International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications

Volume 8–Issue 01, 01-05, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

Foliar Fertilizer Production from Waste Fish

Saw Htun Htun Naung

Department of Engineering Chemistry,
Technological University
Hpa-an, Myanmar

Abstract: A foliar fertilizer is superior to regular solid types of fertilizers in terms of efficient assimilation by the cultivated plants. In
this paper, production of foliar fertelizer is based on easy and low-cost process. A laboratory scale experiment was built to utilize
waste fish and protease enzyme. The waste of Nga-myit-chin (bone, head and tail), freshwater and marine catfishes were selected for
protein containging raw materials. Calotropis gigantea latex was chosen as protease enzyme. Proteolytic hydrolysis of waste fish was
easy to set up. Macro and microelements present in fish hydrolysed solution were analysed by Kjeldahl method, flame photometry,
Nesslerˈs method and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. All the contents of macro and microelements in fish hydrolysed solutions
were compatible with theoritical data. Thus the resulting fish hydrolysates were found to be suitable for foliar fertilizers.
Keywords: foliar fertilizer; waste fish; protease enzyme; catfish; Calotropic gigantea latex; macro and microelements; Kjeldahl

Table 1. Constituents of Selected Fish (Source: Wiseman

1. INTRODUCTION 1977)
There are several foliar fertilizers available on the world.
A foliar fertilizer is a plant nutrient formulation, developed for Nitrogen
application in the leaf. Foliar feeding is effective to solve Minerals
Species substances
nutrient deficiency in plants, and also to promote overall plant (%)
(%)
health. Russian (Caspian and Azo) sturgeon 14.7 -19.7 0.8 -1.8
In contrary to these, foliar fertilizer is available in true
liquid form. In preparation of liquid fertilizer, specific Siberian sturgeon 12.7 - 21.4 0.5 - 1.2
amounts of major and minor nutrients are combined to get the
Chum Salmon 13.3 - 23.3 0.4 - 1.7
desired fertilizer type. [1]
Ma-yo-gyi is a well known indigenous medicinal plant in Atlantic herring 16.0 - 20.0 0.6 - 1.8
tropical countries such as Myanmar, India, Parkistan and
identified as Calotropis gigantea. The latex from Calotropis Caspian black- back herring 17.3 - 20.4 1.1 - 1.9
gigantea can be utilized as an external medicine for removing Anchovy 12.8 - 18.1 1.7 - 3.8
piles, relief of pain of various teeth, curing leprosy and othe
skin diseases. Latex is strongly irritant to skin and mucous Atlantic ocean perch 16.0 - 19.7 1.0 - 1.8
membrame. [2]
Latex has been used as protease enzme in present work Caspian roach 16.3 - 19.8 0.9 - 1.7
and large scale production may be done because collection of Bream: Caspian 15.1 - 22.1 0.9 - 1.7
Calotropis gigantea latex is very easy and it can be obtained
all year round like waste fish. Bream: Azov 14.7 - 18.2 0.9 - 1.2
The present work is aimed to produce cheap and efficient
Carp: Caspian 16.0 - 21.3 0.9 - 1.3
foliar fertilizers from waste fish. Concentrations of macro and
microelements in desired fish hydrolysates are compatible and Carp: Azov 14.9 - 21.5 -
suitable with literature. The resulting hydrolysed solutions can
be used as foliar fertilizer for promotion and plant growth. Carp: Amur 17.1 - 18.2 1.4 - 2.0
Sheat fish 15.1 - 20.2 0.9 - 1.2
2. CONSTITUENTS OF FISH Pike - perch 16.0 - 24.4 0.9 - 1.8
Fish as a food is one of main sources of protein. The body
of a fish contain many different chemicals namely protein, fat, Cod 16.1 - 19.3 0.8 - 1.9
water and certain minerals. About 60 elements have been
identified in marine and fresh water organisms. The bulk,
about 75 percent, consists of oxygen, about 10 percent of 2.1 Protein in Fish
hydrogen, 9.5 percent of carbon, 2.5 to 3 percent of sulphur.
The protein content of flesh in fish has been evaluated
Other elements are present in very small quantities. in many species. This varies with size, age, sexual state or
Fish contains a large proportion of high grade protein wih season of capture. [4]
all the amino acids essential for health and growth. Hence fish Fish flesh also contains small quantities of protein
is very suitable for human consumption and animal feed and substances (protenoid) that are not soluble either in water or in
for manufacturing of products which can be used in salt, alkaline or acid solution, and which are contained in the
sarcolemma of the muscle fibres and connective tissue
pharmaceutical and textile industries. [3]
(myosepta and endomysium). These substances usually

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 01-05, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

termed stromatic, or connective tissue proteins, consists industrial applications. The proteases in the latices of Ficus
mainly of collagen. carica and Ficus glabrata (Moraceae), Asclepias and
The muscular proteins are mainly in a colloidal state i.e in Calotropis (Asclepiadaceae), resemble the papaya very much.
the form of gel and sol. This means that fish proteins are All are highly active cysteine proteases. [7]
unstable and their propertities subject to change (denaturation)
with a change in surroundings. The content of the more
important amino acids in fish is given in Table 2. [5]
Table 2. Amino Acid in Fish (Source: Stansby 1976)
Amino Acid Content (%)
Alanine 5.2 - 7.5
Aspartic acid 6.2 - 11.8
Glutamic acid 5.9 - 6.6
Glycine 1.0 - 5.6
Isoleucine 2.6 - 7.7
Leucine 3.9 - 18.0
Methionine 1.5 - 3.7 Figure 1. Proteases and their sources
Serine 2.5 - 5.4
2.4 Proteolytic Process
Threonine 0.6 - 6.2
Valine 0.6 - 9.4 Proteolytic process is the breakdown of proteins into
smaller polypeptides or amino acids. It serves many purposes
Arginine 2.6 - 9.6 in organisms; break down of protein and protein synthesis. It
is important as an analytical tool for studying protein in
Lysine 4.1 - 14.4
laboratory and industry.
Histidine 1.2 - 5.7 There are a number of proteolytic enzymes available for
hydrolysing proteins. The choice of an enzyme for a particular
Phenylalanine 1.9 - 14.8 use must be based on the specificity, pH optimum, heat
stability, effect of activators and inhibitors, and the price and
Proline 3.0 - 7.1
availability of enzyme needed. [8]
Trytophan 0.4 - 1.4
Tyrosine 1.3 - 5.0

2.2 Enzyme
Like the tissues of the animals, those of fish contains
small quantity of many different enzymes, which acts as
biological catalys in the chemical metabolism of proteins,
carbonhydrates and fats, on which bodily functions depend.
Chemically, enzymes are protein like substances, some being
simple proteins and other complex proteins.
The enzyme that breaks down organic substances in fish
known as autolysis is of great significance in the changes that Figure 2. Proteolytic process in protein
occur after death. A particularly glycogen creatine phosphate
and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the muscular tissues
(phosphorylase, A-enzyme, amylase and ATP-ase), and 2.5 Fish Solubles by Biological Means
muscular proteinase (cathepsins), which help to break down Predigestion or hydrolysis of proteins by chemical
proteins, the most constituents of fish. The activity of enzyme means, whether acid or alkaline, is imperfect because of the
system varies according to species and season. [4] racemization of amino acids, which then lose their biological
value. Something similar happens with the processing of fish
2.3 Latex Proteases meal by conventional means, since the coagulation,
In plants, one of the rich sources of protease is latex. precipitation and cooking with high heat causes the final
Over 110 latices of different plant families are known to product to be poor in its protein values.
contain at least one proteolytic enzyme. The primary role of Bertullo and Hetlich (1961) described a proteolytic yeast
protease in latices is defense against pets/ insects. Plant latex isolated from the liver of a common Brazilian fish, used for
proteases exhibit both clot-inducing and clot-hydrolyzing hydrolysing proteinaceous materials such as whole fish, fish
properties. [6] remains etc, with it adding molasses and fermenting the
The latices of papaya and certain fig species have been mixture. The product was used as silage for animal feeding of
known to contain powerful proteases. These proteases are for fertilizer.
commercially produced on a large scale and used in variety of

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 01-05, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

Bertullo and Pereira (1970) have provided a method for prison camps, or have severe burns of fractures, in which
the production of protein hydrolysates by means of proteolytic case, natural proteins can not be consumed. It is best to
yeast, the hydrolysates servings as a food for human administer them by intravenous or parenteral injection, since
pure amino acids have a disagreeable taste, when taken orally.
consumption. The resulting final product is a fine, pleasant
[9]
smelling powder having a crude protein yield varying between
54 and 60%.[9]
2.7 Liquid Fish Fertilizer
Whole fish, fish remains In recent years, liquid fish has been diverted to use as
organic type fertilizer.This usage is applied to the home
(1) gardener as providing an easily used material which can
Grinding
readily sprayed or poured on flowers or other home plants.
Liquid fish fertilizers come in different forms and
Carbohydarte Adding (2) qualities. Generally they are either emulsions or hydrolysates.
There are a number of advantages in using liquid
fertilizers in contrast to dry fertilizers as follows:
Mixing 28-35°C (3) (1) liquid fertilizers are relatively easier to apply and
requires less labour to handle than by dry fertilizer,
Adding (4) (2) a more uniform distribution of fertilizer can be obtained
Yeast
by the use of efficient dispering machinery,
(3) fertilization and watering can be carried out
Stirring simutaneously, and
40-55rpm (5)
(4) liquid fertilizer can not be blown away by strong wind
as dry fertilizer can be.
Hydrolysis (18-24hrs) (6)

2.8 Foliar Fertilization

Filtering & Foliar feeding is a technique of feeding plants by
Separating of solid (7) applying liquid fertilizer directly to their leaves.[10] Plants are
able to absorb essential elements through their leaves.[11] The
absorption takes place through their stomata and also through
their epidermis. Transport is usually faster through the
Degreasing (8)
stomata, but total absorption may be as great through the
epidermis. Plants are also able to absorb nutrients through
Concentraing (9) their bark.
Foliar Fertilization is the most efficient way to increase
yield and plant health. Tests have shown that foliar feeding
Drying (10) can increases yields from 12% to 25% when compared to
conventional fertilization.
When fertilizers are foliar applied, more that 90% of the
Packing (11)
fertilizer is utilized by the plant. When a similar amount is
applied to the soil, only 10 percent of it is utilized. In the
Fish hydrolysate powder sandy loam, folia fertilizers are up to 20 times more effective
when compared to soil fertilizers. [12]
Figure 3. Proteolytic processing of Fish for Animal Use Foliar Feeding is a technique for feeding plants by
(Source: Fox 1980)
applying liquid fertilizer directly to their leaves. The most
touted benefit of foliar fertilizers is their capacity to promote
2.6 Amino Acid from Fish and Uses maximum nutrient absorption. This is based on the belief that
Fish proteinsa are higher in nutritive value. They foliar fertilizers cause an increase in sugar levels in plants
contain all of the essential amino acids in a balanced amount which then stimulate soil activity and plant nutrient uptake.
and are readily digestible and assailable. Fish protein can be Foliar feeding is also finding favor among many
used as a good raw material in amino acid preparation by organic gardeners. Organic gardening involves cultivating
hydrolysing proteins with acids, alkali or enzyme under naturally healthy soil. This is a gradual process which can
specific temperature and pH conditions. make it difficult to provide some trace nutrients in sufficient
On hydrolysis the protein yields the following
quantity. By foliar feeding, trace nutrients can be
intermediate degradation products, namely, protease, peptone,
polypeptides and finallly amino acids. Each method of supplemented directly, without disrupting soil development.
proteolysis has certain limitations. [13]
Amino acids and their salts could be administered to
patients who suffer from gastrointestinal disorders or who
have been continued and underfed for a prolonged period as in

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 01-05, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

3. PRODUCTION PROCESS 3.2 Chemicals

Fishes were washed and chopped on a dressing table. Sodium hydroxide, phenolphthalein indicator, ascorbic
All parts of sample were completely mixed to get uniform acid, formalin, sulfuric acid (anlar) from B.D.H laboratory
mass. 50 g of fish sample was mixed well with 6 ml of crude supplies, Poole, England
latex from Calotropis gigantea in conical flask by means of 3.3 Determination of Macro and Micro
unitronic shaker. The flow diagram of foliar fertilizer
elements in Fish Hydrolysate
production from waste fish was shown in Figure 4.
Nitrgen contents in raw fish, residue and fish
Waste raw fishes
hydrolysate were determined by Kjeldahl method. Potassium
and calcium were measured by flame photometry method.
Chopping Nesslers method is employed to investigate phosphorus.
Microelements such as Fe, Cu and Zn were quantitatively
Protease enzyme measured by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS).
Mixing

4. RESULTS OF ELEMENTS
Hydrolysis 65°C, 84rpm, 1.5hrs
Macro and micro elements in fish hydrolysate were
determined by appropriate methos and expressed in Tables.
Fish solution Data of elements were based on three types of waste fish;
Nga-myit-chin, freshwater catfish and marine catfish.

Filtration
4.1 Nitrogen Contents in Selected Fishes
Table 3. Nitrogen Contents in Selected Fishes in Fish
Fish hydrolysate Fish Raw Hydrolysate Residue Yield
(%) solution (%) (%)
Nga-myit-chin 2.96 2.4 0.21 81.08
Foliar fertilizer
Catfish (fresh 2.27 1.62 0.38 71.37
water)
Figure 4. Production Process of foliar fertilizer Catfish 3.02 1.94 0.65 64.24
from waste fish (marine)
According to Ziatsev [14], 2.5% to 3% of nitrogen
3.1 Materials contents occurred in raw fish. Thus resulting nitrogen contents
were nearly the same to those from literature.
Waste Fish (Nga-myit-chin) i.e, bone, head and tail
Catfish (Fresh water) i.e, the whole body 4.2 Results of Macroelements in Fish
Catfish (Sea water) i.e, the whole body Hydrolysate
Crude latex from Calotropis gigantea Table 4. Amounts of Macroelements in Fish Hydrolysate
Fish N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Nga-myit-chin 2.4 0.05 0.02 0.008 0.005
Catfish (Fresh wa- 1.62 0.19 0.23 0.04 0.02
ter)
Catfish (marine) 1.94 0.11 0.26 0.06 0.04

Since plants require macroelements with milimole

concentration (˃ 10-4mol/l) [15, 16], all fish hydrolysed
solutions were compatible with this approach. Thus the
resulting solutions were suitable and satisfactory for using as
fertilizer from view of macroelement.

4.3 Determination of Microelements

Table 5. Amounts of Macroelements in Fish Hydrolysate
Fish Fe Cu Zn
Figure 5. Identification of Ma-yo-gyi as Calotropis (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
gigantea Nga-myit-chin 0.552 0.053 0.013
Catfish (Fresh water) 6.02 0.36 4.54
Catfish (marine) 8.21 0.37 6.56

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 01-05, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

Very small amounts of microelements are necessary for [8] Jian, S. K., Simlra B. K., and Gupta, R. C, “Notable
plant growth (˂10-4mol/l) [15, 16], and this fact is in Plants in Ethnomedicine of India? Sinha Deep
Publications, New Delhi, National Botanical Research
agreement with constituents of the resulting solutions.
Institute, Lucknow, 1991.
Therefore the resulting solutions were satisfactory for use as
fertilizer according to their compositions. [9] Fox, B.A, and Cameron A.G, “Food Science: A
Chemical Approach”, Hodder and Stoughton Ltd.
London, 1980.
5. CONCLUSION
[10] George Kuepper, “Folia fertilization” NCAT
The aim of research work was to produce easy and low-
Agricultural Specialist, Published, 2003.
cost foliar fertilizer for farmers and gardeners in Myanmar.
Waste fishes (Nga-myit-chin, catfishes of freshwater and [11] N. K. Fageria, M.P. Barbosa Filho, A. Moreira & C. M.
marine) were chosen as raw materials due to their abundance, Guimaraes, R. Nolan Clark, “Folia Fertiliaton of Crop
Plants” Journal of Plant Nutrition Vol 32, Issue 6, 2009.
locally availability and low price. Moreover they can be
obtained the whole year round in Myanmar. [12] “Foliar Applied Fertilizer”, EcoChem, 2017.
The choice of latex as protease enzyme in the present [13] Nick Fraser, “How to Use Foliar Fertilizer for Fantasic
study depends on many factors because Calotropis gigantea Plants” Garden & Greenhouse, NUGL Media Group,
can grow throughout in Myanmar and the latex collection 2008.
from that plant is very easy. The latex can be used as crude [14] Zaitsev, V, Kizevettler, I., Lognnov, L, Makarova, T,
without purifying. Minder, I, Podsevalov, V, “Fish Curing and Processing”,
Production processes are simple and easy for operating. MIR Pub, Moscow, 1969.
Contents of micro and macroelements were detected by
[15] Carl, R.P, “Applied Sceince Review”, Springhouse
appropriate methods and results of present work indicated that Corporation, 1994.
fish hydrolysate was suitble for foliar fertilizer.
Finally, the present work had [16] Moo, Y.M, “Comprehensive Biotechnology” Volume I,
Pergamon Press, 1985.
(1) low cost for the production
(2) shorter period duration for the production
(3) more efficient decomposition of protein compared
to the natural fermentation process and
(4) sufficient and balance nutrient contents for plant to
upgrade their growth and development.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Dr.Mya Mya Oo, Rector (Retired),
Mandalay Technological University, Dr.Myo Min Zaw,
Principal, Technological University (Hpa-an), and all those
who were driectly or indirectly involved in the successful
completion of this research work.

7. REFERENCES
[1] “Foliar Fertilizer and its Applications”, Gardenerdy
Staff, 2018.
[2] Mya Mya Oo, “Study of Proteolytic Enzyme from
Calotropis gigantea latex”, Ph.D.Thesis, Dept of
Chem.Eng., Yongon Technological University, 2001.
[3] Wiseman et-al, “Topics in Enzymes and Fermentation
Biotechnology”, 1977-1981.
[4] Brogstorm, G, “Fish as Food, Nutrition, Sanitation and
Utilization” Volume II, Academic Press, New York,
1962.
[5] Stansby, Maurice, E, “Industrial Fishery Technology”,
Robert E. Krieger Pub. Co, Inc, New York, 1976.
[6] Amog P. Urs, V. N. Manjuprasanna, G. V. Rudresha, M.
Yariswamy, B. S. Vishwanath, “Plant Latex Proteases:
Natural Wound Healers” Proteases in Physiology and
Pathology, Springer Link, 2017.
[7] Knight, “The Starch Industry”, Oxford, Pergamon Press,
1969.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 06-11, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

Braking System of Light Truck

Khaing Thida Hti Lar Tun Kyi Su Yin Win
Department of Mechanical Department of Mechanical Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Engineering, Engineering,
Technological University Technological University Technological University
Thanlyin, Myanmar Thanlyin, Myanmar Thanlyin, Myanmar

Abstract: Steering system is to turn the vehicle and breaking system is to stop or slow the vehicle. This paper describes the various
types of steering system, the hydraulic braking system and manual steering system of Light Truck. The Light Truck is four wheel
drives and the hydraulic braking and manual steering are used. The braking system will include drum brake, master cylinder, wheel
cylinder, brake piping and hydraulic lines. The steering system will have recirculation ball steering. In this system the function of
master cylinder, wheel cylinder and drum brake are important to get actuate braking force of the drum on the wheel. In the steering
recirculation ball steering, tie rod lengths and linkages are the important to be easily steered. The purpose of this thesis is how to
consider and calculate the hydraulic braking system and manual steering system by using some known data and the velocity is 80
km/hr.

Keywords: steering system, breaking system, drum brake, master cylinder, wheel cylinder

power steering is used. An engine-driven hydraulic pump

1. INTRODUCTION provides pressure that helps the driver steer the vehicle. The
Nowadays, automotive vehicles are widely used in many
power steering system is designed so that the vehicle can still
countries for transportation and other purposes. So it is be controlled, even the engine or the power steering system
necessary to know about automotive vehicle engine in detail [4].
for mass production in our country. Automotive technology is
also a required sector to develop the country rapidly. 2. DESIGN OF TWO-LINK
Transportation is vital to a nation’s economy. Reducing the MANIPULATOR
costs of transporting natural resources to production sites and There are two basic types of steering boxes - those with rack-
moving finished goods to markets is one of the keys factors in and-pinion gearing, and those with worm gearing. In both
economic competition. The transportation industry is the cases, the gearing in the steering box makes it easier for the
largest industry in the world. It includes the manufacture and driver to turn the steering wheel, and hence, the wheels. A
distribution of vehicles, the production and distribution of rack-and-pinion steering system has a steering wheel, a main-
fuel, and the provision of transportation services [1]. shaft, universal joints, and an intermediate shaft. When the
The Light Trucks are using engines to obtain driven steering is turned, movement is transferred by the shafts to the
power. They are composed of various mechanisms such as an pinion.
engine, transmission system, suspension system, break
system, lighting system, air conditioning and so on.
Transmission system among them is essential for movement 2.1 Recirculating-ball Steering
[2]. The automotive brakes system is one of the most Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs
important systems on the car. The brake system is designed to today. The linkage that turns the wheels is slightly different
slow and stop a heavy automobile moving at high rate of than on a rack-and-pinion system. The recirculating-ball
speed. The brakes may be classified as the service or the steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the gear in
primary and parking or the secondary brakes. The service two parts. The first part is a block of metal with a threaded
brakes are the main brakes used for stopping the vehicle while hole in it. This block has gear teeth cut into the outside of it,
in motion, whereas the parking brakes are meant to hold the which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm. The
vehicle on a slope. The brakes may be located either at the steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt
transmission or at the wheels [3]. that sticks into the hole in the block.
Steering system is the system to turn the
automobiles by using steering wheel. To turn the automobiles, 2.2 Rack-and-pinion Steering
toe in, toe out and chamber angle are considered to stable the Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most
automobiles. Some passenger vehicles also steer the rear common type of steering on cars, small trucks and SUVs. It is
wheels slightly. This gives improved maneuverability. The actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gear
system is known as 4-wheel steering. It can be controlled set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack
mechanically, through a direct connection, between the front
protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to
and rear steering boxes or it can be computer-controlled. With
heavier vehicles, increased use of front-wheel-drive, and each end of the rack. The pinion gear is attached to the
wider, low-profile tyres, more steering effort is needed, so steering shaft. When you turn the steering wheel, the gear

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack
connects to the steering arm on the spindle. The rack-and-
pinion gear set does two things:
(1)It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel
into the linear motion needed to turn the wheels.
(2)It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn
the wheels.

3. OVERVIEW OF BREAKING SYSTEM

The automotive brake system is a group of components
designed to slow and stop each of the four wheels of the Figure 1. Toe out of tire
automobile. The braking action begins when the driver pushes T oe  out distance
on the brake pedal. The brake pedal is mounted on lever with T oe out angle  (1)
a pivot near the top of the lever. The movement of the pedal T yrediameter
causes a pushrod to move against or away from a master Table 1. Relationship of Toe-out distance and Toe-out
cylinder. Angle
The master cylinder is mounted inside the engine
No. Toe-out distance Toe-out Angle
compartment and on the bulkhead. The master cylinder is a
hydraulic pump that is operated by the driver through the 1 10 0.921
brake pedal. When the pedal is depressed, the master cylinder 2 15 1.382
forces fluid under pressure through hydraulic brake lines to 3 20 1.843
each of the four wheel brake units. These hydraulic lines are
4 25 2.306
made of steel tubing and hoses. The lines transmit pressurized
fluid from the master cylinder to each of the wheel brake 5 30 2.765
units. 6 35 3.226
Disc brakes are used on the front wheels of most
7 40 3.681
cars and on all four wheels on many cars. A disc rotor is
attached to the wheel hub and rotates with the tire and wheel.
When the driver applies the brakes, hydraulic pressure from 5. ENERGY ABSORBED BY BRAKE
the master cylinder is sent to the disc brake units. The The energy absorbed by a brake depends upon the type of
pressure pushes the friction linings against the rotor to stop it. motion of the moving body. The change in kinetic energy of
The parking brake assembly is designed to apply the brakes vehicle is
mechanically to prevent the car from rolling when parked or
to stop the car in the event of a complete hydraulic failure. 2 (2)
mv
Most parking brakes operate on the two rear brakes. Ek 
Some vehicles with front-wheel drive have front-wheel 2
parking brakes because, in an emergency stop, most of the Where, Ek = total kinetic energy absorbed, N-m
stopping power would be required on the front of the car. The m = mass of vehicle, kg
parking brake may be activated by a hand lever or a foot v = velocity, m/s
pedal. When the parking brake is being applied, the parking The change in potential energy of vehicle,
brake cable mechanically pulls on a lever that applies the Ep= mgs ×slope (3)
brakes. Parking brakes are mechanically, not hydraulically, E = Ek +Ep (4)
controlled. After calculating the required parameters of the The vehicle is to be stopped in a distance, therefore tangential
blade, the blade 3D solid model can be created in SolidWorks braking force,
and so that strength checks on blade can be made by
simulating. E (5)
Ft 
S
4. STEERING ANGLE AND WHEEL Where, S = stopping distance to stop the vehicle, m
ANGLE
The ratio of steering angle is 24:1 5.1 Braking Torque
Average retarding force produced on the ground,
Lock to lock is 5.1
F = Ft rd /rt (6)
The maximum steering angle is 360 x 5.1/2 = 918 degree.
The average braking torque,
The Maximum wheel angle is 918/24=38.27 degree
Tie Rod length =1.245 m Tb  Ft  rd
(7)
Calculating Toe out angle
Where, Ft = the average braking torque to be applied
to stop the vehicle, N-m
rd = radius of cast iron brake drum, m

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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Volume of the drum,

2 (8) Where, η = braking efficiency
π dd
V  π dd bd t  t α = retardation produced by braking ( m/s2 )
4 g = gravity (9.81m/s2 )
Take Cast Iron Ferrous Metals and thickness t = ¼ in
So density ρ = 0.253 lb/in3 = 7003.0163 kg/m3 Table 4. Result of efficiency and acceleration
Mass of four drums, m = ρ v × 4 = 22 kg Speed
Acceleration Efficiency
Specific heat of cast iron brake drum, c = 520 J/kg °C (km/hr)
The energy absorbed by the brake drum, 10 0.13 1.31
H g  m b c t (9) 20 0.51 5.24
30 1.16 11.80
Table 2. Results of Torque, Temperature and Resulting
Force 40 2.06 20.97
Average Average Retarding 50 3.22 32.77
Speed
braking temperature rise force 60 4.63 47.19
(km/hr)
torque(Nm) of the drum (°C) (N)
70 6.30 64.23
10 406.63 6.28 1228.48
80 8.23 83.90
20 481.67 7.44 1455.18
90 10.42 106.18(impossible)
30 606.73 9.37 1833.02
40 781.82 12.07 2362.00 5.4 Calculation of Stopping Distance
In this section, Brake applied on front wheels only, Brake
50 1006.94 15.54 3042.12 applied on rear wheels only and Brake applied on all wheels
60 1282.09 19.79 3873.37 are expressed as followed.
70 1607.26 24.81 4855.76 Brake Applied on Front Wheels Only
80 1982.45 30.60 5989.28 W cos 
RF  (14)
90 2407.68 37.17 7273.94 b  h 
Wb  h  x  cos 
(15)
5.2 Coefficient of Friction between the RR 
Tyres and the Road b  h 
  x cos  (16)
Normal force between the contact surfaces, 
RN = mg (10) g b  h 
The tangential braking force,
Ft = μ RN (11) α = 0.394 m/s2
2
V (17)
Table 3. Results of Coefficient between tyre and road at S
stopping distance 2
Speed (km/hr) Coefficient of Friction
10 0.21 Stopping distance, S1 = 24.4 m
20 0.25 Brake applied on rear wheels only
30 0.32
RR 
 
W b  x cos  (18)
b  h 
40 0.41
50 0.53
60
70
0.67
0.84 RF 
W cos  x  h   (19)

80 1.04 b  h 
90 1.26



cos  b  x   sin  (20)
5.3 Braking efficiency
It is the distance transverse during the time elapsed between g b  h 
the driver pressing the brake pedal and the being actually
applied at the wheels. α = 0.407 m/s2
2 Stopping distance, S2 = 23.7 m
V (12)
α Brake applied on all wheels
2S W(b  x  μh) cos θ
α (13) RR  (21)
η   100
g b

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W(x  μh) cosθ

RF  (22)
b

  cos   sin  (23)
g

α = 1.98 m/s2
Stopping distance, S3 = 22.7 m
S3 < S2 < S 1

Therefore, stopping distance S3 for brake applied on all

wheels is chosen.

5.5 Braking Pressure for Front and Rear

Wheel
Different values of stopping distance and efficiency with
speed are shown in Table 3. According to these results, the
best braking efficiency can be found at velocity 80 km/hr. Figure 2. Standard dimension of break shoe
According to results Table 3, the best braking efficiency is
83.9 at velocity 80 km/hr. 5.6 Force Exerted by the Wheel Cylinder
2 at the Front and Rear Wheel
mv
Ek 
2 1  1 
MN  P1b b rOO1 (θ 2  θ1 )  (sin2θ1  sin2θ 2 )
E  Ek  Ep
2  2 (28)
E
Ft 
S
 OO1 
M F  μ1P1b b r r(cosθ1  cosθ 2 )  (cos2θ 2  cos2θ1 )
Total force on all wheels, Ft = 137200 N  4 
Total force on front two wheels, Fftall = 60% of Ft (29)
For front one wheel, Fft = 41159 N
Total force on rear two wheels, Frtall = 40% of Ft
For rear one wheel, Frt =27440N
For Front Wheel,
(24)
Tf  Fft  rd
For one shoe, braking torque = 3169.3 N-m
 
1  25  25 
180
 
 2  125  125 
180
Internal radius of wheel rim, r = 150 mm
Width of brake lining = 35 mm
Choose metal on cast iron as material for brake lining. Figure 3. Forces diagram of break shoe
Thus, coefficient of friction = 0.4
2 (25) Force on leading shoe, (30)
Tbf  μ1P1b b r (cosθ1  cosθ 2 ) F1  1  M N  M F

P1  0.68 N/mm2 Force on trailing shoe, F2  1  M N  M F (31)

For Rear Wheel, Table 5. Result of normal force and friction force
Tr  Frt  rd  4225 .7 N  m (26) Normal force Friction force

For one shoe, braking torque = 2112.8 N-m Front moment 1009 3619
2 (27)
Tbr  μ1P1b b r (cosθ1  cosθ 2 )
Rear moment 671.55 2411.25
2
P2  0.45 N/mm

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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5.7 Master Cylinder Diameter for Front Brake applied on 6597.7 N

Wheel Force rare wheel, RF
By using practical experience,
Kinetic energy, Ek 4041600 N-m
r1 = 299.72 mm
r2 = 38.1 mm
Potential energy, Ep 123900 N-m
Assume, force of foot = 40 lb = 178 N
Diameter of wheel cylinder = 1 in = 0.0254 m Total energy, E 4115900 N-m

Total force on all 137200 N

wheel, Ft

Braking torque, Tbr 4225.7 N-m

6. CONCLUSION
In In hydraulic brake system, the material of drum brake is
made of gray cast iron and the master cylinder is made of cast
Figure 4. Layout of Hydraulic Pipe Lines iron. A facing of friction material called brake lining. These
Taking moment about O, lining materials are generally classified as asbestos lining
Forceof master Force of materials. The system is simple in construction due to the
 r2   r1 absence of brake rods, joints, etc. inherent in the mechanical.
cylinder foot
Moreover, pipelines can be bent and shaped according to the
Force on the wheel cylinder, Fw = 3619 N underside of the body structure. Due to absence of joints
Area of wheel cylinder, A = 506.7 mm2 compared to mechanical brake, rate of wear is also less. The
Pressure on the wheel cylinder, Pw = 7.14 N/mm2 fluid exerts equal pressure everywhere in its system. For this
By Pascal’s Law, reason equal braking effort is obtained at all the four wheels.
P ressureon P ressureon This system is suitable only for applying brakes
 intermittently.
the wheel cylinder theMaster cylinder
According to the design calculation, the diameter of
Fw FMC
 master cylinder and wheel cylinder are increases, the pressure
Aw A MC can be greater. When the diameter of master cylinder is too
small, pressure is very low. The friction material used for disc
A MC  196 mm2 pedal is much heard compared to that used on drum brake
dMC  15.8 mm  16 mm shoes. The reason for this is that the size of friction surface is
5.8 Master Cylinder Diameter for Rear small and very high pressures are used to push the pads into
Wheel Force contact with the rotor. However, disc brakes are used on the
Force on the wheel cylinder, Fw = 2411.25 N front wheel, the friction power is improved.
Area of wheel cylinder, A = 506.7 mm2
Pressure on the wheel cylinder, Pw = 4.76 N/mm2
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
By Pascal’s Law,
This paper is being employed by Department of Mechanical
Pressure on Pressure on Engineering, Technological University (Thanlyin) under
 Ministry of Education in Myanmar. The author deeply thank
the wheel cylinder the M aster cylinder
A MC  294.3 mm2 to our rector, Dr. Theingi for giving the permission to submit
dMC  19.4 mm  20 mm the paper. The author would like to thank her father and
mother for their unconditional support. Furthermore, the
author would like to express her deep gratitude to all teachers
Table 6. Results of energy absorbed by brake who gave suitable instructions to complete my submission.
Items Value Units

Volume of drum, V 0.0008 m3 8. REFERENCES

[1] Kevin, Hoag, and Brian, Dondlinger, “Vehicular Engine
Normal force, RN 12390 N Design”.2nd ed. Vienna: Springer Vienna Co.,2016.

[2] H.N.Gupta,“Fundamentals of InternalCombustionEngine”.2nded.

Brake applied on 5565 N PHI Learning Co.,2012.
front wheel, RF
[3] K.Ganesh, Babu, and K.Srithar, “Design of Machine
Elements”.2nd ed. U.S.A: McGraw Hill Co.,2009.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 06-11, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

[4] J.S. Rao, “The Theory of Machines Through Solved [9] A.J. Stepanoff and K. Kawaguchi, “Cavitation Properties of
Problems”.1st ed. New Age International Co.,2007. Liquids”, Proceedings of Iahr-symposium, Sendai, Japan, 1962.
[5] Lingaiah, K., “Machine Design Data Book”. 2nd ed. U.S.A:
[10] Allens. Hall, “Machine Design, SI (Metric)”, 1980.
McGraw Hill Co.,2003.

[6] Dr.N.K. Giri, “Automotive Mechanics”., 1997. [11] V.A.W.Hillier T.Eng. (CEI), FIMI, AMIRTE, Motor Vehicle
Basic Principles, Crodon College of Design and Technology,
[7] R.S.KHURMI, J.K.GUPTA,1997.A Textbook of Machine
Design, URASIA PUBLISHING HOUSE (Pvt.)Ltd.RAM Hutchinso, London, John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1996.
Nagar, New Delhi-110 055.
[12] Than Than Htike, Daw. Machine Design I,ME 07031, Yangon
[8] Drew Carinchock track Eravec, “Automotive Brake System”, Technological University, Department of Mechanical
Columbus State Community College, Ohio., April 1990.
Engineering.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 12-15, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

Study on Manufacture of Paper Sheet from Rice Straw

Ma Hnin Wut Yee Dr. Win Ei Ei Tun Daw Thuzar Thein
Department of Chemical Department of Chemical Department of Chemical
Engineering Engineering Engineering
Technological University Technological University Technological University
Thanlyin, Myanmar Thanlyin, Myanmar Thanlyin, Myanmar
hninwutyee22582@gmail [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract: This study is based on finding environment friendly economical process for manufacturing of paper sheets. Rice Straw an
agro residue based fibrous raw materials has been used for paper manufacturing. The chemical properties of pulping process such as
(Kappa number and Residual Alkali) were measured. The mechanical properties such as (breaking length, tensile strength, thickness
and double fold) of paper sheets were measured. In the present work, different concentration of sodium hydroxide were varied as
(4%NaOH, 6%NaOH, 8%NaOH), liquor to straw ratio of (8:1) , temperature at 170°C and cooking time 1hr and holding time 30min
are cooked with digester. The experimental results show that the concentration of sodium hydroxide (6%NaOH), reaction temperature
170°C and cooking time 1hr and holding time 30min. The physical properties of paper sheet are not consistent the standard limiting
value, the prepared paper sheets were produced to use the shopping bag. Therefore, strength results are very important in this process.
The mechanical properties of paper sheets for 6%NaOH was consistent with the standard limiting value because tensile strength and
breaking length results were very acceptable limit. This study will provide a process for manufacturing of paper sheets which can be
used in place of plastic bags.

Keywords— Rice Straw, Soda Pulping Process, Paper Sheet, Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium Silicate

1. INTRODUCTION
Rice is the major cereal crop of Myanmar, covering an 2.2. Methods
area of about 40 million hectares, the largest area under any In producing a paper, the process can be divided into
crop. Rice-Straw is abundantly available almost throughout three parts, namely manufacturing pulp (pulping), material
Myanmar the harvest as an agro-residue [1]. The farmers like preparation and producing paper. The pulping processes of
to get rid of this residue at the earliest by burning in the open rice straw have mechanical pulping process (ground wood
fields in order to prepare the field for the next crop [2]. Rice process, Refiner mechanical process, Thermo-mechanical
straw burning in agricultural fields is serious environment process, etc) and chemical pulping process (Soda process,
pollution. Rice straw is available abundantly after harvest and Kraft process, sulfite process, etc). In this study, soda pulping
as a consequence creates disposal problem. The wood pulp process is chosen because process control is relatively easy
from other sources is comparatively expensive to support and cooking chemicals are not expensive and then spent
local paper production [3]. Nan-wood based raw materials can chemicals can be recovered.
be applied as an effective substitution forever decreasing of In this study, rice straw was cut into small pieces of (1
forest wood resources especially in the most Asian countries to 3 cm) with knife. Rice straw was cleaned, and washed with
[4]. water to remove adhering soil and dust. To remove the silica,
Rice straw is an abundant and easily available raw rice straw was treated for 30 min in a 15% solution of sodium
material in Asian countries as it is produced in almost equal carbonate (Na2CO3) at 100°C. After the removing of silica
quantities during grain production and can be procured by from rice straw, liquor to straw ratio(V/W) 8:1 was cooked
with 4%, 6% and 8% sodium hydroxide (NaOH), reaction
paper mills at a lower cost [5]. In this study, rice straw was time 1hr and reaction temperature at 170°C. For quick
cooked with soda pulping process at 170ºC and 1 hr. The digesting and consistent pulp two knives containing beater
effect of cooking variables such as cooking time, temperature was used. The beating was carried out until the pulp
and sodium hydroxide concentration were examined on the consistency was held between 80-100g/m2 in beater and SR
pulp properties. After that the best result of the paper was between 40 to 60. To smooth out of the pulp, cylinder
produced from rice straw comparable to different liquor ratio. mold press with rollers was used. Traces of water in pulp were
removed with tetron cloth sheet by pressing. And then, the
The objective of this study was to investigate the production
wet sheet was dried at 110ºC by sheet former machine.
of paper using rice straw with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and Finally, the smooth product of paper was obtained.
studying physical and mechanical properties of paper sheet. Liquor to straw ratio(V/W) 8:1 was various with 4%,
6% and 8% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and reaction time 1hr,
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS (holding time 15min, 30min and 45min) ) to prepare the paper
sheet in order to determine the best results of the experimental
2.1.Materials conditions. The prepared paper sheets were cut into specimens
In this work, rice straw and chemicals were used as raw of suitable dimension for the determination of physical and
materials. Rice straw were collected from Kyauktan mechanical properties. The processing steps were described in
Township. Sodium Carbonate (analytical grade) and sodium Figure 3.2 and 3.3.
hydroxide (analytical grade) were used in preparation process.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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Preparation of Paper from Rice Straw (i) Cutting Process

The schematic diagram of preparation of paper making Rice straw was cut into small pieces of (1 to 3 cm) with
from rice straw is shown in Fig.1. knife.

(ii) Cleaning Process

Rice Straw
Rice straw was cleaning with tap water to remove
other impurities.
Cutting, 2cm

(iii) Soaking Process

Cleaning
Rice straw was soaked for 30 min in a 15% solution
of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) at 100°C.
Pretreatment
(15%Na CO , 100°C, 30min)
2 3

Washing with warm water

Figure 2. Digester
Cooking
(8:1, 4%, 6%, 8%NaOH, (iv) Cooking Process
170ºC, 1hr)
After the removing of silica from rice straw, the mass
ratio of NaOH solution to straw 8:1 was cooked with
Black Liquor (6%NaOH, 8%NaOH, 10%NaOH), reaction time 1hr and
Washing with water reaction temperature at 170°C.

Pulp

Beating, 15min Sodium

Silicate

Figure 3. Digester
Sheet Forming
(v) Beating Process

Pressing For quick digesting and consistent pulp two knives

containing beater was used. The beating was carried out
until the pulp consistency was held between 80-100g/m2
in beater and SR was between 40 to 60. After that, 1%
Drying, 110 ºC sodium silicate was mixed in the beater for better quality
of strength.

Paper

Figure 1. Flow Diagram of Process of Paper Sheet from Rice

Straw
Figure 4. Hollander Beta

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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(vi) Sheet forming Process Thickness, mm 0.190 0.18 0.186

Smoothness, sec 374.5 430 252.2
To smooth out of the pulp, cylinder mold press with
rollers was used. Traces of water in pulp were removed with Breaking length, m 1786 6013 2381
tetron cloth sheet by pressing. The wet sheet was dried at
110ºC by sheet former machine. Finally, the smooth product Tensile Strength, 1.4 4.9 1.9
of paper was obtained. KN/m
Ash content, % 14 9.7 15
Liquor Ratio (8:1) and Holding Time (30min)

It was shown that the physical and mechanical

properties are described in Table 3.2. Although the physical
properties of paper sheet are not consistent the standard
limiting value, the prepared paper sheets were produced to use
the shopping bag. Therefore, strength results are very
important in this process. The mechanical properties of paper
sheets were liquor to straw ratio (8:1) was standard limiting
Mold Roller Heater value because tensile strength and breaking length results
were very acceptable limit.
The Liquor to Straw ratio (8:1) , reaction time such as
Figure 5. Sheet Former soaking time 30 min at 100°C and cooking time (1hr+30min)
with 6%NaOH at 170°C and then beating time 15 min. After
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the beating process, 1%sodium silicate was mixed into the
beater for better quality of pulp and good tensile strength. And
3.1. Determination of Produced Pulp Properties then liquor ratio (8:1) reaction time such as soaking time 30
Kappa Number, Residual alkali (RA), and Yield percent min at 100°C and cooking time (1hr+30min) with(4%NaOH,
are determined as shown in Table 3.1. 6%NaOH, and 8%NaOH) at 170°C and then beating time 15
min. After liquor ratio (8:1), reaction time such as soaking
Caustic % Yield (%) Kappa No. (RA), g/L time 30 min at 100°C and cooking time (1hr+15min,30min,
and 45min) with 6%NaOH at 170°C and then beating time 15
4% NaOH 42 24 0.2 min. Among then, the liquor ratio of (8:1), 6%NaOH and
holding time (30min) is the best result of in this study. The
6%NaOH 46 18 9 best pulp of chemical properties results had yield of 46%,
kappa number of 18 and residual alkali of 9g/L. The best
8%NaOH 34 13 1.16 paper sheet had 46% of brightness, breaking length of 6013
m. Some physical properties had not conformed to the
Liquor to Straw Ratio (8:1) and Holding Time (30min) limiting standard. But the prepared paper is shopping bag.
Therefore physical properties result is acceptable value.
The results of chemical properties of pulp were
described in Table 4.3. It was shown that the kappa number
was the best result from caustic percentage (6%NaOH) 4. CONCLUSION
because the resulting pulp showed the less amount of lignin. In this study, Paper were used in the preparation of rice
The two remaining of caustic percentage at 4%NaOH and straw at 170°C temperature, cooking time at 1hr and holding
8%NaOH have the amount of 24 and 13. The result of caustic time at 30min, and NaOH concentration (4%, 6%, 8%).
percentage 4%NaOH was described the incomplete condition Experimental conditions set up with liquor to straw ratio (8:1)
of cooking time and the other 8%NaOH was described the by using digester is studied in order to obtain the best results
over complete condition of cooking time. The amount of of the paper sheet product.
residual alkali in the black liquor was reused to the chemical The best results were rice straw at 170°C temperature,
reaction. The best of yield percentage was described the 46% cooking time at 1hr and holding time at 30 min, and NaOH
at 6%NaOH cooking process. concentration 6% from the liquor to straw ratio (8:1). The best
yield at 46%. Pulp strength was higher because ash content
3.2. Determination of the Mechanical Properties of Paper can be dropped to acceptable level with longer holding time.
Sheet Prepared paper was tested for brightness, opacity,
The mechanical properties of tensile strength, folding, smoothness, double fold, thickness, breaking length and
breaking length are determined as shown in Table 3.2. tensile strength. These properties of paper sheet prepared in
4% 6% 8% the laboratory were quite satisfactory for its application.
Properties When it was soaked and cooked with sodium carbonate and
NaOH NaOH NaOH
sodium hydroxide, its yield was best the paper of brightness,
Double Fold , 5 3 7
breaking length and tensile strength at the accepted pulp yield
time of 46% of oven dried raw material. Breaking length of paper
Brightness,% 56.2 46 43.6 sheet is obtained 6013m by using liquor to straw ratio (8:1), at
Opacity, % 144 86.1 92 170°C temperature, cooking time at 1hr and holding time 30
Moisture, % 10.8 8.1 11.2 min, and 6%NaOH.
Viewing from this study, it was observed that the use of
rice straw to paper sheet give the encouraging result. The fact

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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to consider was how to make the natural rice straw fibers

compatible enough with the chemical. In orders to develop
paper were better mechanical properties.
Additive of sodium silicate having good tensile
strength, very high opacity, good brightness and good surface
properties can be used in a number of industrial and domestic
applications of environment friendly packaging materials and
decorative laminates.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to express her deepest gratitude to
her supervisor Dr. Win Ei Ei Tun, Professor and Head of
Department of Chemical Engineering, Technological
University (Thanlyin), for her instruction and encouragement
to do this thesis.
The author would like to express thanks are also due to
co-supervisor, Daw Thu Zar Thein, Associate Professor in
Department of Chemical Engineering, Technological
University (Thanlyin), for her guidance and helpful
suggestions.

REFERENCES
[1] Jha Pushpa, Sinha A.S.K, “Application of Rice-
Straw As Raw material For Production of
Handmade Paper”, Department of chemical.Tech,
Sliet, Longowal, Sangroor, IPPTA J.Vol.23, No.2,
April – June, 2011.
[2] Shahram Navaee-Ardeh, Pedram Fatehi, “Influence
of Rice Straw Cooking Conditions On Pulp
Properties in Soda Aqueous Ethanol Pulping,”
Asian Institute of Technology, Pulp and Paper
Technology, P.O.Box 4,Klong Luang ,Pathumthani
1210, Thailand.
[3] A.Hassan, S.Md Salleh, Normaziah Jaeri, “ The
Effects of Sodium Hydroxide Content on
Mechanical and Physical Properties of Rice Straw
Paper,”Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering ,University Tun Hussein on Malaysia
86400,Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor,Malaysia..
[4] Soren Halvarsson, “Manufacture of Straw MDF
Fiberboards,” Department of Natural Sciences,
Engineering and Mathematics, Mid Sweden
University.
[5] Wikhan Anapanurak and Sawitree Pisuthpichet,
“Chemical Pulp Production from Rice Straw by
Alkaline Soaking and Cooking with added Alkaline
and Alkali,” Department of Forest Products Faculty
of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900,
Thailand.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 16-17, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

Review of Application of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)

in Structural Engineering
Reshed Raad Jawad AL-Rebaye
University Of Sumer
Dhe-Qar, Iraq

Abstract: Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials have emerged as an alternative material for producing reinforcing bars for
concrete structures. FRP reinforcing bars offer advantages over steel reinforcement in that FRP bars are noncorrosive, and some FRP
bars are nonconductive. The professional using this technology should exercise judgment as to the appropriate application of FRP
reinforcement and be aware of its limitations as discussed. Currently, areas where there is limited knowledge of the performance of
FRP reinforcement include fire resistance, durability in outdoor or severe exposure conditions, bond fatigue, and bond lengths for lap
splices. Further research is needed to provide additional information in these areas.

Keywords: aramid fibers; carbon fibers; development length; fiber-reinforced polymers

shear strength compared to the shear strength of those

1. INTRODUCTION
A structural reinforcing bar made from filaments or fibers reinforced with the same amounts of steel reinforcement. This
held in a polymeric resin matrix binder. The FRP Bar can be fact is supported by the findings from the experimental
made from various types of fibers such as Glass (GFRP) or investigations on concrete beams without stirrups and
Carbon (CFRP). FRP bars have a surface treatment that reinforced longitudinally with carbon and glass FRP bars (El-
facilitates a bond between the finished bar and the structural Sayed et al. 2004, 2005b).
element into which they are placed. El-Sayed et al. 2005, they carried out an experimental study to
During the last two decades, fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) investigate the shear strength of concrete beams without shear
materials have been used in a variety of configurations as an reinforcement (stirrups) and reinforced in the longitudinal
alternative reinforcement for new and strengthening civil direction with different types and ratios of FRP bars. They
engineering structures and bridges. The attractiveness of the found that the ratio of concrete shear strength of concrete
material lies mainly in their high corrosion resistance, high beams reinforced with FRP bars to that of beams reinforced
strength and fatigue resistance. In some cases, the non- with steel is proportional to the cube root of the axial stiffness
magnetic characteristics became more important for some ratio between FRP and steel reinforcing bars. Based on the
special structures . experimental study a proposed equation was presented to
calculate the shear strength of concrete beams reinforced with
2. APPLICATION OF FRP FRP bars.
An important application of FRP, which is becoming more
F.M. Wegian, H.A. Abdalla, presented an experimental
popular (Tan, 2003), used of FRP as reinforcement in
investigation on the behavior of concrete beams reinforced
concrete structures. The use of the FRPs in concrete structures
with different FRP bars. Three beams were reinforced by
include: (a) the internal reinforcing (rod or bar) which will be
GFRP, Isorod, two beams were reinforced by GFRP, C-bar,
used instead of the steel wire (rod) equivalent; and (b) the
and two beams were reinforced by CFRP, Leadline. The
external bonded reinforcement, which is typically used to
ultimate behavior of the seven simply supported FRP
repair/strengthen the structure by plating or wrapping FRP
reinforced concrete beams was used to evaluate their flexural
tape, sheet or fabric around the member.
and shear capacities. Based on the experimental results of this
There are fundamental differences between the steel and FRP
investigation a simplified expression for the shear capacity of
reinforcements: the latter has a lower modulus of elasticity,
FRP reinforced concrete beams is proposed. The analytical
The modulus of elasticity for commercially available glass
proposed method was also substantiated by test results
and aramid FRP bars is 20 to 25 % that of steel compared to
available in the literature for beams reinforced with FRP bars.
60 to 75 % for carbon FRP bars and linear stress–strain
Good agreement was shown between the theoretical and the
diagram up to rupture with no discernible yield point and
experimental results.
different bond strength according to the type of FRP product.
Z. Omeman et al. 2008, investigation the shear strength,
These characteristics affect the shear capacity of FRP
deflection, and mode of failure of concrete short beams
reinforced concrete members. Due to the relatively low
reinforced with CFRP bars and compared with that of similar
modulus of elasticity of FRP bars, concrete members
beams reinforced with steel bars. The experimental study
reinforced longitudinally with FRP bars experience reduced
showed that using CFRP bars as tensile reinforcement in RC

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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short beams had a significant effect on the shear strength and structure as sheet in the surface of beam , slab and
deflection of tested beams. column.FRP weak for fire because it have TP degree and it
must be protected from fire with suitable concrete cover.
3. CONCLUSION
From this review we can concluded that using of FRP in many
space of civil engineering. We can used as mail reinforced .
bars in concrete beam and used for stirrup but the bent must
be in factory . Also can used for strengthen of concrete
[7] E. F. EL-SALAKAWY and B. BENMOKRANE2004..
Concrete deck bridge slabs reinforced with FRP .
4. REFERENCES Emirates Journal for Engineering Research.
[1] A.K. El-Sayed et al. 2005. Shear Strength of Concrete [8] Luciano Ombres et al. 2000. flexural analysis of one way
Beams Reinforced with FRP Bars: Design Method. slab reinforced with GFRP rebar.
[2] P. Valerio, T.J. Ibell and A.P. Darby. 2002. Shear [9] W.K. Feeser and V.L. Brown. 2004.Guide Examples for
Assessment and Strengthening of Contiguous-Beam Design of Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars.
Concrete Bridges Using FRP Bars.. [10] Ehab El-Salakawy et al . 2005 .Field Investigation on the
[3] Y.X. Zhang , Y. Zhu . 2010. A new shear-flexible FRP- First Bridge Deck Slab Reinforced with Glass FRP Bars
reinforced concrete slab element", "Composite Constructed in Canada. ASCE.
Structures. [11] Sherif El-Gamal et al . 2007. Influence of Reinforcement
[4] F.M. Wegian, H.A. Abdalla. 2005. Shear capacity of on the Behavior of Concrete Bridge Deck Slabs
concrete beams reinforced with fiber reinforced Reinforced with FRP Bars. ASCE.
polymers"," Composite Structures. [12] M. Dawood , E. Taylor, S. Rizkalla. 2010.Two-way
[5] E. Vintzileou , E. Panagiotidou. 2007. An empirical bending behavior of 3-D GFRP sandwich panels with
model for predicting the mechanical properties of FRP- through-thickness fiber insertions. Composite Structures.
confined concrete. Construction and Building Materials.
[13] Yefei Wu et al: 2010 " On shear bond strength of FRP-
[6] Hayder A. Rasheed , Rim Nayal, Hani Melhem. concrete structures", "Engineering Structures .
2004.Response prediction of concrete beams reinforced
with FRP bars. Composite Structures. [14] K. SUNGJOONG .2007 . Behavior of High-Strength
Concrete Columns. PhD thesis, USA.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 18-23, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

A Combinatorial Technique for Weighbridge Verification

Kyaw Myat Moe
Department of Mechanical
Engineering,
Yangon Technological
University, Myanmar

Abstract: A general technique for the calibration of metric instruments is applied to the verification of vehicle weighbridges. The
technique, called the combinatorial technique, is used to determine both the errors in the weighbridge scale over the verification range
and the associated measurement uncertainty. Using suitable equipment, the measurements can be carried out in a time comparable to
that of current techniques. The technique has the advantage that the total mass of the standard weights used can be between 5 % and 50
% of the capacity of the weigh bridge. Although reducing the proportion of standard weights increases the uncertainty in calculated
scale errors, the technique has sufficient statistical rigor to allow a determination of the degree of confidence in any compliance/non-
compliance decision. Examples of the verification of road weigh bridges, up to 40 t, using the technique are given.

Keywords: Mass, Weighbridge, Verification

technique, called the combinatorial technique, was originally

1. INTRODUCTION developed for the calibration of resistance bridges used in
Ongoing verification of road and rail weigh bridges for
thermometry [4], but its application to metric instruments in
market surveillance requires regular maintenance,
general soon became apparent [5]. The combinatorial
transportation and use of standard weights of large nominal
technique has practical advantages in large mass and balance
values, typically between 0.1 t and 1 t. A weighbridge can
calibration [6], and these advantages, with particular regard to
have a capacity of up to 120 t or more, so that verification
weighbridge verification, are discussed here. In Section 2 of
requires the use of specialized lifting and transportation
this paper the authors describe the principle of the
equipment. Recent developments [1,2] have focused on
combinatorial technique. In Section 3 they illustrate the use of
designing such equipment to minimize the number of
the technique with three examples and compare the results of
personnel required to carry out verification and to improve the
measurements on weighbridges using the combinatorial
efficiency of the verification. Such equipment consists of a
technique and the substitution technique. In Sections 4 and 5
truck/trailer system that can transport the standard weights
the practical and theoretical aspects of the technique are
required as well as a forklift and hydraulic hoist for
considered, and conclusions are given in Section 6. In this
manipulating the weights. Often it is not possible, practical or
paper the term “reproducibility” rather than “repeatability” is
legal to transport standard weights that reach the capacity of
used to describe apparent random variations in measurements.
the weighbridge, in which case verification is achieved by
Repeatability, in relation to weighbridges, is defined in OIML
using substitution material [3] instead of standard weights. In
R 76-1 as the “ability of an instrument to provide results that
general the truck/trailer unit itself is designed to be of
agree one with the other when the same load is deposited
sufficient mass to be used as a substitution weight. For
several times and in a practically identical way on the load
example the Rhineland-Palatinate vehicle [2] is a self
receptor under reasonably constant test conditions”. This
contained verification system consisting of a 12.5 t tractor, 15
definition is based on that given in the Guide to the expression
t trailer, and 27.5 t of standard weights, allowing verification
of uncertainty of measurement [7]. However, in the
of weigh bridges of up to 55 t. Often vehicles or material
combinatorial technique, the loads used are loaded in different
present at the weighbridge site at the time of the
positions and sequences, so that measurement variability is
verification are also used as substitution material.
influenced by instrument repeatability as well as eccentric
OIML R 76-1 [3] allows the quantity of standard weights loading and discrimination. These factors combined influence
required for use in the substitution technique to be as small as what is referred to here as reproducibility. Also, in this paper
20 % of the capacity of the weighbridge. The use of the the authors use “mass” to mean “conventional value of mass”
substitution technique can therefore be of considerable [8].
advantage to a Verification Authority with limited resources.
However, as the quantity of standard weights used is reduced, 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE ECHNIQUE
the cumulative effect of errors due to measurement The combinatorial technique involves placing m distinct loads
reproducibility increases. Tight constraints are therefore in all possible combinations onto the weighbridge. Only one
placed on the allowable limits for repeatability error [3], so of these loads need consist entirely of standard weights, and
that the use of the substitution technique in accordance with the remaining loads are made up with suitable material and
OIML R 76-1 is often not possible. In this paper the authors vehicles that are available on-site.
describe the application of a relatively new technique in This gives a total of 2m possible loading combinations,
which the total mass of standard weights required can be including the weighbridge zero where no load is used. The
reduced to 5 % of the capacity of the weighbridge, while at masses of the loads are chosen so that the range of
the same time providing a rigorous analysis of uncertainties in combinations covers the operating range of the weighbridge.
the verification to allow an assessment of the risk arising from If Max is the maximum capacity of the weighbridge, then a
using a smaller total mass of standard weights. This

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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binary sequence of loads having masses of approximately 0.5 the device. In the unshaded region of Figure 1, the envelope
Max, 0.25 Max, 0.125 Max, ... gives a uniform coverage of E(r) ± U(r) of probable error values lies entirely within the
the scale range. In practice 5 loads are usually sufficient, MPE, so that compliance to the MPE can be asserted with a
ranging in mass from approximately 0.05 Max to 0.5 Max. high degree of confidence. Conversely, in the heavily shaded
Although the binary sequence is ideal, any sequence of loads region on the right hand side of Figure 1, the envelope of
that gives a suitable distribution of ensurements over the probable error values lies entirely outside the MPE, so that
required range is sufficient to give a rigorous assessment of non-compliance can be asserted with a high degree of
errors over the range of the weighbridge scale. confidence. In the shaded region in between, a decision on
compliance or noncompliance can only be made with a lesser
The basis of the combinatorial technique is that a comparison degree of confidence. However, it is not within the scope of
of scale indications for different combinations of loads can this paper to discuss the assessment of the risk associated with
give information on the non-linearity of the scale without the such decisions. The important point to note is that the
need for standard weights. As an illustration, consider the combinatorial technique gives sufficient statistical
following measurements carried out on a weighbridge with information to allow an evaluation of the risk associated with
scale interval d = 20 kg. A load of approximate mass 20 t gave any compliance/non-compliance decision, particularly in
a reading of situations where the total mass of standard weights available
is much less than the capacity of the weighbridge.

3. EXAMPLES
The three examples presented here describe measurements
done during verifications of three different truck
weighbridges, each having a scale interval d = 20 kg. In each
A third measurement using these two loads in combination example, MPE values shown are for a Class III device on
gave a reading of subsequent verification, as described in [3]. All weighbridges
were verified up to 40 t, which is currently the legal limit for
road usage in Myanmar. Also, for each example,
measurements using the substitution technique were carried
out on the same day, in order to demonstrate the validity of
the combinatorial technique.
For both techniques, all readings were corrected using the
Note that each reading has been corrected using the method method described in [3], in which weights, of mass 0.1 d, are
described in [3] in which weights of mass 0.1 d are applied to applied to determine the value at which the indication
determine the value at which the indication changes. If the changes.
scale response was linear one would expect (4) to equal zero.
The observation that this is not the case demonstrates these
three measurements provide information about the non-
linearity of the weighbridge scale. Analysis of readings for all
16 possible combinations of 4 loads, nominally 20 t, 10 t, 5 t
and 2.5 t, using least-squares estimation, gives information on
the nonlinearity of the scale over its entire range up to 40 t. If
one of the loads consists of standard weights of known mass,
scale errors with corresponding uncertainties of measurement
can be determined [5,6]. Note that the non-zero result of
Equation (4) may also include components due to instrument
repeatability, discrimination and eccentricity errors. However,
with the large number of different measurements involved in
the combinatorial technique, the effect of these components is
“randomized” to some extent, and consequently these
components are accounted for in an evaluation of
measurement reproducibility from the residuals of the least-
squares estimation.
In the combinatorial technique, the dependence of the scale
error E(r) on the scale indication r is modeled by a polynomial
equation, normally a cubic polynomial of the form

where A, B and C are constants that are calculated in the

least-squares analysis. Figure 1 illustrates the form of results
obtained with the combinatorial technique. The solid curve is Figure 3 Results of measurements using the combinatorial
the calculated cubic polynomial E(r), and the dashed curves technique as described in Example 1, using 2 t of standard
(with light shading between) represent the confidence interval weights. The data points indicate the variation of the data
associated with the expanded uncertainty U(r) [7], normally about the calculated error (solid curve). The dashed curves are
calculated for a 95 % level of confidence. The bold solid lines the expanded uncertainty in the calculated error, for a 95 %
are specified values of maximum permissible error (MPE) for

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 18-23, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

level of confidence. The solid bold lines are the relevant is that the uncertainty in the calculated scale error at a given
values of MPE. scale indication is proportional to the product of the
reproducibility and the ratio of the indication to the mass of
standard weights (see Equation (6) later). Clearly, from Figure
3, one can assert to a high level of confidence that the errors
in the weighbridge indication are within the specified values
of MPE. This is a remarkable result, given that the mass of the
standard weights used corresponds to 5 % of the capacity of
the weighbridge. To demonstrate the dependence of results

Figure 2 Loads used in the measurements inExample1.

Figure 5 Loads used in the measurements in Example 2. on

the total mass of standard weights, the data was reanalyzed
based on the 8 t combination of standard weights, and the
Figure 4 Re-calculated error (solid curve) for the
results are shown in Figure 4 (data points have been omitted
measurements in Example 1, based on 8 t of standard weights,
for clarity). Comparing Figures 3 and 4, the uncertainty has
and associated uncertainty (dashed curves). The data points
been reduced by a factor of four through using 8 t rather that 2
with uncertainty bars are the errors calculated using the
t of standard weights, and the two results show excellent
substitution technique. All uncertainties are expanded
agreement within the calculated uncertainties. Figure 4 also
uncertainties for a 95 % level of confidence. The solid bold
compares the results for the combinatorial technique with
lines are the relevant values of MPE.
those for measurements carried out using the substitution
technique. For the substitution technique, 10 t of standard
3.1 EXAMPLE 1 weights were used in 4 substitutions, and the uncertainty
limits shown are calculated from the reproducibility
For this weighbridge, of capacity 60 t, measurements were determined by the combinatorial technique (see reference [6]).
carried out using the combinatorial technique up to 40 t with There is excellent agreement between the two techniques.
m = 5 loads, made up from vehicles and material available on However, it is important to realize that without the estimate of
site, as well as standard weights. the reproducibility obtained from the combinatorial technique,
Apart from the standard weights, the masses of the loads only a proper comparison of the two techniques would not be
need to be known approximately in order to ensure that the possible.
combinations are suitable. The only other requirement of the
loads is that they be stable over the period of measurements.
The loads used in this example were: truck + material
(approximate mass 20 t), spare weights (8 t), forklift +
3.2 EXAMPLE 2
material (6 t), 2nd forklift (4 t) and standard weights (2 t).
These are shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the results using For this weighbridge, of capacity 60 t, measurements
the combinatorial technique, based on the known mass of the were carried out using the combinatorial technique up
2 t load of standard weights only. In Figure 3 the solid curve to 40 t with m = 5 loads, made up from vehicles and
is the least-squares estimate (the calculated error E(r)). The material available on site, as well as standard weights.
data points indicate the variations in the data about E(r) (the The loads were: truck + material (approximate mass 20
“residuals” of the least squares estimation), and these t), forklift + material (9 t), 2nd forklift + material (6 t),
variations are used to determine the reproducibility of the standard weights (4 t) and spare weights (2 t). These are
measurements [5,6]. For these measurements, the
shown in Figure 5. This verification was based on the 4
reproducibility, calculated as a standard uncertainty [7], is uR
= 3.1 kg. The reproducibility and the uncertainty in the t load of standard weights, and although measurements
combination of standard weights are incorporated into the were hindered by windy conditions at the time, the
least-squares analysis to calculate uncertainties in the reproducibility was good (uR = 4.2 kg). Results are
calculated errors E(r) [6]. All other possible uncertainty shown in Figure 6, along with the results from the
contributions are negligible, and in the three examples in this substitution technique using 10 t of standard weights.
paper the uncertainty is dominated by the reproducibility Based on the results of the combinatorial technique, one
component. This is not entirely obvious from Figure 1, can assert with a high degree of confidence that the
particularly at higher values of scale indication where the weighbridge complies with the specified MPE. This is
variation in the data about the least-squares estimate is small
confirmed by the excellent agreement with the results of
compared to the expanded uncertainty (dashed lines in Figure
3). An inherent characteristic of the combinatorial technique measurements using the substitution technique.

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3.3 EXAMPLE 3 number of combinations used and also the poorer

reproducibility.
For this weighbridge, of capacity 60 t, measurements Based on these results, one can only assert that the
were carried out using the combinatorial technique up weighbridge complies with the specified MPE up to
to 40 t with m = 4 loads, made up from vehicles and around 20 t. As in the previous examples, there is good
material available on site, as well as standard weights. agreement with the results obtained using the
The loads were: truck + material (approximate mass 20 substitution technique.
t), 2nd truck (10 t), forklift + material (6 t), and standard
weights (4 t). Results are shown in Figure 7, along with 4 PRACTICAL ASPECTS
the results from the substitution technique. The
calculated reproducibility was uR = 4.9 kg. In this 4.1 CALCULATIONS
example, for the results obtained using the
combinatorial technique, the uncertainty is much larger The least-squares analysis required in the combinatorial
compared with the earlier examples, exceeding the technique uses matrix algebra for calculation of scale
MPE at larger load. This is largely due to the fewer errors and corresponding uncertainties [6]. These
number of combinations used and also the poorer calculations can easily be implemented in computer
reproducibility. spreadsheet software such as Microsoft Excel. The
Based on these results, one can only assert that the calculations for the examples presented here were done
weighbridge complies with the specified MPE up to using a spreadsheet that is set up so that, once all data
around 20 t. As in the previous examples, there is good are entered into the appropriate cells, the scale errors
agreement with the results obtained using the are automatically calculated. This implementation has
substitution technique. the advantage that the operator does not need to fully
understand the details of the calculation.
An important advantage of the combinatorial technique
is that the reproducibility is assessed from a large
number of different combinations of loads. This gives a
reliable estimate of the weighbridge reproducibility, as
it includes variations that occur due to such effects as
repeatability, discrimination and eccentric loading.

4.2 LOADING SEQUENCES

Table 1 shows the sequence of easurements in Example
2, in the order in which they were carried out. This
order was designed to reduce the amount of time and
manipulation of loads required. For convenience, the
sequence was divided into sub-sequences involving 3 or
4 loadings. The strategy was to keep the larger loads in
place while going through the combinations of smaller
loads. For example, for the first 4 sub-sequences the
truck was left in position on the weighbridge while the
other loads were moved on and off and measurements
made.

4.3 RESOURCES REQUIRED

A critical aspect in assessing the practicality of the

combinatorial technique is the resources required, in
particular time, equipment and number of personnel. In
the case where the total mass of standard weights
available is less than 10 % of the capacity of the
weighbridge, the combinatorial technique requires a
similar number and similar types of loadings as the
substitution technique [6]. In general, the efficiency of
the combinatorial technique is greatly increased if
calculated reproducibility was uR = 4.9 kg. In this “rolling” loads are used. For example, the use of two
example, for the results obtained using the forklifts (with skilled drivers) and a truck in examples 1
combinatorial technique, the uncertainty is much larger and 2 allowed efficient manipulation and interchanging
compared with the earlier examples, exceeding the of loads. The ideal requirements for a weighbridge
MPE at larger load. This is largely due to the fewer verification using the combinatorial technique are given

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in Table 2. With such equipment available,

measurements on a weighbridge using the substitution
technique followed by the combinatorial technique were
completed within half a day, including the time taken to
organize suitable vehicles and material for the loads
required. With suitable equipment, measurements using
the combinatorial technique can be carried out in a
similar time to other current techniques.

5 THEORETICAL ASPECTS

Although the least-squares analysis will always produce

uncertainties for a given set of measurements, it is
useful to know in advance what uncertainties can be
achieved in a given situation. This can be achieved
using the following equation, which gives an
approximation for the standard uncertainty u(r) in the
calculated error E(r) at a given indication r,

where uM is the standard uncertainty in the mass M of

standard weights. This equation was derived
empirically by numerical analysis, and is a slightly
better approximation than that given in [6]; it gives
values of uncertainty that are within 10 % of those
calculated by least-squares analysis, provided that the MPE. Considering the case where r = Max, for which
load of standard weights is either of the two smallest MPE = 2 d (for subsequent verification), then this
loads used. Equation (6) can be simplified with the criterion would be met for M > 0.25 Max. That is, based
following considerations. It is usually best to use m = 5 on the assumptions given here, this criterion would be
loads, and the uncertainty uM in the standard weights is satisfied for a total mass of standard weights that is as
generally small enough to be disregarded. For a small as 25 % of the weighbridge capacity.
properly installed and serviced weighbridge, based on
the results presented here, one would expect that uR =
0.25 d in the worst case. Equation (6) then becomes, for 6. CONCLUSION
m = 5,
This paper describes the application of the combinatorial
technique to the verification of truck weighbridges.
The combinatorial technique can be used in any weighbridge
verification, and is particularly suited to situations where it is
not feasible to have standard weights that cover the full
range of the weighbridge scale. This technique enables a
rigorous determination both of the errors in the weighbridge
scale and also of the associated uncertainties, and can be
easily and efficiently implemented with the use of “rolling”
loads.
A common criterion used in designing measurements
for determining compliance or non-compliance is that Comparisons of the results of the combinatorial technique
U(r) should be less than or equal to one-third of the with those of the substitution technique, made possible
through use of the reproducibility data obtained from the
combinatorial technique, demonstrate the validity of the
combinatorial technique. The combinatorial technique
provides sufficient information to allow a quantitative
assessment of the risk associated in making a compliance/non-
compliance decision, particularly when the total mass of
standard weights used is much less that the capacity of the
weighbridge.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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6. REFERENCES [5] D.R. White and M.T. Clarkson: A general technique for
calibrating metric instruments, Proc. Metrology Society of
[1] R.C. Goldup: A new weighbridge test unit for Hampshire Australia
County Council, OIML Bulletin No. 121, December 1990, 3rd Biennial Conf., Sydney, pp. 179–183, 1999.
pp.47–49. [6] M.T. Clarkson and D.R. White: A technique for large
[2] W. Gögge and D. Scheidt: Vehicle for verification of truck mass and balance calibration, Proc. 5th Asia-Pacific
scales, OIML Bulletin Vol. XLI, No. 3, July 2000, pp. 5–8. Symposium
[3] OIML R 76-1: Nonautomatic weighing instruments Part on Measurement of Force, Mass and Torque, Tsukuba, Japan,
1: Metrological and technical requirements - Tests, 1992. 7–8 Nov. 2000, pp. 61–66.
[4] D.R. White, K. Jones, J.M. Williams and I.E. Ramsey: A [7] Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement
simple resistance network for calibrating resistance bridges, (GUM), BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ISO, IUPAC, IUPAP, OIML,
IEEE. Trans. Instrum. Meas. Vol. IM-46, No. 5, pp. 1068– Corrected & Reprinted Edition, 1995
1074, 1997.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 24-29, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

Power Distribution System Reconfiguration for Loss

Reduction By using Heuristic Method

Daisy Aung Hnin Wai Hlaing Hnin Wint Aung

Department of Electrical Power Department of Electrical Power Department of Electrical Power
Engineering, Technological Engineering, Technological Engineering, Technological
University (Thanlyin), University (Thanlyin), University (Thanlyin),
Yangon, Myanmar Yangon, Myanmar Yangon, Myanmar

Abstract: Power Distribution system consists of tie and sectionalizing switches. Tie switches are normally open and sectionalizing
switches are normally close. Reconfiguration can be used for the objectives of loss reduction, load balancing, etc. The change in
network configuration is performed by opening sectionalizing (normally closed) and closing tie (normally open) switches of the
network. Inputs data are based on real time data collected from 66/11kV substations under Yangon Electricity Supply Board (YESB).
The proposed method is tested on 90-Bus, overhead AC radial distribution network of North Dagon Township (BaeLi substation),
Yangon, Myanmar. The distribution network for existing and reconfiguration conditions are simulated by MATLAB software. This
paper is focusing on evaluating the power loss reduction.

Keywords: radial distribution system, network reconfiguration, load flow analysis, loss reduction, heuristics method, voltage profile
improvement

resistance route is the total resistance from the source to the

1. INTRODUCTION load point. Such transfers are effective not only in terms of
A power system consists of generation, transmission
altering the level of loads on the feeder being switched, and
and distribution system. The electric power is transmitted and
reducing the losses, but also in improving the voltage profile
distributed to consumers over long distances at different
along the feeders and affecting reduction in the overall system
voltage levels. A distribution system is meant to provide
power losses. Under normal operating conditions, distribution
reliable power in cost effective manner to the consumers. A
engineers periodically reconfigure the feeders by opening and
typical distribution system will consist of one or more
closing switches (switching operation) in order to increase the
distribution substations consisting of one or more “feeders”.
network reliability and/or reduce line losses. The most
The power demand is increasing at an alarming rate day by
important operational constraint for network reconfiguration
day. Power losses occur in the electric distribution system that
problem is the radial nature of the network i.e., all loads must
are important issues for different classes of consumers. In the
be energized and should not form a mesh loop structure which
distribution system, there are different ways to decrease losses
may endanger the entire system operation.
in the distribution system such as network reconfiguration,
capacitor placement, distributed generation. The main aim of
the distribution system reconfiguration is to get the optimal 4. OVERVIEW OF 90-BUS RADIAL
distribution scheme that gives minimum losses. DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
The system under study is one of the 11 kV
2. RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM distribution networks under Yangon Electricity Supply
Radial distribution system is generally used as it is Board(YESB). The distribution networks are located in North
very easy to operate, design and to place the protective Dagon Township in Yangon. This study has been carried out
devices. It is widely used in populated areas. A radial MATLAB software. Figure 1 illustrates the schematic
distribution system has only one power source for a group of diagram of 90-Bus existing radial distribution system.
customer radial feeders are characterized by having only one Incoming line is 66kV and outgoing line is 11kV. Step down
path for the power to flow from the source to each customer. power transformer is used to distripute power and its rating is
The radial distribution system is employed when the power is 20MVA. Installed capacities for Sayarsan, Station, U Wisara
generated at low voltage and the substation is located at the and Tabinshwehtee are 8.15 MVA, 0.93 MVA, 2.585 MVA
center of the load. and 10.07 MVA. To solve the network reconfiguration
problem, all the tie and sectionalizing switches are considered
3. NETWORK RECONFIGURATION as candidate switches. In this paper, the objective is to
Network reconfiguration is an important sub- minimize the system power loss under a certain load pattern.
problem of the overall distribution system. The main objective
of distribution network reconfiguration is the appropriate
configuration of switch operation. Basic concept of network 4.1 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
2
reconfiguration is to attain at the best set of sectionalizing k
switches to be opened for a given set of tie switch such that
the system performance. Feeder reconfiguration allows the
Ppeak loss =  Imn
mn1
 Rmn (1)

transfer of loads from heavily- loaded feeders to relatively

lightly- loaded feeders and from higher-resistance routes to
lower resistance routes to obtain the least I2R, where the

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k 2
Step (5) If Vtie max   go to Step (6); otherwise, go
Qpeakloss=  Imn  Xmn
mn1
(2) to Step10);
Step (6) Select the tie switch “k” and identify the total number
of loop branches (Nk)
Pmn  Qmn Step (7) Open one branch at a time in the loop and evaluate
the loss by equation (3.1)
Imn = (3)
Vmn including the tie branch when the tie-switch “k” is closed;
Percentage change in the power loss reduction can be Step (8) Obtain the optimal solution for the operation of tie-
defined by: switch “k”, (i.e., stop when the loss obtained by opening the
current switch is greater than the previous one, i = 1, 2, …,
Nk);
Plb  Pla Step (9) Rearrange the coding of the rest of the tie switches
% PowerLoss =  100 (4) and go to Step 2);
Plb Step (10) Print output results;
where; Step (11) Stop.
Imn = Current through in the branch (m, n) 66/11 kV
20MVA
Vm = Voltage at node m 1

Pmn = Real power through in the branch (m, n) 2

3
SayarSan
32
33
Station
36
37
U Wisara
45
46 TaBinShweHtee
4 34 38 47
Rmn = Resistance in the branch (m, n) 5 35 39 48
6 40 49
Xmn = Reactance in the branch (m, n) 7 41 50
8 51
Pla = Power loss after reconfiguration 9
42
43 52
10 44
Qmn = Reactive power through in the branch (m, n) 11
53
54

Plb = Power loss before reconfiguration 12

13
55
56
14 57
15 58

The voltage magnitude at each bus must be maintained within 16

17
59
60

limits. 18
19
61
62

Vi,min ≤ V ≤ Vi,max for all PQ buses 20

21
63
64

Vi is voltage magnitude of bus i; 22

23
65
66
24 67
25 68
Vi,,min and Vi,,max are minimum and maximum voltage limits 26 69
27 70

of bus. 28 71
29 72
30 73
Furthermore, the radial structure of network must be 31 74
75

maintained, and all loads must be served. 76

77
78
79

The power flow equations are the following: 80

81

Load Flow: F(x, u) = 0 82

83
84
85

 YijVi, nVj, n cosij  j, n _ i, n 

86
87
Pi,n= (5) 88
89

j1 90

N
Qi,n= -  YijVi, nVj, n cosij  j, n _ i, n  (6)
j1
Figure 1. Single line diagram of 90-Bus system

Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of 90-Bus

5. RECONFIGURATION BY existing radial distribution system. In this paper, the heuristics
method is proposed with initial configuration and meshed
HEURISTICS METHOD
In the existing radial distribution system, there are topologies. By using MATLAB software, load flow solutions
four lines before network reconfiguration because voltage are simulated.
reduction, long length and overloaded lines. Figure 1
illustrates the schematic diagram of 90-Bus existing radial A heuristics technique for the reconfiguration of
distribution system. Reconfiguration is an indispensable distribution networks is used to reduce their line losses under
method for loss reduction in power distribution network. This normal operating conditions. The proposed solution starts
paper focus to optimize the power distribution process in the with initial configuration with all the tie switches are in open
feeders and to improve the voltage profile improvement. The
position. The voltage differences across all the tie switches
network reconfiguration process for loss reduction of the
distribution network is given below: and the two node voltages of each tie switch are computed
Step (1) Read system data (P, Q, R, X); applying load flow analysis for the network. Among all the tie
Step (2) Run the load-flow program for distribution networks; switches, a switch with maximum voltage difference is
Step (3) Compute the voltage difference across the open tie selected first subject to the condition that the voltage
switches (i.e., for i = 1,2, n-tie); difference is greater than the pre-specified value. The tie
Step (4) Identify the open tie switch across which the voltage switch with the maximum voltage difference is closed and the
difference is maximum and its code k (i.e.,
sectionalize switches are opened in sequence starting from the
ΔVtiemax  ΔV(k) ); minimum voltage node of the tie switch.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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The power losses due to each sectionalize switch are 6. SIMULATION RESULTS
calculated and the opening sectionalize switches are stopped The distribution network for reconfiguration
when the power loss obtained due to previous sectionalizing is consists of 90 buses and 4 tie lines. The voltage differences
less than the current one. As the power loss due other across all tie switches are computed for the network shown in
sectionalize switches is more than the current, it is not Table I. It is occurred in the maximum voltage difference
necessary to open the sectionalize switches further in the loop. across normally open tie switch 92. Hence, the tie switch 92 is
closed first as the voltage differences across the remaining tie
Based on the above procedure, the best switching combination switches are smaller in magnitude. Now, if the tie switch 92
of the loop is noted. The same procedure is repeated to all the is closed, a loop will be formed. Opening of each branch in
remaining tie switches. This procedure favors the solution this loop is an option. In this method, sectionalizing branches
with a fewer switching operations. Newton Raphson load flow are opened (to remain the system radiality) either left or right
has been used in the entire reconfiguration process. When the of the selected tie switch based on the minimum voltage node
switching is performed, the network needs to be maintained in of the tie switch.
radial form. Figure 3 shows the connection of 90-Bus system
Table I. Voltage difference across all open tie switches
with tie lines. Figure 4 shows the 90-Bus system final after first switching
configuration.
Tie switch Voltage difference across tie
1 S. No
Number switch(pu)
2 45
32 36
1 91 0.3067
5 33 37
50
2 92 0.3112
1
34 38 60
3 93 0.2491
0

35
4 94 0.2601
2
39 61
2

2
3 40 66 This procedure is explained as follows. The two
28 43 71
node voltages of tie switch 92 are evaluated and the minimum
of two node voltages is noted. In this case, the minimum
30 44 72
voltage of the tie switch 92 is 71. Therefore, one branch at a
31 85 time in the loop is opened starting from the node 71 and the
power loss due to each objective is obtained till the power loss
90
(due to current objective is greater than the previous
objective). In this loop, the first sectionalize branch (71-72) is
Figure 2. 90-Bus Existing radial system opened as it adjacent to the node 71 and the power loss is
computed and shown in Table V. In the same manner, next
1 adjacent sectionalize branches (72-73) is opened and the
2 32 36 45 power loss is computed and shown in Table V. As the power
5 37
52
due to sectionalize branch 72-73 is greater than 71-72, the
33
optimal opening branch in the loop is between the nodes 71
1
0 34 38 60
and 72. Further opening of the branches beyond the branch
2
2
35
39 61
94
72-23 in the loop, is giving either more power loss than the
2
minimum already obtained at the branch 71-72 or infeasible
3 40 66

91
solution. The advantage of this procedure is that it is not
28 43 71
necessary to visit all the sectionalizing switches in the loop.
30 44 72 Therefore, the search space of sectionalizing switches in the
92 93
loop is drastically reduced. The optimal radial loop for the
85
31
first switching operation is obtained by closing the tie switch
90
92 and opening the branch between the nodes 71 and 72. For
the second switching operation, the voltage difference across
remaining tie switches are computed and shown in table II.
Figure 3. 90-Bus system with tie lines
1
Table II. Voltage difference across all open tie switches
2 32 36 45
after second switching
52
5 33 37
Tie switch Voltage difference
10 34 38 60
S. No
94 Number across tie switch(pu)
35
22 39 61

23 40 66
1 91 0.0258
91

28 43 71
3 93 0.0248
30 44 72

92
4 94 0.0219
93 85
31

90

Figure 4.90-Bus system final configuration The voltage difference across the remaining three tie
switches 91, 93 and 94 are shown in Table II. Among the tie

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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switches 91, 93 and 94, the voltage difference across the tie Table V. Optimal real power loss in each loop, minimum
switch is greater than remaining two and it is observed that node voltages of the switches, switches open
the maximum voltage difference occurs across tie switch 91.
Therefore, the tie switch 91 is selected for the second Real
switching operation as voltage difference is greater than the Power
specified value. The minimum voltage of the tie switch 91 is Tie loss(MW)
Minimum Sectionalize
22. Repeating the same procedure as in case of tie switch 92, switch
node voltage switch open
the optimal radial configuration for the second switching (After
of tie switch between
(Closed) nodes each tie
operation is obtained by closing the tie switch 91 and opening
switch is
the sectionalizing branch 22 and 23.
closed)
From table III, tie switch 93 is selected for the third
92 71 71-72 0.14273
switching operation as voltage difference. Repeating the same
procedure as in case of tie switch 91. The optimal radial 72-73 0.14334
configuration for the third switching operation is obtained by
closing the tie switch 93 and opening the sectionalizing 91 22 22-23 0.12352
branch 43 and 44.
22-21 0.12356
Table III. Voltage difference across all open tie switches
after third switching 93 43 43-44 0.13346

42-43 0.13536
Voltage difference
Tie switch
S. No across tie switch
Number 94 60 60-61 0.11234
(pu)

61-62 0.11245
3 93 0.3474

4 94 0.3073
Table VI. Optimal reactive power loss in each loop,
minimum node voltages of the switches, switches open
For fourth switching operation tie switch 94 is considered
as the maximum voltage difference. The optimal radial Reactive
Tie Minimum Sectionalize
configuration for the fourth switching operation is obtained by Power loss
switch node switch open
closing the tie switch 94 and opening the sectionalizing (MVAR)(After
voltage of between
branch 60 and 61. each tie switch
(Closed) tie switch nodes
is closed)

Table IV. Voltage difference across all open tie switches 92 71 71-72 0.155
after fourth switching
91 22 22-23 0.131
Tie switch Voltage difference
S. No 93 43 43-44 0.14
Number across tie switch (pu)

94 60 60-61 0.116
4 94 0.7781

The optimal radial configuration of the network after

As can be seen from Table V, the real power loss after all the switching operations is shown in figure 5. Table VII
reconfiguration is 0.11234 MW. and reactive power loss after shows the simulation results of the base configuration and the
reconfiguration is 0.116 MVAR as shown in Table VI. final configuration. The minimum and maximum voltages of
the two configurations are depicted in figure 5. The power loss
before reconfiguration is 0.27714 MW and reconfiguration is
0.11234 MW. From the results it is observed that percentage
reduction in power loss is 59%.

The voltage profiles before and after reconfiguration state

is shown in figure 6. It is observed that the minimum voltage
before reconfiguration is 0.931 p.u and after reconfiguration is
0.985 pu.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 24-29, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY, Issue 1,

Vol. 2, 2008
Table VII. Simulation results [4] Ahmed Samir Amin Ahmed Adail, Network
Reconfiguration for Loss Reduction in Electrical
90-bus system Distribution System Using Genetic Algorithm, 2012.
Loss in the base 0.27714 MW, 0.31 [5] S. Prabhakar, karthikeyan, A New Methodology For
configuration MVAR Distribution System Feeder Reconfiguration.
Loss in the optimal 0.11234MW , [6] M. C. Johnwiselin, Network Reconfiguration of
configuration 0.116MVAR Unbalanced Distribution System through Hybrid
Optimal configuration 71,22,43,60
Heuristic Technique, June ,2012.

Loss reduction 0.1648 MW, 0.194 [7] S. K. Goswami and S. K. Basu, “A new algorithm for the
MVAR reconfiguration of distribution feeders for loss
minimization,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 7, no. 3, pp.
Loss reduction [%] 59 %
1484–1491, July 1992.
[8] J. S. Savier and D. Das, “Impact of network
reconfiguration on loss allocation of radial distribution
systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 2, no. 4, pp.
2473–2480, Oct. 2007.

Appendix Network Data for 90- Bus System

Line From To
No Bus Bus R(pu) X(pu) P(MW) Q(MVAR)
1 1 2 0.00519 0.00704 0.104 0.078
2 2 3 0.00519 0.00704 0.26 0.195
3 3 4 0.00519 0.00704 0.1638 0.12285
4 4 5 0.00519 0.00704 0.26 0.195
Fig.5. 90- Bus system voltage profile
5 5 6 0.00519 0.00704 0.26 0.195
7. CONCLUTIONS 6 6 7 0.00519 0.00704 0.052 0.039
This paper presents reconfiguration of distribution network 7 7 8 0.00519 0.00704 0.26 0.195
under 20MVA, 66/11 kV. Heuristics technique is introduced
in this paper. This paper demonstrates the Heuristics 8 8 9 0.00519 0.00704 0.104 0.078
technique by using MATLAB software. In the power 9 9 10 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
distribution system, network reconfiguration method improves
voltage profile and reduces losses. From the test result of this 10 10 11 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
network, it was observed that the proposed solution was the
11 11 12 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
best optimal configuration. The total real and reactive power
are reduced from 0.27714 MW and 0.31MVAR before 12 12 13 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
network reconfiguration state to after network reconfiguration
13 13 14 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
state. So, distribution system losses are reduced about 59%.
14 14 15 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to express special thanks to her 15 15 16 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
supervisor Dr. Hnin Wai Hlaing, Professor and Department of 16 16 17 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
Electrical Power Engineering at Thanlyin Technological
University, for her kind invaluable supports and suggestions. 17 17 18 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
The author also would like to sincere gratitude to U Min Zaw 18 18 19 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
Aung, assistant engineer and U Zin Win Tun, senior assistant
engineer of North Dagon Substation (Yangon Electricity 19 19 20 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
Supply Board), for giving and refining the distribution data 20 20 21 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
used in this paper.
21 21 22 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
9. REFERENCES 22 22 23 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
[1] R. Srinivasa Rao, S. V. L. Narasimham , 2009, A New
23 23 24 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
Heuristic Approach for Optimal Network
Reconfiguration in Distribution Systems. 24 24 25 0.00868 0.00738 0.0832 0.0624
[2] Adile Ajaja, June 2012, Distribution Network Optimal 25 25 26 0.00868 0.00738 0.052 0.039
Reconfiguration
26 26 27 0.00868 0.00738 0.052 0.039
[3] S. Prabhakar, karthikeyan, A New Methodology For
Distribution System Feeder Reconfiguration, 27 27 28 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078
28 28 29 0.00868 0.00738 0.0832 0.0624

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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29 29 30 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078 63 63 64 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078

30 30 31 0.00868 0.00738 0.104 0.078 64 64 65 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
31 1 32 0.01122 0.00954 0.052 0.039 65 65 66 0.00745 0.00634 0.26 0.195
32 32 33 0.01122 0.00954 0.1638 0.12285 66 66 67 0.00745 0.00634 0.26 0.195
33 33 34 0.01122 0.00954 0.104 0.078 67 67 68 0.00745 0.00634 0.26 0.195
34 34 35 0.01122 0.00954 0.1638 0.12285 68 68 69 0.00745 0.00634 0.1638 0.12285
35 1 36 0.00922 0.00784 0.1638 0.12285 69 69 70 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
36 36 37 0.00922 0.00784 0.26 0.195 70 70 71 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
37 37 38 0.00922 0.00784 0.0832 0.0624 71 71 72 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
38 38 39 0.00922 0.00784 0.026 0.0195 72 72 73 0.00745 0.00634 0.026 0.0195
39 39 40 0.00922 0.00784 0.26 0.195 73 73 74 0.00745 0.00634 0.052 0.039
40 40 41 0.00922 0.00784 0.26 0.195 74 74 75 0.00745 0.00634 0.26 0.195
41 41 42 0.00922 0.00784 0.104 0.078 75 75 76 0.00745 0.00634 0.052 0.039
42 42 43 0.00922 0.00784 0.0832 0.0624 76 76 77 0.00745 0.00634 0.26 0.195
43 43 44 0.00922 0.00784 0.104 0.078 77 77 78 0.00745 0.00634 0.026 0.0195
44 1 45 0.00442 0.006 0.1638 0.12285 78 78 79 0.00745 0.00634 0.0832 0.0624
45 45 46 0.00442 0.006 0.104 0.078 79 79 80 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
46 46 47 0.00442 0.006 0.052 0.039 80 80 81 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
47 47 48 0.00442 0.006 0.026 0.0195 81 81 82 0.00745 0.00634 0.0832 0.0624
48 48 49 0.00442 0.006 0.026 0.0195 82 82 83 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
49 49 50 0.00442 0.006 0.052 0.039 83 83 84 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
50 50 51 0.00442 0.006 0.13 0.0975 84 84 85 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
51 51 52 0.00442 0.006 0.052 0.039 85 85 86 0.00745 0.00634 0.052 0.039
52 52 53 0.00442 0.006 0.052 0.039 86 86 87 0.00745 0.00634 0.1638 0.12285
53 53 54 0.00442 0.006 0.026 0.0195 87 87 88 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
54 54 55 0.00442 0.006 0.1638 0.12285 88 88 89 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
55 55 56 0.00442 0.006 0.1638 0.12285 89 89 90 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
56 56 57 0.00442 0.006 0.0832 0.0624
57 57 58 0.00442 0.006 0.104 0.078
58 58 59 0.00745 0.00634 0.1638 0.12285
59 59 60 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078
60 60 61 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078

61 61 62 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078

62 62 63 0.00745 0.00634 0.104 0.078

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 30-33, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

A Review of the Effect of Corner Loads

Ali Abdulmohsin Khamees Reshed R. Jawad AL-Rebaye Aowab R. Jawad AL-Rebaye

University Of Dhe-Qar University of Sumer Iraq / Dhe-Qar
Iraq / Dhe-Qar Iraq / Dhe-Qar

Abstract: In numerous structures , continuity between two adjacent members necessary even though the members meet angle. The
joint formed from this meeting usually refers to the "corner". The term "corner" in this investigation is used to describe a corner joint
formed by the joining; at 90 degree, of the ends of two flexural members. The terms "opening" and "closing" the corner are used to
describe the increase and decrease of this right angle, respectively. Concrete corners are found in wide variety of structures such as
retaining wall, bridges and portal frame buildings. They are also common in the field of hydraulic structures, such as reservoirs, tanks,
flumes and culverts. Design of the straight members which intersect to form the corner is part of the basic training of the engineer.

Keywords: concrete corner ; corner joint ; opening corner ; closing corner)

same relation between direct tension and bending moment as
would exist in (3 m) square conduit under hydrostatic load.
1. INTRODUCTION Although the mode of failure of the different corners was not
The principles of detailing and the structural behavior of indicated in these tests, the investigator thought that the
simple structural members such as beams and columns are ultimate strength is determined by the total strength of steel to
well established. on the other hand the detailing, strength and concrete anchorage.
behavior of corner joints, especially those subjected to In 1943, Posey and Orville (3) tested thirly three corners
opening moments as in the case of cantilever retaining walls having different arrangements of reinforcement, but the same
bridge abutments, channels, rectangular liquid retaining outside dimensions and the same concrete mix design. This
structures and portal frames, have not been conclusively test series obviously was intended as a study of scaled down
determined. Reinforcement detailing at corner plays a primary models of commonly encountered rigid joints in hydraulic
role in influencing structural behavior of the joint more so in structures such as bench flumes, tanks, and square conduits.
the case of opening joint or corners. The reinforcement details The loading arrangement in this study also caused a
must be such that their layout and fabrication are easy and the combination of bending, tension, and shear in the corner
structural members should satisfy the fundamental region.
requirements of strength expressed in terms of joint In 1954, Morrow (4) tested thirty one knee frames for the
efficiency, controlled cracking, ductility and last but not the purpose of determining the shear strength of reinforced
least, ease and simplicity of construction. concrete members subjected to combination of moment, shear
2. CONCRETE CORNER STUDIES and axial forces. All knee frames were of rectangular cross
section, and were reinforced in tension only. Each frame had
2.1. CORNER SUBJECTED TO two equally long legs, but the length of the legs varied from
MOMENT TENDING TO OPEN THE specimen to specimen, thus the ratio of axial force to shear
ANGLE remained constant throughout the tests, but the ratio of
moment to shear was a variable. All frames were loaded along
Few investigators studied the case where the moment open the the line connecting the ends of the two legs; and they were
angle of concrete corner, there resultant for the information subjected to static loading applied in several increments to
about the subject is not so much. failure.
The earliest of these studies was undertaken by George in In 1961, Berge (5) tested twelve specimens of thin concrete
(1)
1936 ,the purpose of his study was to determine the rigidity corner. The purpose of this test was to study the behavior of
and strength of different sized concrete corners reinforced by different reinforcements in the critical section of a corner for
loops and other reinforcement and to find the best thin structure such as a folded plate or shell and to determine
reinforcement design. Seven series of specimens with two what percentage of the adjoining beam strength could be
different steel strengths were used, (298 MPa) and(504 MPa). developed. The test specimen chosen for these tests was an
All specimens has plain bars as reinforcement and were actual prototype of a typical thin section structure. The
subjected to moment loading in the corner area. It is obvious loading condition used in this test is a pure ending and not of
from the size of his specimens that these were not prototypes, interaction of axial and bending effect. In order to limit the
but scaled down models of full sized joints.. number of variables, one concrete mix design and the same
It was concluded that, the failure could not be caused mainly number and size of reinforcing bars were used in all corners,
by the horizontal cracks, but rather by the cracks in the plane the only variation of the reinforcement being in the anchorage
of the loop and it is seen that the cracks follow the main of the individual bars. The conclusions show that all the
reinforcement close to the point of failure. specimens in this test series have generally the same mode of
failure and it was noted that the hooks of the stirrup have
In 1939 , Gumensky (2) tested five different reinforcement Straightened out some during the test.
patterns in this investigation. The loading in these tests gave
tension and shear in addition to bending at the corner. In 1967, conner and kaar (6) gave in this report result of
Dimensions of the test specimens were chosen to give the structural tests on components of a precast reinforced
concrete gabled frame loads simulating those in a complete

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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frame applied to each component. The tests indicated that corner at test is high if the corner has efficiency of (70 %) and
component having a sharp radius of bend in the main tensile over.
reinforcement did not perform at both service and ultimate In 1977, Strabo et al. (13) tested four concrete frame corners
load is reported. subjected to an opening bending moment; the purpose of this
test was to investigate the efficiency of a common
In 1968, Beaufait et al. (7) studied the behavior of reinforced reinforcement arrangement with high percentages of
concrete, pin supported portal frame subjected to sway forces. reinforcement.
The program involved the testing of seven frames: four This investigation showed a Load Carrying capacity down to
frames were subjected to cyclic sway forces and three frames only about (50) percent of the ultimate bending moment of the
were loaded to failure with a single sway force. The adjacent beams.
objectives of this investigation were to study the influence of
the placement of the reinforcing steel at the joints on the
In 1980, Strabo et al. (14) tested five concrete frame comers
ultimate load capacity of the structure and to examine the
with modified reinforcement arrangements subjected to an
effects of cyclic loading on the behavior of a reinforced
opening bending moment. The purpose of this investigation is
concrete frame.
attempted to improve the efficiency of the concrete frame
In 1969, Swann (8) tested eighteen reinforced concrete corners tested earlier. The loading and the test device are the
specimens representing a right angle bend of a portal frame. same used in the earlier investigation (1977). It was concluded
Thirteen of the specimens were tested with the bending that the new arrangement reinforcement gives a carrying
moment opening the angle and the remaining five were tested capacity of the corners of the same magnitude as for the
with the bending moment closing the angle. The loading adjacent beams.
condition was the corner hinged in leg and rolled in the other
leg.
In 1971, Nilsson (9) discussed the results of an another In 1982, Strabo et al. (15) tested eight concrete frame corners
investigator (Mayfield 1971 (10)) and twelve different details and used in this investigation three new arrangements of
of corner reinforcement were tested attempted to improve the reinforcement detail. The purpose of this investigation is
comer reinforcement detail by using stirrup where that led to trying more new details to choose the detail with high
some increase in the flexural strength of the joint, but the efficiency.
details tested did not develop the full flexural strength for the In 1984, Strabo et al. (16) tested seventeen reinforced
adjoining members. concrete frame corners subjected to an opening bending
In 1971, Mayfield et al. (10) tested forty eight reinforced moment (corresponding to tensile stresses in the reentrant
concrete corners. The effects of twelve types of reinforcement corner). Three fundamentally different reinforcement
details of ultimate strength, stiffness, and cracking were arrangements were tested. For high percentage of
studied. A new shape of concrete corner specimen was used in reinforcement, the Load Carrying Capacity of a common
this investigation to open the corner. The load was applied to reinforcement arrangement proved to be low. Modified
the soffit of the horizontal leg of the test specimen and to reinforcement arrangements resulted in corners that could
close the corner was applied to the top. It was found that, transfer the same bending moments as the adjacent beams,
corner details commonly used in practice are not as efficient even with balanced reinforcement. The significance of this
as other less conventional but simpler details . investigation is that tests on reinforced concrete frame corners
It was decided according to this review that when the applied subjected to an opening bending moment have shown that the
load is opening the corner, reinforcement, detailing has Load Carrying Capacity of a common
important effect on strength, though its effects on stiffness and reinforcement arrangement prove to be low for high
cracking are less obvious. Also, none of details tested percentages of reinforcement. Also, modified reinforcement
developed the full flexural strength of bending members. arrangements resulted in corners that could transfer the same
In 1971, Mayfield et al. (11) presented results of tests on fifty bending moment,as the adjacent beam.
four reinforced concrete corners subjected to loads opening In 2001, Chao – Kuang ku (17) studied numerically the
the corner (i.e. producing tension on the inside). The effects of behavior and response of reinforcing bars in fiber reinforced
twenty eight types of reinforcement's details on ultimate concrete (FRC) knee joints under impulsive opening loads
flexural strength, stiffness, and cracking were studied. The with a hybrid, finite element (FE), finite difference (FD)
loading condition and the device were the same used 1971. It approach which were developed for this purpose. Nonlinear
was found that, the used of two sets of mutually perpendicular material models were employed. The effects of adding fibers
diagonal reinforcement is a promising method for developing to the joints, and the location of diagonal reinforcement were
flexural strength, reducing crack widths, and producing studied in this research. The numerical approach is briefly
reasonably ductile behavior. described, and
findings are presented. Twenty four cases with different
In 1972, Balint and Taylor (12) tested twenty seven diagonal bar cross sections and location were investigated and
specimens: four of which were to complete the information on the effects from the addition of (1%) steel fibers were also
the details described earlier and the rest were a mixture of two studied in these cases
detail types with the main steel passing through the corner to In 2003, Singh and Kaushik (18) investigated four different
the compression face. They showed two new methods of detailing systems for concrete corner modified by steel fiber
detail opening corners, were developed and results of tests on in this test. The parameters of this investigation were: strength
these corners. The loading condition in this investigation is by measured in terms of joint efficiency, ductility, crack control
bolting the specimens on the laboratory floor and loading it by and ease of reinforcement layout and fabrication facilitating
pushing up or down on the free end. Also, strong effective placement of concrete in the member. It has been
recommendations were given for the design of opening found that none of the detailing systems investigated satisfied
corners where it was found that the ultimate strength of the all the four parameters. Also a substantial increase in post

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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cracking tensile strength, ductility and crack control can be detailing of longitudinal bars. So, the supplemental criteria for
achieved by adding steel fibers to the concrete. Therefore, the eliminating knee joint with poor anchorage detailing are
four detailing systems investigated previously were tested incorporated into the new theory by considering local failure
afresh with 50 mm long crimped-type flat steel fibers at a of anchorage within knee joints.
lower bound (0.75 %) volume fraction. The tests revealed at In 2008, Uma and Prasad (23) present a review of the
this volume fraction (15% - 45%) improvement in efficiency postulated theories associated with the behavior of joints.
and a significant enhancement of ductility and toughness in They also discussed about the effect of seismic actions on
almost all specimens. In extension of the scope of the various types of joints and highlight the critical parameters
investigation the next volume fractions investigated were that affect joint performance with special reference to bond
(1.25%,1.50% and 1.75%) and shear transfer.

2.2. CORNER SUBJECTED TO

In 2004, Dhar and Singh (19) tested four reinforcement MOMENT TENDING TO CLOSE THE
detailing of reinforced concrete corner joints under opening ANGLE
moments, and effort has been made to investigate the effect of For many investigations studied the case where load closing
chamfer as well as reinforcement detailing on the strength and the concrete corner proved practically and that all the
behavior of opening corners. A linear Finite Element Method specimens had adequate strength, and the efficiency exceeded
(FEM) analysis supported by experimental program has been unity; hence for this type of loading, the detailing of the
used for the investigation. A simple strut and tie model (STM) corner did not seem to be important (10) . Some investigations
for opening corner has been proposed to decide the area of are mentioned below:
reinforcement and its layout within the corner tone. Also, the
amount of reinforcement and chamfer to be provided in In 1968, Kemp and Mukherjee (24) tested four specimens.
opening corners, including the case of liquid retaining The purpose of this research was to investigate strength and
structures, have been suggested. It was found that corner joint rotational capacity of right angle rectangular reinforced
subjected to opening moment, as per (FEM) analysis, overall concrete knee joints, with particular reference to the influence
stress level decreases with the increase in chamfer size, the of the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement on the
proposed simple STM suggests reinforcement detailing for behavior of such joints.
opening corner with inclined steel across the diagonal with the In 1969, Swann (8) tested five reinforced concrete specimens
theoretical area of inclined bar as 0.896 times the area of main representing a right angle bend of a portal frame and the five
steel. Also, the theoretical requirement of loop steel area is tested with the bending moment closing the angle of the
0.731 times the main steel area. The nature of load deflection concrete corner. The detailing arrangements which were used
curves for all the four samples is similar. Ultimate load are compared and discussed with regard to strength, flexibility
carrying capacities, as observed in the tests, increase with the and cracking. He studied the effect of the details on the
increase in chamfer size. efficiency.
In 2005, Shiohara and Shin (20) applied a new theory for joint
shear failure of reinforced concrete beam-column joints on ln 1971, Mayfietd et al. (10) tested fifteen reinforced concrete
knee joint and interior joint. The theory considers four corner subjected to moment closing the angle. The effects of
diagonal flexural critical sections in beam-column joints twelve types of reinforcement details on ultimate strength,
associated with joint shear deformation observed in tests, and stiffness and cracking were studied, and a new shape of
called J-mode deformation . concrete corner was used. The new shape is two corners
The equilibrium equations are used to derive relations of connected in end of the leg. It was found that some corner
forces such as column shear, beam shear, column and axial details commonly used in practice are not as efficient as other
force to the magnitude of stress resultants in steel and less conventional but simpler details.
concrete on the critical sections. The results are combined In 1981, Al-Khafaji (25) tested twenty six corners under loads
with failure criteria for material such as, concrete, steel and tending to close the angle. Every corner was tested under a
bond stress, to derive joint shear capacities. This investigation combination of bending moment and axial and shears loads.
focuses on demonstration of the theory with numerical Testing of the corners was carried out in a horizontal position.
calculation. It is revealed that the theory is universally Sixteen of the total number of the tests were carried out under
applicable to beam-column joints with different geometries incrementally loading of failure with a constant range of load
such as interior, exterior and knee joints. between 10 and 75 %Pu,. In each case of loading, the tension
In 2005, Maclean and Shattarat (21) tested seven knee joint bar size and percentage of area were variable from corner to
specimens under simulated seismic loading. The primary corner. The effect of the tension bar size, percentage of area,
objective of the study is to define the vulnerabilities of type of detail on the crack loading, crack pattern, crack type,
outrigger bents under seismic in plane and out of plane crack width and corner strength were studied.
loading and develop appropriate retrofit measures for
outrigger knee joints that address the identified deficiencies In 2000, Johansson (26) showed a new design proposal in
concrete frame corners subjected to load to close the angle by
using full-scale tests in combination with nonlinear Finite
In 2006, Shiohara and Shinl (22) tested fifty six specimens to Element analyses. The parameters studied in this investigation
find ultimate strengths and failure modes and also to validity a were the reinforcement detailing, the reinforcement ratio, the
new theory. The quadruple flexural resistance is a novel effects of the weakness of the construction joint, and the
concept providing a unified view and explains the mechanics interaction between reinforcement and concrete. The tests and
and failure modes, applicable to reinforced concrete interior, the Finite Element analyses conducted have shown that the
exterior as well as knee joint in a consistent way. The conventional and the new reinforcement detailing for practical
performance of knee joints is known to be affected by purposes are equivalent for a frame corner structure with a
geometry, dimension, material strength as well as anchorage low amount of reinforcement.

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 8–Issue 01, 30-33, 2019, ISSN:-2319–7560

3. CONCLUTION [16] Strabo J., Andersen N.H. and Nielsen T.B. "Concrete
From this review, it can be said that studies are required for frame corners" ACI Journal, (Nov.-Des.1984), Vol.81,
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[18] Singh B. and Kaushik S.K. "Investigation on fiber
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