Introduction
The terms 'work', 'energy' and 'power' are frequently used in everyday language.
A farmer clearing weeds in his field is said to be working hard. A woman carrying
water from a well to her house is said to be working. In a drought affected region
she may be required to carry it over large distances. If she can do so, she is said to
have a large stamina or energy. Energy is thus the capacity to do work. The term
power is usually associated with speed. In karate, a powerful punch is one delivered
at great speed. In physics we shall define these terms very precisely. We shall find
that there is a loose correlation between the physical definitions and the
physiological pictures these terms generate in our minds.
Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body
through a certain distance in the direction of force.
Work Done by a Constant Force
Let a constant force F be applied on the body such that it makes an angle with
the horizontal and body is displaced through a distance s
By resolving force F into two components :
(i) F cos in the direction of displacement of the body.
(ii) F sin in the perpendicular direction of displacement of the body.
F sin
F
F cos
Fig. 6.1
Since body is being displaced in the direction of F cos , therefore work done by
the force in displacing the body through a distance s is given by
W = (F cos ) s = Fs cos
or W = F.s
Thus work done by a force is equal to the scalar (or dot product) of the force
and the displacement of the body.
If a number of forces F 1 , F 2 , F 3 ...... F n are acting on a body and it shifts from
position vector r1 to position vector r 2 then W = (F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + .... F n ).( r 2 − r 1 )
Nature of Work Done
Positive work
Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to displacement
Direction of motion
0 o 90 o
Fig. 6.2
The positive work signifies that the external force favours the motion of the
body.
Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the
(upward) lifting force is positive
Fig. 6.3
(ii) When a lawn roller is pulled by applying a force along the handle at an acute
angle, work done by the applied force is positive.
Fig. 6.4
(iii) When a spring is stretched, work done by the external (stretching) force is
positive.
Fig. 6.5
Maximum work : Wmax = F s
When cos = maximum = 1 i.e. = 0 o
It means force does maximum work when angle between force and
displacement is zero.
Negative work
Negative work means that force (or its component) is opposite to displacement
i.e.
Direction of motion
Fig. 6.6
90 o 180 o
The negative work signifies that the external force opposes the motion of the
body.
Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the
(downward) force of gravity is negative.
Fig. 6.7
(ii) When a body is made to slide over a rough surface, the work done by the
frictional force is negative.
Minimum work : Wmin = −F s
+ +
Fig. 6.8
When cos = minimum = −1 i.e = 180 o
It means force does minimum [maximum negative] work when angle between
force and displacement is 180 o.
(iii) When a positive charge is moved towards another positive charge. The
work done by electrostatic force between them is negative.
Zero work
Under three condition, work done becomes zero W = Fs cos = 0
(1) If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [F ⊥ s ]
Example: (i) When a coolie travels on a
horizontal platform with a load on his head,
work done against gravity by the coolie is
zero.
(ii) When a body moves in a circle the work
done by the centripetal force is always zero.
(iii) In case of motion of a charged particle
in a magnetic field as force [F = q(v B)] is
always perpendicular to motion, work done
by this force is always zero.
(2) If there is no displacement [s = 0]
Example: (i) When a person tries to displace a wall
or heavy stone by applying a force and it
does not move, then work done is zero.
(ii) A weight lifter does work in lifting the
weight off the ground but does not work in
holding it up.
(3) If there is no force acting on the body [F = 0]
Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.
Work Done by a Variable Force
When the magnitude and direction of a force varies with position, the work done
by such a force for an infinitesimal displacement is given by dW = F. d s
ds
F
Fig. 6.9
The total work done in going from A to B as shown in the figure is
W = A F. d s = A (F cos )ds
B B
In terms of rectangular component F = Fx ˆi + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ
d s = dxˆi + dyˆj + dz kˆ
W = A (Fx ˆi + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ ).(dxˆi + dyˆj + dz kˆ )
B
or W =
xB yB zB
x A Fx dx + y A Fy dy + z A Fz dz
Dimension and Units of Work
Dimension : As work = Force displacement
[W] = [MLT −2 ] [L] = [ML2 T −2 ]
Units : The units of work are of two types
Absolute units Gravitational units
Joule [S.I.]: Work done is said to be one Joule, when 1 kg-m [S.I.]: 1 kg-m of work is done
Newton force displaces the body through 1 metre in its when a force of 1kg-wt. displaces the
own direction. body through 1m in its own direction.
From, W = F.s From W = F s
1 Joule = 1 Newton 1 m 1 kg-m = 1 kg-wt 1 m
= 9.81 N 1 metre
= 9.81 Joule
erg [C.G.S.] : Work done is said to be one erg when gm-cm [C.G.S.] : 1 gm-cm of work is
1 dyne force displaces the body through 1 cm in its done when a force of 1gm-wt displaces
own direction. the body through 1cm in its own
From W = F s direction.
1 erg = 1dyne 1cm From W = F s
Relation between Joule and erg 1 gm-cm = 1gm-wt 1cm. = 981 dyne
1 Joule = 1 N 1 m 1cm
= 105 dyne 102 cm = 981 erg
= 107 dyne cm = 107 erg
Work Done in Conservative and Non-conservative Field
(1) In conservative field, work done by the force (line integral of the force i.e.
F.d l ) is independent of the path followed between any two points.
W A→B = W A→B = W A→B
Path I Path II Path III
I
or F.d l = F.d l = F.d l A B
Path I Path II Path III
II
III
Fig. 6.11
(2) In conservative field work done by the force (line integral of the force i.e. F.d l )
over a closed path/loop is zero.
W A → B + WB → A = 0
or F.d l = 0
A B
Fig. 6.12
Conservative force : The forces of these type of fields are known as
conservative forces.
Example : Electrostatic forces, gravitational forces, elastic forces, magnetic
forces etc and all the central forces are conservative in nature.
If a body of mass m lifted to height h from the ground level by different path
as shown in the figure
B B B B
I II III IV
h
l
h3
h2
h1
A A A A
Fig. 6.13
Work done through different paths
WI = F. s = mg h = mgh
h
WII = F. s = mg sin l = mg sin = mgh WIII = mgh1 + 0 + mgh 2 + 0 + mgh 3 + 0 + mgh 4
sin
= mg (h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 ) = mgh
WIV = F. d s = mgh
It is clear that WI = WII = WIII = WIV = mgh .
Further if the body is brought back to its initial position A, similar amount of
work (energy) is released from the system, it means WAB = mgh and WBA = −mgh .
Hence the net work done against gravity over a round trip is zero.
W Net = W AB + WBA = mgh + (−mgh ) = 0
i.e. the gravitational force is conservative in nature.
Non-conservative forces : A force is said to be non-conservative if work done
by or against the force in moving a body from one position to another, depends on
the path followed between these two positions and for complete cycle this work done
can never be zero.
Example: Frictional force, Viscous force, Airdrag etc.
If a body is moved from position A to another position B on a rough table, work
done against frictional force shall depend on the length of the path between A and B
and not only on the position A and B.
W AB = mgs
Further if the body is brought back to its initial position A, work has to be done
against the frictional force, which opposes the motion. Hence the net work done
against the friction over a round trip is not zero.
R
Fig. 6.14
WBA = mgs .
W Net = W AB + WBA = mgs + mgs = 2 mgs 0 .
i.e. the friction is a non-conservative force.
Work Depends on Frame of Reference
With change of frame of reference (inertial),
force does not change while displacement may
change. So the work done by a force will be
different in different frames.
Examples : (1) If a porter with a suitcase on
his head moves up a staircase, work done by the
upward lifting force relative to him will be zero
h
(as displacement relative to him is zero) while
relative to a person on the ground will be mgh.
Fig. 6.15
(2) If a person is pushing a box inside a
moving train, the work done in the frame of train will F.s while in the frame of earth
will be F. (s + s0 ) where s 0 is the displacement of the train relative to the ground.
Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion, is called kinetic energy.
Examples : (i) Flowing water possesses kinetic energy which is used to run the
water mills.
(ii) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy.
(iii) Moving air (i.e. wind) possesses kinetic energy which is used to run wind mills.
(iv) The hammer possesses kinetic energy which is used to drive the nails in wood.
(v) A bullet fired from the gun has kinetic energy and due to this energy the bullet
penetrates into a target.
v
u=0
F
s
Fig. 6.17
(1) Expression for kinetic energy :
Let m = mass of the body, u = Initial velocity of the body (= 0)
F = Force acting on the body, a = Acceleration of the body,
s = Distance travelled by the body, v = Final velocity of the body
From v 2 = u 2 + 2as
v2
v 2 = 0 + 2as s = 2a
Since the displacement of the body is in the direction of the applied force, then
work done by the force is
v2
W = F s = ma
2a
1
W = mv 2
2
1
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of the body KE = W = mv 2
2
(2) Calculus method : Let a body is initially at rest and force F is applied on
the body to displace it through small displacement d s along its own direction then
small work done
dW = F.d s = F ds
dW = m a ds [As F = ma]
dv dv
dW = m ds As a = dt
dt
ds
dW = mdv .
dt
dW = m v dv
