Oscillations and Waves

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 Contents of Chapter

• Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring Oscillations

• Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
• The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM
• The Simple Pendulum
• Damped Harmonic Motion
• Forced Oscillations; Resonance
• Wave Motion
• Types of Waves and Their Speeds: Transverse and
Longitudinal
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 Contents of Chapter

• Energy Transported by Waves

• Reflection and Transmission of Waves
• Interference; Principle of Superposition
• Standing Waves; Resonance
• Refraction
• Diffraction
• Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave

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 1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

If an object vibrates or
oscillates back and forth
over the same path, each
cycle taking the same
amount of time, the motion
is called periodic. The mass
and spring system is a
useful model for a periodic
system.

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 1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

We assume that the surface is frictionless. There

is a point where the spring is neither stretched nor
compressed; this is the equilibrium position. We
measure displacement from that point (x = 0 on the
previous figure).
The force exerted by the spring depends on the
displacement:

( 1)

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 1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

• The minus sign on the force indicates that it is a

restoring force—it is directed to restore the mass to
its equilibrium position.
• k is the spring constant
• The force is not constant, so the acceleration is not
constant either

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 1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

• Displacement is measured from the

equilibrium point
• Amplitude is the maximum
displacement
• A cycle is a full to-and-fro motion;
this figure shows half a cycle
• Period is the time required to
complete one cycle
• Frequency is the number of cycles
completed per second
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 1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

If the spring is hung

vertically, the only
change is in the
equilibrium position,
which is at the point
where the spring force
equals the
gravitational
force.

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 1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
Oscillations

Any vibrating system where the restoring force is

proportional to the negative of the displacement is in
simple harmonic motion (SHM), and is often called a
simple harmonic oscillator.

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 2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

We already know that the potential energy of a spring is

given by:
PE = ½ kx2
The total mechanical energy is then:
( 3)

The total mechanical energy will be conserved, as we are

assuming the system is frictionless.

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 2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

If the mass is at the limits of its

motion, the energy is all potential.
If the mass is at the equilibrium
point, the energy is all kinetic.
We know what the potential energy
is at the turning points:

( 4a)

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 2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

The total energy is, therefore ½ kA2

And we can write:
( 4c)

This can be solved for the velocity as a function of

position:
( 5b)

where ( 5a)

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 3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

If we look at the projection onto

the x axis of an object moving in a
circle of radius A at a constant
speed vmax, we find that the x
component of its velocity varies as:

( 5b)

This is identical to SHM.

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 3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

Therefore, we can use the period and frequency of a

particle moving in a circle to find the period and
frequency:

( 6a)

( 6b)

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Physics 5B Winter 2009

Solving the Simple Harmonic Oscillator

1. The harmonic oscillator solution: displacement as a function of time

We wish to solve the equation of motion for the simple harmonic oscillator:
d 2x k
= − x, (1)
dt 2 m
where k is the spring constant and m is the mass of the oscillating body that is
attached to the spring. We impose the following initial conditions on the problem.
At t = 0, the initial displacement is denoted by x0 and the corresponding velocity
is denoted by v0 . That is,
dx
x(t = 0) ≡ x0 , and (t = 0) = v0 . (2)
dt
These initial conditions then uniquely specify the problem.
The method we shall employ for solving this differential equation is called the
method of inspired guessing. In class, we argued that the motion of the oscillating
body was periodic. Since the sine and cosine functions are periodic, we propose
the following solution for the displacement x as a function of the time t:

x(t) = x0 cos ωt + b sin ωt , (3)

where b and ω are to be determined. If we set t = 0, we find x(t = 0) = x0 as

required, so one of the two initial conditions is automatically satisfied. The initial
condition for the velocity will determine b. That is, take the derivative of eq. (3)
with respect to t. This yields:
dx
v(t) ≡ = −ωx0 sin ωt + ωb cos ωt . (4)
dt
Setting t = 0 in eq. (4) then yields v0 = ωb; hence
v0
b= . (5)
ω
Thus, our proposed solution now has the following form:
v0
x(t) = x0 cos ωt + sin ωt . (6)
ω

This solution clearly satisfies the two initial conditions specified by eq. (2).

1
 We have not yet proved that eq. (6) is in fact a solution to eq. (1). To do this,
we compute the second derivative of x with respect to t. Taking two derivatives
of eq. (6) with respect to t yields:
d 2x
= −ω 2 x0 cos ωt − ωv0 sin ωt
dt2
 v0 
= −ω 2 x0 cos ωt + sin ω
ω
= −ω 2 x . (7)

Thus, we have verified that

d2 x
= − ω2x . (8)
dt 2

Comparing with eq. (1), we conclude that ω 2 = k/m, or

r
k
ω= . (9)
m

2. The amplitude/phase form of the harmonic oscillator solution

Giancoli writes the solution to eq. (1) in another form:

x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ) , (10)

where A is a positive constant. Two questions immediately come to mind. First,

why would one prefer a solution of the form of eq. (10)? Second, is the solution
given by eq. (10) identical to the one given by eq. (6)? One advantage of eq. (10)
is that it satisfies the inequality:

|x(t)| ≤ A , (11)

which follows from the well known result | cos θ| ≤ 1. This allows us to immedi-
ately identify A as the amplitude of the oscillation. The angle φ is called the phase
of the oscillation, and I will have more to say about this phase angle in section 4.
To show that eqs. (10) and (6) are equivalent, we make use of the trigonometric
identity:
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β . (12)
Identifying α = ωt and β = φ, we can rewrite eq. (10) as:

x(t) = A cos ωt cos φ − A sin ωt sin φ . (13)

This result is precisely equivalent to eq. (6) if we identify:

v0
x0 = A cos φ , and = −A sin φ . (14)
ω
2
Thus, we have demonstrated that Giancoli’s solution is equivalent to that of
eq. (6).

3. The amplitude A of the oscillator

We can now use eq. (14) to relate the amplitude A and the phase φ to the
initial conditions for the displacement and the velocity. Let us rewrite eq. (14) as:
x0 v0
cos φ = , and sin φ = − . (15)
A ωA

Using the trigonometric identity sin2 φ + cos2 φ = 1, it follows that:

x20 v02
+ = 1. (16)
A2 ω 2 A2
Cross-multiplying by A2 , we can solve for A:
r
v02
A= x20 + . (17)
ω2

4. The phase φ of the oscillator

The phase angle φ can be determined from eq. (15). However, there is a slight
complication—namely, φ is not uniquely defined, since I can add 2π to the phase
angle without changing any physical results.∗ Thus, we say that the phase angles
φ and φ+2π are “equivalent,” meaning that they lead to the same physical results.
Thus, I can establish a convention in which the value of φ is chosen to lie within
some interval of length 2π. The most common convention is to choose φ such
that:
−π < φ ≤ π . (18)
That is, φ lies between −180◦ and 180◦ . Note that I have included one of the
endpoints, π, in the interval specified by eq. (18), but not the other endpoint −π.
I have made this choice since the phase angle −π is “equivalent” to the phase
angle −π + 2π = π (using the meaning of “equivalent” explained above).
It is tempting to divide the two equations given in eq. (15), which yields:†
sin φ v0
tan φ ≡ =− . (19)
cos φ ωx0
∗
Noting that x(t) = cos(ωt + φ) = cos(ωt + φ + 2π) [i.e., the cosine is a periodic function
with period 2π], we wee that the phase angle φ and φ + 2π yield the same solution for x(t).
†
Eq. (19) would seem to imply that φ = − tan−1 [v0 /(ωx0 )]. However, this form is not
especially convenient as the inverse tangent (also called the arctangent) is often defined to lie in
an interval between −π/2 and π/2. See the discussion following eq. (19).

3
However, in doing so, we have lost some information, since changing the sign of
both x0 and v0 changes the phase angle by π but does not change the value of
tan φ. This is not surprising since tan(φ+π) = tan φ, i.e. the tangent is a periodic
function with period π. The simplest way to avoid the ambiguity of eq. (19) is to
notice that eq. (15) implies that:
v0 < 0 =⇒ 0 < φ < π,
v0 > 0 =⇒ −π < φ < 0 ,
v0 = 0 and x0 > 0 =⇒ φ = 0,
v0 = 0 and x0 < 0 =⇒ φ = π. (20)
Then, eqs. (19) and (20) determine the phase angle φ uniquely within its defined
interval as specified by eq. (18).
The significance of the phase angle φ is that it determines by how much the
displacement, x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ) leads or lags behind as compared to a pure
cosine curve, A cos ωt. The pure cosine curve has a maximum at t = 0, whereas
x(t) = A cos(ωt+φ) has a maximum when cos(ωt+φ) = 1. The latter implies that
the maximum of the displacement closest to time t = 0 occurs when ωt + φ = 0
or t = −φ/ω. If φ < 0, then this maximum occurs for positive t, as shown in
fig. 14.7 of Giancoli. In this case, we say that the phase of x(t) lags behind the
pure cosine curve, since we have to wait a positive time interval (∆t = −φ/ω in
fig. 14.7) before reaching the maximum. If φ > 0, then this maximum occurs for
negative t. In this case, the maximum has been achieved before the maximum of
the pure cosine curve; and thus the phase of x(t) leads that of the pure cosine
curve.

5. Two simple examples

We review the two simple examples introduced by Giancoli on page 373.
1. In the first example, we start the pendulum with zero velocity (v0 = 0) at
a displacement x0 = A. Indeed, eq. (17) confirms that for v0 = 0 we have x0 = A.
That is, for zero initial velocity the displacement of the pendulum at t = 0 is the
amplitude of the oscillation. Moreover, eq. (20) yields φ = 0 [note that eq. (19) is
consistent with this result]. Hence, eq. (10) yields
x(t) = A cos ωt . (21)
2. In the second example, we start the pendulum at its equilibrium point
(x0 = 0) with initial positive velocity v0 > 0. In this case, eq. (17) yields A = v0 /ω,
and eq. (20) implies that −π < φ < 0. Finally, we use eq. (19) to conclude that
φ = −π/2. Hence, eq. (10) yields
 π
x(t) = A cos ωt − = A sin ωt . (22)
2

4
 3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

We can similarly find the position as a function of time:

( 8a)

( 8b)

( 8c)

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 3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

The top curve is a graph of

the previous equation.
The bottom curve is the
same, but shifted ¼ period
so that it is a sine function
rather than a cosine.

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 3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature
of SHM

The velocity and acceleration can

be calculated as functions of
time; the results are below, and
are plotted at left.

( 9)

( 10)

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 4 The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a mass at the end of a

lightweight cord. We assume that the cord does not
stretch, and that its mass is negligible.

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 4 The Simple Pendulum

In order to be in SHM, the restoring force

must be proportional to the negative of the
displacement. Here we have F = -mg sin θ
which is proportional to sin θ and not to
θ itself.

However, if the angle

is small, sin θ ≈ θ.
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 4 The Simple Pendulum

Therefore, for small angles, the force is approximately

proportional to the angular displacement.
The period and frequency are:

( 11a)

( 11b)

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