for this project through student performance observations over the last ten years of teaching guitar. Rossett (1987) argues that "observation is a useful and highly touted front-end tool." (p. 27). Even though nonsystematic observations were gathered for this work, I believe that such data were quite useful in determining many areas of the instructional design portion of the project. Based on these observations, a number of relevant points can be noted with respect to my own teaching. Throughout my time as an instructor, I used several approaches in the delivery of instruction for instrumental lessons. As much of my own musical instruction in jazz guitar did not include the use of an assigned text but was through demonstrations and note taking, this was also my initial approach to teaching as well. My instruction focused on providing verbal explanations and demonstrating concepts and techniques on the guitar. Bits and pieces of information from various sources as well as a number of short modules which I had prepared were also used to supplement this approach. Upon searching for an appropriate method for the course, no text was found which was deemed appropriate for the leamers with which I was involved. Although some texts offered many interesting and useful sections, most were lacking in important areas of the curriculum. Many provided explanations with some exercises but generally little or no feedback. 12After a period of several years of teaching in this manner, I began to develop more instructional materials. I discovered that using this material as part of the course notes brought about positive results in the performance abilities of the students. Students’ comments were positive and an improvement in performance was noted. In this way I ‘was encouraged to design more instructional materials. Since I was able to design the instructional material specifically to fit the needs of these students, this allowed for two important factors to be realized - the designing of instructional materials which fulfilled the requirements of the university curriculum, and designing instructional materials which met the level of the leamers. However, had other methods of needs assessment been used, more information could have been gathered about the learners. Two methods which Rossett (1987) outlines for conducting needs assessment, interviews and questionnaires, would have been effective in gathering data on different aspects of the learners and their performance. As only needs assessment data was unofficially gathered by the author of this project, a specific aesthetic viewpoint will no doubt exist in the instructional design. Responses from other SME’s in the field would have also provided a broader perspective in identifying the content and level of the learners as well as other relevant information which might influence the design process. One-on-one evaluation One-on-one evaluations were conducted in the two years prior to the formal development of the instructional method. During this time, individual lessons were 13,developed in a rough format and subsequently utilized during one on one instrumental lessons with the target leamers. The one-on-one evaluations provided an opportunity for the author to uncover major errors in the explanations and musical examples. A number of wrong notes and typographical errors were uncovered and corrected. Aspects of the instructional approach were found to be ineffective and elements of confusion in the presentation of the objectives were uncovered. This led to the application and testing of other approaches until one was found which was more effective. This evaluation period provided the author an opportunity to investigate the learning conditions inherent in the instructional objectives of the method. Observations of the learners utilizing the materials at this very early stage of development allowed for the analysis of the steps required to perform the objectives. This information played an important role in defining the objectives, formulating test questions and the subsequent development of the current version of the method. Analysis of skills In developing the instructional strategy for this method, it was important to consider the type of knowledge and skills which the objectives of the method reflect. Gagne (1977) states that, “Learning conditions are not the same for different varieties of what is learned” (p. 26). It is essential to identify what Gagne terms “‘leamed capabilities” as this allows one to gain insight into the types of activities which best suit the identified type of learning. The objectives I have defined seem to qualify as cognitive strategies (Gagne, 1977). These objectives require the leamer to understand 14and combine various skills and the understanding of a number of musical concepts to arrive at the intended educational goal. ‘The implications for teaching a cognitive strategy suggest a particular approach to instruction. The instructional strategy will need to incorporate the approach which is most effective for delivering information and stimulating learning. Gagne defines cognitive strategies as being “internally organized skills” (p. 37). Cognitive strategies are skills in which the learner is in control of the learning process. They are responsible for processing and organizing the information. In other words, cognitive strategies are mental processes which take place within the leamer. As any instructor or educational designer has no control over the inner processes of the learner, Gagne (1977) suggests providing environments which generate an opportunity for the learner to put the cognitive strategy to use. To achieve this, the instructional strategy of this instructional method will present the relevant information, demonstrate the relationships which exist between the various concepts and provide settings in which the learner can practice applying the cognitive strategy. Musical examples will also serve to illustrate the outcome of combining a number of elements which produce an elaborate musical performance. Bonner (1988) also notes the importance of determining whether the needs identified “exist in a performance related to complex cognitive skills, simple procedures, attitudes, motor skills, etc.” Although some of the elements identified may appear to be simple, procedures, scales and arpeggios for example, these and other elements included in the method must be examined in the context of jazz 15performance. As the focus in the jazz idiom is on improvisation, the context of the presentation will be different from a presentation in classical music. Chords, scales, and arpeggios must be practiced and understood in the context of an harmonic background. The instruction will require that the learner understands the fundamentals of scales, chords and arpeggios to begin. This knowledge will then be expanded on by situating the various concepts within a specific context. As such, the development of the instructional objectives will reflect a presentation of the tools (chords, scales and arpeggios) as well as an application of these tools in the context of improvisation, This is best illustrated in learning chords and chord extensions and subsequently learning to apply them in progressions. The following steps are essential to apply extensions to chords in an harmonic progression: ‘© Leam the various chord voicings. * Analyzes each chord and determine its function. As each chord type can have a number of functions, there are a number of possibilities for chord extensions in each case. * Determine the appropriate extensions based on an, understanding of chord scale relationships. © Play the chord progression with the appropriate extensions in a creative and musical manner. 16As the nature of jazz music is extemporaneous, the goal is to become spontaneous and creative in this process. Ultimately, the guitarist will learn to do this in real time. This is a difficult task which requires preparation and a firm understanding of harmony combined with a strong foundation on one’s musical instrument. Instructional Objectives ‘The design of the instructional method is based primarily on the Dick and Carey (1978) model. Three main instructional goals were identified and subsequently broken down into a hierarchical classification. The three main instructional goals identified are as follows: Objective 1 Given a jazz composition with chord symbols, the learner should be able to identify all of the notes contained in each chord, determine which extensions are available for each, locate and play appropriate drop 2 chord voicings for each and select a logical sequence of chords which create a musical accompaniment. 7Objective 2 The learner should identify and play all major, melodic minor and harmonic minor scales in five positions and in all keys using 3 different approaches; vertical, horizontal and one octave positions. Objective 3 The learner should identify and play all maj7, min7, dom7, m7(b5), dim7, maj6, m6 and m(maj7) arpeggios in all positions using scale positions and one octave fingerings in all keys. chords, ‘Within each goal, there are a number of subdivisions which result. Dick et al, (1978) prescribe conducting a goal analysis to determine the steps required to meet each of the instructional goals. Skills which the leamers are expected to know in order to use the instructional method (prerequisite skills) have been included. Each goal 18‘was mapped using flowcharts to determine the steps required to achieve each of the goals. These steps should give the reader a better sense of the level of prior knowledge expected of the target leamer. The instruction is geared towards learners ‘who possess these prerequisite skills and have achieved a level of musical training ions of the which is not at a basic level. In this manner, the following sub- instructional goals were formulated. The flowcharts represent the steps required to reach each of the instructional goals. From the instructional analysis, the objectives were formulated. Subdivisions of Objective 1 Objective 1 Given a jazz composition with chord symbols, the leamer should be able to identify all of the notes contained in each chord, determine which extensions are available for each, locate and play appropriate drop 2 chord voicings for each and select a logical sequence of chords which create a musical accompaniment. 19Hierarchical Analysis Chords Tdentify extensions 1s ‘apply drop 2 voicings 14 drop 2 voicings 13 Taina : ‘apply extensions 47 7th voisings 12 inversions, L, 1 entry behavior line ‘chord types “4pant harmony ‘triad construction ‘chord Seal prerequisite skills 1.1 Label each of the 4 inversions of 7th chords. 1.2 Spell 7th chord voicings for each of 8 chord types. 1.3 Spell drop 2 chord voicings and learn guitar fingerings for each. 201.4 Apply Drop 2 chord voicings to various chord progressions. 1.5 Determine the available extensions for each of the chords in the major, harmonic minor and melodic minor scales. Determine the available extensions for all secondary dominants and their related minor 7th chords. Determine the available extensions for diminished chords. 1.6 Analyze and explain several common jazz chord progressions. 1.7 Add Sths to Drop 2 chord voicings. 1.8 Play several common chord progressions on the guitar using drop 2 chord. voicings and some extensions. 1.9 Using the knowledge of drop 2 chord voicings, extensions and chord progressions, create a musical accompaniment in which the chords, inversions and extensions combine to produce musical phrases. The phrases should move predominantly by tones and semi-tones and in a clear direction. Test questions 1.1 Label each of the following 7th chords as either root position, first inversion, 2nd inversion or third inversion, 1.2 Spell each of the following 7th chords. 1.3 Spell each of the following chords in each of the 4 inversions of the drop 2 voicing and write the guitar fingerings for 3 adjacent sets of strings. 1.4 In the following example, the top note of each chord is given. Complete the chords to create drop 2 voicings by adding notes below the melody. 211.5 Write the notes for each of the chords in the major, harmonic minor and melodie minor scales to the 13th and determine the available extensions for each using the b9 tule. Write the notes for all secondary dominants and their related minor 7th chords and determine the available extensions for each using the b9 rule. Write the notes for each of the diminished chords and determine the available extensions for each. 1.6 Analyze the following chord progression indicating all chord extensions. 1.7 In the following example, the top note of each chord is given. Complete the chords to create drop 2 voicings of 9th chords by adding notes below the melody. 1.8 Play the following chord progressions on the guitar using drop 2 chord voicings and extensions. 1.9 Create a chordal accompaniment for the following chord progression. Use appropriate extensions and melodic phrasing. ‘Subdivisions of objective 2 Objective 2 The leaner should identify and define all major, melodie minor and harmonic scales. The leamer should play all major, melodic minor and harmonic scales in five positions and in all keys.Hierarchical Analysis Scales ‘defines majorand defines notes minor scales ‘on fingerboard prerequisite skills Scales are divided into three types: major, melodic minor and harmonic minor. Each scale can be broken down into the same subordinate skills. The hierarchical analyses and objectives for each scale type are as follows. Objective 2.1 2.1 Play the major scale using 3 fingering techniques. 23Hierarchical Analysis ‘Scales (major) ‘vertical positions pattems / rhythms: ae 2a modes T octave t 21.5 On-L_ i odes positions ave Torizontar a3 | sing q Daings ¥ 3 strings [/seuuuseuuseeesesesy 2.1.1 The learner should play major scales in five positions and in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns, 2.1.2 The learner should play major scales patterns in five positions and in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns and rhythms. 2.1.3 The learner should play major scales in 12 keys using horizontal fingerings. 2.1.4 The learner should play major scales in 12 keys using all possible one octave fingering patterns. 2.1.5 The learner should play 1 octave major modes in 12 keys using all possible one octave fingering patterns. 2.1.6 The learner should play major modes in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns. 24Test questions 2.1 Play major scales in five positions and in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns. 2.1.1 Play each of the 12 major scales in all five positions using vertical fingering. 2.1.2 Play each of the 12 major scales in all five positions using vertical fingering and scale patterns. 2.1.3 Play each of the 12 major scales on each string using horizontal fingerings. 2.1.4 Play each of the 12 major scales using all possible mini-positions. 2.1.5 Play the dorian and mixolydian modes using all possible mini-positions. 2.1.6 Play the dorian and mixolydian modes using all five vertical fingerings. Objective 2.2 2.2 Play the melodic minor scale using 3 fingering techniques. Hierarchical Analysis Scales (melodic minor) veriel postions pales yt 2.2.1 2.2.2 ‘modes | octave 7 | 225 ‘nelodic nor Tainiporiions Ons ‘Baa eae TOTS Toazonal B 223 | string 2 strings t 2 strings Cd 2.2.1 The leaner should play melodic minor scales in five positions and in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns. 252.2.2 The leamer should play melodic minor scales patterns in five positions and in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns and rhythms. 2.2.3 The leamer should play melodic minor scales in 12 keys using horizontal fingerings. 2.2.4 The leamer should play melodic minor scales in 12 keys using all possible one octave fingering patterns. 2.2.5 The learner should play 1 octave melodic minor modes in 12 keys using all possible one octave fingering patterns. 2.2.6 The leamer should play melodic miror modes in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns. Test questions 2.2 Play the melodic minor scale in all 12 keys using 3 fingering techniques. 2. 2.1 Play each of the 12 melodic minor scales in all five positions using vertical fingering. 2. 2.2 Play each of the 12 melodic minor scales in all five positions using vertical fingering and scale patterns. 2. 2.3 Play each of the 12 melodic minor scales on each string using horizontal fingerings. 2. 2.4 Play each of the 12 melodic minor scales using all possible mini-positions. 262.2.5 Play the Lydian augmented and super locrian modes using all possible mini- positions. 2.2.6 Play the Lydian augmented and super locrian modes using all five vertical fingerings. Objective 2.3 2.3 Play the harmonic minor scale using 3 fingering techniques Hierarchical Analysis Scales (harmonic minor) verical postions Palins Tims 231 *| 23.2 modes | octave. t t 235 Tamonie minor Tainposios Ones Ba rode aivons ; 23 Troizontat 5 aa 1 tring 2 stings 3 stings 2.3.1 The learner should play harmonic minor scales in five positions and in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns. 2.3.2 The learner should play harmonic minor scales pattems in five positions and in 12 keys using vertical fingering patterns and rhythms. 2.3.3 The learner should play harmonic minor scales in 12 keys using horizontal fingerings. 272.3.4 The leamer should play harmonic minor scales in 12 keys using all possible one octave fingering patterns. 2.3.5 The learner should play 1 octave harmonic minor modes in 12 keys using all possible one octave fingering patterns. 2.3.6 The leamer should play harmonic minor modes in 12 keys using vertical fingering pattems. Test questions 2.3 Play the harmonic minor scale in all 12 keys. 2.3.1 Play each of the 12 harmonic minor scales in all five positions using vertical fingering. 2.3.2 Play each of the 12 harmonic minor scales in all five positions using vertical fingering and scale patterns. 2.3.3 Play each of the 12 harmonic minor scales on each string using horizontal fingerings. 2.3.4 Play each of the 12 harmonic minor scales using all possible mini-positions. 2.3.5 Play the 3rd and Sth modes using all possible mini-positions. 2.3.6 Play the 3rd and Sth modes using all five vertical fingerings. Subdivisions of objective 3 Objective 3 283.0 The leamer should play maj7, min7, dom7, m7(b5), dim7 and m(maj7) arpeggios in all keys and positions using one octave fingerings. Hierarchical Analysis Arpeggios ceo oS positions ‘mini positions 3. 32 arpeggios 3 3.1. The leamer should demonstrate the ability to extract arpeggios from major and minor scale positions. 293.2 The leamer should identify and define all maj7, min7, dom7, m7(b5), dim7 and ‘m(maj7) arpeggios. The learner should play all maj7, min7, dom7, m7(bS), dim? and ‘m(maj7) arpeggios in all positions using one cctave fingerings, and in all keys. Test questions 3.1 Play arpeggios for llm7, V7 and Imaj7 in two octaves and in five positions. 3.2 Play arpeggios for all maj7, min7, dom7, m7(b5), dim7 and m(maj7) arpeggios in all possible positions on the guitar. Instructional Strategy The nature of jazz instruction The major focus in preparing learners in the area of jazz should be to equip them with the necessary tools for jazz improvisation. Coker (1964) defines the tools necessary for improvisation as, “intuition, intellect, emotion, sense of pitch and habit” (p. 3). Intellect, sense of pitch and habit are outcomes which can be addressed through educational means while those of intuition and emotion can not. Any teaching which takes place in the jazz area, will always be limited by the nature of the idiom which uses improvisation as its main focus. Leibman (1996) narrows it down to three elements: head, hand and heart. Hand is defined as training the instrumentalist to play scales and patterns, and head is the knowledge of the musical relationships and intellectual skills to apply the patterns and 30according to the musical relationships. The heart refers to the emotions and passions which influence and shape the final outcome of improvisation. Again, as this area concems one’s own personal life experiences, feelings and such; it is not an area which can be dealt with in instruction. For each, there is only one avenue for the educator to pursue. This, for Coker (1964), is through the i ellect, sense of pitch and habit, and for Leibman (1996) through the head and hand. As such, these are the areas. on which this method focuses. Equipping the leamers with a solid foundation for jazz improvisation is the overall goal of this instructional method. To achieve this goal, this method concentrates on developing the necessary tools and resources for jazz improvisation. Instructional presentation Many constructivists argue that instruction is more successful when it builds upon previous knowledge (Merrill et al. 1991; Jonassen, 1990). Elements of the presentation in this method were designed to introduce information based on an understanding of the backgrounds of the target audience. As music reading skills are generally weak amongst this group of leamers, block diagrams were used to present chords, scales and arpeggios. By including traditional music notation along with the block diagrams, a link is presented which will hopefully provide a connection between familiar and unfamiliar knowledge. Also, the inclusion of multiple approaches in the instructional design provides the learners with a wide variety of perspectives, thus enabling them to have a better chance of finding familiar ground. 31This approach also affords a certain amount of flexibility. Jonassen (1991) refers to cognitive flexibility theory (Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich & Anderson, 1988) as a possible approach to instructional design. Jonassen (1991) defines flexibility theory as “stressing conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content because there is no single schema, (no objective reality) and emphasizing case-based instruction that provides multiple perspectives or themes inherent in the cases" (p. 11). Care has been taken not to assume a single correct perspective of the method’s content. The use of block diagrams in the presentation of scales represents a visual model of the guitar fingerboard which is valuable to learners who have limited music literacy skills. It initiates a particular learning approach which stresses a visual model. The visual model allows one to easily memorize the scale information and subsequently execute the scale on the guitar. Also included are standard music notation and in many cases audio recordings. These provide a different type of model and stimulate a different understanding of scales. The instructional method tries to address a wide range of perspectives in this manner. For the purposes of this instructional method, multiple perspectives is defined as the presentation of the information using more than one model or mode of understanding. This in most cases refers to how one will construct a conceptual mode! of the skill or concept, and how one will subsequently execute the skill or concept on the guitar. There are a number of approaches to many of the key concepts in music. In the case of learning scales on the guitar, several approaches exist. Bertoncini (1990) 32advocates using both horizontal and vertical approaches, while Goodrick (1987) advocates horizontal, vertical and mini-positions. Each of the approaches is useful and will provide the learner with a thorough understanding of scales. This method incorporates three different approaches to scales and arpeggios. These represent several conceptual understandings of scale knowledge and their application. This use of multiple perspectives in the conceptual understanding and execution of scales and arpeggios, it is hoped, will lead to a greater understanding of the guitar fingerboard. Building on the knowledge base of the leamers in this way will also lead to a re- evaluation by the leamers of their own understanding of the information, in this case their understanding of chords, scales and arpeggios. When one is confronted with new information, one immediately tries to relate this information to previous knowledge. Using one’s own model of the concepts, which has been built upon previous experiences, one must accommodate the new information in a way which makes sense to the learner. In trying to fit this new knowledge into one’s existing model, the new information will not always satisfy all of the previous conditions. In such a case, one has encountered what Fosnot (1989) terms "cognitive conflict.” Cognitive conflict is what teachers and instructional designers should attempt to initiate in learners. Such a state causes learners to re-think all the conditions of their understanding. A learner must find a way to alter one or several of the conditions in an effort to restructure his/her understanding of the concept in order to accommodate the new information. When a leamer achieves this, he/she has reached a new understanding of the concept. 33The process of initiating a cognitive conflict in a leamer’s understanding of a concept entails several outcomes. When a learner is experiencing a cognitive conflict, he/she will be in a state of discontent. The learner's equilibrium with regards to his/her previous understanding of a concept becomes unbalanced, thus leaving the Jeamer in a state where the puzzle, in a sense, no longer fits together. The learner's mind will actively be searching for a strategy which will allow the pieces to once more, fit together. In putting the puzzle back together, all of the pieces which are now known to be related to the concept must be merged. Once the learner becomes aware of a particular piece of information or perhaps even a new way of looking at a concept, he/she will be placed in a position where these issues cannot be avoided. The earner will not be content until all of the information can be accommodated. My goal in the preparation of this instructional method was not only to ensure that the learners perform the objectives successfully, but also to ensure that a deeper understanding of the principles would exist. To this end, the exercises were designed whereby the learners are required to piece together several pieces of information to successfully complete a task. This is evident in learning chord voicings. Here, the leamers are required to figure out the voicings on their own and then learn them on the guitar fingerboard. Many instructional methods in jazz guitar present enormous volumes of chord voicings which the leamers are expected to memorize. As each chord can have a fair number of extensions, there are countless voicings which exist. This then becomes mostly a task in retention. It is important that jazz guitarists use an organized approach in leaming chords. By combining a theoretical knowledge of 34chord structures and an understanding of their origins, it is possible to leam the same number of chords in a more efficient way. It is no doubt a longer process, but the results are greater. Not only will the learners be capable of executing a considerable number of voicings, but they will also be equipped with an understanding of harmony and chord voicings. This, of course, is fundamental to the application of chords in improvisation. As the intention of any instructional designer is that the leamers achieve the intended goals and objectives of the instruction, outcomes of the learning must be addressed. The intention of this instructional method is that the learners achieve a thorough understanding of the guitar fingerboard coupled with an equal understanding of the application of all of the scales, arpeggios and chords presented. Merrill et. al (1990) stress that the focus of designing instruction should be to “communicate accepted meaning. The developer of instruction explicitly desires that the leamer adopt the meaning intended by the developer” (p. 12). The intention in this, instructional package is that the leamers are well equipped with the necessary tools for jazz. improvisation, and that they attain a level of comprehension with regards to the application of these tools. To this end, feedback will be an integral part of the instructional method. Recorded examples will provide a clear example of one possible outcome. As music is an art form which takes into account personal interpretation and aesthetic value, the recorded feedback will of course represent a stylistic viewpoint. In this case, the value of the information presented in recorded examples far exceeds the threat of imposing an aesthetic point of view. It is also 35important to note that the majority of learners at this level are in the very early stages of aesthetic development. Presenting elements of style and interpretation will in most cases be helpful in developing the interpretive skills of the learners. ‘The audio portion is vital in the presentation of the musical examples. It serves two purposes: to present examples and provide feedback. The use of audio and visual media as a means for instructional delivery is important when the instructional message cannot always be easily expressed in words. In presenting the overall message, many elements can not be communicated through text alone (Romiszowski, 1986). Even though musical notation is used, elements of style, dynamics, interpretation and idiom will be lost. All of these elements are important factors which the leamer must comprehend. Recorded audio examples communicate these in the most efficient way. Jonassen (1991) believes that “learning will occur most effectively in context” (p. 11). Recorded examples provide the leamers with a context which is relevant to the type of instruction thus is central to instrumental instruction, The audio examples were developed using a combination of real instruments and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) instruments. Although the preferred choice of the author would have been to use only real instruments and instrumentalists, the cost of recording would have been too high. The use of MIDI sequences for both bass and drum parts allowed for both a reduced cost in the preparation of the recording, flexibility in preparation, and a reduced cost to the consumer. 36The recordings consist of guitar and MIDI bass and drums. The bass and drum parts were sequenced using a sequencing software package. A SMPTE (Society of Motion Pictures and Television Engineers) time code tone was recorded to one track ofa multitrack recorder and used to trigger the MIDI sequencer. In this way, the MIDI parts do not need to be recorded to tape and can be recorded directly to DAT (Digital Audio Tape) in the final stage of transfer. This method allows for optimal recording quality as it reduces the number of tape transfers and keeps noise to a minimum. The guitar was then recorded to tape. The final recording was then mixed to DAT. Each of the subjects then received a cassette copy which was transferred from the DAT. Hypothesis Jazz guitar students enrolled in the music department at Concordia University, Montreal, Canada who use a self-instructional method for jazz guitar will attain the objectives of the method and have positive attitudes about the form of instruction that they received. These variables will be measured through scores on a pretest and posttest, as well as through an attitude questionnaire. 37CHAPTER 4 Method Subjects Subjects were selected from the Concordia University music department population of guitar students. The majority of the subjects were registered in private instrumental instruction in jazz guitar or had taken the course previously. The total number of students registered in jazz guitar is approximately 30 to 40. For this project, students were selected based on their availability and willingness to participate in the project. The sample size for the project was 14. The subjects’ ages were typically 20 - 25 years old. Their practical instrumental backgrounds varied with regards to levels within the various areas of concern. ‘Normally, students enrolled in the department have competent performance skills, but are weak in theory and have basic musical literacy skills. In most cases, they have a college background which includes instruction on their primary instrument. For students who do not have a college background, previous instruction on their primary instrument with an instrumental teacher is expected. Students must also be accepted into one of the programs offered by the department of music. This course is not open to non-music majors. 38Materials ‘The learning package is comprised of a book and cassette. The book is primarily text-based, but also includes notated musical examples and graphic diagrams. The musical examples, in the form of traditional music notation, are used whenever a musical idea or example must be presented. In the majority of cases, these are also reinforced with recorded examples. The cassette contains recorded examples and exercises illustrated in the book. Each example is numbered in the book and announced on the cassette for easy reference. Procedure Alll students who participated in the project were required to complete a pretest to evaluate their individual levels in each of the three areas of the instructional method. The three areas corresponded to the those in the instructional package: scales, arpeggios and chords. This was done prior to administration of the instructional package. The results of the pretest allowed the author of this project to determine the strengths and weaknesses of each subject. Students were then assigned a section of the book based on weaknesses observed. Students did not rece e any other instruction or tutoring supplemental to their exposure to the instruction. The learning package is intended to be a stand-alone package which allows students to receive supplemental help without the aid of an 39instructor. In order to acquire valid data, no intervention or instruction on topics related to the curriculum of the method took place. Subjects were asked to use the instructional method for a period of ten days. The ten day trial period was based on two factors: the availability of the subjects, and the fact that they would only be using portion of the instructional method. Ten days was viewed as sufficient to go through the only a selected portion of the material. Prior to receiving the posttest, the subjects were asked to complete an attitude questionnaire. At the end of the ten day trial period, the subjects each completed a posttest used to evaluate attainment of the instructional objectives included in the instructional package. Criterion Measures The pretest was primarily a performance evaluation with the inclusion of one written item. For this question, the subjects were asked to write eight chord voicings of various 7th chords on manuscript paper. This was necessary as it would provide information regarding the weaknesses in performing items in the section of the pretest and posttest which measured subjects knowledge and application of chord voicings. The performance evaluation measured their ability to apply each of the various objectives on their instrument. The length of the pretest was approximately 20 minutes, The posttest focused on measuring whether students made any substantial improvements in the areas of the book which they were assigned to use. Subjects were 40not required to complete the entire posttest. The questions were exactly the same as, those used in the pretest except that the qualities of the chords and the keys of the scales and arpeggios were changed. Where they were asked to play a C major scale in five positions for the pretest, they were asked to play perhaps an Eb major scale in five positions for the posttest. Although it is possible that they might be more fluent in a particular kcy, it was the judgment of the author that to ask the exact same question in the same key would not ascertain whether or not the student mastered the objective. ‘The pretest and the posttest were designed to measure each of the following areas for each subject: ‘* Knowledge of the concepts presented in the modules. * Instrumental technique relevant to the concepts presented in the modules. © Performance of the concepts presented in the modules. The pretest and posttest were divided into the following sections: 1) chords including drop 2 voicings 2) chord extensions 3) major scales and arpeggios 4) melodic and harmonic minor scales A three point scale was used in evaluating the performance of the test items on both the pretest and the posttest. The following are the interpretation for each of the three levels: 411. unable to perform the task 2. some ability at performing the task able to perform the task with little or no difficulty The attitude questionnaire focused on the subjects’ feelings and opinions on the level and effectiveness of the instructional package compared to other packages which they may have used in the past. The questionnaire was deemed useful to gain additional information in several areas. These included: 1. subjects impression of the book 2. how they rated it compared to other books they may have used 3. clarity of the explanations 4. clarity of the diagrams and musical examples 5. clarity of the recorded examples. The attitude questionnaire did not require that subjects include their name in hopes that the leamers would answer as honestly as possible. Experimental Design ‘The experimental design used in this project was a single group pretest- posttest design (Campbell and Stanley 1963) commonly used in evaluating. instructional packages. Although this design has low internal validity, it was the best 42choice for the sample size available. Had an additional 14 subjects been available, the pretest, posttest control group design would have generated more generalized findings. As the nature of the evaluation was on going development of an instructional method, conclusions drawn from the findings are being used only to improve upon the instructional method. Therefore, no conclusions can be drawn from this evaluation which could be transferred with any degree of confidence to other similar evaluation projects. 43CHAPTER 5 Results The purpose of the evaluation of this instructional method was primarily to obtain valuable information which could subsequently be used in locating areas which required modification. Small group evaluation was utilized as all the material in the method had undergone thorough one-on-one evaluation in the previous academic year. Dick and Carey (1978) prescribe a group of approximately 8 to 20 leamers for this type of evaluation. For this evaluation, 14 subjects were used. The dependent measures were obtained through a pretest, posttest and attitude survey. The sample size of 14 was disproportionately divided into four groups. As such, the sample sizes for each of the groups is as low as two subjects and as high as five. The grouping of subjects into the four areas of the instructional method based on measured weaknesses in the pretest. The groupings do not accurately represent an equal distribution of subjects by their weaknesses as the results of the pretest indicated that the majority of subjects were all weak in the same areas, As it was necessary to have representation in all areas of the instructional method, some subjects were asked to use sections of the method on which they scored moderately. The questions on the pretest and posttest were designed to measure the effectiveness of each of the individual objectives. Where substantial gains were achieved by the subjects, it was assumed that the instruction was effective. Areas inwhich little or no gains were measured indicated that the instruction for these objectives should be reviewed and possibly revised. ‘The questions on the pretest and posttest were identical except that the qualities of the chords and the keys of the scales and arpeggios were modified from the pretest to the posttest. The purpose in changing the qualities was to ensure that the subjects did not retain information from the pretest which might positively effect the posttest. An example of this type of modification is that where the subjects were asked to play an E minor scale in the pretest they might instead have been asked to play an A minor scale for the posttest. A second purpose was to allow for a greater distribution of keys. At this level of instrumental proficiency, there are often weaknesses in specific keys for a majority of these instrumentalists. By utilizing a broader range of keys in both the pretest and posttest, it was hoped that there would be a better chance that the subjects would not stumble upon the same difficult key in both tests. The chances that any particular question was testing a weak key would then be equally apparent in all questions and in both the pretest and the posttest. The mean differences of the pretest and posttest were analyzed in 2 ways: 1: an analysis of groups of clustered objectives. 2: item by item. The analysis of the clustered objectives provided a good overall view of the various sections of the book. The item by item analysis provided a closer look at each individual objective to pinpoint problems in the design more accurately. 45Although there are only three primary objectives in the method, chords, scales and arpeggios, the assigned sections represent four partitions of the book. This partitioning of the book was necessary to assign an equal amount of work to each of the subjects. The four partitions of the method are as follows: Section 1 Drop 2 chord voicings Section 2 application of chord extensions to progressions Section 3 major scales and arpeggios (all chord types) Section 4 harmonic and melodic minor scales For section 4, the subjects were also asked to read several pages from section 3. The information in these pages was essential in understanding a number of key elements of the presentation. This information is presented only in section 3 of the method which covers major scales. It is not repeated for the sections on harmonic and melodic minor scales as it is assumed that in 46using the method, one would progress from beginning to end. In this way, the material would have been covered and does not need to be restated. Within these sections the organization of the pretest and posttest also allowed for a further division of sections 3 and 4. In section 3, the scores for the major scales were not combined with the scores for arpeggios. In section 4, the scores for harmonic minor scales were not combined with those of the melodic minor scales, The result is a total of 6 sets of scores. The scores for the objectives on chords will be represented in two sets of scores, the objectives for scales will be represented in three sets of scores, and arpeggios will be represented with one set of scores. As the subjects only completed the section of the posttest which corresponded to the section of the method they used, only those scores were used. Scores from the posttest were paired with the corresponding scores from the pretest. To obtain the scores for the clustered objectives, the sums of the scores for all questions which the subjects completed on both the pretest and the posttest were compared for differences in means. If a subject was required to use the first section of the book, then the scores from all objectives in that section were combined. Interpretation of data The effectiveness of the instructional method was based on an analysis of the pretest and posttest scores and through at attitude questionnaire. Analysis of the data collected was examined in two ways as several conditions existed. As the sample sizes for each of the groups of subjects was low, two - five subjects per group, the use 47of statistical analysis was deemed inappropriate as an only indicator of substantial gains, Small sample sizes play an important role in determining the significance of any set of data. As the degrees of freedom (df) are reduced, statistical power decreases, and therefore the likelihood of achieving significant results will also decrease. As the size and depth of this instructional method is beyond the capacity of a ten day trial period, it was necessary to field test the instructional method in parts. As stated previously, the total number of subjects who participated in the evaluation (14) were divided into groups, thus making the total V per group quite small (2 - 5). For seven of the individual test questions, t-tests could not be calculated as the individual groups variance was 0. As such, a decision was made to measure the effectiveness of the instructional method based on a combination of factors. At this point, in the development of the instructional method the purpose of performing an evaluation was predominantly one which Romiszowski (1986) terms “product development.” The goal of the evaluation process is to find ways which will lead to improvements in the overall effectiveness of the instructional package. Romiszowski (1986) also notes that the use of statistical test is not necessary in product development. As such, the mean scores were used to attain a general understanding of the effectiveness of the instructional method. A set percentage in ‘mean score gains from pretest to posttest was deemed appropriate as a measure to gage a substantial increase. In choosing a level which would indicate a substantial increase in mean scores, it was important to consider several factors. Again, the trial period for the use of the 48instructional method was ten days. Working within the limits of the available subjects, this represented a realistic time frame based on their ability to commit an honest amount of time and energy. As the method was designed to cover a full year course, this trial period does not adequately reflect the actual time required. Such small gains were expected from pretest to posttest, therefore the use of other criterion such as mastery learning were ruled out. A true summative evaluation would require a full year of implementation into a course of private instruction. In such a case, one would expect to measure more significant gains and other ways to measure the dependent variable could be used. An analysis of the data where gains were made show on average a 20% improvement from pretest to posttest. A 20% gain represents a useful measure for a ten day evaluation period. As such, this was used as a guideline for evaluating the effectiveness of the instruction. Again, the reader should keep in mind that the overall purpose of the evaluation was to make improvements to an educational product. No inferences are being made as to the effectiveness of the instructional method beyond the scope of its use at Concordia University. An analysis using t-tests of the results of the dependent measures for the clustered objectives indicated an overall gain from pretest to posttest. Clusters 2 - 5 measured significant gains in mean scores and clusters 1 and 6 did not (<.05) Cluster 1 (15.14%) almost reached the criterion of 20% while clusters 2 - 6 did. (The Reader will note that clusters 2 and 3 measured gains of 19.45%. The author is comfortable accepting this measure.) Although the t-test for cluster 6 was not significant, a gain in mean score of 24.67% was achieved. Readers will note that the sample size for this, 49cluster of objectives was two. Had the same gain been achieved with a slightly larger sample, the chances of attaining a significant p would be greater. These results suggests that the instructional method was effective overall in meeting the objectives of the instructional design. A closer look at individual test questions indicates that not all objectives were met with the same level of success. The objective by objective measures were used to pinpoint areas of the instructional method which were less effective and subsequently locate problems in the instructional delivery. Based on this information, recommendations for revision were formulated. An analysis of the results of the dependent measures for the individual test questions using t-tests found 11 of the 26 objectives to be significant at p<.05. For seven of the individual test questions, t-tests could not be calculated because the individual group variance was 0. One question showed a negative gain. As directionality was established, this question, for all intensive purposes, showed no gains. Possible reasons for a negative gain will be dealt with in the discussion. A one-tailed t-test was used to obtain the p values. Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) recommend the use of the one-tailed test when directionality is specified in the hypothesis. 50Analysis of clustered objectives Figure | summarizes the results of the clustered objectives. figure I Analysis of Clustered Objectives "Postest "Pretest cuter cluster 5 cer # cluster 3 cluster? cuter 1 ° 10 2 ~ ° Pa wo 70 % Score in % Results for the 6 clustered objectives Cluster 1 (Objectives 1.1 - 1.4) Drop 2 chord voicing Variable ‘2 Mean Mean in 6 SE of Mean tvalue 2 Posttest 8.00 72.72 1.155 3 82 249 Pretest 6.33 57.58 882 51Cluster 2 (Objectives 1.5 - 1.10) Drop 2 chord voicings and extensions Variable ” ‘Mean Meanin% SE of Mean tvalue zB Posttest 9.00 75.00 377 3 7.00 010 Pretest 6.67 55.55 333, Cluster 3 (Objective 2.1) Major scales Variable Mean Mean in 96_SE of Mean tovalue 2 Posttest, 13.50 75.00 1.500 2 7.00 045 Pretest 10.00 55.55___2.000 Cluster 4 (Objective 2.3) Harmonic minor scales Variable ‘Mean Mean in 6 SE ofMean ‘value Zz Posttest 1280 0 71.11 735 5 7.48 001 Pretest 720 40.00__.735 Cluster 5 (Objective 2.2) Melodic minor scales a ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Me value — Posttest 12.00 66.67 1.378 5 7.20 001 Pretest 7.80 43.33, 1.200 52Cluster 6 (Objective 3) Arpeggios Variable Mean Mean in 6 SE of Mean value 2 Posttest 400 66.67.00 2 3.00 -103 Pretest 2.50 42.00 5000. Item by item analysis ‘The results from the individual test items were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional method objective by objective. As each test item reflects one of the instructional objectives, conclusions could be drawn about each. The only exception was with the objectives relating to chords where one or two questions incorporated more than one objective. As the intentions of the author were to keep the testing within a performance setting, it was deemed more appropriate to group several objectives as this presented a more realistic performance framework. As such, it may be more difficult to interpret a clear meaning for these items. It was decided at the outset that the results of creating test items which measured only the objectives in question individually might produce an inaccurate measure. The questions which were formulated situated the subjects in an appropriate jazz context which required them to perform in the performance setting which is typical of the idiom. The individual test questions follow with means for both the pretest and the posttest. The means for both tests were converted to percentages to help provide a clearer picture of the results. A graph is included which provides a visual comparison of pretest and posttest scores. The graph includes all objectives and uses the 53percentage scores. Implications of the results will be discussed in chapter 6 as well. Figure 2 summarizes the results of the scores for each of the individual objectives. figure 2 Item by Item Analysis “Posttest Pretest ‘question 25 question 23 question 21 question 19 Tn question 17 7 ‘question 1S question 13, ‘question 11 = = aes question 9 question? = ucstion 5 question 3 question 1 Results for the item by item analysis ‘Chords Test question I Variable = ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objectives Posttest 5.25 65.63 1.708 LL 12 4 52 319 Pretest___ 4.50 56.25 1.291 54Test question 2 Variable = ‘Mean Mean in SE of Mean tvalue ra Objectives Posttest 2.2500 75.00 250 13,14 4 3.00 .003 Pretest 1.5000 __ 50.00 289 Test question 3 Variable z ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objectives Posttest 2.0000 66.67 000 15,16,17 3 -1.00 - Pretest__2.3333 77.78 .000 Test question 4,5, and 6 ‘This question was used to test three items: use of melody, rhythms and extensions. Variable x ‘Mean Meanin% SEofMean value Melody Objectives Posttest. 2.3333 77.78 333 18,19 3 2.00 092 Pretest 1.6667 _55.56 333 Rhythms Posttest. 2.3333 77.78 333 3 100.212 Pretest 1.6667 __55.56 333 ‘Extensions Posttest 2.3333 77.78 333 3 400.029 Pretest 1.0000 __33.33, .000 55Scales Major Test question 7 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean ‘value 2 Objective Posttest 2.5000 83.33 500 aa Pretest 1.5000 __ $0.00 500 : - Test question 8 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objective Posttest 3.0000 100.00 —.000 212 3.00 103 Pretest 1.5000 __50.00 500 Test question 9 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objective Posttest 2.0000 66.67 000 ue Pretest__2.0000___ 66.67 .000 : - Test question 10 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean tvalue ra Objective Positest 2.5000 83.33 500 214 5 - Pretest 1.5000 __ 50.00 500 56Test question 11 Variable z ‘Mean Mean in% SE of Mean value Zz Objective Posttest 1.5000 50.00 500 215 2 - - Pretest__1.5000 $0.00 500 Test question 12 Variable = ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean i-value 2 Objective Posttest 2.0000 66.67 000 21.6 2 - - Pretest__2.0000___66.67 .000 Harmonic minor Test question 13 Vartabe x ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objective Posttest 2.4000 80.00 400 2.21 5 3.21 017 Pretest 1.2000 40.00 200 Test question 14 Variable x ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objective Posttest 2.0000 66.67 000 222 5 245 035 Pretest 1.4000 46.46 245 Test question 15 Variable z ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean talue z Objective Posttest 2.4000 80.00 245 223 5 321 017 Pretest__1.2000___40.00 .200 s7Test question 16 Variable z= ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objective Posttest 2.2000 73.33 374 224 5 3.16 017 Pretest__1.2000___40.00 200 Test question 17 Variable z ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value ra Objective Posttest 1.8000 60.00 200 22.5 5 4.00 008 Pretest__1.0000___33.33 000 Test question 18 Variable zm ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean tvalue 2 Objective Posttest 2.0000 66.67 000 22.6 5 4.00 008 Pretest__ 1.2000 40.00 200 Melodic minor Test question 19 Variable = ‘Mean Mean in SE of Mean value ra Objective Posttest 2.2000 73.33 374 231 5 3.16 017 Pretest 1.2000 40.00 200 38Test question 20 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value ra Objective Posttest 2.2000 73.33 374 23.2 2.14 0.0495 Pretest__1.4000___ 44.67 245 Test question 21 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value z Objective Posttest 2.8000 93.33 200 233 572 003 Pretest 1.4000 44.67 245 Test question 22 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean tvalue 2 Objective Posttest 1.6000 53.33 245 234 1.63 089 Pretest__1.2000___40.00 200 Test question 23 Variable ‘Mean Mean in % SE ofMean tvalue 2 Objective Posttest 1.4000 53.33 245 23.5 1.63 089 Pretest__1.0000___33.33. 000 Test question 24 Variable Mean Mean in % SE of Mean tvalue z Objective Posttest 1.6000 53.33 400 23.6 5 5 Pretest__1.6000__53.33 400 59Arpeggios Test question 25 Variable a ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value 2 Objective Posttest 2.0000 66.67 000 Bl 2 1.00 250 Pretest__1.5000___$0.00__—.500 Test question 26 Variable = ‘Mean Mean in % SE of Mean t-value z Objective Posttest 2.0000 65.67 000 32 2 : - Pretest 1.0000__33.33, .000 Attitude Questionnaire An attitude survey was administered prior to the posttest. The results provided information in a number of areas: © demographics. * previous use of instructional methods in jazz guitar. information regarding the quality ard clarity of the explanations, musical examples and recorded examples. ‘The entire questionnaire is included in appendix B along with the distribution of the results expressed in percentages. A summary of the key elements follows. (One case is equal to 7.1%) 60Private study Responses indicated that 78.6% of the subjects were enrolled in private study, and 21.4% were not during the evaluation period. Use of an assigned text A majority of subjects reported not using a text for their course in private study (78.6%). This question was included in order to establish if texts were being used by students enrolled in private study. The subjects were also asked to name the texts they were using. This information was deemed insightful as it would answer the author’s assumption that texts were not being used. Where texts were in use, the author was also interested in knowing which ones were used. This would perhaps lead to information on other books on jazz guitar which should be reviewed and possibly compared to this method. Use of guitar method prior to university study Responses indicated that 78.6% of the subjects had used some type of text prior to university study while 21.4% had not. Recorded examples Subjects were asked to rate the recorded examples in terms of their effectiveness as part of the instructional method. Subjects rated the recorded examples as slightly helpful (64.3%), helpful (21.4%) and very helpful (7.1%). 61Quatity of the explanations and presentation Responses indicated that 57.1% of the subjects found the explanations and presentation to be very clear, 21.4% found them to be clear and 21.4% found them to be slightly difficult to understand. Quality of the diagrams Responses indicated that 64.3% of the subjects found the diagrams to be very clear, 28.6 found them to be clear while 7.1% found them to be slightly difficult to understand. Quality of the recorded examples The quality of the recorded examples was found to be good (57.1%) to very good (35.7%). As MIDI instruments were used in the preparation of the recorded examples, there was concern that the subjects would react negatively to this. Subjects’ rating of the method. For this question, 4 subjects did not respond for a total of 28.6%, The remaining subjects responded that the method rates about the same (35.7%) or was more 62How much did you learn? ‘Subjects were asked to evaluate how much they felt that had learned from using the instructional method. Responses indicated that 71.4% of the subjects felt they had learned a fair amount and 21.4% felt they learned very much. Only 7.1% felt they only leaned a little. Use as a reference. Subjects were asked if they felt the method would be useful as a reference in future study in jazz. Responses indicated that 71.4% thought it would be very useful, 21.4% thought it would be useful and 7.1% thought it would be only slightly useful. Feelings about using the book. Subjects were asked to comment on how much they liked using the book. 42.9% reported that they liked it a lot, 37.5% reported that they liked it and 21.4% were neutral. Would you recommend the book? Subjects were asked if they would recommend the method to friends or colleagues. Responses indicated that 85.7% would recommend the method and 7.1% would not. 63CHAPTER 6 Discussion Objectives requiring review Based on the evaluation criterion outlined in Chapter 5, (Results) the following instructional objectives were identified as requiring revision. Test question 1 (Objectives 1.1, 1.2) Test question 3 (Objectives 1.5, 1.6) Test question 9 (Objective 2.1.3) Test question 11 (Objective 2.1.5) Test question 12 (Objective 2.1.6) Test question 22 (Objective 2.3.4) Test question 24 (Objective 2.3.6) Test question 25 (Objective 3.1) ‘A discussion of each test question follows which focuses on identifying possible reasons why the instructional method was not effective in raising the mean scores from pretest to posttest for these objectives. 64‘Recommendations for revisions Test question 1 Test question 1 incorporated 2 objectives: 1.1 and 1.2. They are both similar except that 1.1 requires the learner to identify chord structures while objective 1.2 requires the learners to write them out. Generally, it can be assumed that even if the learners were competent in objective 1.1, the important task is in the writing of chords. As such the focus should be on objective 1.2. Objective 1.2 is critical in the development of all other objectives related to chords. As such this is an area which the leamers need to master. A review of the material in the instruction method which addresses this objective indicated to the author that the presentation was too dry. Exercises which engage the learner in a more meaningful way would be beneficial. An effort to design instructional activities which motivate and stimulate the learner should be incorporated to replace or augment the existing material. Test question 3 The mean scores for the pretest and posttest indicated a decrease in mean of 11.11%, Test question 3 incorporated 3 objectives: 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7. These objectives all deal with chord extensions. Applying chord extensions in chord progressions requires a number of steps. It was decided that these objectives should be combined, thus creating a true performance situation. As only one score was recorded for this, question, discerning the exact nature of the faults in the instructional material was 65difficult, Although the premise of combining the objectives appears to be sound, Dick and Carey (1990) prescribe using test items to measure only one specific objective at atime. Yet, a review of the instructional materials for these objectives pointed to limited number of examples and exercises. As well, no recordings were provided for these examples and exercises. The information was presenting in a theoretical manner perhaps making the instruction too technical and wordy. The addition of recorded examples might help to provide an audio cue for the correct use of extensions, once again making the instruction more meaningful and relevant. As with most elements in music, the desired sound is usually recognizable before any understanding of the technical requirements are known. Recorded examples would provide a reference which links the sounds to the theory. ‘The decrease in mean scores from the pretest to the posttest also indicate that perhaps the instruction caused the leamers to become more confused. Again this is most likely due to the wordiness of the instructional materials. Although this information represents an area which is characterized by a more technical understanding, an effort should be made to re-work the instructional material in these areas. An effort is required to produce a less abstract presentation in favor of one which is more stimulating and immediate for the learners. To gain a clearer picture of the ambiguity which exists in locating the objective or objectives which failed to instruct the learners successfully, the test item needs to be re-written to allow for a clear observation of each of the objectives. The use of several test items which are more specific to each of the objectives would be beneficial. 66These sections of the instructional method will then need to be re-evaluated in a subsequent analysis. Test question 9 Test question 9 relates to objective 2.1.3. For this question no gain or decrease in means was observed. The sample size for this set of questions was two. A closer look at the individual scores for the two subjects indicate similar results. Both subjects scored a2 out of 3 on both the pretest and posttest. As the same question was used to ‘measure the same skill for the harmonic and melodic minor scales, the results of those test questions were reviewed as well to help provide useful information. The objective for all 3 test questions measured the subjects” ability to play scales on individual strings. The corresponding test questions and objectives are test question 15 (objective 2.2.3) and test question 21 (objective 2.3.3). Test question 9 referred to the major scales, test question 15 referred to the harmonic minor scale, while test question 21 referred to the melodic minor scale. For all three, except for the quality of the scale, the exact same question was posed. One would normally expect the opposite to occur. As the major scales are usually the stronger of all three scale types, one would expect to measure weaknesses with these scales. The pretest scores for all three test questions indicate that weaknesses were observed in harmonic and melodic minor scales. There are several conclusions one might draw from this information, The first observation is that the number of subjects posed a problem. As only two subjects 67participated in the evaluation of this section of the instructional method, the potential for subject error is extremely high. The possibility that the subjects did not spend much time on this area of the instructional method is one possible explanation. Another is that each of them found particular problems with the question which is not representative of other learners in this sample. Based on the results of the other two test questions, test questions 15 and 21, which both measured gains of 40% or more, no modifications will be made. In subsequent evaluations, this assumptions should be verified, Test question, 11 ‘Test question 11 corresponds to objective 2.1.5. This objective deals with major scale modes played using one octave positions. Only two subjects participated in the evaluation of this section of the instructional method as well. Again, the potential for subject error is extremely high. A closer look was deemed a wise choice as modes are generally confusing to most learners studying jazz. As there were gains measured with the major scale itself using one octave fingerings, the introduction of the modes are most likely the reason no gains were achieved. There were also small gains or no gains measured on other questions which deal with modes (test questions 12 and 24). With the understanding that modes are often an area of difficulty and confusion, all objectives in the instructional method on modes should be reviewed. It would be a g00d idea to try to develop lessons on modes which provide a number of approaches. Although there were several approaches presented for playing scales and modes, in 68terms of fingerings and references to the guitar fingerboard, only one perspective was provided in the explanation of how modes are derived. A presentation of the derivation of modes from the various scales which adheres to the principles of flexibility in conceptual understanding is needed. Once again, this would allow one to reach a wider range of backgrounds. As there were only two subjects who used this section of the instructional method, the likelihood that the perspective presented in the method was not familiar to these two particular leamers is high. Changes should be made in this respect and subsequently followed up with more evaluation. Test question 12 Test question 12 corresponds to objective 2.1.6. This objective has two components: modes and vertical scale playing, Both subjects did not make gains in vertical scale playing as cited in the discussion of test question 9 and thus no further comments will be made in this area. Both subjects did not make gains in mode playing as well. The revisions cited in the discussion of question 1 regarding modes should also be implemented for this objective. Test question 22 This test question corresponds to objective 2.3.4. For this test question, a gain of 13.33% was measured. Although some gains were made, they fall short of the 20% criterion established. There are once again two elements to consider in evaluating the nature of the small gain in mean score. The components of the objective are one 69octave positions and harmonic minor scales. As with the two other objectives which include the use of one octave scales (objectives 2.1.4 and 2.2.4), both measured substantial gains from pretest to posttest; this element will be ruled out. To most Jearners, the harmonic minor scale is a more difficult scale as compared to the major and melodic minor scales. The low gain in mean scores most likely signifies difficulties with the scale overall. The possibility of enhancing or supplementing sections on harmonic minor should be considered. Test question 24 This test question corresponds to objective 2.3.6. No gains from pretest to posttest were measured. Once again, the problem of modes is presented. Harmonic minor modes are slightly more ambiguous than major. Revisions cited in recommendations for test question 9 should also be implemented here. Test question 25 This test question corresponds to objective 3.1. A gain of 16.67% was measured from pretest to posttest. This is slightly under the 20% gain which has been established. For this objective, the learners were required to extract arpeggios from major and minor scale forms. A competent knowledge of scale forms is essential in this task. The measures from this same group of subjects for scale form performance indicate an appreciable knowledge in this area. The gains for test question 26 which is also within the arpeggio realm indicates a substantial gain in score from pretest to 70posttest (33.43%). It is probable that this perspective on deriving fingerings for arpeggios was a new one for these leamers. It is also possible that this same perspective might be unfamiliar to many of the learners in this target group. As such, more exercises on extracting arpeggios from scale fingerings could be incorporated into the instructional method. Attitude questionnaire The overall positive responses obtained from the attitude questionnaire signify that the instructional method presented a clear and intelligible delivery of instruction. The subjects responded favorably to questions relevant to the quality and clarity of the diagrams, musical examples and recorded examples. As an instructional designer, it ‘was important to know whether the medium and layout of the method were comprehensible and appropriate for the content of the method. Of particular interest to this author was the use of the recorded examples. As this ‘can be one of the more costly mediums in the production of a method, the feelings and effectiveness of the audio portion was of concern. Although the subjects did rate the quality of the audio examples highly, their usefulness was rated as only slightly helpful (64.3%). The recorded examples were primarily a performance of the written musical examples. Comments solicited from the subjects informally indicated that the tempos were too fast for the majority of the examples and that the inclusion of recorded background for use as a practice vehicle would have been helpful. An instructional method which includes information in the form of text or graphics allows the learner the opportunity to look at the material and assimilate it at 1their own rate. In the case of musical examples which are presented in written form (musical notation) the leamer can examine and play the examples at a tempo which is within their performance abilities. The use of recorded examples does not afford the same liberties. As each recorded example will be played at a specific speed, a tempo will be imposed on the leamer. Several problems can arise because of this. For some, the tempo may be too fast, and for others, it may be too slow. In the formative stages of leaming one of the objectives, the tempo of the recorded examples may be too fast for the learner and end up discouraging her or him. There are several possible solutions which will need to be addressed. A simple solution, which would be the least costly, is to include several tempos for each example. This would take into account the range in levels of the learners, as well as to allow the learners to progress from one level to the next. Although other media exists which would allow the leamers to adjust the tempo themselves, MIDI files and music software for computers, these solutions would be both costly and less accessible to this particular group of learners. As technology in music is moving forward very rapidly, any future developments of this instructional method will need to consider all technological alternatives. ‘The final questions of the attitude questionnaire were used to gage the learners’ overall feelings about the book. The results indicate that they both liked using the method and felt that they learned a fair amount. Responses indicated that 85.7% of the subjects would recommend the book to friends or colleagues. This suggests that they felt it was useful to them and would be so to other learners. 2Conclusion The purpose of this thesis was to design, develop and evaluate an instructional method for jazz guitar. The purpose in evaluating the instructional method was to measure the overall effectiveness of the method against an expected outcome. In the areas of the method where substantial gains were measured, they were accepted as, effective, and where low gains were measured, the materials were accepted as not being effective. In the case of the latter, the materials were reviewed and recommendations for revision were formulated. The conclusions are that the instructional method was effective overall, but that a number of revisions are required prior to the next stage of evaluation. ‘The design of the instructional method incorporated a number of design components from the Dick and Carey model, (1990) and constructivist theories of Merrill (1990) and Jonassen (1990). A second purpose was to ascertain the effectiveness of the constructivist components in the development of the instructional material. To the best of the author’s knowledge, no studies have been done which apply constructivist theories to instruction in jazz guitar. The results of the evaluation of this method suggest that this may be an effective formula in the development of self-instructional jazz material. Significant contributions to the development of instructional materials in jazz education may lie in this area. The instructional method was designed to present the material in a fashion which provides the learners with multiple perspectives of the material. This design component was included in hopes that the method would accommodate a wider 3variety of learner backgrounds and approaches as well as to foster a deeper understanding of the content. The results of the attitude questionnaire and the overall effectiveness of the instructional method suggest that this approach was received favorably by the learners, and that it was effective in the delivery of instruction. Future evaluations should attempt to verify this point more thoroughly. Based on the immediate conclusions, further revisions of the method will incorporate this approach more widely. The results revealed that even though multiple perspectives were formulated for all objectives, a single perspective nevertheless predominated in several areas of the instruction, most notably in the areas which dealt with modes. Although the modes ‘were presented using 2 techniques, one octave fingerings and scale positions, the explanation of the origins of the modes was presented based on one theoretical model. Not only is it important to present multiple perspectives when instructing learners to execute modes on the guitar fingerboard, but also of equal importance is the presentation of multiple perspectives when developing the learner's conceptual understanding of the modes. Instructional designers who anticipate the inclusion of modes in future materials production in the jazz area should consider that a careful and thorough discussion of the modes needs to be included. The inclusion of a multi- perspective approach to the presentation of the modes will most likely be beneficial. Informal discussions with several of the subjects after the posttest indicated a willingness to continue using the method on their own. They found the method to be of value in their own personal musical development. In order for the method to be 4