Localization of function:

Localization of function is the theory that specific parts of the brain correspond to specific
functions, including behavior, thoughts, and emotions. Damage to these areas can lead to
significant cognitive loss. The brain has two hemispheres, with the left responsible for logic and
motor function, and the right for creativity and emotion. The brain consists of four lobes:
frontal (decision-making, speech), occipital (visual processing), parietal (stimulus perception),
and temporal (auditory processing, memory). The hippocampus is crucial for memory encoding
and spatial processing. Broca's area is involved in speech production, while Wernicke's area is
associated with comprehension. However as The brain is a highly interconnected and complex
organ, with different regions working together in a networked manner to support various
cognitive processes. It is difficult to completely isolate and study the functions of individual
brain areas without considering their interactions with other regions making it a limitation.

Neurotransmission:

Neurotransmission is the fundamental process by which neurons communicate and transfer

information in the central nervous system. It involves the release of neurotransmitters at
specialized regions called synapses, where they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane, influencing the receiving neuron in either an excitatory or inhibitory manner. This
process, mediated by repeated cycles of neurotransmitter release and synaptic vesicle
endocytosis, underlies sensory processing, autonomic and motor outputs, and cognitive
functions such as learning and memory. Neurotransmission occurs through highly specialized
contacts between neurons and their targets, allowing for the precise and reliable transmission
of information.

Neural network:

Neural networks are parallel and distributed information processing systems that mimic the
structure and function of biological learning systems. They consist of layers of nonlinear
processing elements, known as neurons, which are interconnected through synapses or
weights. This layered architecture allows for parallel execution of computations. The neurons in
the network perform complex nonlinear transformations on the input data, allowing for
sophisticated information processing and learning capabilities. The interconnections between
neurons, represented by synapses or weights, determine the strength and influence of the
connections, enabling the network to learn and adapt to different patterns and tasks.
Neuroplasticity:

Neuroplasticity is the brain's capacity to change its structure in response to internal and
external influences. It encompasses the brain's ability to adapt and modify itself both
functionally and physically through experiences, trauma, and new learning. This process occurs
within the neural network, which comprises the extensive connections between neurons in the
brain. These connections serve as pathways for signals and information from sensory organs to
reach their destinations. With repeated use, specific pathways in the neural network become
more developed. Additionally, the brain employs neural pruning to eliminate underutilized or
under-stimulated synapses, enhancing the functional efficiency of highly utilized synapses.
Understanding neuroplasticity is crucial as it underlies the brain's capacity to acquire new skills,
form memories, and shape our experiences.

Studies:

Dragenski :

The aim of this study was to investigate the neurostructural effects of learning a new skill,
specifically juggling, on the brains of participants. Twenty-four volunteers (21 females, 3 males)
between the ages of 20 and 24, who were initially non-jugglers, were recruited. Baseline MRI
scans were conducted to establish a reference for grey matter and brain structure. Participants
were then divided into two groups: jugglers and non-jugglers. The jugglers were trained in a
three-ball cascade juggling routine until mastery, at which point a second MRI scan was
performed. Afterward, they ceased juggling, and a third and final scan was conducted three
months later. The non-jugglers served as a control group throughout the study. Analysis of the
baseline scans revealed no significant regional differences in grey matter between the groups.
However, the jugglers exhibited a significant increase in grey matter in the mid-temporal area
of both hemispheres, associated with visual memory, following the initial phase. Three months
after cessation of juggling, when participants could no longer perform the routine, grey matter
in these regions had decreased. These findings suggest that juggling primarily relies on visual
memory, involving the perception and spatial anticipation of moving objects, rather than
procedural memory typically associated with changes in the cerebellum or basal ganglia.

This experiment successfully demonstrated a causal relationship between the acquisition of a

new skill, juggling, and changes in neural density. By conducting a controlled laboratory study,
the researchers were able to establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship between learning
and neural adaptations. As participants practiced juggling, their neural networks underwent
structural modifications, including the formation of new synapses and the elimination of less
utilized ones, leading to enhanced efficiency in juggling performance. These findings highlight
the remarkable phenomenon of neuroplasticity, whereby the brain can adapt and rewire itself
in response to new learning experiences. The study's robust design and conclusive results
provide compelling evidence for the causal connection between learning a new skill like juggling
and the corresponding changes in neural densities.

Maguire:

This study compared the MRI scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers, with a
minimum of 1.5 years of driving experience, to 50 right-handed males from the London Hospital
who were not taxi drivers. The mean age was similar between the two groups. The results
revealed that the taxi drivers exhibited increased grey matter in the hippocampal areas,
indicating the involvement of the hippocampus in spatial navigation., the taxi drivers displayed
larger posterior hippocampi compared to the control group, while the control group had larger
anterior hippocampi. This suggests long-term potentiation occurring specifically in the posterior
hippocampi of the taxi drivers. Frequent utilization of spatial navigation skills by the taxi drivers
led to recent activity in the posterior hippocampus, resulting in the strengthening of neural
networks and an increase in neural density, thus explaining the larger volume of the posterior
hippocampus in this group. Additionally, a positive correlation was observed between the
number of years driving and the volume of the posterior hippocampus, providing a direct link
between increased use of spatial navigation skills and the volume of this region.
Throne et al conducted a study to explore the impact of pheromones on female perceptions of
male attractiveness. Using a repeated measures design, 32 female undergraduate students (half
of whom were contraceptive pill users) were exposed to axillary secretions odor (experimental
condition) and no odor (control group)
The participants experienced both conditions on separate occasions, based on their menstrual
cycle phase. The axillary secretions, believed to contain the pheromones androstane (AND),
were collected from pads worn in the armpits overnight. These pads, assumed to contain male
pheromones, were concealed in laboratory cubicles during the experimental condition. The
control group did not have exposure to axillary secretions. During their visits to the lab,
participants read fictional vignettes and completed a questionnaire that required them to rate
the attractiveness of the vignettes and associated pictures. The results indicated that the
menstrual cycle and contraceptive use had no effect on attractiveness ratings. However, there
was a statistically significant positive correlation between exposure to male axillary secretions
and attractiveness ratings. In other words, the experimental group consistently rated the
questionnaire items related to sexual attraction higher than the control group.
The study found that neither the menstrual cycle nor contraceptive use had an impact on
attractiveness ratings. However, there was a statistically significant positive correlation
between exposure to male axillary secretions and ratings of attractiveness, indicating that the
experimental group consistently rated items related to sexual attraction higher compared to
the control group. This suggests that pheromones can influence human behavior, specifically in
the context of sexual attraction.