Information Technology Institute
Operating System Fundamentals
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Chapter Four
PROCESSES
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Table of Content
• Process Concept
• Process Scheduling
• Operations on Processes
• Cooperating Processes
• Inter-process Communication
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PROCESS CONCEPT
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Process Concept
• Process – a program in execution; process
execution must progress in sequential fashion.
• An operating system executes a variety of
programs:
• Batch system
• Time-shared systems
* Textbook uses the terms job and process almost
interchangeably
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Process Contents
1
• Text section
• Program instructions
2
• Program counter
• Next instruction
3
• Stack
• Local variables
• Return addresses
• Method parameters
4
• Data section
• Global variables
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Process State
new btb2a ready lma yt7gzlha el resources bt3tha
scheduler dispatch : choose from the processes in ready state to make them run ( choosing depends on its algorithm)
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Process State Cont’d
• As a process executes, it changes state
• new: The process is being created.
• running: Instructions are being executed.
• waiting: The process is waiting for some event to
occur.
• ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a
processor.
• terminated: The process has finished execution.
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Process Control Block (PCB)
os mno bymanage and track the process and its related info.
• Information associated with each process.
• Process state
• Program counter
• CPU registers
• CPU scheduling information
• Memory-management information
• Accounting information
• I/O status information
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Process Control Block (PCB) Cont’d
Pointer Process state
Process number
Program counter
CPU registers
Memory management info
I/O status information
Accounting Information
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CPU Switch From Process to
Process
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PROCESS SCHEDULING
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Process Scheduling
• Multi-Programming systems
• Some processes executing at all times
• Maximize CPU utilization
• Time-Sharing systems
• Switch the CPU among processes frequently
• Users can interact with a program while it’s
executing
• Virtually run processes at the same time
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Process Scheduling Queues
• Job queue
• set of all processes in the system.
• Ready queue
• set of all processes residing in main memory which is
ready and waiting to execute.
• Device queues
• set of processes waiting for an I/O device.
* Process migration between the various queues
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Ready Queue And Various I/O
Device Queues
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Representation of Process
Scheduling
in
out
Ready queue CPU
I/O I/O queue I/O request
time slice
expired
child executes fork a child
wait for an
interrupt occurs
interrupt
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Schedulers
• Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler)
• Selects which processes should be brought into
the ready queue. from different states.
• Executes infrequently
• May be absent in some O/S
• Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler)
• Selects which process should be executed next
and allocates CPU. choose from ready state
• Executes frequently
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Addition of Medium Term
Scheduling
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Medium-term scheduling is responsible for managing processes that are in a "Blocked" or "Waiting" state. This type of scheduling is
not as well-known or as frequently discussed as short-term (CPU scheduling) or long-term (job scheduling) scheduling. However, it
plays an important role in some operating systems, particularly those that use a multi-level queue-based scheduling approach.
Here's what medium-term scheduling does:
1. **Blocked Process Management:** When a process cannot continue its execution because it's waiting for some event or resource
(e.g., reading data from disk, receiving input from a user, waiting for a network packet), it is moved from the "Ready" state to the " 18
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Blocked" or "Waiting" state. Medium-term scheduling is responsible for managing Information
these Technology Institute - 2018
blocked processes.
Schedulers Cont’d
• Processes can be described as either:
• I/O-bound process
• spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts.
• CPU-bound process
• spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts.
• Proper System performance
• Mix of CPU & I/O bound processes
• Improper system performance
• All processes are I/O bound
• All processes are CPU bound © Copyright Information Technology Institute - 2018 19
Context Switch
• When CPU switches to another process, the
system must save the state of the old process
and load the saved state for the new process.
• Context-switch time is overhead; the system
does no useful work while switching.
• Time dependent on hardware support.
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OPERATIONS ON PROCESSES
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Operations on Processes
• Process Creation
• Process Termination
* Process resources
• CPU time
• Memory
• Files
• I/O devices
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Process Creation
Process n
Process n
Process n+1
Process n+1 Process n+2
Process n+2
Process n+3
Process n+3
Process n+4
Process n+4
Process n+5 Process n+6
Process n+5
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Process Creation Cont’d
• Parent process create children processes, which,
in turn create other processes, forming a tree of
processes.
• Resource sharing
• Parent and children share all resources.
• Children share subset of parent’s resources.
• Execution
• Parent and children execute concurrently.m3 b3d
• Parent waits until children terminate.
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Process Creation Cont’d
• Address space
• Child duplicate of parent.
• Child has a program loaded into it.
• UNIX examples
• fork system call creates new process
• exec system call used after a fork to replace the
process’ memory space with a new program.
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Process Termination
• Process executes last statement and asks the operating
system to decide it (exit).
• Output data from child to parent.
• Process’ resources are de-allocated by operating system.
• Parent may terminate execution of children processes
(abort).
• Child has exceeded allocated resources.
• Task assigned to child is no longer required.
• Parent is exiting.
• Operating system does not allow child to continue if its parent
terminates.
• Cascading termination.
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Cooperating Processes
• Independent process cannot affect or be affected
by the execution of another process.
• Cooperating process can affect or be affected by
the execution of another process
• Advantages of process cooperation
• Information sharing
• Computation speed-up
• Modularity
• Convenience
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INTER-PROCESS
COMMUNICATION
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Inter-process Communication
• Message Passing
• Shared Memory
* Synchronization
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Message Passing
• Messages
• Fixed size
• Variable size
• Communication
• Direct:
• send(P2, message), receive(P1, message)
• Indirect:
• send(ID, message), receive(ID, messages)
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Synchronization
• Message passing may be either blocking or
non-blocking. wra b3d mstnyen b3d
• Blocking is considered synchronous
• Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
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• send and receive primitives may be either
blocking or non-blocking.
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