1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Concrete pavements face challenges which are the wear and tear from

increased traffic, coupled with the extreme weather conditions wrought by

climate change, are testing the limits of traditional concrete pavement

designs (Dev et al., 2023). These challenges are amplified in the local context

of the Philippines, where tropical weather patterns subject pavements to

intense cycles of wetting and drying, leading to more rapid deterioration

(Garcia et al., 2018). In urban areas, the incessant traffic and the need for

continuous use of roads without allowing adequate time for maintenance

exacerbate the issue. The heavy monsoons and the consequent flooding also

stress the pavement structures beyond their designed capacity, leading to

premature failures (Cruz, 2020).

Because of these, the Philippine government has recognized these

challenges, and studies have been initiated to seek out novel materials and

methods to extend life and reduce the maintenance needs of concrete

pavements (Department of Public Works and Highways, 2021). As such, the

exploration of innovative materials like STF is a part of this initiative,

offering hope for more resilient infrastructure solutions, which resulted in

this study of Sansevieria Trifasciata Fiber as a potential reinforcement in

concrete pavements not only timely but essential. It aligns with the

country's pursuit of sustainable and cost-effective infrastructure capable of

withstanding the unique local environmental stresses. Simultaneously, the

 2

purpose of this study is to embark on a scientific exploration into the

uncharted terrain of snake plant fiber as a reinforcement material for

concrete pavements.

The world of civil engineering and infrastructure development stands

as a testament to humanity's relentless pursuit of progress. Among the

foundational elements that underpin this advancement, concrete pavements

serve as the silent arteries connecting nations, cities, and communities, as

per Soga (2017). These vital structures bear the weight of civilization,

accommodating the ceaseless flow of vehicles and facilitating economic

growth (Costin et al., 2018). In the face of such monumental responsibilities,

the durability, sustainability, and resilience of concrete pavements have

become subjects of paramount concern in the contemporary era (Wang et

al., 2020; Chen et al., 2019). As such, innovation in the field of construction

materials and techniques has been instrumental in addressing the evolving

demands placed on concrete pavements. Further, traditional concrete

formulations, while strong, often exhibit limitations, including susceptibility

to cracking and reduced tensile strength under various stressors. This has

spurred a quest for advanced materials and methodologies capable of

fortifying concrete pavements against the rigors of modern infrastructure

(Lei et al., 2019).

Furthermore, Sansevieria Trifasciata Fiber, colloquially known as

Snake Plant Fiber, represents a natural resource of remarkable significance,

deeply interwoven with the cultural and economic fabric of the Philippines

(Jaun et al., 2019). Its utilization dates back centuries, and in contemporary

times, it continues to captivate researchers, engineers, and conservationists

 3

alike (Alim et al., 2022). Historically, the Snake Plant Fiber in the

Philippines is a testament to the nation's resourcefulness and resilience.

Indigenous communities have long recognized the plant's sturdy leaves for

their suitability in crafting ropes, textiles, and traditional handicrafts

(Oremkumar et al., 2022). This ancestral wisdom has endured through

generations, forming a rich tapestry of cultural heritage and sustainable

practices. In recent years, Snake Plant Fiber has experienced resurgence in

interest and research. Its exceptional properties, including high tensile

strength, low density, and moisture resistance, have made it an attractive

candidate in various industries (Althahban et al., 2023).

Additionally, from a global perspective, concrete technology has

demonstrated a growing interest in the use of natural fibers for

reinforcement, with several studies revealing the enhanced mechanical

properties and sustainability they offer (Celaya-Echarri et al., 2020).

However, the integration of STF specifically into concrete pavements has yet

to be explored extensively. Locally, the use of STF could prove particularly

beneficial due to its availability and the current infrastructure challenges

that demand innovative and cost-effective solutions (Komatsuzaki, 2019).

Similarly, concrete pavements play a pivotal role in modern infrastructure,

serving as the sturdy foundation for roads, highways, and various

transportation systems. The durability and performance of concrete

pavements are of paramount importance, as they bear the weight of heavy

traffic, endure harsh environmental conditions, and must withstand the test

of time (Ayadi et al., 2020). In this context, the incorporation of innovative

materials and technologies has been a focal point for researchers and
 4

engineers seeking to enhance the resilience and longevity of concrete

pavements (Noel et al, 2017).

By scrutinizing the mechanical properties, durability, and

sustainability attributes of this botanical resource within the concrete

context, the researchers seek to unveil its potential as a groundbreaking and

eco-friendly alternative to conventional reinforcements. In doing so, the

researchers aspire to transcend traditional paradigms and usher in a new

era of sustainable construction practices. Consequently, motivated by a

deep-seated commitment to sustainable development, the researchers

embark on this academic odyssey. The motivation stems from a profound

vision of a world where infrastructure is not merely utilitarian but

harmoniously coexists with the environment. It arises from a yearning to

contribute to the evolution of construction practices, rendering them more

resilient and eco-conscious. Also, the researchers became inspired by the

pioneering spirit of contemporary researchers and the latent potential of

snake plant fibers, which made them conduct this study for transformative

change. Lastly, this research also endeavors to bridge the knowledge gap

and contribute valuable insights to the construction and materials science

community.
 5

Objective of the Study

The general objective of this study is to utilize snake plant as

reinforcement to concrete pavement.

Specifically, it aims to:

1. Determine the tensile strength of the snake plant fiber.

2. Evaluate the concrete in terms of:

a. Flexural strength

b. Compressive strength; and

c. Water absorption

3. Compare the concrete pavement reinforced with snake plant fiber to

the conventional concrete pavement.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will redound to the benefit of the

construction field, aiming to enhance the strength and durability of the

concrete pavement. This study may reveal that snake plant fibers enhance

the durability and mechanical properties of concrete such that compressive

and its flexural strength, potentially leading to longer lasting and more

resilient concrete pavement.

The significance of the study lies in its potential to offer

environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and sustainable solutions in the

 6

field of construction, with the added benefit of contributing to air

purification and promoting awareness of alternative materials.

The findings of this study can potentially influence the construction

industry by providing valuable insights into the potential application of

snake plant fiber as a reinforcing material. The findings of this study can

provide engineers and designers with a guide to construct durable

structures that have improved mechanical properties. The findings

contribute to the existing literature on natural fiber-reinforced concrete,

promoting the expansion of knowledge and the adoption of renewable

resources in building.

This will be advantageous for future researchers as well. This study

aims to investigate the potential of incorporating snake plant fiber as a

reinforcing material in concrete pavement. The study's findings will serve as

the foundation for their subsequent evaluation or experimental investigation

pertaining to fiber-reinforced concrete.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The scope of the study is the utilization of snake plant fiber as

reinforcement for concrete pavement and determining its tensile strength.

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the compressive and flexural

strength of the concrete as well as its water absorption. The study will

specifically concentrate on the use of snake plant and may not explore the

potential of other plant species as reinforcement material.

 7

In order to acquire information and establish the study's original

goals, the study's focus will on conventional concrete and it will only allow

utilizing snake plant fiber to reinforce concrete pavement. In this

investigation, only snake plant fiber is employed.

Time and Place of the Study

This study will be conducted at Brgy. Karaos, San Francisco, Agusan

del Sur, during the 2nd semester of A.Y. 2023-2024. This study will be

tested at the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) San

Francisco Agusan del Sur for Flexural strength and Compressive strength of

the pavement blocks and Philippines Fiber Industry Development Authority

(PhilFIDA) for the Tensile Strength of Snake Fiber at 27 T. Monteverde St,

Poblacion District, Davao City, 8000 Davao del Sur

 8

Definition of Terms

American Society for Testing Materials(ASTM)- The American Society for

Testing and Materials (ASTM) is an internationally recognized body

that develops and delivers voluntary consensus standards designed to

improve product quality, make products safer, improve international

standardization and therefore facilitate trade.

British Method DOE- The “British Method”- is restricted to designing

concrete mixes to meet workability, strength, and durability

requirements using Portland cements and natural aggregates,

however it does not deal with special materials or special concretes

such as lightweight aggregate concrete, self-compacting, or pumped

concrete.

Compressive Strength - refers to the ability of a certain material or

structural element to withstand loads that reduce the size of that

material, or structural element, when applied. A force is applied to the

top and bottom of a test sample, until the sample fractures or

is deformed.

Concrete- is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate

bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Concrete

is the second-most-used substance in the world after water and is the

most widely used building material.

Construction Materials-building material is material used for construction.

Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand,

wood, and even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct
 9

buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made

products are in use, some more and some less synthetic.

Flexural Strength - is the material's mechanical characteristic, which is

understood to be its capacity to withstand deformation under load.

Reinforcement – are elements that embedded in a matrix such that they

act together to resist forces such a bars, wires, strands, fibers, or

other slender elements.

Snake Plant - is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae,

native to tropical West African from Nigeria east to the Congo. It is

most commonly known as the snake plant, Saint George’s sword,

mother-in-law’s tongue, and viper’s bowstring hemp, among other

names.

Sansevieria Trifasciata fiber - is one lignocellulosic fiber of this type that

has a chance of being used in the textile industry. There are several

ways to extract it from Sansevieria Trifasciata Plant leaves, and one of

them is water retting.

Water Retting - is performed by submerging bundles of stalks in water. The

water, penetrating the central stalk portion, swells the inner cells,

bursting the outermost layer, thus increasing the absorption of both

moisture and decay-producing bacteria.

 10

Conceptual Framework of the Study

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

 Concrete  Tensile Strength

Pavement  Compressive and
 Snake Plant Flexural strength
Fiber  Water Absorption

Intervening Variables

 Weather
 Temperature

Intervening Variables

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

The concrete pavement and snake plant fiber are the independent

variables of the study as it will have fix amount in every treatment. The

properties of the concrete pavement in terms of compressive and flexural

strength test, and water absorption test serve as the dependent variables of

the study in which the data varied according to treatments. And the tensile

strength if the snake plant fiber also serve as the dependent variable. The

intervening variables are the weather and temperature that may cause

problem in the result of the study.

 11

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the useful and appropriate literature and

studies from a foreign and local setting that the researchers considered

strengthening the present study's importance. In this chapter, a review of

related literature and related studies will be presented in categorical themes

which will include the concept of snake plant fiber, reinforcement in

concrete pavements, and its characteristics, history, benefits, and uses.

Snake Plant Fiber (Sansevieria Trifasciata Fiber)

Snake Plant Fiber, also known as Sansevieria Trifasciata Fiber, is a

natural plant-based fiber extracted from the leaves of the Sansevieria

Trifasciata, a species more commonly recognized as the snake plant or

mother-in-law's tongue. This unique fiber possesses remarkable

characteristics, making it a valuable resource for a variety of applications,

ranging from textiles to crafts, with a significant emphasis on sustainability

and ecological benefits (Rwawiire & Tomkova, 2015). Historically, the Snake

Plant Fiber is deeply rooted in regions where the Sansevieria Trifasciata

plant naturally thrives, particularly in West Africa. For centuries, indigenous

communities in this region have harnessed the fibrous properties of this

plant for various practical purposes (Mardiyati et al., 2016). While precise

historical records of its early usage may be limited, Csiszar et al., (2016)

reported that indigenous populations have long appreciated the strength

and flexibility of the fibers for making ropes, baskets, and textiles.
 12

Additionally, the use of the white robust elastic fiber derived from

Sansevieria trifasciata is prevalent in many industries such as rope

manufacturing, clothing production, fishing line fabrication, bowstring

production, fine matting creation, and cordage development. This is mostly

due to its exceptional specific strength, which enables it to function as a

viable alternative to a range of synthetic fibers (Sathishkumar, 2018).

Over time, as trade networks expanded and global interest in

sustainable materials grew, Snake Plant Fiber gained international

recognition, as added by Khanjanzadeh et al., (2018). Also, Jonoobi et al.,

(2017) clarify that it has the potential as a sustainable and eco-friendly

resource that became increasingly evident, leading to broader cultivation

and research into its applications. Furthermore, the Sansevieria trifasciata

plant is frequently cultivated in horticultural settings, such as gardens or

pots, and is mostly utilized for ornamental purposes in public parks and

residential dwellings (Nurzam et al., 2018). Due to its variegated, upright,

and rigid foliage, this plant is commonly employed in the creation of creative

floral compositions. The utilization of Sansevieria trifasciata fiber, derived

from the leaves of the S. trifasciata plant, has numerous benefits in the

context of polymer composites. These advantages include its cost-

effectiveness, widespread accessibility, exceptional specific strength,

renewable nature, and low density (Kusmono et al., 2020). Consequently, it

can serve as a viable option for reinforcing in polymer composites. However,

in recent years, there has been a limited number of studies conducted on

the characterization of S. trifasciata fiber and its potential application as a

 13

reinforcement in composite materials, especially in pavements, As a result,

the researchers became motivated to conduct this study.

Subsequently, these studies have indicated that S. trifasciata fiber

remains underutilized despite its potential as a viable alternative to

synthetic fibers. In the study of Abral & Kenedy (2015), an investigation of

the heat deterioration and tensile properties of the fiber within a

polypropylene resin that is similar to the investigation conducted by

Rwawiire et al. (2016) focused on examining the dynamic mechanical

properties shown by the fibers within an epoxy resin. Also, in a study

conducted by Sameer et al. (2015), a hybrid composite material was

generated by integrating fibers, including carbon fibers, into the matrix.

Further, the investigation of the mechanical and thermal properties of the

fibers was conducted by Mardiyati et al. (2016) and Rwawiire & Tomkova

(2015). Additional research has been conducted to investigate the impact of

various forms of chemical treatment on the fiber and its composites

(Pradipta et al., 2017). Then, the study of Asaye (2019) provided a chemical

characterization of the fibers. In addition, Snake Plant Fiber is inherently

sustainable, as it is derived from a renewable and easily cultivated plant.

This aligns with the growing global awareness of the importance of eco-

friendly materials in reducing the environmental impact of various

industries.

Moreover, the concept of snake plant fiber acknowledges the

exceptional strength and durability of the fibers, making them suitable for a

wide range of applications where robust and long-lasting materials are

required. According to Ribeiro et al., (2019), the Snake Plant Fiber offers
 14

versatility in application. It can be processed into textiles for clothing and

home furnishings, incorporated into craft and artisanal products, and

potentially applied in innovative biomimetic engineering projects, reflecting

the adaptability of this natural resource. Similarly, Sun et al., (2015) wrote

that the Snake Plant Fiber serves several vital purposes in contemporary

society, driven by the need for sustainable materials and the recognition of

its unique properties. As per Espino et al., (2018), the fibers extracted from

Sansevieria Trifasciata leaves are extensively used in textile production.

They are spun into yarns and woven into fabrics, creating clothing items

that are not only durable but also environmentally responsible. These

textiles offer an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic fabrics, contributing to

sustainable fashion trends (Smith, 2018).

In terms of crafts and handicrafts, Du et al., (2016a; 2018b) stated

that the artisans and craftsmen have embraced Snake Plant Fiber for

crafting a wide array of products, including baskets, mats, rugs, and

decorative items. The fibers' strength and flexibility make them ideal for

these applications, allowing for the creation of aesthetically pleasing and

functional handicrafts. Furthermore, Bashar et al., (2019) reported that the

utilization of Snake Plant Fiber aligns with the overarching goal of

sustainability. Its cultivation requires minimal resources, and the plant

itself is hardy and resilient, thriving in various conditions. This not only

reduces the carbon footprint associated with production but also aids in

carbon sequestration, making it a valuable ally in combating climate

change. As such, in regions where Sansevieria Trifasciata is cultivated for its

fiber, it serves as a source of income for local communities. This economic

 15

empowerment can lead to improved livelihoods and socio-economic

development in these areas, as shown in the findings of Ji et al., (2019) and

Zhang et al., (2017). Additionally, biomimetic engineering has identified

Snake Plant Fiber as a source of inspiration. As Chen (2018) discusses, the

fiber's natural strength and flexibility have inspired innovative designs and

materials for various industries, including construction and aerospace.

Biomimicry of natural materials like Snake Plant Fiber can lead to the

development of stronger and more sustainable materials (Chen, 2018),

which will be the focus of the study.

Simultaneously, in the context of this study, natural fibers, including

Snake Plant Fiber, have gained attention as viable alternatives to traditional

reinforcement materials like steel in concrete structures. Due to these,

several studies have explored the potential benefits of using natural fibers in

concrete (Ramakrishnan et al., 2016). In the research of Zaini et al., (2019),

it has been shown that Snake Plant Fiber can enhance the mechanical

properties of concrete. It improves tensile strength, reduces crack

propagation, and increases ductility. Also, this makes it a suitable candidate

for reinforcing concrete pavements, where resistance to cracking and

increased durability are crucial. Further, one of the primary challenges in

concrete pavements is the development of cracks due to various factors,

including traffic loads and temperature fluctuations. Studies like Ganesan &

Babu (2019) have demonstrated that the incorporation of Snake Plant Fiber

can effectively control cracks and limit their width in concrete pavements. In

line with these, Yang et al., (2019) clarify that durability is a key

consideration in pavement design, and the use of Snake Plant Fiber aligns
 16

with sustainability goals. Natural fibers like Snake Plant Fiber are renewable

resources and have a lower environmental impact compared to traditional

steel reinforcement (Dias et al., 2017). This sustainability aspect is

particularly important in modern construction practices.

To add, optimizing the length and dosage of Snake Plant Fiber in

concrete mixtures is a crucial aspect of research. As explored by Culsum et

al., (2021) the influence of fiber length on concrete performance, suggests

that longer fibers tend to provide better crack control and ductility. Also,

dosage plays a significant role in achieving desired results, with higher fiber

contents often leading to improved properties (Nambiar and Gupta, 2019).

Lastly, while Snake Plant Fiber shows promise as a reinforcement in

concrete pavements, there are challenges related to its compatibility with

concrete mixes and the need for appropriate fiber dispersion. As investigated

by Marwanto et al., (2021) and Khanjanzadeh et al., (2021) the methods to

overcome these challenges, such as modifying the mix design or using

chemical admixtures, where this study will also assess.

Concepts of Concrete Pavements

Concrete pavements are a fundamental component of transportation

infrastructure, providing a durable and long-lasting surface for roads,

highways, runways, and other essential facilities. The concepts underlying

concrete pavements encompass a range of principles, materials, and design

considerations aimed at ensuring the longevity, functionality, and safety of

these critical elements of the transportation network (Rodgers & Milton,

 17

2016). As per Vindo et al., (2019) the concrete pavements can be defined as

rigid pavement structures constructed primarily from concrete material.

They serve as a load-bearing surface for vehicles and pedestrians and are

designed to withstand a variety of environmental and traffic-related stresses

(ACPA, 2021). One of the central concepts in concrete pavements is their

ability to bear and distribute the loads imposed by vehicles effectively. To

achieve this, the pavement structure must be designed with the necessary

thickness and reinforcement, ensuring that it can withstand the stresses

generated by traffic (ACI, 2019).

Concrete pavements are engineered to be highly durable and resistant

to environmental factors such as temperature variations, freeze-thaw cycles,

and chemical exposure. The choice of materials, mix design, and

construction techniques is critical in ensuring that the pavement can

withstand these challenges over its service life (PCA, 2016). Also,the concept

of smoothness is vital in concrete pavements. A smooth surface is essential

for vehicle comfort, safety, and fuel efficiency. Achieving a uniform and level

finish is an integral part of concrete pavement design and construction

(Kadier et al., 2021). Further, concrete pavements are expected to have a

significantly longer service life compared to alternative pavement materials.

The concept of longevity is closely tied to cost efficiency, as longer-lasting

pavements require fewer repairs and maintenance activities over time,

ultimately saving taxpayer dollars (FHWA, 2021).

According to Neto et al., (2021) the concrete pavements include joints

or grooves that help control cracking and accommodate temperature-related

expansion and contraction. Proper joint design and control are essential to
 18

prevent uncontrolled cracking and maintain pavement integrity. Meanwhile,

Guo et al., (2021) added that the concept of sustainability has become

increasingly important in pavement design. Concrete pavements can be

designed to have lower environmental impacts, such as reduced energy

consumption and carbon emissions, and they may incorporate recycled

materials or use environmentally friendly construction practices (NCHRP,

2015). Subsequently,the field of concrete pavements is continually evolving

with technological innovations and advancements. Concepts related to

innovative materials, construction techniques, and monitoring systems play

a significant role in improving pavement performance and reducing life cycle

costs, as reported by Yang et al., (2019) and Hong & Xian (2018). As such,

concrete pavements serve several crucial purposes within the broader

transportation network where its primary purpose is to provide a safe,

smooth, and durable surface for vehicles and pedestrians, ensuring efficient

and reliable transportation (Alyousef et al., 2021).

Secondly, concrete pavements are designed to have lower

maintenance requirements compared to other pavement types, reducing the

disruption caused by repairs and maintenance activities (Dilfi et al., 2018).

The long service life and reduced maintenance of concrete pavements

contribute to economic benefits. These pavements provide a cost-effective

solution over their extended lifespan, ultimately saving taxpayer dollars

(TRB, 2015). Furthermore, concrete pavements can be designed to be

environmentally sustainable by incorporating recycled materials, optimizing

energy consumption during construction, and reducing greenhouse gas

emissions associated with pavement construction and maintenance

 19

(NCHRP, 2015). In line with these study, the concrete pavements play a role

in fostering innovation within the construction industry. They provide a

platform for testing and innovators and engineers can incorporate new

materials and techniques that can benefit the broader infrastructure sector

(Alaskar et al., 2020).

Reinforcement in Concrete Pavements

Reinforcement in concrete pavements refers to the intentional

incorporation of materials within the concrete mix or at specific locations

within the pavement structure to enhance its mechanical properties,

improve load-bearing capacity, control cracking, and extend its service life

(Petroudy, 2017). This reinforcement can take various forms, including steel

bars, fibers, wire mesh, or synthetic materials, and is strategically

positioned to provide structural support and durability to the pavement

(ACPA, 2019). According to Ilyas et al., (2021) the concept of reinforcement

in concrete pavements revolves around the idea of enhancing the structural

integrity of the pavement and addressing common challenges associated

with concrete, such as cracking and load-bearing capacity. Furthermore, the

reinforcement materials are selected and placed to augment the inherent

tensile strength of concrete. As per Khan et al., (2021)the concrete is strong

in compression but relatively weak in tension, making reinforcement crucial

for preventing cracking and improving overall strength. Also, controlling and

minimizing cracking is a fundamental concept. Cracks can develop in

concrete pavements due to factors like temperature fluctuations, shrinkage,

 20

and traffic loads (Khan et al., 2021). As a result, reinforcement materials

help control the width and extent of cracks, reducing maintenance needs

and improving pavement longevity (Samaei et al., 2021).

Moreover, another key concept is the distribution of loads across the

pavement. Reinforcements assist in evenly distributing the loads applied by

vehicles, minimizing localized stress concentrations and preventing

structural damage (PCA, 2018). Subsequently, reinforcement in concrete

pavements aims to enhance the overall durability of the pavement. In the

study of Taban et al., (2020), the authors shows that the durability is

essential for minimizing maintenance costs, reducing user inconvenience,

and prolonging the pavement's service life. Similar to this, the study of Kemi

et al., (2020) presented that the concept of reinforcement also includes

considerations about the construction techniques used to place and

maintain the reinforcement materials. As such, Mochane (2019) added that

proper installation practices are crucial for ensuring the effectiveness of the

reinforcement. Simultaneously, the reinforcement in concrete pavements

serves several crucial purposes that contribute to the overall functionality

and longevity of the pavement structure. As per with the findings of Ramu et

al., (2019) the primary purpose of reinforcement is to enhance the structural

integrity of concrete pavements. By providing additional tensile strength,

reinforcement materials help the pavement withstand the stresses imposed

by traffic and environmental factors (FHWA, 2019).

In addition, another critical purpose is to increase the load-bearing

capacity of the pavement. Reinforcement materials distribute loads more

effectively, allowing the pavement to support heavier and more frequent

 21

traffic, which is essential for roads and highways with high traffic volumes

(ACI, 2016). Then, Otto et al., (2017) reported that reinforcement extends

the service life of concrete pavements. By minimizing cracking, controlling

the effects of temperature fluctuations, and distributing loads, reinforced

pavements require less maintenance and repair over time (FHWA, 2019). As

such, reinforced concrete pavements, by reducing maintenance needs and

increasing longevity, offer economic benefits by reducing overall life cycle

costs. Additionally, by minimizing the need for repairs and replacements,

they reduce the environmental impact associated with pavement

construction and maintenance (Ude, 2017; Mulenga & Ude 2020). Lastly, in

the conclusion of De Azevedo et al., (2021) the use of reinforcement in

concrete pavements has also driven innovation in materials and

construction techniques.

Resilience of Materials through Flexural Strength

Flexural strength, often referred to as modulus of rupture, is a

critical mechanical property of concrete that measures its ability to

withstand bending or tensile stresses. As per Weclawski & Fan (2017) it

represents the maximum tensile or compressive stress that a material can

endure before it fails or breaks when subjected to a bending load. In

concrete, flexural strength is typically determined through a standardized

test known as the flexural or modulus of rupture test (ACI 318, 2019). The

concept of flexural strength in concrete is rooted in the understanding that

while concrete excels in compression, it is relatively weak in tension. As per

 22

Tisserat et al., (2020) concrete's inherent brittleness and low tensile strength

make it susceptible to cracking when subjected to bending loads. Therefore,

flexural strength is a crucial property, especially in applications where

concrete elements, such as beams, slabs, or pavements, are exposed to

bending or flexural stresses. Further, when a concrete beam or slab is

subjected to a bending load, the upper portion is compressed, while the

lower portion experiences tension. Flexural strength measures the ability of

concrete to distribute these stresses effectively without experiencing

cracking or failure (Shireesha et al., 2019).

Moreover, there are several factors influence flexural strength,

including the concrete's mix design, water-cement ratio, aggregate type and

size, curing conditions, and the presence of reinforcement (ACI 318, 2019).

As per Bambach (2020) the concept extends to standardized test methods

used to determine flexural strength, such as the third-point loading test.

These tests involve subjecting a concrete specimen to a bending load until it

fails, allowing engineers to quantify its flexural strength (ASTM C78, 2021).

In line with these, the primary purpose of assessing flexural strength is to

ensure the structural integrity of concrete elements that will be subjected to

bending loads, such as beams and slabs. Adequate flexural strength

prevents premature cracking and structural failures, thereby ensuring the

safety and reliability of the structure, that can be supported by

Senthukumar et al., (2018). Meanwhile, in terms of design verification,

engineers use flexural strength data to verify that a concrete mix meets the

specified design requirements for a given application. It allows for

 23

adjustments in mix proportions or the selection of appropriate reinforcement

to achieve the desired strength (Parbin & waghamre, 2019).

According to Ehskoor et al., (2016) the contractors and quality control

professionals use flexural strength testing as part of their quality assurance

programs during construction. Monitoring flexural strength ensures that

concrete meets project specifications and performance expectations (ACI

318, 2019). Subsequently, Farooqi & Ali (2018; 2019) clarifies that adequate

flexural strength is vital for the durability and long-term service life of

concrete structures. It helps prevent cracking, which can lead to the ingress

of moisture, chemicals, and other harmful agents that degrade concrete over

time (Mindess et al., 2023). By accurately assessing flexural strength,

engineers can optimize concrete mix designs and reinforcement strategies,

potentially reducing material costs and construction time while improving

structural performance (ACI 318, 2019). Lastly, flexural strength testing

plays a role in advancing concrete technology. Researchers should

continually explore innovative materials and techniques to enhance flexural

strength, contributing to the development of more resilient and sustainable

concrete, as recommended by the study of Li et al., (2021).

Unveiling the Secrets of Compressive Strength in Materials

Compressive strength is a fundamental mechanical property of

concrete that measures its ability to withstand axial or compressive loads

without undergoing deformation or failure. It represents the maximum

compressive stress that a concrete specimen can withstand before it

 24

fractures or crumbles under load. Compressive strength is typically

expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or megapascals (MPa) and is

determined through standardized testing methods (ASTM C39, 2021). As per

Arshad et al., (2020) the concept of compressive strength in concrete is

rooted in understanding how well concrete resists compression, which is a

key aspect of its structural performance. Concrete is renowned for its

excellent compressive strength due to its composition, where the

cementitious materials bind together aggregates to create a dense and solid

matrix. This matrix can withstand high compressive forces (Khan et al.,

2018)

As per Marvila et al., (2020)concrete's compressive strength depends

on the composition of its ingredients, including cement, aggregates, water-

cement ratio, and admixtures. The concept involves optimizing these

components to achieve the desired compressive strength. As such, Rajak &

Pagar (2019) clarifies that compressive strength is determined through

standardized testing procedures, such as the compression test, where a

cylindrical or cubical concrete specimen is subjected to axial loads until it

fails. The applied force and resulting deformation are used to calculate

compressive strength (ASTM C39, 2021). Further, numerous factors

influence concrete's compressive strength, including curing conditions,

specimen size and shape, temperature, and the presence of reinforcement.

Understanding these factors is essential for controlling and optimizing

compressive strength (Cao et al., 2018).

Additionally, compressive strength serves several critical purposes in

concrete design, construction, and quality assurance. As per the study of

 25

Cao et al., (2018) the primary purpose of assessing compressive strength is

to ensure that concrete structures have sufficient capacity to withstand the

compressive forces they will encounter during their service life. Compressive

strength data is used by engineers to size structural members, such as

columns, beams, and foundations (ACI 318, 2019). Also, Xie et al., (2020)

reported that contractors and quality control professionals rely on

compressive strength testing as part of their quality assurance programs

during construction. It verifies that the concrete used in a project meets

specified design requirements and performance expectations (ACI 318,

2019). According to Onyekwere et al., (2019) the compressive strength

testing guides the selection of concrete mix proportions to achieve the

desired strength while considering factors like workability and durability. By

optimizing material compositions, engineers can minimize costs while

ensuring structural performance (Ferreira et al., 2021).

Subsequently, adequate compressive strength is crucial for the

durability of concrete structures. It helps prevent premature deterioration

due to factors like freeze-thaw cycles, chemical exposure, and environmental

conditions. Structures with higher compressive strength tend to have longer

service lives (Hosseini et al., 2018). According to Liao et al., (2019) assessing

compressive strength is essential for ensuring the safety of occupants and

the public. Concrete structures must meet minimum strength requirements

to mitigate the risk of structural failure and protect human lives (Saka et al.,

2019). Lastly, Jin et al., (2018) reported that compressive strength testing

plays a pivotal role in advancing concrete technology.

 26

Exploring Water Absorption Test for Concrete

Water absorption in concrete refers to the capacity of concrete to

absorb and retain water when subjected to moisture or wet conditions. It is

typically measured as a percentage of the concrete's weight or volume that is

absorbed by water. As per Nurazzi et al., (2017) the property is indicative of

the concrete's porosity and permeability, with higher water absorption

indicating greater porosity (ASTM C642, 2020). The concept of water

absorption in concrete revolves around understanding how well concrete

interacts with water and its ability to resist the ingress of moisture. As per

Norrahim et al., (2021) the concrete is a porous material by nature, and its

porosity affects various aspects of its performance, including durability,

resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, and susceptibility to chemical attacks. Key

concepts related to water absorption include:

Concrete's porosity is determined by its mix design, curing conditions,

and other factors. As a result, the concept involves quantifying the extent to

which water can penetrate into the concrete matrix and be absorbed by

capillary action, which can be supported by the study of Kamaruddin et al.,

(2021). Further, Hagdan (2016) the concept extends to the saturation state

of concrete, which is the degree to which its pores are filled with water.

Understanding saturation is crucial for assessing the potential for freeze-

thaw damage and other deterioration mechanisms (ACI 201, 2015).

Additionally, water absorption in concrete serves several critical purposes in

concrete design, construction, and assessment, as per Suriani et al., (2021)

assessing water absorption helps evaluate the durability of concrete

 27

structures. Higher water absorption can indicate a greater vulnerability to

deterioration mechanisms such as freeze-thaw damage, alkali-silica reaction

(ASR), and sulfate attack (ACI 201, 2015). During construction, contractors

and quality control professionals use water absorption measurements as

part of their quality assurance processes. It ensures that the concrete meets

design specifications and performance expectations, reducing the risk of

defects and premature deterioration (Syafri et al., 2018).

As per Kumar & Allamraju (2019) water absorption data guides the

selection of concrete mix proportions and materials to achieve the desired

performance characteristics. By optimizing these factors, engineers can

design concrete that is both durable and cost-effective. Simultaneously,

understanding water absorption is essential for managing moisture-related

issues in concrete structures, such as preventing moisture intrusion and

maintaining the integrity of waterproofing systems (Kumre et al., 2017;

Zainudi et al., 2016). Monitoring and controlling water absorption can

contribute to sustainability efforts by reducing the need for maintenance

and repairs. It helps extend the service life of concrete structures, leading to

reduced resource consumption and environmental impact (Valsanen & Das,

2017).
 28

METHODOLOGY

Methods Used

Experimental research is a systematic framework consisting of

protocols and methods that are developed to carry out scientific

experimental research, involving the manipulation and measurement of two

sets of variables. In this context, the initial set of variables serves as a fixed

value, employed to quantify the disparities inside the second set (Sirisilla,

2023).

Source of Data

The researcher use primary data that will be acquired, collect, and

record during the study's execution. The primary data comprises

experimental testing will be conducted on concrete pavement reinforced with

snake plant fiber. The study will utilize Snake plants sourced from Magaud,

Loreto, Agusan del Sur as a treatment during the conduct of the study.

Data Gathering Instruments

Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

A Universal Testing Machine is employed to examine the mechanical

characteristics of a specific test specimen by applying tensile, compressive,

 29

or transverse stresses. The Universal Testing Machine (UTM) was employed

to assess the tensile, flexural, and compressive strength.

Digital Weighing Scale

Digital weighing scales are instruments utilized for the precise

determination of an object's weight or mass. In this investigation, a digital

weighing scale will utilize to measure the weight of concrete blocks during

the water absorption test.

Instrument Use in Conducting of the Study

Sieve

The fine sand and coarse aggregates will sieve before to the mixing

process. The fine sand and coarse aggregates will subject to sieve analysis in

accordance with the ASTM standard specification.

Drying Oven

A drying Oven is use in this study since the specimens are dried in an

oven for a specified time and temperature and then placed in a desiccator to

cool.

Vernier Caliper

A slide-type caliper is utilized for measuring both internal and

external dimensions, as well as depth. This will quantify the diameter (in

millimeters) of the snake plant fiber bundle.

 30

Material Preparation

Cement

The materials utilize in this investigation were readily accessible

within the local vicinity. This investigation will use Ordinary Portland

Cement.

Fine Sand

The sand utilize for the experimental study was obtain from a local

source that passes through a 0.475-mm sieve (No. 40) and retain on a

0.075-mm (No. 200) sieve. The sand was sifted in accordance with the

specifications outlined in the ASTM standard specification. The sand will

pass through a series of sieves.

Coarse Aggregate

The coarse aggregate use for the experimental work will locally

procure and the coarse aggregate has 13 mm maximum size. The aggregate

will be sieve according to the desired size of coarse aggregate.

Snake Plant

The snake plants specimens include in this investigation are source

from several households possessing snake plants. The initial stage of

processing the snake plant fiber involved the water retting process, wherein

the fiber will be soaked in water for a prolonged period of time in a basin.

The second phase in preparing the snake plant involved employing the
 31

drying procedure by exposing it to the sun's heat. The Snake Plant will be

obtained from Magaud, Loreto, Agusan del Sur.

Water

The water utilize for the concrete mixture in this experiment is

purified water obtain locally. The water will guarantee to be pure and devoid

of contaminants or reactive substances.

Molder

(The compressive test mold is a cubical mold with dimensions of 150 x

150 x 150 mm, as shown in figure 2.a, and the flexural test mold has

dimensions of 6 × 6 x 21 inches, as shown in figure 2.b. (NEED PA MAG

INQUIRE ABOUT SA MOLDER PARA COMPRESSION TEST)

Figure 2.b Beam Molder

Figure 2.a Cubical Molder
 32

Operational Procedure

Gathering Materials

Extraction of Snake Plant Fiber

Tensile Test

Netting of Snake Plant Fiber

Sieving of Fine Sand and Coarse Aggregate

Mixing of concrete

Molding

Curing

Compressive and Flexural strength test and

water absorption test

Figure 3. Operational Procedure

Gathering materials

The first phase of the investigation will be procuring the necessary

supplies, which include Snake Plant, Cement, Fine Sand, Coarse Aggregate,

Water, and a Molder. The materials will be collected locally. Upon arrival,

the cement samples are meticulously mix manually using a shovel to

achieve optimal blending and consistency. It is crucial to avoid any foreign

 33

material. The cement will be store in hermetically sealed canisters. The

aggregates are place in an air-dry state.

Extraction of Snake Plant Fiber

The second step of the study is collecting of Snake Plant a leaf that

will be gathered at Magaud, Loreto, Agusan del Sur. The leaves will be

soaked in water for a period of eight (8) to fourteen (14) days after collection.

After the leaves will be fully broken down in the water, the outer layer will

remove to extract the fibers. To ensure that the extracted fibers are free of

pulp residue, they underwent a rigorous washing process. The next step is

to dry them out in the sun for five (5) or seven (7) hours.

Tensile Test

In this study, dried fibers bundled are use for the tensile test. The

Universal Testing Machine, owned and run by the Philippines Fiber Industry

Development Authority (PhilFIDA), is use to measure the tensile strength of

snake fiber. The tensile test is will be conducted on single fiber of snake

plant to determine their axial tensile modulus, ultimate strength, and failure

strain, following the guidelines provided by ASTM D3822. A machine called

INSTRON 1195 is utilized, equipped with a load cell weighing 100 grams.

The specific steps of the experimental process are outlined in the

subsequent subsections. Single-fiber tests yield material strengths that

closely approximate the theoretical value for fiber materials.

Netting of Snake Plant Fiber

 34

The dried bundles of snake plant fiber are use for the netting. Strands

of snake plant fibers are assembled and arranged in a systematic manner

with 10mm maximum spacing for both horizontal and vertical. The

diameters of the bundles snake plant fiber are measure in millimetres. The

dried snake plant fiber are bundled in three different diameter are 2, 3, and

4 and measure using the vernier calliper. The following diameters of bundled

snake plant fiber are use for netting according to their diameter.

Sieving of Fine Sand and Coarse Aggregate

The coarse aggregates with the maximum size of 13 mm undergo a

washing process to eliminate dust and grime, and are subsequently dried to

achieve a surface dry state after the sieving process. The fine sands undergo

a sieving size ranging 0.475-mm to 0.075-mm in accordance with the

standards outlined in the ASTM standard.

Mixing of concrete

After completing all the materials that are needed, the raw materials

for preparing concrete are properly weighed. The next procedure is the

concrete mixing, thoroughly and manually shovel in such manner to ensure

the greatest possible blending and uniformity in the material. This study will

use the ratio of [Link]. Essentially, this implies that the production of

concrete requires a ratio of 1 part cement, 2 parts fine sand, and 4 parts

coarse aggregate. The concrete is mix on a water-repellent, non-porous

flatform using a shovel. The cement, fine sand and coarse aggregates are dry

mix until the mixture is completely mixed and uniform in color. The water is
 35

added until the concrete achieved a homogenous state, matching its

intended consistency. The water cement ratio use in concrete mix is 0.5.

Molding

Once the mixing concrete is done, the concrete mold is clean from any

dust. The mold use for flexural test is beam mold with the dimension of 6 x

6 x 21 inches.(NEED PA MAG INQUIRE ABOUT SA MOLDER SA

COMPRESSION TEST) The fiber reinforcement is added and put it to the

center of the molder. After doing the concrete mixing, it will be poured into

the mold. The fiber present in the concrete mix is snake plant fiber and it is

base on the diameter of the bundle fibers use for reinforcement in concrete

will be 2mm, 3mm, and 4mm. The mold will remove in the concrete

specimen after 24 hours and place in water for curing.

Curing

The specimens are undergoing 28 days as curing age. After the

respective curing age the specimen underwent a compression and flexural

testing.

Compressive and Flexural Strength test and Water Absorption test

The specimen was undergoing Compressive Strength Test, Flexural

Test and Water absorption test. There were 3 replications in every

treatment.

Compressive strength test gives an idea about all the characteristics of

concrete. With the help of this test we could check that whether concreting
 36

has been done properly or not. Researchers ensured that the block has been

tested was clean and free of dust and debris by brushing it well with a

household cleaning brush. Applied load gradually without shock and

continuously at the rate of 140 kg/cm2/min. until the specimen failed and

then recorded the maximum load.

The flexural test indirectly assesses the tensile strength of concrete.

This test evaluates the capacity of an unreinforced concrete beam or slab to

resist bending failure. The results of the flexural test on concrete are given

as the modulus of rupture, denoted as (MR), in units of MPa or psi. The

flexural test on concrete can be performed using either the three-point load

test (ASTM C78) or the center-point load test (ASTM C293).

For water absorption test, specimens are not impervious to water, and

in order to bond well with mortar, they must be able to absorb some water.

The initial rate of water absorption will be measured in grams and will used

to determine whether or not concrete should be soaked in water prior to

laying.

Evaluation Parameters

Tensile Strength Test of Snake Plant Fiber

A material's (fiber's) tensile characteristics provide an indication of

how the material will respond to the forces that are applied in tension. When

an external force is applied to a fiber, the internal force that is developing in

the molecular structure of the fiber is able to counteract the force that is
 37

delivered from the outside. As the stresses are increased, the material will

undergo deformation up until the point where it breaks. The Individualised

fibers of snake plant will be tensile tested following ASTM D3822. The

tensile tests will be carried out in an INSTRON 1195 testing device. The

experiments will be tested for only one (1) gauge length about 20mm with

three (3) replications. This study will be carried out in collaboration with

Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority (PhilFIDA) at 27 T.

Monteverde St, Poblacion District, Davao City, 8000 Davao del Sur.

Compressive Strength test and Flexural Strength test

This study exclusively employed the Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

for compressive strength to estimate the optimum percentage of

reinforcement to give high compressive strength concrete.

And to evaluate the tensile strength of concrete indirectly, it test the

ability of the specimen to withstand failure in bending. This study

conducted using three point load test. The study will be conducted in

collaboration with the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) at

Brgy. Karaos, San Francisco Agusan del Sur.

Water absorption test

The Water Absorption Test will be performed in this study to explore

the moisture absorption characteristics of concrete reinforced with snake

plant fiber. Water absorption is used to determine the amount of water

absorbed under specified conditions. For the water absorption test, the

specimens are dried in an oven for a specified time and temperature and
 38

then place in a desiccator to cool. Immediately upon cooling the specimens

will be weighed. The materials are then emerged in water at agreed upon

conditions, often 60°C for 24hours. Specimens will be removed, patted dry

with a lint free cloth, and weighed. Water absorption is expressed as

increase in weight percent. Percent Water Absorption = [(Wet weight - Dry

weight)/ Dry weight] x 100.

Procedure:

1. Prepare a sample of concrete pavement.

2. Ensure that the specimen was clean by properly washing the

surface of the concrete sample to eliminate any dirt, grease, or other

pollutants.

3. Turn on a set of digital scales, choose metric units, and ensure the

reading on the display is zero. The weight of the test block was

precisely recorded once it was placed on the scale.

4. The concrete specimens are placed in a bucket of water, partially

submerged, and left there for 24 hours.

5. The test specimen will be withdrawn from the water and any

surface water will be removed by patting it with a dry towel.

6. Re-weight the concrete specimen sample and recorded the new

weight, again measuring as precisely as possible.

7. Calculate the water absorption by subtracting the initial weight (dry

weight) of the sample from the final weight (wet weight), and divide by

the result by the initial weight.

 39

The result of concrete specimens with reinforcement of snake plant

fiber are compared to conventional concrete pavement called control in

terms of the compressive strength, flexural strength, and water absorption.

Statistical Analysis

The data will be gather and arrange, tabulate and analyze using the

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Randomized completely block Design (RCBD)

with three (3) replication and four (4) treatments twelve (12) representative

sample for compression test and twelve (12) representative sample for

flexural test.

Experimental Design and Treatment

The Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) and Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) is use in this investigation. It is a statistical method use

to analyze variations across distinct groups' means (or averages). It is use in

a variety of settings to determine whether there is any difference in the

means of various groups.

Treatment

T0 (control) =

1 kg/m^3 C: 2 kg/m^3 S: 4 kg A

T1 (2mm) =

(1 kg/m^3 C: 2kg/m^3 S: 4 kg/m^3A) with 2mm reinforcement

T2 (3mm) =
 40

(1 kg/m^3 C: 2kg/m^3 S: 4 kg/m^3A) with 3mm reinforcement

T3 (4mm) =

(1 kg/m^3 C: 2 kg/m^3 S: 4 kg/m^3A) with 4mm reinforcement

 41

LITERATURE CITED

Abral, H., Kenedy, E. (2015). Thermal Degradation and Tensile Strength of

Sansevieria Trifasciata-Polypropylene Composites. Paper presented at
the Global Conference on Polymer and Composite Materials

Alim, M. A., Jahan, S., Rahman, A., Rahman, M. A., Liebman, M., Garner,
B., Griffith, R., Griffith, M., Tao, Z. (2022). Experimental investigation
of a multilayer detention roof for stormwater management. Retrieved
from [Link]

Althahban, S., Alomari, A. S., Sallam, H. E.-D. M., &Jazaa, Y. (2023). An

investigation of wear, mechanical, and water sorption/solubility
behaviors of a commercial restorative composite containing nano-
additives. Retrieved from
[Link]
25X

Ayadi, R., (2021). Survival of reorganized firms in France. Retrieved from

[Link]

Bashar, M.M., Zhu, H., Yamamoto, S., Mitsuishi, M. (2019). Highly

carboxylated and crystalline cellulose nanocrystals from jute fiber by
facile ammonium persulfate oxidation. Cellulose 2019, 26, 3671–3684.

Cao, S., Yilmaz, E., Song, W. D., &Xue, G. L. (2019). Assessment of Acoustic
Emission and Triaxial Mechanical Properties of Rock-Cemented
Tailings Matrix Composites. Advances in Materials Science and
Engineering, 2019, 6742392. Retrieved fromdoi:
10.1155/2019/6742392.

Celaya-Echarri, M., Azpilicueta, L., Karpowicz, J., Ramos, V., Lopez-Iturri,

P., & Falcone, F. (2020). From 2G to 5G spatial modeling of personal
RF-EMF exposure within urban public trams. IEEE Access, 8,
[Link]
from[Link]

Celaya-Echarri, M., Azpilicueta, L., Ramos, V., Lopez-Iturri, P., & Falcone, F.
(2021). Empirical and modeling approach for environmental indoor
RF-EMF assessment in complex high-node density scenarios: public
shopping malls case study. IEEE Access, 9, 46755-46775. Retrieved
from [Link]

Chen, F., Li, X., Yang, Y., Hou, H., Liu, G.-J., & Zhang, S. (2019). Storing E-
waste in Green Infrastructure to Reduce Perceived Value Loss through
 42

Landfill Siting and Landscaping: A Case Study in Nanjing, China.

Sustainability, 11, 1829. Retrieved from
[Link]

Chen, Q., Reisser, J., Cunsolo, S., Kwadijk, C., Kotterman, M., Proietti, M.,
Slat, B., Ferrari, F.F., Schwarz, A., Levivier, A., Yin, D., Hollert, H.,
&Koelmans, A.A. (2018). Pollutants in Plastics within the North Pacific
Subtropical Gyre. Environmental Science & Technology52(2), 446–
[Link] from[Link]

Chen, R., Hou, R., Hong, X., Yan, S., &Zha, J. (2019). Organophosphate
flame retardants (OPFRs) induce genotoxicity in vivo: A survey on
apoptosis, DNA methylation, DNA oxidative damage, liver metabolites,
and transcriptomics. Environment International 130, [Link]
from[Link]

Costin, A., Adibfar, A., Hu, H., & Chen, S. S. (2018). Building Information
Modeling (BIM) for transportation infrastructure - Literature review,
applications, challenges, and recommendations. Automation in
Construction, 94, 257–281. Retrieved from
[Link]

Cruz, J., R., (2020). Bond behaviour of NSM CFRP laminate strip syste in
concrete using stiff and flexible adhesives. Retrieved from
[Link]
9347737

Csiszar, S.A., Ernstoff, A.S., Fantke, P., & Jolliet, O. (2017). Stochastic
modeling of near-field exposure to parabens in personal care
products. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental
Epidemiology, 27, 152-159. Retrieved from
[Link]

Csiszar, S.A., Ernstoff, A.S., Fantke, P., Meyer, D.E., & Jolliet, O. (2016).
High-throughput exposure modeling to support prioritization of
chemicals in personal care products. Chemosphere, 163, 490-498.
Retrieved from [Link]

Department of Public Works and Highways (2021). Maintenance study in the

Philippines. Retrieved from
[Link]
ocuments/publication/wcms_bk_pb_224_en.pdf

Dev, K., Hara, K., Kuroda, M., Nomaguchi, Y., (2023). How does research
and development (R&D) strategy shift by adopting imaginary future
generations? – Insights from future design practice in a water
engineering company. Retrieved from
[Link]
258
 43

Dias, D., Calmon, J., Degen, M. (2017). Concretoreforçado com

fibraspoliméricassubmetido a temperaturaselevadas. In: Anais do 59º
CongressoBrasileiro do Concreto - CBC2017 - IBRACON, At Bento
Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. ISSN: 2175-8182.

Espino, E., Cakir, M., Domenek, S., Román-Gutiérrez, A. D., Belgacem, N.,
& Bras, J. (2018). Isolation and characterization of cellulose
nanocrystals from industrial by-products of Agave tequilana and
barley. Industrial Crops and Products, 62, 552-559. Retrieved from
DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2018.09.017

[Link], T .Sundararajan. (2016). Impact strength of a few natural

fibre reinforced cement mortar slabs: a comparative study. Cement
Concrete Composites, 27(5), 547–53.

Ganesan, N., Babu, C., Meyyappan, P.L. (2019). Influence of Alkaline

Activator Ratio on Compressive Strength of GGBS Based Geopolymer
Concrete. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,
561, [Link] from10.1088/1757-899X/561/1/012083

Garcia, A., Aboufoul, M., Asamoah, F., &Jin, D. (2019). Study the influence
of the air void topology on porous asphalt clogging. Construction and
Building Materials. Retrieved from
[Link]

Gupta SD. (2019). Evaluating plastic shrinkage and permeability of

polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete. Int J Sustain Built Environ; 5:
345–354.

Ji, Z., Li, X., Fromowitz, M., Mutter-Rottmayer, E., Tung, J., & Smith, M. T.
(2019). Formaldehyde induces micronuclei in mouse erythropoietic
cells and suppresses the expansion of human erythroid progenitor
cells. Toxicology Letters, 224, 233-239.

Jonoobi M, Oladi R, Davoudpour Y, Oksman K, Dufresne A, Hamzeh Y,

Davoodi R (2017). Different preparation methods and properties of
nanostructured cellulose from various natural resources and residues:
a review. Cellulose 22, 935–969. Retrieved from
[Link]

Kamaruddin, F. A., Nahazanan, H., Huat, B. K., &Anggraini, V. (2020).

Improvement of Marine Clay Soil Using Lime and Alkaline Activation
Stabilized with Inclusion of Treated Coir Fibre. Applied Sciences
(Switzerland), 10(6), 2129. Retrieved
from[Link]

Khanjanzadeh H, Behrooz R, Bahramifar N, Altmutter W, Bacher M, Edler

M, Griesser T (2018). Surface chemical functionalization of cellulose
 44

nanocrystals by 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane. Int J Biol Macromol

106, 1288–1296.

Komatsuzaki, T., (2019). Improving Public Infrastructure in the Philippines.

Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link]

Kumar, P. S. S., Allamraju, K. V. (2019). A review of natural fiber

composites. Materials Today: Proceedings, 18, [Link]
from[Link]

Kumre, A., Rana, R. S., & Purohit, R. (2017). A Review on mechanical

property of sisal glass fiber reinforced polymer composites. Materials
Today: Proceedings, 4(2), 3466-3476. Retrieved
from[Link]

Kusmono, K. (2020). Influence of hydrolysis conditions on characteristics of

nanocrystalline cellulose extracted from ramie fibers by hydrochloric
acid hydrolysis. 1–23. Retrieved from
[Link]

Lei, L.; Zhou, Y.; Luo, H.; Love, P.E. A CNN-based 3D patch registration
approach for integrating sequential models in support of progress
monitoring. Adv. Eng. Inform. 2019, 41, 100923. Retrieved
from[Link]

Mardiyati, S., Raden, R. R., Senoaji, A., &Suratman, R. (2016). Effects of

Alkali Treatment on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of
Sansevieria Trifasciata Fiber. In 3rd International Conference on
Advanced Materials Science and Technology (ICAMST 2015). American
Institute of Physics. Retrieved from DOI:10.1063/1.4945497

Marvila, M. T., Azevedo, A. R. G. D., Matos, P. R. d., Monteiro, S. N., &

Vieira, C. M. F. (2021). Rheological and the fresh state properties of
alkali-activated mortars by blast furnace slag. Materials, 14, 2069.
Retrieved fromdoi: 10.3390/ma14082069.

Nambiar RA, Haridharan MK. (2021). Mechanical and durability study of

high performance concrete with addition of natural fiber (Jute). Mater
Today Proc 2021; 46: 4941–4947.

Noel, A.B., Abdaoui, T., and Elfouly, T., (2017). Structural health monitoring
using wireless sensor networks: a comprehensive survey IEEE
Communications Surveys and Tutorials, 19 (2017), pp. 1403-1423.
Retrieved from [Link]
title=Structural%20health%20monitoring%20using%20wireless
%20sensor%20networks%3A%20a%20comprehensive
 45

%20survey&publication_year=2017&author=A.B.%20Noel&author=A.
%20Abdaoui&author=T.%20Elfouly

Nurazzi, N. M., Asyraf, M. R. M., Fatimah Athiyah, S., Shazleen, S. S., Ayu
Rafiqah, S., Harussani, M. M., ... Zainudin, E. S., et al. (2022). A
Review on Mechanical Performance of Hybrid Natural Fiber Polymer
Composites for Structural Applications. Polymers, 13(13),
[Link] from[Link]

Nurzam, E. Z., Ishak, A., Wan, Z. W. M., &Azizah, B. (2018). Effects of Fibre
Size on Sansevieria Trifasciata/Natural Rubber/High Density
Polyethylene Biocomposites. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences,
22, 1057–1064.

Premkumar L. (2022). Corporate concentration in agriculture and food.

Report of a Symposium organized by Focus on the Global South,
Alternative Law Forum and Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. Retrieved from
[Link]
ier_FocusJuly2020-[Link]

Rajak, D. K., Pagar, D. D., Menezes, P. L., &Linul, E. (2019). Fiber-

reinforced polymer composites: manufacturing, properties, and
applications. Polymers, 11, 1667.

Ramakrishnan S, Sanjay MR, Siengchin S, Nagaraja KC. (2021). A

comprehensive review on natural fiber/nano-clay reinforced hybrid
polymeric composites: materials and technologies. Polym Compos, 42,
3687-3701. Retrieved fromdoi: 10.1002/pc.26110

Ribeiro M. P. (2019). Thermaland chemical characterization of kenaf fiber

(Hibiscus canna-binus) reinforced epoxy matrix composites. Polymers,
13(12).

Ribeiro, H. (2022). Overview of Cosmetic Regulatory Frameworks around the

World. Cosmetics, 9, [Link]
fromDOI:10.3390/cosmetics9040072

Rwawiire, S., Tomkova, B. (2015). Morphological, Thermal, and Mechanical

Characterization of Sansevieria Trifasciata Fibers. J. Nat. Fibers, 12,
201 –210. Retrieved from DOI:10.1080/15440478.2014.914006

Sameer, R. K., Kumar, A. M., Murthy, N. V., & Karthikeyan, N. (2015).

Development of Sansevieria Trifasciata – Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer Hybrid Nanocomposites. International Letters of Chemistry,
Physics and Astronomy, 50, 179 –187.

Santos, E. F., Mauler, R. S., &Nachtigall, S. M. (2019). Effectiveness of

Maleated-and-Silanized-PP for Coir Fiber-Filled Composites. J. Reinf.
 46

Plast. Compos., 28, 2119 –2129. Retrieved from

DOI:10.1177/0731684408091704

Santos,S.D and Reyes, L.,(2019). Mechanical properties of warm-mix asphalt

concrete containing different additives and recycled asphalt as
constituents applied in real production conditions, Constr. Build.
Mater. 131-78-89. Retrieved from
[Link]

Sathishkumar, T. (2018). Development of Snake Grass Fiber-Reinforced

Polymer Composite Chair. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part L, Journal of Materials: Design and Applications, 230,
273–281. Retrieved from DOI:10.1177/1464420715569291

Smith, A. (2017). The evolution of technology adoption and usage.

Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. Retrieved from
[Link]

Smith, R., Kim, Y., Zhu, X., Doudou, T., Sternberg, E., & Thomas, M. (2018).
Integrating models of diffusion and behavior to predict innovation
adoption, maintenance, and social diffusion. Journal of Health
Communication, 23, 264- 271. Retrieved from
doi:10.1080/10810730.2018.1434259

Soga, K., & Schooling, J. (2017). Infrastructure sensing. Interface Focus, 6,

201600234. Retrieved from
[Link]
title=Infrastructure+sensing&author=Soga,+K.&author=Schooling,
+J.&publication_year=2017&journal=Interface+Focus&volume=6&pag
es=201700234&doi=10.1098/rsfs.2016.0023&pmid=27499845

Sun B., Hu Y., Cheng H., Tao S. (2015) Releases of brominated flame
retardants (BFRs) from microplastics in aqueous medium: Kinetics
and molecular-size dependence of diffusion. Water Research 151, 215–
25. Retrieved from DOI:10.1016/[Link].2015.12.017

Suriani, M. J., Rapi, H. Z., Ilyas, R. A., Petrů, M., &Sapuan, S. M. (2021).
Delamination and Manufacturing Defects in Natural Fiber-Reinforced
Hybrid Composite: A Review. Polymers, 13, 1323.

Syafri, E., Kasim, A., Abral, H., et al. (2018). Effect of precipitated calcium
carbonate on physical, mechanical and thermal properties of cassava
starch bioplastic composites. International Journal of Advanced
Science Engineering and Information Technology, 7, 1950-1956.

Valsanen, A., & Das, G. A. (2017). Compressive Strength and Microstructure

Evolution of Lime-Treated Silty Soil Subjected to Kneading Action.
Transportation Geotechnics, 29, 100568. Retrieved from
[Link]
 47

Wang, Q.; Zhao, X.; Lv, Z.; Ma, X.; Zhang, R.; Lin, Y. (2020). Optimizing the
ultra-dense 5G base stations in urban outdoor areas: Coupling GIS
and heuristic optimization. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2020, 63, 102445.
Retrieved from[Link]

Yanhai Yang, Baitong Qian, Qicheng Xu, Ye Yang (2020). Climate

Regionalization of Asphalt Pavement Based on the K-Means Clustering
Algorithm. Advances in Civil Engineering, vol. 2020, Article ID
6917243, 13 pages. [Link]

Zaini, L.H., Febrianto, F., Wisata, N.J., Maulana, M.M.I., Lee, S.H., Kim,
N.H. (2019). Effect of ammonium persulfate concentration on
characteristics of cellulose nanocrystals from oil palm frond. J. Korean
Wood Sci. Technol., 47, 597–606.

Zainudin, E. S. (2018). Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics

and Thermal Sciences, 51, 234

Zhang, L., Ou, C., Magana-Arachchi, D., Vithanage, M., Vanka, K. S.,
Palanisami, T., Masakorala, K., Wijesekara, H., Yan, Y., Bolan, N., &
Kirkham, M. B. (2021). Indoor particulate matter in urban
households: sources, pathways, characteristics, health effects, and
exposure mitigation. International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health, 18, 11055.
 48

Curriculum Vitae

Personal Background

Name : Jay Wilmer S. Roquero

Date of Birth : July 26, 2001

Sex : Male

Place of Birth : Magaud, Loreto, Agusan del Sur

Home Address : P-8 Magaud, Loreto, Agusan del Sur

Citizenship : Filipino

Name of Father : N/A

Name of Mother : Rosalie R. Fernandez

Educational Attainment

Elementary : Magaud Elementary School

Secondary : Magaud National High School

Senior High : Magaud National High School

(General Academic Strand)

Tertiary : Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and

Technology
Degree : Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Training And Seminar Attended

 On-The-Job Training
 49

 Sangguniang Kabataan Mandatory Training

 Leadership and Capability Training

Membership to Organizations

 P.I.O., College of Engineering and Information Sciences (2022-2023)

 Auditor, College of Engineering and Industrial Technology (2023-2024)

 ASSCAT Red Cross Youth Member

 Member, PRIOrg
 50

Curriculum Vitae

Personal Background

Name : Aira Jane M. Bual

Date of Birth : November 27,2001

Sex : Female

Place of Birth : P-6, San Isidro, San Francisco, Agusan del Sur

Home Address : -6, San Isidro, San Francisco, Agusan del Sur

Citizenship : Filipino

Name of Father : Cesario M. Bual Sr.

Name of Mother : Clotilde M. Bual

Name of Brothers : Ariel M. Bual

Cesario M. Bual Jr.

Name of Sisters : Alma M. Bual

Ailyn M. Bual

Alliah M. Bual

Educational Attainment

Elementary : San Isidro Elementary School

Secondary : Agusan del Sur National High School

Senior High : Agusan del Sur National High School

(General Academic Strand)

Tertiary : Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and

Technology
Degree : Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
 51

Training and Seminar Attended

 On-The-Job Training

Membership to Organization

 Treasurer, College of Engineering and Industrial Technology

 Member, ASSCAT Engineering and Information Sciences Students

 ASSCAT Red Cross Youth Member

 ASSCAT PRIOrg member

 52

GANTT CHART OF ACTIVITIES

The proposed plan of activities that will be systematically followed

during the conduct of the study.

Activities A S O N D J F M A M J
U E C O E A E A P A U
G. P. T. V. C. N. B. R. R. Y N.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4

Research Title
and Data
Gathering

Documentation
and Thesis
Outline
Defense
Processing and
Submission of
Softbound

Conduct of
Study
Final
Documentation
and Data
Consultation
Interpretation
and Analysis
Manuscript
Writing:
Finalization of
Thesis Paper
and Final
Defense

Processing for
Hardbound
Copy for Final
Submission