BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

MODULE-1: LASER

LASER : Basic properties of a LASER beam, Interaction of Radiation with Matter,

Einstein’s A and B Coefficients, Laser Action, Population Inversion, Metastable State,
Requisites of a laser system, He-Ne Laser, Applications: Bar code scanner, Laser Printer,
Laser Cooling, Numerical Problems
Pre requisite: Properties of light

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

Fundamentals of Lasers:

Introduction:

Production of laser light is a particular consequence of interaction of radiation with matter.

The interpretation of the interaction is done on the basis of ideas related to energy levels of
the concerned system from which light is derived.
For any matter, whether it is characterized by energy bands (matter in solid state)
or by discrete energy levels (matter in gas state), the energy quantization rules always hold
good.
Interaction of radiation with matter:

The working principle of laser is based on the phenomenon of interaction of

radiation with matter. To understand this interaction, consider a simple system may be
atom or molecule, consisting of two energy levels.

Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions i.e.

➔ Frequency (  ) of the incident radiation should be equal to the energy gap (
 E) between which the transitions are taking place.
➔ One photon can interact with one atom/molecule.
There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation and matter can take
place. They are

(1) Induced Absorption:

E2 (Excited State) • E2

Incident
Absorption
Photon (h  )

•
E1(Ground State) E1

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Let E1 and E2 are the energy levels of an atom system. Assume that the atom is in the lower
energy level, which could be called as ground state. Let a photon of energy E (=E2-E1)
be incident on the atom under which, the atom absorbs the photon. As a result, its energy
becomes E2 = E1+ E . Hence, it is shown in the level E2. In such a condition, the atom is
said to have made transition to the excited state. This is called as induced absorption and
it can be defined as: induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by a system
as a result of which the atom/molecule shifted from lower energy state to higher state and
can be represented as,
Atom + photon → Atom*
The rate of absorption depends on number photons in the incident radiation and also on the
number of atoms in the ground state.
2. Spontaneous Emission:
• E2 (Excited State) E2

Emitted

Photon

•
E1 (Ground State) E1

Spontaneous emission is the emission of a photon, when a system transits from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.
Consider an atom in the excited state. We know that for any system to attain the
least available energy state, the atom emits a photon of energy E (=E2-E1) itself. Then
the energy of the atom becomes E1. This phenomenon is called spontaneous emission.
Two photons, which are emitted spontaneously by two atoms under identical conditions,
may not have any phase similarities and may not move in the same direction. Hence, they
are incoherent. The process can be denoted as
Atom* → Atom + photon
The rate of emission depends on number of atoms available in the excited state only.

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

3. Stimulated emission:

Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon with energy E = E2-E1, interact with
the atom by passing in the vicinity. Under such stimulation, the atom emits a photon and
transits to the lower energy state. The two photons travel in the same
• E2 (Excited State) E2
(Stimulating)
Incident photon Emitted photon

Incident photon
E1 (Ground State) E1
Before Collision After Collision

Direction, with same energy and phase, thus they are coherent. The process can be
represented as
Atom* + Photon Atom + (Photon + Photon)

This is kind of emission is responsible for laser action.

The rate of stimulated emission depends on number photons in the incident radiation and
number of atoms in the excited state.

Defn: The stimulated emission is the emission process, when an external photon of suitable
frequency interacts with an excited atom and forces to emit another photon of the same
frequency, in the same direction and in the same phase.

Einstein’s Co-efficients:

Planck’s Law: If a body can absorb radiation of certain frequency, then, when temperature
increases, it will also be able to emit a radiation of same frequency. Max Planck gave a
satisfactory theory to explain the blackbody spectrum.
According to Max Planck, if U is the energy density emitted by the blackbody
through radiation of frequency at a temperature T, then

8h 3  1 
U =  e h / kT − 1
c3  

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Boltzmann Factor:

The population of different energy states of any physical system are related to each
other, provided, the system is in thermal equilibrium. The relation is given by Boltzmann
factor. If we consider any two energy states E1 and E2 with population N1 and N2
respectively, and if E2> E1, then the Boltzmann factor is the ratio (N2/N1) given by
N2
= e −( E2 − E1 ) / kT Where k is Boltzmann’s constant
N1

Since E2> E1, hence e − ( E 2 − E1 ) / kT

<1
Therefore N2< N1
Hence, for a system in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is mandatory that the population of
any higher state is always lesser than that in any of the lower states.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium: It is a state of system, in which the energy exchange due

to emission and absorption processes occur such that the population of each state remains
unaltered. i.e. the temperature of the quantum system must be constant.

Expression for Energy density in terms of Einstein’s Coefficients:

Einstein explored the basic mechanism involved in the interaction between radiation and
matter. He assumed that matter is in thermodynamic equilibrium with a black body
radiation field. Einstein coefficients give the probability associated with the absorption
and emission processes.

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms.

Let N1 and N2 are called the number density of atoms in the states 1 and 2 with energy E1
and E2.

Let U  d  be the energy of the radiation incident/unit volume of the system considering
only those radiations whose frequencies lie in the range  and  +d .

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Let us consider the absorption, and the two emission processes case by case.

(i) Case of Induced Absorption:

In the case of induced absorption, an atom in the level E1 can go to the level E2,
when it absorbs a suitable frequency of radiation.

The rate of absorption i.e. the number of absorptions per unit time, per unit volume,
depends on
a) the number of density of lower energy state (N1)
b) the energy density i.e. U  i.e. Rate of absorption  N1U 
E2 • Excited State
N2
Incident Photon
Or Rate of absorption = B12N1U 

N1
E1 Ground State
Where B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein co-efficient of induced
absorption.

(ii) Case of Spontaneous Emission:

h
In case of spontaneous emission, an atom undergoes
transition from higher energy to lower energy state
itself by emitting a photon. •
The rate of spontaneous emission is independent of energy density
of the incident radiation but it is proportional to the number of
density of in the higher energy state i.e. N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2

Where, A21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein’s coefficient of

spontaneous emission.
(ii) Case of Stimulated Emission:
h h

h
•

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

The system requires an external photon of appropriate frequency to stimulate the atom for
the corresponding downward transition, and thereby cause emission of stimulated photons.

The rate of stimulated emission is proportional to

a) the number density of the higher energy state i.e. N2
b) the energy density i.e. U 

i.e. rate of stimulated emission  N2U 

Or rate of stimulated emission = B21N2U 
Where B21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein’s co-efficient of stimulated
emission.

At thermal equilibrium
The rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

B12N1 U  = A21N2 + B21 N2U 

Or U  ( B12 N1 -B21 N2) = A21N2

A21 N 2
U =
B12 N1 − B21 N 2
By rearranging the above equation, we get

 
A  1 
U  = 21   . . . (5)
B21  B12 N1 
 B N −1
 21 2 

But, by Boltzmann’s law, we have

 E −E   h 
− 2 1  − 
 kT   kT 
N2 = N1 e = N1 e

h
N1
 = e kT
N2

Equation (5) becomes

 
 
A21  1 
U = ……………..(6)
B21  B12 hkT 
 e −1
 B21 
According to Planck’s law, the equation for U 

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

8h 3  1 
U =  ……..(7)
c 3
e
h / kT
− 1
By comparing the equations (6) and (7), we have

A21 8h 3
=
B21 c3
B12
And =1 or B21 = B12
B21
It implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated
emission. Because of the above identity, the subscripts could be dropped, and A21 and B21
can be represented as A and B and equation (6) can be rewritten as
 
A 1 
U =
B  hkT 
 e −1
Condition for Light Amplification:
At thermal equilibrium, the ratio of the stimulated to spontaneous transition is
generally small and the stimulated emission is negligible. The ration is given by

Stimulated.transitions B21 N 2U  B
= = 21 U  (8)
Spon tan eous.transitions A21 N 2 A21

The ration of stimulated to absorptions is given by

Stimulated.transitions B21 N 2U  N
= = 2 (B21 = B12) (9)
Absorption.transitions B21 N1U  N1

(i) The equation (8) suggests that in order to enhance the number of stimulated
transitions the radiation density U  is to be made large.
(ii) The relation (9) indicates that stimulated emission will be larger than absorption
only when N2>N1.
When these conditions are fulfilled, the medium amplifies light passing through it.
𝐴21 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 8h 3
[Note: 𝐵 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = It implies that Spontaneous
21 c3
emission/Stimulated emission α (frequency)3. This is why it is difficult to achieve laser
action at higher frequency ranges such as X-rays.
The equation (8) suggests that in order to enhance the number of stimulated transitions the
radiation density U  is to be made large. However, it will lead to more absorption
transitions. Hence, large photon density alone will not assure more stimulated emissions.

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

However, stimulated emission probability can be increase, if the lifetime of atoms at the
excited should be larger.]

Requisites of a Laser System:

1) An excitation source for pumping action. (The excitation source provides the
appropriate amount of energy for pumping the atoms to higher energy levels. The
energy input may be in the form of light energy, electrical energy, etc.)
2) An active medium which supports population inversion.
3) A laser cavity.

Pumping: The process of exciting the atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level
by supplying external source energy is called pumping or the process of producing
population inversion is known as pumping.
Optical pumping: Here the external source is Light – solid state laser. Ex: ruby laser
Electrical pumping: Here the external source is Electric field – Gas laser. Ex: He-Ne laser.
Lasing: The process which leads to emission of stimulated photons after establishing the
population inversion is called lasing.
Active system: The system, in which the pumping and lasing actions occur, is called an
active system. The medium may be solid, liquid or a gas.
The efficiency of laser emission depends on the nature of the active medium and the
energy levels between which the laser action takes place.

Laser Cavity (Optical Resonator):

A laser device consists of an active medium bound between two reflecting mirrors called
laser cavity. The mirrors reflect the photons to and fro through the active medium. A photon
moving represents a light wave moving in the same direction.

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

The two mirrors along with the active medium form a cavity inside which two types of
waves exist; one type of waves moving to the right, and the other one to the left.
The two waves interfere constructively, if there is no phase difference between the
two waves. But, if the waves are out of phase, their interference becomes destructive.
To get the constructive interference, the distance between mirrors ‘L’ should be

L=m , where m is an integer > 0 and  - wavelength of the laser light inside the
2
medium. In such cases, a standing wave pattern is established within the cavity and the
cavity is said to be resonant at wavelengths  = 2L/m.

LECTURE NOTES Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Condition for Laser Action:

Population inversion:
In a normal condition, (the condition stipulated in the Boltzmann factor) there are more
number of atoms in the ground state than in the excited high energy states i.e. N1> N2
(hence the probability of the absorption of photons is more than the stimulated emission).
However, by pumping technique, we can make that N2>N1i.e. number of atoms in the
excited state is more than that of a specified lower energy state. This is called population
inversion.
“The condition where the number of atoms in the excited state exceeds that in the
lower state is called population inversion.”

Metastable State: It is one of the excited states in the system, in which, the atoms remain
there for a long period of about 10-3s (where as in the normal excited state, they remain for
an interval of 10-8s).
• This state helps in achieving the population inversion in the system. Once the
population inversion is achieved, the probability of stimulated emission becomes
predominant. In this case, the photons emitted are all identical in respect of phase,
wavelength and direction; grow to a large number which is the laser light.

Principle of producing Laser Light:

The stimulated emission produced by the active laser medium is repeatedly made to pass
through it using the external parallel mirrors of high reflectivity. The system containing
the laser medium between the mirrors is called laser cavity. Thus the radiation inside the
laser cavity builds up resulting in amplification of stimulated emission of radiation and the
laser light is coming out through partial reflecting mirror.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics
Characteristics of Laser: - Directionality
Monochromaticity
Coherence
High Intensity
High focussability

Semiconductor Laser

Principle – It is based on the principle of electron hole recombination in a direct band gap
semiconductor which results in emission of photons. Here, the required active medium is
formulated by semiconducting material itself. Hence population of lowest energy of the
conduction band is obtained by driving current through the diode. When the current
exceeds the threshold value population inversion will be attained between highest level of
valence band and lowest level of conduction band leading to stimulated emissions followed
by LASER light.

Construction:

1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) laser is one of the primitive diode laser consists of p-n
junction in forward bias condition.
2. The p and n sections are obtained by doping with zinc and tellurium respectively
with the substantial doping concentration≈ 1019 dopant atoms/cm3.
3. The top and bottom surfaces are metalized and two electrodes are provided to
pass the current through the diode.

4. The front and rear surfaces perpendicular to the Junction are polished so that
they act as optical resonators and the other two surfaces roughened to prevent
lasing in that direction.

5. Each side of the laser is of the order of 1 mm whereas the p-n junction layer width
is ≈ 1μm.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics
Working:
1. When GaAs diode is forward biased electrons move to p-region and holes move
to n-region.
2. These electrons and holes recombine in the junction region and photons are
emitted.
3. At low forward current only spontaneous emission takes place.
4. As the current increases and reaches a threshold value the depletion region
contains high concentration of electrons within the conduction band and a large
concentration of holes within the valence band.
5. As the voltage is gradually increased due to forward biasing population
inversion is achieved between the valence band and conduction band which in
turn result in stimulated emission.
6. Photons produced are amplified between polished optical resonator surfaces
producing laser beam.
7. The emission of output wavelength depends on doping and threshold current
and the condition of lasing in a semiconductor laser is Eg < hν < EFn – EFp
(Shown in below figure)
8. GaAs laser produce laser beam of wavelength 8400Å with the band gap of 1.4
eV.

Energy level diagram of diode laser

Applications of Laser

Because of high intensity, high degree of monochromaticity, and coherence, lasers are
using in different fields such as bar code scanner, laser printer, laser cooling, medicine,
material processing, communications, holography, etc.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics
Applications laser in bar code scanner:

A barcode reader is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes, decode the data
contained in the barcode to a computer.
The Universal Product Code (UPC), a line of vertical stripes with a set of numbers printed
underneath is widely used for identifying the product.
A bar code consists of a series of strips of dark and white bands.

These white and dark bands are of different widths separated from each other by specific
distances that contain all the information about the product.
Bar code scanner consists of a laser source, a lens and a light sensor for translating optical
impulses into electrical signals.
A laser is used to scan the bar code with the help of a rotating mirror (speed is about 200
m/s). When the laser beam is incident on the bar code, the amount of light scattered
depends on whether the strip is black or white. Since, the bars are separate by variable
distances; light intensity varies with time and is recorded by the photo detector. The signal
is fed into an amplifier and later to a decoded which displays the information on the screen
and also sends it to product inventory system.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics
{While cell phone cameras without auto-focus are not ideal for reading some common barcode formats.
there are 2D barcodes which are optimized for cell phones, as well as QR Codes (Quick Response)
codes and Data Matrix codes which can be read quickly and accurately with or without auto-focus.
Recent versions of the Android, iOS, and Windows Phone mobile phone operating systems feature QR
or barcode scanners built in, usually accessible from their respective camera application.}

Laser Printer:

A laser printer acts as photocopier machine that uses laser light and toner to print a
document. The primary working principle is static electricity. In a laser printer, laser beam
is used to write a charge image directly onto the photoconductor drum. This rotating drum
is charged initially and then a spinning mirror scans laser light across the surface.
Whenever laser light fall on the drum, charge flows through photoconductor and it
constructs the charge image. With the help of static electricity, drum gets to attract with
powdered toner from its cartridge. The drum gets to spin the toner on the paper as a format
of your sending print commands. Then, toner gets to start melt on the paper by heat from
fuser that is passed underneath. The fuser rolls the paper to the output tray.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Laser Cooling:

Laser cooling is a set of methods for cooling atoms, molecules, and small mechanical systems
to temperatures that are often close to absolute zero. This cooling changes the momentum of
an object-typically an atom since the system absorbs and re-emits a photon. It includes light
interaction and atomic spectroscopy as a combined process. Doppler cooling is the basic type
of laser cooling and is also the most popular technique and it is frequently referred to as simply
"laser cooling".
When the atom absorbs the photon, the atom will experience a change in momentum; the
momentum of the atom will increase in the direction of the laser beam. When the atom emits
a photon, it will again experience a change in momentum; the atom will recoil in a direction
opposite the direction of the emitted photon. If an atom repeatedly absorbs photons from a
laser beam, emitting a photon in a random direction after each absorption, the atom will
experience a net change in momentum in the direction of the laser beam due to the absorption
of photons. Since the emitted photons come out in all directions, the average change in
momentum due to the emitted photons will be zero. Thus the atom slows down and thus the
kinetic energy of the system and hence the temperature goes down leading to cooling of
Atoms. This process makes the temperature down to few milli kelvins.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Uses of Laser cooling:

❖ Construction of atomic clocks

❖ In the construction of scientific instruments for atom optics and atomic lithography
❖ In atomic interferometers
❖ Used to study ultra-cold gases
❖ Navigation applications

List of formulae
h
N1
Ratio of population ----- = e kT
N2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 (∆𝐸)
Number of Photons ----- 𝑁 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑟 (𝐸)

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Power of the Laser ------𝑃 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Sample Numerical Problems

1. A medium in thermal equilibrium at temperature 300 K has two energy levels with a
wavelength separation of 1 μm. Find the ratio of population densities of the upper and
lower levels.
2. The average output power of laser source emitting a laser beam of wavelength 6328Å
is 5 mW. Find the number of photons emitted per second by the laser source.
3. A laser operating at 632.8 nm emits 3.182x1016 photons per second. Calculate the
output power of the laser if the input power is 100 Watt.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

 BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

MODULE-1: OPTICAL FIBERS

Optical Fiber: Principle and structure, Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture (NA) and
derivation of Expression for NA, Classification of Optical Fibers, Attenuation and Fiber Losses,
Applications: Fiber Optic Communication, advantages and disadvantages, Numerical problems.

Pre requisite: Properties of light: Total Internal Reflection & Propagation Mechanism

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

OPTICAL FIBERS (WAVE GUIDES)

Def: Optical fiber is a device used to transmit light signals through the transparent medium made up
of dielectric materials like glass from one end to other end over a long distance.

Principle: It works on the principle of “Total Internal Reflection (TIR)”.

If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle i.e. θi > θ c then the total internal reflection

occurs. TIR is not just one kind of reflections. The significance of TIR is that there is no loss of
light energy at the reflecting surface. The entire incident energy is returned along the reflected light.
Hence, it is called Total Internal Reflection (TIR). Because of no loss of energy during reflection,
the optical fibers are able to sustain the light signal transmission over long distance inspite of
multiple number of reflections that occur within the optical fiber.

Construction: An optical fiber is a thin strand of dielectric material which can conduct light. It is
made of two parts. One is the inner cylindrical material made up of glass or plastic of refractive
index (n1) called core. The core is surrounded by the same material of low refractive index (n2)
known as cladding. The cladding is enclosed in polyurethane jacket to prevent the chemical reaction
with surroundings and against crushing.

Here the cladding is not only required for the propagation of light along the core of the fiber, but it
serves for other purposes also:
(a) cladding reduces the scattering loss resulting from dielectric discontinuities at the core
surface.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

(b) It adds mechanical strength to the fiber

(c) It protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with which it could come in
contact.

Working:

CC
C
B

Core (n1)
A ()(n1)

Suppose a ray of light A entering the fiber through one end and strikes the core-cladding
surface at B at an angle of incidence θ greater than the critical angle θ c , it undergo TIR at the point

B and then it strikes the point C. At this point also θ i > θ C and again gets TIR at C. Like this, the

ray undergoes such multiple reflections in the medium of fiber and finally emerges out at the other
end. The propagation of light continues as long as the fiber is not bending too sharply, since for
sharp bends, the light fails to undergo TIR. Hence the signal strength decreases drastically.

Numerical Aperture:

Consider an optical fiber consisting of inner cylindrical core made of glass of refractive index n1 and
is surrounded by cladding of refractive index n2 such that n2< n1.
Consider a ray of light AO incident on the core at ‘O’ at an angle 𝜃0 with the fiber axis. Then it
refracts along OB at an angle of 𝜃1 in the core.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

The refracted ray is incident on the interface between core and cladding at B an angle of incidence
(90 -𝜃1 ). Assuming this angle (90 –𝜃1 ) is equal to critical angle, then the ray is refracted at 900 to
the normal drawn to the interface. i.e. it grazes along BC.

P
Acceptance
cone R B C S

o θ1
θ0 Core (n1)
Cladding (n2)
A
n0
Q

Now, it is clear from the figure that any ray that enters into the core at angle θ i < θ 0 will have

refractive angle less than θ1 because of which its angle of incidence at the interface (=90 - θ1 ) will
become greater than critical angle of incidence and thus undergoes total internal reflection.
If the angle of incidence at ‘O’ is greater than θ 0 , then the refracted ray pass through the cladding

and it will be lost. If AO is rotated around the fiber axis keeping θ 0 as constant, then it forms a

conical surface called acceptance cone. All the light rays which enter within this acceptance cone
will undergo total internal reflection and propagates through the fiber.

“The angle θ 0 is called waveguide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half angle and

Sin θ 0 is called “Numerical Aperture” of the fiber”. The N.A. represents the number of light rays

that can be transmitted along the optical fiber i.e. light gathering ability of the fiber.

Expression for N.A.:

Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core and cladding of the fiber
respectively.
Apply Snell’s law to the surface PQ, which separates surrounding medium and core:
n0 Sinθ 0 = n1 Sinθ 1
n1
Sinθ 0 = Sinθ 1 …(1)
n0

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Apply the Snell’s law to surface RS which separates core and cladding:
n1 Sin(90 −θ 1) = n 2 Sin90 0
n1 Cosθ 1 = n 2
n2
Cosθ 1 = …(2)
n1
n1
Rewrite the equation (1) => Sinθ 0 = 1 − cos2 θ1
n0
n1 n 22
= 1−
n0 n12
n 21 − n 22
=
n0
If the surrounding medium is air then n0 = 1, Therefore

Sinθ 0 = N.A. = n 21 −n22

The condition for propagation is that

The angle of incidence θi should be less than acceptance angle θ 0 (i.e. θ i < θ 0 )

i.e. Sinθ i < Sinθ 0

Sinθ i < N.A. < n 21 −n22

Fractional Refractive index change (∆): It is the ratio of change in Refractive Indices of core and
cladding to the Refractive Index of the core.
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆=
𝑛1

Modes of Propagation

Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber. It is true that all waves, having
directions above the critical angle, will be trapped within the fiber due to TIR. But is not true that
all such waves propagate along the fiber and only certain ray directions are allowed to propagate.
The allowed directions correspond to the modes of the fiber i.e. Mode refers to the number of
paths for the light rays to propagate in the fiber. The number of modes that a fiber will support
depends on d/ λ . Where d – diameter of the core and λ is the wavelength of the wave transmitted.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

[Note: As a ray gets repeatedly reflected at the walls of the fiber, phase shift occurs. Consequently,
the waves traveling along certain zigzag paths will be in phase and intensified, however, some other
paths will be out of phase and hence the signal strength diminishes due to destructive interference.
The light ray paths along which the waves are in phase inside the fiber are known as modes.]

V- Number: The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V-number and is given by

2 2
πd n 1 n 2
V= d – diameter of the core, λ - wavelength of the light,
λ no
n0 – R.I. of the surrounding medium, n1 – R.I. of the core, n2 – R.I. of the cladding

V2
Number of modes=
2

Refractive index Profile: It refers to the variation of refractive index of the core along the radial
distance.

Types of Optical Fiber:

Optical fibers are classified into 3-types based on their R.I. of core and cladding and number of
modes of propagation in the fiber.

(1) Step index single mode fiber

(2) Step index multi mode fiber
(3) Graded Index multi mode fiber.

(1) Step Index Single Mode optical fiber: • It consists of a core of uniform refractive
index n1

• The diameter of the core is about 8-10 m

• The core is surrounded by a material of uniform

R.I. n2 called cladding such that n2<n1. The
external diameter of the cladding is 60 – 70 m

• The variation of R.I.s of core and cladding takes

the shape of step as shown in fig.

• Since the core diameter is very small, therefore, it

can guide a single mode as shown in figure.
• Laser can be used as a source.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R •Associate

They are used for long distance communications
Professor
and submarine cable system.
BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

(2) Step index multi mode fiber

• It consists of a core of uniform refractive index

n1
• The diameter of the core is about 50 - 200 m
• The core is surrounded by a material of uniform
R.I. n2 called cladding such that n2< n1. The
external diameter of the cladding is 100 – 250
m
• The variation of R.I.s of core and cladding
takes the shape of step as shown in fig.
• Since the core diameter is very large, therefore,
it will be able to support propagation of large
number of modes.
• LED or Laser can be used as a source.
• Applications: It can be used in data links which
has lower band width requirements.

(3) Graded Index multi mode fiber

• It is also called as GRIN.
• The core material has a special feature that its R.I.
value decreases in the radially outward direction
from the axis and becomes equal to that of the
cladding at the interface.
• The diameter of the core is about 50 - 200 m
• The core is surrounded by a material of uniform R.I.
n2 called cladding such that n2< n1. The external
diameter of the cladding is 100 – 250 m
• The variation of R.I.s of core and cladding is as shown
in fig.
• Since the core diameter is very large, therefore, it will
be able to support propagation of large number of
modes.
• LED or Laser can be used as a source.
• Applications: It can be used in telephone trunk
between central offices and it is most expensive
compared to other two types.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Attenuation (Fiber Loss)

“The loss of light energy of the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber is called attenuation
or fiber loss.”
The main reasons for the loss of light intensity over the length of the cable is due to
i) absorption (ii) Scattering (iii) Radiation loss
(i) Absorption Losses: In this case, the loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of photons
associated with the signal. Photons are absorbed by (a) impurities in the silica glass (b) Intrinsic
absorption by the glass material.
ii) Scattering Loss: Rayleigh scattering- As glass has disordered structure having local
microscopic variation in density which may also cause variation in RI. Therefore, when the light
travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered. Due to the scattering, photons move in random
direction and fails to undergo total internal reflection and escapes from the fiber through cladding
and it becomes loss. So light traveling through these structures may suffer scattering losses due to
Rayleigh
iii) Radiation loss: Radiation losses occur due to bending of fiber.
(a) Macroscopic bends: When optical fiber is curved extensively such that incident angle of the ray
falls below the critical angle, then no total internal reflection occurs.

Hence, some of the light rays escape through the

Cladding and leads to loss in intensity of light

(b) Microscopic bends:

The microscopic bendings are occur due to non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber or by
non-uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber. At these bends some of the
radiations leak through the fiber due to the absence of total internal reflection and leads to loss in
intensity.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

The net attenuation can be determined by a factor called attenuation co-efficient ( α ).

1 
Pout

Or α =- log10




 Bel / unit length
L 
 P 
in
 
The unit of attenuation for light in optical fiber is Bel. In optical fiber technology, it is customary to
express  in terms of decibel/kilometer. P is in watt and 1B = 10decibel
10 𝑃
Therefore, α = - log10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 dB / km
L 𝑖𝑛

Application of optical fibers

Communication applications
The various applications of optical fibers in the telecommunication area in general could be
telephones, video phones, telegraph services and data networks can be transmitted over common
carrier links.
Optical Fiber Communications systems can be broadly classified into two groups
i) local and intermediate range systems where the distance involved or small and
ii) long haul systems where cables span large distances

Local and intermediate range systems cover communication networks in small community, an
industry, a bank, an education institution etc., In many organizations a LAN distributes information
to several stations within the organization. A network is a group of computers connected mutually
for exchanging information and sharing equipment. A number of computer terminals are
interconnected or a common channel to keep track of the flow of data and to process the data.
An optical fiber data bus offers a great reduction in cost and enormously increases information
handling capacity compared to a parallel multiwire database
Telephone cables connecting various countries come under the category of long-haul system

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

Point-to-point communication
The block diagram of optical point-to-point optical fiber communication is shown figure.
The information / voice converted into electrical signal in an analog form is coming out from the
telephone. The analog electrical signal is converted into binary data with the help of coder.

These electrical pulses are converted into binary optical signals using optical source (ex. LED). This
unit is called an optical transmitter from which the optical signals are fed into the fiber. The incident
light pulses which are funneled into the core within the half angle acceptance cone, will be sustained
for propagation within the fiber by means of total internal reflection.

At the other end of the fiber, the optical signal is fed into a photo detector where it is converted into
electrical pulses. These electrical pulses are fed to decoder which converts the sequence of binary
data stream into an analog signal which will be the same information such as voice, which was there
at the transmitting end.
Along with these components, repeater needs to be used. Since, as the optical signal propagating
through the fiber, the signal is subjected to both attenuation and delay distortion.
These effects cause degradation of the signal as the light propagates and may reach a stage beyond
which it may not be possible to retrieve the information from the light signal. At this stage a repeater
is needed in the transmission path. The repeater consists of receiver and transmitter. The receiver

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

section converts the optical signal into corresponding electrical signal and these electrical signals
amplified and recast in the original form. This reshaped electrical signal which is in the form of
binary form is sent into an optical transmitter which is converted into optical signal and feedback
into the optical fiber.

Applications of Optical Fiber:

Optical fibers find their applications in many fields.
• Optical fibers can be used in point-to-point communications
• They can be used in local area network (LAN) communication system
• Medical applications: Endoscope
• Industrial applications: They are used in the design of Boroscopes, which are used
to inspect the inaccessible machinery parts.
• Domestic applications: They can be used to illuminate the interior places where
the sunlight has no access to reach.
• Sensing applications of optical fibers are: Displacement sensor
Liquid level sensor, Temperature and pressure sensor Chemical
sensors

Advantages of Optical Fiber:

2. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts information.

3. The materials used for making optical fibers are silicon oxide and plastic, both are
available at low cost.
4. Because of the greater information carrying capacity by the fibers, the cost, length,
channel for the fiber would be lesser than that for the metallic cable.
5. Because of their compactness, and light weight, fibers are much easier to transport.
6. There is a possibility of interference between one communication channel and the
other in case of metallic cables. However, the optical fiber is totally protected from
interference between different communication signals, since, no light can enter a fiber
from its sides. Because of which no cross talk takes place.

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor

BIET, Davangere Department of Physics

7. The radiation from lightning or sparking causes the disturbance in the signals which
are transmitting in the metallic cable but cannot do for the fiber cable.
8. The information cannot be tapped from the optical fiber.
9. Since signal is optical, no sparks are generated as it could in case of electrical signal.
10. Because of its superior attenuation characteristics, optical fibers support signal
transmission over long distances.’

Limitations of Optical fiber communications system:

1. Splicing is skillful task, which if not done precisely, the signal loss will be so much. The
optic connectors, which are used to connect (splicing) two fibers are highly expensive.
2. While system modifications or because of accidents, a fiber may suffer line break. To
establish the connections, it requires highly skillful and time consuming. Hence, maintenance
cost is high.
3. Though fibers could be bent to circles of few centimeters’ radius, they may break when bent
to still smaller curvatures. Also, for small curvature bends, the loss becomes considerable.
4. Fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some critical
alignments which lead to loss in signal power.

List of Equations:

1.Numerical Aperture:

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

2. Acceptance Angle:

𝜃0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )

3. Attenuation Co-efficient:

10 𝑃
α = - log10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 dB / km
L 𝑖𝑛

Lecture Notes Dr. Jagadeesh M R Associate Professor