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Basic Electronics

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

49 views73 pages

Basic Electronics

Uploaded by

Ibrahim Labib

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Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Basic Electronics

Summaries,
Exercises, and Answers

SECTION 1: DC CIRCUITS

CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY: FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

● Matter is anything that occupies space. ● The process by which atoms gain or
● Matter can be an element or lose electrons is called ionization.
compound. ● The flow of electrons is called
● An element is the basic building block current.
of ● Current is represented by the symbol I.
nature. ● The charge of
● A compound is a chemical 6,240,000,000,000,000,000 (or
combination of 18
6 × 10 ) electrons is called a
two or more elements. coulomb.
● A molecule is the smallest unit of a ● An ampere of current is measured
com- when one coulomb of charge moves
pound that retains the properties of the past a given point in one second.
compound. ● Ampere is represented by the symbol
● An atom is the smallest unit of matter A.
that ● Current is measured in amperes.
retains the structure of the element. ● An electric current flows through a
● An atom consists of a nucleus, which conductor when there is an excess of
contains protons and neutrons. It also electrons at one end and a deficiency
has one at the other end.
or more electrons that orbit around the
nucleus.
● Protons have a positive charge, ● A source that supplies excess electrons
electrons represents a potential or electromotive
have a negative charge, and neutrons force.
have ● The potential or electromotive force is
no charge. referred to as voltage.
● The outer shell of an atom is called the ● Voltage is the force that moves
valence shell. electrons in a circuit.
● The number of electrons in the valence ● The symbol E is used to represent
shell is called the valence. voltage.
● An atom that has the same number of ● A volt (V) is the unit for measuring
protons as electrons is electrically voltage.
balanced. ● Resistance is the opposition to current
● The atomic number of an element is flow.
the ● Resistance is represented by the
number of protons in the nucleus. symbol R.
● The atomic weight of an atom is the ● All materials offer some resistance to
sum of current flow.
protons and neutrons. ● The resistance of a material is
● The orbits of the electrons are called dependent on the material’s size,
shells. shape, and temperature.
● Conductors are materials with low
resistance.
● Insulators are materials with high
resistance.
● Resistance is measured in ohms.
● The Greek letter omega (Ω) is used to
represent ohms.

CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY: CURRENTS

● Laws of electrostatic charges: like ● Electrons (negative charge) represent

charges repel, unlike charges attract. the charge carrier in an electrical
● Electrical charge (Q) is measured in circuit.
coulombs (C). ● Hole movement (positive charge)
occurs in the opposite direction to
electron movement.
● One coulomb is equal to ● Current flow in a circuit is from
6. 24 × 10
18
electrons. negative to positive.
● An electric current is the slow drift of ● Electrons travel very slowly through a
electrons from an area of negative conductor, but individual electrons
charge to an area of positive charge. move at the speed of light.
● Current flow is measured in amperes. ● Scientific notation expresses a very
● One ampere (A) is the amount of large or small number as a numeral
current from 1 to 9 to a power of ten.
that flows in a conductor when 1 ● If the power-of-ten exponent is
coulomb positive, the decimal point is moved to
of charge moves past a point in 1 the right.
second. ● If the power-of-ten exponent is
● The relationship between current, negative, the decimal point is moved
electrical charge, and time is to the left.
represented by the formula: ● The prefix milli- means
one-thousandth.
𝐼=
𝑄 ● The prefix micro- means
𝑡
one-millionth.

CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY: VOLTAGE

● Current is produced when an electron ● When cells or batteries are connected

is forced from its orbit. in a series-aiding configuration, the
● Voltage provides the energy to output current remains the same, but
dislodge electrons from their orbit. the output voltage increases.
● A voltage source provides a means of
converting some other form of energy 𝐼 𝑇
=𝐼 1
= 𝐼 2
=𝐼 3
into electrical energy.
● Six common voltage sources are 𝐸 𝑇
= 𝐸 1
+ 𝐸 2
+𝐸 3
friction, magnetism, chemicals, light,
heat, and pressure. ● When cells or batteries are connected
● Voltage can be used to produce in parallel, the voltage output remains
magnetism, chemicals, light, heat, and the same but the output current
pressure. available increases.
● Magnetism is the most common
method used to produce a voltage.
● Chemical cells are the second most 𝐼 =𝐼 + 𝐼 +𝐼
𝑇 1 2 3
common means of producing a
voltage. 𝐸 = 𝐸 = 𝐸 =𝐸
𝑇 1 2 3
● A cell contains positive and negative
electrodes separated by an electrolytic ● A series-parallel combination
solution. increases both the output voltage and
● A battery is a combination of two or the output current.
more cells. ● Voltage applied to a circuit is referred
● Cells that cannot be recharged are to as a voltage rise.
called primary cells. ● The energy used by a circuit is
● Cells that can be recharged are called referred to as a voltage drop.
secondary cells. ● The voltage drop in a circuit equals
● Dry cells are primary cells. Lead-acid the voltage rise.
batteries and nickel-cadmium ● Two types of ground are earth and
(Ni-Cad) cells are examples of electrical.
secondary cells. ● Earth grounding is used to prevent
● Cells and batteries can be connected in electric shock by keeping all
series, in parallel, or in series-parallel appliances and equipment at the same
to increase voltage, current, or both. potential.
● Electrical grounding provides a
common reference point.

CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY: RESISTANCE

● Resistors are either fixed or variable. ● Resistor values of less than 100 ohms
● The tolerance of a resistor is the are shown by a black third band.
amount that its resistance can vary ● Resistors may be placed in three
and still be acceptable. configurations—series, parallel, and
● Resistors are either carbon compound.
composition, wirewound, or film. ● Resistor values of less than 10 ohms
● Carbon composition resistors were are shown by a gold third band.
the most commonly used resistors. ● Resistor values of less than 1 ohm are
● Wirewound resistors are used in shown by a silver third band.
high-current circuits that must
dissipate large amounts of heat.
● Film resistors offer small sizes with ● Resistor values for 1% tolerance
high accuracy. resistors are shown with the fourth
● Variable resistors used to control band as the multiplier.
voltage are called potentiometers. ● Resistor values may also be identified
● Variable resistors used to control by an alphanumeric system.
current are called rheostats. ● The total resistance in a series circuit
● Resistor values may be identified by can be found by the formula:
colored bands:
- The first band represents the 𝑅 𝑇
= 𝑅 1
+ 𝑅 2
+𝑅 3
. . . +𝑅 𝑛
first digit.
- The second band represents ● The total resistance in a parallel circuit
the second digit. can be found by the formula:
- The third band represents the
1 1 1 1 1
number of zeros to be added 𝑅 𝑇
= 𝑅 1
+ 𝑅 2
+ 𝑅 3
. . . + 𝑅 𝑛
to the first two digits.
- The fourth band represents the ● The total resistance in a series-parallel
tolerance. circuit is determined by both series and
- A fifth band may be added to parallel formulas.
represent reliability.

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY: OHM’S LAW

● An electric circuit consists of a voltage ● Ohm’s law states that the current in an
source, a load, and a conductor. electric circuit is directly proportional
● The current path in an electric circuit to the voltage applied and inversely
can be series, parallel, or proportional to the resistance in the
series-parallel. circuit.
● A series circuit offers only one path ● 𝐼=
𝐸
𝑅
for current to flow.
● Ohm’s law applies to all series,
● A parallel circuit offers several paths
parallel, and series-parallel circuits.
for the flow of current.
● To determine unknown quantities in a
● A series-parallel circuit provides a
circuit:
combination of series and parallel
- Draw a schematic of the circuit
paths for the flow of current.
and label all quantities.
● Current flows from the negative side
of the voltage source through the load
to the positive side of the voltage - Solve for equivalent circuits
source. and redraw the circuit.
● Current flow in an electric circuit can - Solve for all unknown
be varied by changing either the quantities.
voltage or the resistance. ● Kirchoff’s current law: The algebraic
● The relationship of current, voltage, sum of all the currents entering and
and resistance is given by Ohm’s law. leaving a junction is equal to zero; it
may be restated as the total current
flowing into a junction is equal to the
sum of the current flowing out of that
junction.
● Kirchoff’s voltage law: The algebraic
sum of all the voltages around a closed
circuit equals zero; it may be restated
as the sum of all the voltage drops in a
closed circuit will equal the voltage
source.

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY: ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS – METERS

● Analog meters use a graduated scale ● A voltmeter is connected in parallel

with a pointer. with a circuit.
● Digital meters provide a direct ● An ohmmeter measures resistance by
readout. the amount of current flowing through
● On both analog and digital meters, the the resistor being measured.
red terminal is positive and the black ● The maximum value of a meter scale
terminal is negative. is called the full scale value.
● Before using an analog meter, check ● The number of divisions on the meter
the mechanical zero adjustment. scale depends on the range the meter
● A multimeter combines a voltmeter, is designed to measure.
ammeter, and ohmmeter into one ● Ammeters and voltmeters are read
package. from left to right and have a linear
● A VOM is an analog multimeter that scale.
measures volts, ohms, and ● Ohmmeters are read from right to left
milliamperes. and have nonlinear scales.
● A DMM is a digital multimeter.
● On a multimeter, the range selector ● An analog ohmmeter must be
switch selects the function to be used. calibrated before use to compensate
● An ammeter must be connected in for battery deterioration.
series with a circuit.

CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY: POWER

● Power is the rate at which energy is delivered to a circuit.

● Power is also the rate at which energy (heat) is dissipated by the resistance in a circuit.
● Power is measured in watts.
● Power is the product of current and voltage:
● 𝑃 = 𝐼𝐸
● The total power dissipated in a series or parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the power
dissipated by the individual components.

𝑃 𝑇
=𝑃 1
+ 𝑃 2
+𝑃 3
. . . +𝑃 𝑛

CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY: DC CIRCUITS

● A series circuit provides only one path for current flow.

● Formulas governing the operation of a series circuit include:

𝐼 𝑇
=𝐼 𝑅
=𝐼 𝑅
= 𝐼 𝑅
. . . = 𝐼 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛

𝑅 𝑇
= 𝑅 1
+ 𝑅 2
+𝑅 3
. . . +𝑅 𝑛

𝐸 𝑇
= 𝐸 𝑅
+𝐸 𝑅
+ 𝐸 𝑅
. . . + 𝐸 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛

𝐼 = 𝐸/𝑅

𝑃 𝑇
=𝑃 𝑅
+𝑃 𝑅
+ 𝑃 𝑅
. . . + 𝑃 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛
● A parallel circuit provides more than one path for current flow.
● Formulas governing the operation of a parallel circuit include:

𝐼 𝑇
=𝐼 𝑅
+𝐼 𝑅
+ 𝐼 𝑅
. . . + 𝐼 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛

1 1 1 1 1
𝑅 𝑇
= 𝑅 1
+ 𝑅 2
+ 𝑅 3
. . . + 𝑅 𝑛

𝐸 𝑇
= 𝐸 𝑅
=𝐸 𝑅
= 𝐸 𝑅
. . . = 𝐸 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛

𝐼 = 𝐸/𝑅

𝑃 𝑇
=𝑃 𝑅
+𝑃 𝑅
+ 𝑃 𝑅
. . . + 𝑃 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛

● Series-parallel circuits are solved by using series formulas for the series parts of the
circuit and parallel formulas for the parallel parts of the circuit.
● Voltage dividers are used to set the bias or operating point of active electronic
components.
● A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure an unknown electrical resistance.

CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY: MAGNETISM

● The word magnet is derived from the ● The strength of an electromagnet is

name of magnetite, a mineral that is a directly proportional to the number of
natural magnet. turns in the coil and the amount of
● A magnet can be created by rubbing a current flowing through the coil.
piece of soft iron with another magnet. ● The polarity of an electromagnet is
● An electromagnet is created by current determined by grasping the coil with
flowing in a coil of wire. the left hand with the fingers in the
● Horseshoe, bar, rectangular, and ring direction of current flow. The thumb
are the most common shapes of then points toward the north pole.
magnets. ● Retentivity is the ability of a material
● Unlike poles attract and like poles to retain a magnetic field.
repel. ● Electromagnetic induction occurs
when a conductor passes through a
magnetic field.
● One theory of magnetism is based on ● Faraday’s law: Induced voltage is
the spin of electrons as they orbit directly proportional to the rate at
around an atom. which the conductor cuts the magnetic
● Another theory of magnetism is based lines of force.
on the alignment of domains. ● The left-hand rule for generators can
● Flux lines are invisible lines of force be used to determine the direction of
sur- rounding a magnet. induced voltage.
● Flux lines form the smallest loop ● AC and DC generators convert
possible. mechanical energy into electrical
● Permeability is the ability of a material energy.
to accept magnetic lines of force. ● A relay is an electromechanical
● A magnetic field surrounds a wire switch.
when current flows through it. ● Electromagnetic principles are applied
● The direction of the flux lines around in the design and manufacture of
a wire can be determined by grasping doorbells, solenoids, phonograph
the wire with the left hand, with the pickups, loudspeakers, and magnetic
thumb pointing in the direction of recordings.
current flow. The fingers then point in ● DC motors and meters use the same
the direction of the flux lines. principles.
● If two current-carrying wires are ● Electron beams can be deflected by an
placed next to each other, with current electromagnetic field to produce
flowing in the same direction, their images on television, radar, and
magnetic fields combine. oscilloscope screens.

CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY: INDUCTANCE

● Inductance is the ability to store ● The total inductance for inductors

energy in a magnetic field. connected in series is calculated by the
● The unit for measuring inductance is formula:
the henry (H). 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿 1 + 𝐿 2 + 𝐿 3. . . + 𝐿 𝑛
● The letter L represents inductance. ● The total inductance for inductors
● Inductors are devices designed to have connected in parallel is:
specific inductances. 1 1 1 1 1
= + + . . . +
● The symbol for fixed inductance is: 𝐿 𝑇 𝐿 1 𝐿 2 𝐿 3 𝐿 𝑛
● A time constant is the time required
for current to increase to 63.2% or
decrease to 36.8% of the maximum
● The symbol for a variable inductor is: current.
● A time constant can be determined by
the formula:

𝐿
𝑡= 𝑅

● Types of inductors include air core, ● It takes five time constants to fully
ferrite or powdered iron core, toroid build up or collapse the magnetic field
core, shielded, and laminated iron of an inductor.
core.

CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY: CAPACITANCE

● Capacitance is the ability to store ● Capacitance is affected by:

electrical energy in an electrostatic 1. Area of the capacitor plates
field. 2. Distance between the plates
● A capacitor consists of two conductors 3. Types of dielectric materials
separated by an insulator. 4. Temperature
● The symbol for a fixed capacitor is: ● Capacitor types include electrolytic,
paper, plastic, ceramic, and variable.
● The formula for total capacitance in a
series circuit is:

1 1 1 1 1
𝐶 𝑇
= 𝐶 1
+ 𝐶 2
+ 𝐶 3
. . . + 𝐶 𝑛
● The symbol for a variable capacitor is:

● The formula for total capacitance in a

parallel circuit is:
𝐶 𝑇 = 𝐶 1 + 𝐶 2 + 𝐶 3. . . + 𝐶 𝑛
● The formula for the RC circuit time
● The unit of capacitance is the farad constant is:
(F). 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶
● Because the farad is large, microfarads ● It takes five time constants to fully
(µF) and picofarads (pF) are more charge and discharge a capacitor.
often used.
● The letter C represents capacitance.

SECTION 2: AC CIRCUITS

CHAPTER 12 SUMMARY: ALTERNATING CURRENT

● AC is the most commonly used type ● The effective value can be determined
of electricity. by a mathematical process called the
● AC consists of current flowing in one root-mean- square (rms) process.
direction and then reversing and ● The rms value of a sine wave is equal
flowing in the opposite direction. to 0.707 times the peak value.
● One revolution of an AC generator is ● 𝐸 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0. 707𝐸 𝑝
called a cycle. ● 𝐼 = 0. 707𝐼
● The two halves of a cycle are referred 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑝

to as alternations. ● The time required to complete one

● Two complete alternations with no cycle of a sine wave is called the
reference to time make up a cycle. period (t).
● One cycle per second is defined as a ● The number of cycles occurring in a
hertz. specific period of time is called
● The waveform produced by an AC frequency (f).
generator is called a sinusoidal ● The relationship between frequency
waveform or sine wave. and period is:
1
● The peak value of a sine wave is the ● 𝑓= 𝑡
absolute value of the point on the
waveform with the greatest amplitude.
● The peak-to-peak value is the vertical ● Square waves are composed of the
distance from one peak to the other fundamental frequency and all odd
peak. harmonics.
● The effective value of AC is the ● Triangular waveforms are composed
amount of current that produces the of the fundamental frequency and all
same degree of heat in a given odd harmonics 180 degrees out of
resistance as an equal amount of direct phase with the fundamental frequency.
current. ● Sawtooth waveforms are composed of
both even and odd harmonics, the
even harmonics being 180 degrees out
of phase with the odd harmonics.

CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY: AC MEASUREMENTS

● To measure AC current or voltage on a ● The basic parts of an oscilloscope are:

moving coil meter, the current or - Cathode-ray tube
voltage must first be converted to DC. - Sweep generator
● Iron-vane meter movement does not - Horizontal deflection amplifier
require conversion to DC. - Vertical deflection amplifier
● A clamp-on AC meter is based on the - Power supply
principle that current flowing through ● A counter measures frequency by
a wire generates a magnetic field. comparing an unknown frequency to
● An oscilloscope provides the a known frequency.
following information about a circuit: ● The basic parts of a frequency counter
- Frequency of the signal are: –
- Duration of the signal - Time base
- Phase relationships between - Input-signal conditioner
signal waveforms - Gate-control circuit
- Shape of the signal’s waveform - Main gate
- Amplitude of the signal - Decade counter
- Display
● A Bode plotter produces a graph of a
circuit frequency response.

CHAPTER 14 SUMMARY: RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS

● A basic AC resistive circuit consists of a voltage source, conductors, and a resistive
load.
● The current is in phase with the applied voltage in a resistive circuit.
● The effective value of AC current or voltage produces the same results as the
equivalent DC voltage or current.
● The effective values are the most widely used measurement values.
● Ohm’s law can be used with all effective values.
● AC voltage or current values are assumed to be the effective values if not otherwise
specified.

CHAPTER 15 SUMMARY: CAPACITIVE AC CIRCUITS

● When an AC voltage is applied to a ● RC networks are used for filtering,

capacitor, it gives the appearance of coupling, and phase shifting.
current flow. ● A filter is a circuit that discriminates
● The capacitor charging and against certain frequencies.
discharging represents current flow. ● A low-pass filter passes frequencies
● The current leads the applied voltage below a cut-off frequency. It consists
by 90 degrees in a capacitive circuit. of a resistor and capacitor in series.
● Capacitive reactance is the opposition ● A high-pass filter passes frequencies
a capacitor offers to the applied above a cut-off frequency. It consists
voltage. of a capacitor and resistor in series.
● Capacitive reactance is represented by ● Coupling networks pass AC signals
𝑋 𝐶. but block DC signals.
● Capacitive reactance is measured in
ohms.
● Capacitive reactance can be calculated
by the formula:

1
𝑋 𝐶
= 2π𝑓𝐶

CHAPTER 16 SUMMARY: INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUITS

● In a pure inductive circuit, the current lags the applied voltage by 90 degrees.
● Inductive reactance is the opposition to current flow offered by an inductor in an AC
circuit.
● Inductive reactance is represented by 𝑋 𝐿.
● Inductive reactance is measured in ohms.
● Inductive reactance can be calculated by the formula:

𝑋 𝐿
= 2π𝑓𝐿

● Impedance is the vector sum of the inductive reactance and the resistance in the circuit.
● Series RL circuits are used for low- and high-pass filters.

CHAPTER 17 SUMMARY: RESONANCE CIRCUITS

● Ohm’s law applies to AC circuits, just ● Apparent power is obtained by

as it does to DC circuits. multiplying the source voltage and
● The AC current lags the voltage by 90 current with units of volt-amperes.
degrees in an inductor (ELI). ● The ratio of true power to apparent
● The AC current leads the voltage by power in volts-amperes is called the
90 degrees in a capacitor (ICE). power factor.
● Vector representation allows the use of ● Power factor is very important in the
trigonometric functions to determine consideration of heavy industrial
voltage or current when the phase power distribution.
angle is known. ● Resonance circuits make it possible
● The combined effect of resistance and for a circuit to tune a station to a
inductance or capacitance is called particular frequency.
impedance. ● Resonance is desired for radio
frequency in tuning circuits.

CHAPTER 18 SUMMARY: TRANSFORMERS

● A transformer consists of two coils, a ● The ratio of secondary to primary
primary winding and a secondary voltage is equal to the ratio of
winding. secondary to primary turns.
● An AC voltage is put across the
𝐸 𝑁
primary winding, inducing a voltage in 𝑆
= 𝑆
𝐸 𝑁
the secondary winding. 𝑃 𝑃

● Transformers allow an AC signal to be

● A transformer that produces a
transferred from one circuit to another.
secondary voltage greater than its
● Transformers allow stepping up,
primary voltage is called a step-up
stepping down, or passing the signal
transformer.
unchanged.
● The turns ratio of a step-up
● Transformers are designed to operate
transformer is always greater than 1.
at certain frequencies.
● A transformer that produces a
● Transformers are rated in volt-amperes
secondary voltage less than its primary
(VA).
voltage is called a step-down
● The schematic symbol used for
transformer.
iron-core
● The turns ratio of a step-down
transformers is:
transformer is always less than 1.
● The amount the voltage is stepped up
or down is determined by the turns
ratio.
● Transformer applications include
impedance matching, phase shifting,
isolation, blocking DC while passing
AC, and producing several
● signals at different voltage levels.
● The turns ratio determines whether a
● An isolation transformer passes the
transformer is used to step up, step
signal unchanged.
down, or pass voltage unchanged.
𝑁
● An isolation transformer is used to
turns ratio = 𝑁
𝑆
prevent electric shocks.
𝑃
● An autotransformer is used to step up
or step down voltage.
● An autotransformer is a special
transformer that does not provide
isolation.
SECTION 3: SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

CHAPTER 19 SUMMARY: SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS

● Semiconductor materials are any ● A hole represents the absence of an

materials with characteristics that fall electron in the valence shell.
between those of insulators and ● A difference of potential, applied to
conductors. pure semiconductor material, creates a
● Pure semiconductor materials are current flow toward the positive
germanium (Ge), silicon (Si), and terminal and a hole flow toward the
carbon (C). negative terminal.
● Silicon is used for most semiconductor ● Current flow in semiconductor
devices. materials consists of both electron
● Valence is an indication of an atom’s flow and hole movement.
ability to gain or lose electrons. ● Doping is the process of adding
● Semiconductor materials have valence impurities to a semiconductor
shells that are half full. material.
● Crystals are formed by atoms sharing ● Pentavalent materials have atoms with
their valence electrons through five valence electrons and are used to
covalent bonding. make N-type material.
● Semiconductor materials have a ● Trivalent materials have atoms with
negative temperature coefficient: As three valence electrons and are used to
the temperature rises, their resistance make P-type material.
decreases. ● In N-type material, electrons are the
● Heat creates problems with majority carrier and holes are the
semiconductor materials by allowing minority carrier.
electrons to break their covalent ● In P-type material, holes are the
bonds. majority carrier and electrons are the
● As the temperature increases in a minority carrier.
semiconductor material, electrons drift ● N- and P-type semiconductor
from one atom to another. materials have a higher conductivity
than pure semiconductor materials.
CHAPTER 20 SUMMARY: PN JUNCTION DIODES

● A junction diode is created by joining ● The schematic symbol for a diode is:
N-type and P-type materials together.
● The region near the junction is
referred to as the depletion region.
Electrons cross the junction from the
N-type to the P-type material and thus
both the holes and the electrons near
the junction are depleted.
● In a diode, the cathode is the N-type
● The size of the depletion region is
material, and the anode is the P-type
limited by the charge on each side of
material.
the junction.
● Diodes can be constructed by the
● The charge at the junction creates a
grown junction, alloyed junction, or
voltage called the barrier voltage.
diffused junction method.
● The barrier voltage is 0.3 V for
● The diffused junction method is the
germanium and 0.7 V for silicon.
one most often used.
● A current flows through a diode only
● Packages for diodes of less than 3 A
when the external voltage is greater
identify the cathode end of the diode
than the barrier voltage.
with a black, white, or silver band.
● A diode that is forward biased
● A diode is tested by comparing the
conducts current. The P-type material
forward to the reverse resistance with
is connected to the positive terminal,
an ohmmeter.
and the N-type material is connected
● When a diode is forward biased, the
to the negative terminal.
resistance is low.
● A diode that is reverse biased conducts
● When a diode is reverse biased, the
only a small leakage current.
resistance is high.
● A diode is a one-directional device.
● A diode’s maximum forward current
and reverse voltage are specified by
the manufacturer.

CHAPTER 21 SUMMARY: ZENER DIODES

● Zener diodes are designed to operate ● Zener diodes are packaged the same as
at voltages greater than the breakdown PN junction diodes.
voltage (peak reverse voltage). ● Zener diodes with a breakdown
● The breakdown voltage of a zener voltage greater than 5 V have a
diode is determined by the resistivity positive zener voltage-temperature
of the diode. coefficient.
● Zener diodes are manufactured with a ● Zener diodes with a breakdown
specific breakdown (zener) voltage. voltage less than 4 V have a negative
● Power dissipation of a zener diode is zener voltage- temperature coefficient.
based on temperature and lead lengths. ● Zener diodes are used to stabilize or
● The schematic symbol for a zener regulate voltage.
diode is: ● Zener diode regulators provide a
constant output voltage despite
changes in the input voltage or output
current.
● Zener diodes can be tested for opens,
shorts, or leakage with an ohmmeter.
● To determine whether a zener diode is
regulating at the proper voltage, a
regulation test must be performed.

CHAPTER 22 SUMMARY: BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

● A transistor is a three-layer device ● Transistors are identified with a prefix

used to amplify and switch power and of 2N followed by up to four digits.
voltage. ● The transistor package provides
● A bipolar transistor is also called a protection, a heat sink, and a support
junction transistor or simply a for the leads.
transistor. ● Transistor packages are identified with
● Transistors can be configured as NPN the letters TO (transistor outline).
or PNP. ● In a properly biased transistor, the
● The middle region of the transistor is emitter-base junction is forward biased
called the base, and the two outer and the collector-base junction is
regions are called the emitter and reverse biased.
collector.
● The schematic symbols used for NPN ● PNP transistor bias sources are the
and PNP transistors are: reverse of NPN bias sources.
● The internal barrier voltage for
germanium transistors is 0.3 V and for
silicon transistors is 0.7 V.
● The reverse-bias voltage applied to the
collector-base junction is higher than
the forward-bias voltage applied to the
emitter-base junction.
● A transistor is classified according to
● When a transistor is tested with an
whether it is NPN or PNP, silicon or
ohmmeter, each junction exhibits a
germanium, high or low power, and
low resistance when it is forward
switching or high frequency.
biased and a high resistance when it is
reverse biased.
● Transistor testers are available for
testing transistors in and out of circuit.

CHAPTER 23 SUMMARY: FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETs)

● A JFET uses a channel instead of ● The source and drain leads can be
junctions (as in transistors) for interchanged on most JFETs and
controlling a signal. MOSFETs because the devices are
● The three leads of a JFET are attached symmetrical.
to the gate, source, and drain. ● The schematic symbol for an
● The input signal is applied between enhancement MOSFET is:
the gate and the source for controlling
a JFET.
● JFETs have extremely high input
resistance.
● The schematic symbols for JFETs are:
● MOSFETs must be handled carefully
to avoid rupture of the thin oxide layer
separating the metal gate from the
channel.
● Electrostatic charges from fingers can
damage a MOSFET.
● MOSFETs (insulated gate FETs) ● Prior to use, keep the leads of a
isolate the metal gate from the channel MOSFET shorted together.
with a thin oxide layer. ● Wear a grounded metallic wrist strap
● Enhancement mode MOSFETs are when handling MOSFETs.
usually P-channel devices and are ● Use a grounded soldering iron when
normally off. soldering MOSFETs into a circuit
● One difference between JFETs and and make sure the power to the circuit
MOSFETs is that the gate can be made is off.
positive or negative on MOSFETs. ● JFETs and MOSFETs can be tested
● Depletion mode MOSFETs are usually using a commercial transistor tester or
N-channel devices and are classified an ohmmeter.
as normally on.
● The schematic symbol for a depletion
MOSFET is:
Exercises

SECTION 1: DC CIRCUITS

CHAPTER 1 EXERCISES: FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

1. What is the difference between an element, an atom, a molecule, and a compound?

2. What criteria determine whether an atom is a good conductor?
3. What determines whether a material is a conductor, a semiconductor, or an insulator?
4. Why is it essential to understand the relationship between conductors, semiconductors,
and
insulators?
5. How many electrons need to move past a point to be defined as an ampere?
6. In a circuit, what is doing the actual work?
7. What is resistance in a circuit really doing?
8. Make a chart comparing current, voltage, and resistance. Include the symbol and unit
for each.
9. Explain the difference between current, voltage, and resistance.
10. Describe how the resistance of a material is determined.

CHAPTER 2 EXERCISES: CURRENTS

1. How much current is in a circuit if it takes 5 seconds for 7 coulombs to flow past a
given point?
2. Describe how electrons flow in a circuit with reference to the potential in the circuit.
3. Convert the following numbers to scientific notation:
a. 235
b. 0.002376
c. 56323.786
4. What do the following prefixes represent?
a. Milli-
b. Micro-
5. Make a table and convert the following:
a. 305 mA to __________ A
b. 6µA to __________ mA
c. 17 volts to __________ mV
d. 0.023 mV to __________ µV
e. 0.013 kΩ to __________ Ω
f. 170 MΩ to __________ Ω

CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES: VOLTAGE

1. Does current or voltage perform the work in a circuit?

2. List six forms of energy that can be used to produce electricity.
3. How are secondary cells rated?
1
4. Draw a series-parallel combination that will supply 9 volts at 1 ampere. Use 1 2 -volt
cells rated at 250 milliamperes.
5. What is the voltage drop across three lamps of 3 volts, 3 volts, and 6 volts with 9 volts
applied?
6. What is the voltage and current of two 12-volt, 600 ampere batteries connected in
series, and then connected in parallel with two more 12-volt, 600 ampere batteries
connected in series?
7. What is one way that a circuit uses the excess energy flowing in a circuit?
8. How does the current flow in a circuit from a battery?
9. What is the difference between ground’s use in homes, automobiles, and electronics?
10. Make a chart showing the formulas used for series and parallel for voltage and current
in a circuit.

CHAPTER 4 EXERCISES: RESISTANCE

1. Describe how the resistance of a material is determined.

2. What is the tolerance range of a 2200-ohm resistor with a 10% tolerance?
3. Write the color codes for the following resistors:
a. 5600 ohms ±5%
b. 1.5 megohms ±10%
c. 2.7 ohms ±5%
d. 100 ohms ±20%
e. 470 kilohms ±10%
4. Decode the following code for a chip resistor: RC0402D104T.
5. Describe how potentiometers are labeled.
6. Make a chart for calculating total resistance for resistors in series, parallel, and
series-parallel circuits.
7. Determine the total resistance for four 8-ohm resistors in parallel.
8. Describe the steps for solving the total resistance in question 9.
9. Determine the total resistance for the circuit shown.
CHAPTER 5 EXERCISES: OHM’S LAW

Using Ohm’s law, find the unknown values for the following:

1. I=? E=9V R = 4500 ohms

2. I = 250 mA E=? R = 470 ohms
3. I = 10 mA E=9V R=?
4. Find the current and voltage drop through each component for the circuits below.

5. Use Kirchoff’s laws to verify answers for question 4.

CHAPTER 6 EXERCISES: ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS – METERS

1. Which type of meter, analog or digital, would you use for an accurate reading?
2. Which type of meter, analog or digital, would you use to gauge rapid changes in a
source?
3. Draw a meter scale for each of the following and show where the needle would point
for the following readings.
a. 23 V
b. 220 mA
c. 2700 ohms
4. What are the advantages of using a multimeter?
5. Draw diagrams showing a multimeter connected in a circuit to measure the following:
voltage, current, and resistance.
6. What is the difference between a VOM and a DMM?
7. When using a VOM, to what range should the selector switch be set?
8. When using a VOM and the pointer is driven hard into the pin, what should be done
immediately? What action should follow?
9. Why are analog ammeters and voltmeters read from left to right, while analog
ohmmeters are read from right to left?
10. Does the DMM ohmmeter function have to be calibrated prior to use?

CHAPTER 7 EXERCISES: POWER

Using Watt’s law, find the missing value for the following:

1. P=? E = 30 V I = 40 mA
2. P=1W E=? I = 10 mA
3. P = 12.3 W E = 30V I=?
4. What is the individual power consumption of each resistor in the following circuits?

5. What is the total power consumption for the circuits used in question 4?

CHAPTER 8 EXERCISES: DC CIRCUITS

1. Solve for all unknown quantities in the circuit shown.

2. Design a voltage divider that will provide 1.5 V at 250 mA, 6 V at 750 mA, and 9 V at
500 mA from 12 V.
3. Draw and label all values for the voltage divider in problem 2.
4. Design a voltage divider to produce 9 V at 150 mA from 13.8 volts used in an
automobile.
5. Draw and label a Wheatstone bridge and solve for 𝑅𝑋 when 𝑅𝐴 and 𝑅𝐵 are 1 kΩ each
and 𝑅𝐶 is 7.59 kΩ.

CHAPTER 9 EXERCISES: MAGNETISM

1. How can the domain theory of magnetism be verified?

2. What three methods can be used to increase the strength of an electromagnet?
3. Explain the left-hand rule for conductors.
4. Explain how a DC generator operates through one cycle.
5. Show in a drawing how an electromagnet works.
6. Explain how to determine the polarity of an electromagnet.
7. How can an electromagnet be made stronger?
8. Explain the left-hand rule for generators.
9. Draw and identify the parts of a DC generator.
10. Describe how an AC motor operates.
11. What other devices can use a magnetic field to operate besides DC motors and
generators?

CHAPTER 10 EXERCISES: INDUCTANCE

1. Explain Lenz’s law as it relates to emf.

2. What is the relationship between a conductor and counter emf?
3. Identify types and shapes of inductors.
4. How can the magnetic field be increased for a particular inductance?
5. What is the total inductance for the circuit shown?

6. A 500-mH inductor and a 10-kilohm resistor are connected in series to a 25-volt

source. What will be the voltage across the inductor 100 microseconds after energizing
the circuit?
7. Make a chart for the growth and decay time constants for the following components:
a. 1 H, 100 Ω
b. 100 mH, 10 kΩ
c. 10 mH, 1 kΩ
d. 10 H, 10 Ω
e. 1000 mH, 1 kΩ

CHAPTER 11 EXERCISES: CAPACITANCE

1. Where is the charge stored in a capacitor?
2. Describe the process of charging a capacitor.
3. What happens to a capacitor when it is charged up and then removed from a circuit?
4. Describe how to discharge a charged capacitor.
5. How do the plate area and distance between plates affect the value of a capacitor?
6. What are the types and styles of capacitors?
7. Four capacitors are connected in series, 1.5 µF, 0.05 µF, 2000 pF, and 25 pF. What is
the total
capacitance of the circuit?
8. Four capacitors are connected in parallel, 1.5 µF, 0.05 µF, 2000 pF, and 25 pF. What is
the total capacitance of the circuit?
9. Using a 100-volt source, create a chart showing the time constants, charge, and
discharge voltage for each time constant.
10. Make a chart for the charge and discharge time constants for a 100-µF capacitor with a
10-kΩ resistor.

SECTION 2: AC CIRCUITS

CHAPTER 12 EXERCISES: ALTERNATING CURRENT

1. What causes magnetic induction to occur?

2. Explain how the left-hand rule applies to AC generators.
3. Explain how the peak-to-peak value of a waveform is determined.
4. How is the effective value of alternating current determined?
5. What is the effective value of a voltage sine wave measuring 169 volts, peak to peak?
6. What is the peak value of a sine wave that has an effective value of 85 volts?
7. What is the frequency of a sine wave with a period of 0.02 second?
8. What is the period of a sine wave with a frequency of 400Hz?
9. Draw examples of three nonsinusoidal waveforms that can represent current and
voltage.
10. Why are harmonics important in the study of waveforms?

CHAPTER 13 EXERCISES: AC MEASUREMENTS

1. Describe how a DC meter can be adapted to measure an AC signal.

2. Explain how a clamp-on ammeter is used for measuring current.
3. What type of information does an oscilloscope provide?
4. Describe the process for examining an oscilloscope to determine whether it is operating
properly.
5. What is the last step prior to connecting an oscilloscope to a circuit?
6. Describe what needs to be done to the control settings prior to connecting an
oscilloscope to an input signal.
7. Identify and describe the function of each of the major blocks of a counter.
8. What has been the major factor in bringing the counter to the workbench of repair
shops?
9. Where would a digital counter be used and what type of information would it provide?
10. Describe how a Bode plotter is connected to a circuit to measure magnitude.

CHAPTER 14 EXERCISES: RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS

1. Explain the phase relationship between current and voltage in a pure resistive circuit.
2. What is the effective voltage of an AC circuit with 25 mA flowing through 4.7 k Ω?
3. What is the voltage drop across two resistors of 4.7 kΩ and 3.9 kΩ in series with an AC
voltage
of 12 V applied?
4. If two parallel resistors of 2.2 kΩ and 5.6 kΩ have an AC effective voltage of 120 V
applied across their input, what is the current developed through each of the resistors?
5. When discussing in-phase relationships, why are voltage waveforms shown in series
circuits and current waveforms shown in parallel circuits?
6. What determines the power consumption in an AC circuit?
7. What is the power consumption in an AC circuit with 120 V applied across a load of
1200 Ω?
8. What is the total power consumption in Figure A?
9. What is the power consumption of resistor R1 in Figure B?
10. What is the power consumption for resistor R3 in Figure C?

CHAPTER 15 EXERCISES: CAPACITIVE AC CIRCUITS

1. What is the relationship between current and the applied voltage in a capacitive circuit?
2. What is capacitive reactance a function of?
3. What is the capacitive reactance of a 1000-µF capacitor at 60Hz?
4. In question 3, what is the current flow through the capacitor with 12V applied?
5. List three applications for capacitive circuits.
6. Explain how an RC low-pass filter functions.
7. How can an AC signal be removed from a DC source?
8. Why are capacitive coupling circuits important?
9. Describe how a phase-shift network shifts the phase of an AC signal.
10. How can the phase shift be changed for a different frequency in a cascade phase-shift
network?

CHAPTER 16 EXERCISES: INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUITS

1. What is the relationship between current and the applied voltage in an inductive
circuit?
2. What factor affects the inductive reactance of an inductive circuit?
3. What is the inductive reactance of a 100-mH coil at 60 Hz?
4. How much current would flow through the inductor in question 3 if 24 V were applied?
5. How are inductors used in circuits?
6. How much voltage is required for 86 mA to flow through a 100-mH inductor at 50 Hz?
7. Calculate the impedance of a 150-mH inductor in series with a 680 Ω resistor at 60 Hz.
8. What is the inductance of a choke in a series RL circuit with a resistor of 910 Ω with
32V across it and an applied voltage of 45 V at 400 Hz?
9. What are the differences when connecting low-pass versus high-pass RL filters?
10. What is the cut-off frequency of an inductive circuit?

CHAPTER 17 EXERCISES: RESONANCE CIRCUITS

1. What are the values of 𝑋 𝐶

, 𝑋 𝐿, 𝑋, 𝑍, and 𝐼 𝑇
for the circuit shown in the following
figure?

2. What are the values of 𝐼 , 𝐼 𝐿, 𝐼

𝐶 𝑋
, 𝐼 , and 𝐼
𝑅 𝑍
for the circuit shown in the
following figure? What is the apparent power of this figure?
CHAPTER 18 EXERCISES: TRANSFORMERS

1. Explain how electromagnetic induction induces a voltage into the secondary of a

transformer.
2. Why are transformers rated in volt-amperes rather than in watts?
3. What is the difference between two transformers, one that has voltage applied to the
primary without a load on the secondary and one that has a load on the secondary?
4. How can a transformer generate a phase shift?
5. Describe how a transformer can block a DC signal.
6. What turns ratio is required on the secondary of a transformer if the primary has 400
turns?
The applied voltage is 120 VAC and the secondary voltage is 12 V.
7. What turns ratio is required for an impedance-matching transformer to match a 4-ohm
speaker to a 16-Ω source?
8. Explain why transformers are important for transmitting electrical power to residential
and
industrial needs.
9. How does an isolation transformer prevent electrical shock?
10. Where would a variable autotransformer be used?

SECTION 3: SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

CHAPTER 19 SUMMARY: SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS

1. What makes silicon more desirable to use than germanium?

2. What happens with a negative temperature coefficient?
3. Why is covalent bonding important in the formation of semiconductor materials?
4. Describe how an electron travels through a block of pure silicon at room temperature.
5. When can germanium’s temperature coefficient be an advantage?
6. How can current flow be supported in semiconductor material?
7. Describe the process of converting a block of pure silicon to N-type material.
8. How is N-type material defined?
9. Describe what happens to a block of N-type material when a voltage is applied.
10. Does doped semiconductor material have a higher or lower conductivity than pure
semiconductor material?
11. How can the conductivity of semiconductor material be increased?

CHAPTER 20 SUMMARY: PN JUNCTION DIODES

1. What does a PN junction diode accomplish?

2. Under what conditions will a silicon PN junction diode turn on?
3. Draw examples of a PN junction diode in forward and reverse bias. (Use schematic
symbols.)
4. Describe the process for forming a diode.
5. What are the majority carriers in the depletion region?
6. What is represented as an external voltage in a diode?
7. Why must an external resistor be connected to a diode when connecting to a voltage
source?
8. How much voltage must be applied to a silicon diode before it starts to conduct?
9. If a silicon diode is connected to a 12 volt source with 100 mA of current flowing
through it, how big is the external resistor?
10. Can a diode be made to conduct in either direction?
11. How can the leakage current in a diode be made to increase?
12. Describe the process for testing a diode and identifying the cathode.

CHAPTER 21 SUMMARY: ZENER DIODES

1. What happens to a zener diode after the breakdown voltage is exceeded?
2. How is the breakdown voltage of a sneer diode determined?
3. What happens to the zener diode’s power handling capabilities as its temperature is
increased?
4. List the specifications that determine a zener diode’s rating.
5. Draw a circuit using schematic symbols for regulating voltage on a load with a zener
diode.
6. Explain how a zener diode functions in a voltage regulator circuit.
7. How does a zener diode maintain a constant voltage in a voltage regulator?
8. Draw a setup for testing a zener diode using schematic symbols.
9. Describe the process for testing a zener diode’s voltage rating.
10. How can a zener diode test determine whether the zener diode is operating properly?

CHAPTER 22 SUMMARY: BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

1. Describe the construction of both NPN and PNP transistors.

2. How is a transistor identified after it is packaged?
3. What functions does a package offer a transistor?
4. How can the leads of a transistor package be determined?
5. What is the difference between a diode and a transistor?
6. The junction of a transistor can be forward biased, reverse biased, or unbiased. What
are the normal conditions of bias across the emitter-base and collector-base junctions of
a transistor?
7. When checking a good transistor with an ohmmeter, what kind of resistance should
exist across each junction?
8. Using an ohmmeter, what difficulty, if any, would be experienced in identifying the
transistor material type and emitter, base, and collector leads of an unknown transistor?
9. When connecting a transistor in a circuit, why must the technician know whether a
transistor is NPN or PNP?
10. How does the testing of a transistor with an ohmmeter compare to testing a transistor
with a transistor tester?

CHAPTER 23 SUMMARY: FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETs)

1. Draw schematic symbols for N- and P- channel JFETs and MOSFETs.
2. What are the two external bias voltages for a JFET referred as?
3. Explain what is meant by pinch-off voltage for an FET.
4. How is the pinch-off voltage for a JFET determined?
5. Describe what is meant by depletion-type MOSFET.
6. What is the difference between a depletion MOSFET and an enhancement MOSFET?
7. In what mode of operation is an enhancement MOSFET likely to be cut off?
8. Develop a list of safety precautions that must be observed when handling MOSFETs.
9. Describe how a JFET can be tested with an ohmmeter.
10. Describe how a MOSFET can be tested with an ohmmeter.
SELF-TEST ANSWERS
Answers

CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

1. An element is the basic building block of nature. An atom is the smallest particle of
an element that retains the characteristics of the element. A molecule is the chemi-
cal combination of two or more atoms. A compound is the chemical combination of
two or more elements and can be separated only by chemical means.
2. The number of free electrons that are available.
3. How many electrons are in the valence shell; less than four—conductor; four—semi-
conductor; more than four—insulator.
4. To understand how electricity flows or does not flow through various materials.
5. 6.24 ! 1018 electrons.
6. The work in a circuit is the result of a difference of potential also referred to as elec-
tromotive force (emf) or voltage.
7. Opposing the flow of electrons.
8.
Term Symbol Unit

Current I Ampere (A)

Voltage E Volt (V)

Resistance R Ohm (Ω)

9. The flow of electrons is current, the force that moves the electrons is voltage, and
the opposition to the flow of electrons is resistance.
10. The resistance of a material is determined by its size, shape, and temperature.

CHAPTER 2 CURRENT
1. Given: Solution:
Q
I"
I"? t
7
Q " 7 coulombs I"
5
t " 5 seconds I " 1.4 amperes
2. Electrons flow from the negative terminal of the potential through the conductor,
moving from atom to atom, to the positive terminal of the potential.

508
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
SELF-TEST ANSWERS 509

3. a. 235 " 2.35 ! 102

b. 0.002376 " 2.376 ! 10#3
c. 56323.786 " 5.6323786 ! 104
4. a. Milli means to divide by 1000 or to multiply by 0.001, expressed as 1 ! 10#3.
b. Micro means to divide by 1,000,000 or to multiply by 0.000001, expressed as 1 ! 10#6.
5. a. 0.305 A
b. 0.006 mA
c. 17000 mV
d. 0.000023 $V
e. 13 %
f. 170,000,000 %

Converts To

a. 305 mA 0.305 A

b. 6 mA 0.006 mA

c. 17 V 17000 mV

d. 0.023 mV 0.000023 mV

e. 0.013 k Ω 13 Ω

f. 170 M Ω 170,000,000 Ω

CHAPTER 3 VOLTAGE
1. The actual work accomplished in a circuit (the movement of electrons) is the result
of the difference of potential (voltage).
2. Electricity can be produced by friction, magnetism, chemicals, light, heat, and
pressure.
3. Secondary cells are rated in ampere-hours.
4.
6 each 1.5 V@ 250 mA

9V
+ 1A –

5. Given: Solution:
© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET " 9 V Draw the circuit:

L1 " 3 V rating L2
L2 " 3 V rating
L3 " 6 V rating L1 L3
ET = 9 V

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
510 SELF-TEST ANSWERS

Half of the voltage would be dropped across L1 and L2, and the other half of the volt-
age would be dropped across L3.
Therefore:
L1 ! L2 " 6-V drop L3 would drop 4.5 V
L3 " 6-V drop L2 would drop 2.25 V
9 # 1⁄2 " 9⁄2 " 4.5 V L1 would drop 2.25 V
Total voltage 9.00 V
6.
+ +
12 V 12 V

© Delmar Cengage Learning

– 600 A – 600 A
24 V
1200 V
+ +
12 V 12 V
– 600 A – 600 A

7. The energy is given up as heat.

8. The current flows from the negative terminal of the battery and returns to the pos-
itive terminal of the battery.
9. In the home ground is used to protect the user from electrical shock. In an automo-
bile the ground serves as part of the complete circuit. In electronics, ground serves
as the zero reference point against which all voltages are measured.

10.
Formulas for
Series Parallel

Current IT = I1 + I2 + I3 ... + In IT = I1 + I2 + I3 ... + In

Voltage ET = E1 = E2 = E3 ... = En ET = E1 = E2 = E3 ... = En

CHAPTER 4 RESISTANCE
1. The resistance of a material depends on the type of a material and its size, shape, and
temperature. It is determined by measuring a 1-foot length of wire made of the
material that is 1 mil in diameter and at a temperature of 20° Celsius.
2. Given: Solution:
Resistance " 2200 ohms 2200 # 0.10 " 220 ohms
Tolerance " 10% 2200 $ 220 " 1980 ohms
2200 ! 220 " 2420 ohms
Tolerance range is:
1980 ohms to 2420 ohms
3. a. Green, Blue, Red, Gold
b. Brown, Green, Green, Silver
c. Red, Violet, Gold, Gold
d. Brown, Black, Brown, None
e. Yellow, Violet, Yellow, Silver

4. RC0402D104T:
RC—Chip resistor
0402—Size (0.40" ! 0.02")
D—Tolerance (&0.5 %)
104—Resistance (100,000 %)
T—Packaging method.
5. Potentiometers may have the actual value stamped on them or they may have an
alphanumeric code.
6.
Formulas for
Series-Parallel

Series Parallel

Resistance RT = R1 = R2 = R3 ... = Rn 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ... + 1/Rn

7. 2 %
8. a. Find the total resistance (RA) for the parallel resistors R2, R3 and R4. (1/RA " 1/R2 &
1/R3 & 1/R4)
b. Find RT by adding R1, RA and R5. (RT " R1 & RA & R5)
9. RT " 1636.36

R1 = 500 Ω R1 = 500 Ω
RA = 136.36 Ω
R5 = 1000 Ω
© Delmar Cengage Learning

R2 R3 R4
250 Ω 500 Ω 750 Ω

R5 = 1000 Ω

10. The current flows from the negative side of the voltage source through the series
components, dividing among the branches of the parallel components, recombining
to flow through any more series or parallel components, and then returns to the pos-
itive side of the voltage source.

CHAPTER 5 OHM’S LAW

1. Given: Solution:
E
I"? I"
R
E"9V
R " 4500 % 9
I"
4500
I " 0.002 A or 2 mA

2. Given: Solution:
E
I " 250 mA " 0.250 A I"
R
E
E"? 0.250 "
470
0.250 E
R " 470 % "
1 470
(1)(E) " (0.250)(470)
E " 117.5 V
3. Given: Solution:
E
I " 10 A I"
R
240
E " 240 V 10 "
R
10 240
R"? "
1 R
(1)(240) " (10)(R)
240 10 R
"
10 10
240
" 1R
10
24 % " R

4. a. R1 = 50 Ω

ET = 12 V R2 = 25 Ω

First, find the total resistance of the circuit (series).

R T " R1 & R2
RT " 50 & 25
RT " 75 %
Second, redraw the circuit using the total equivalent resistance.
© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET = 12 V RT = 75 Ω

IT = ?

Third, find the total current of the circuit.

Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
RT
12
ET " 12 V IT "
75
RT " 75 % IT " 0.16 A or 160 mA
Now, find the voltage drop across R1 and R2.
E2
IT " I1 " I2 I2 "
R2
E1 E2
I1 " 0.16 "
R1 25
E1
0.16 " (0.16)(25) " E2
50
(0.16)(50) " E1 4V " E2
8V " E1
b. R1 = 150 Ω

R2 = 300 Ω
© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET = 12 V
IT = ?

First, find the total resistance of the circuit (parallel).

1 1 1
" &
RT R1 R2
1 1 1
" &
RT 150 300
1 2 1
" &
RT 300 300
1 3
"
RT 300
(3)(RT) " (1)(300)

(3)(RT) 300
"
3 3
300
1 RT "
3
RT " 100 %

Second, redraw the circuit with equivalent resistance.

ET = 12 V RT = 100 Ω
IT = ?

Third, find the total resistance of the circuit.

Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
RT
12
ET " 12 V IT "
100
RT " 100 % IT " 0.12 A or 120 mA
Now, find the branch currents for R1 and R2.
ET " E1 " E2
E1 E2
I1 " I2 "
R1 R2
12 12
I1 " I2 "
150 300
I1 " 0.08 A or 80mA I2 " 0.04A or 40mA

c. R1 = 75 Ω

R2 = 75 Ω

ET = 12 V R3 = 75 Ω

First, find the equivalent resistance for the parallel portion of the circuit.
1 1 1
" &
RA R1 R2
© Delmar Cengage Learning

1 1 1
" &
RA 75 75
1 2
"
RA 75

(2)(RA) " (1)(75)

(2)(RA) (1)(75)
"
2 2
75
1RA "
2
RA " 37.5 %
Second, redraw the circuit with equivalent resistance.

© Delmar Cengage Learning

RA = 37.5 Ω

ET = 12 V R3 = 75 Ω

Third, find the total resistance of the circuit.

R T " RA & R3
RT " 37.5 & 75
RT " 112.5 %
Fourth, find the total current of the circuit.
Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
RT
12
ET " 12 V IT "
112.5
RT " 112.5 % IT " 0.107 A or 107 mA
Fifth, find voltage drops for R3 and R4.
I T " IA " I3
IA " 0.107A
I3 " 0.107A
E3 EA
I3 " IA " EA " E1 " E2
R3 RA
E3 EA
0.107 " 0.107 " E1 " 4V
75 37.5
8V " E3 4V " EA E2 " 4V
Now, find the branch current for R1 and R2.
E1 E2
I1 " I2 "
R1 R2
4 4
I1 " I2 "
75 75
I1 " 0.053A or 53mA I2 " 0.053A or 53mA

5. a.

ET R2 = 25 Ω
12 V IT = 160 mA E2 = 4 V
I2 = 160 mA
RT = 75 Ω

I T " I1 " I2 ET " E1 & E2

160mA " 160mA " 160mA 12V " 8V " 4V
NOTE: Rounding may cause a difference in answers.
b.
R1 = 150 Ω
E1 = 12 V
I1 = 80 mA
RT = 100 Ω
ET = 12 V
R2 = 300 Ω
I1 = 120 mA
E2 = 12 V
I2 = 40 mA

IT " I1 & I2 ET " E1 " E2

120mA " 80mA & 40mA 12V " 12V " 12V
c.
R1 = 75 Ω
E1 = 4 V
I1 = 53.5 mA
RT = 112.5 Ω
ET = 12 V
R2 = 75 Ω
I1 = 107 mA
E2 = 4 V
R3 = 75 Ω
I2 = 53.5 mA
E3 = 8 V
I3 = 107 mA

IT " (I1 & I2) " I3 ET " (E1 " E2) & E2
0.107 " (0.0535 & 0.0535) " 0.107 12 " (4 " 4) & 8
0.107A " 0.107A " 0.107A 12V " 4V & 8V

CHAPTER 6 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS—METERS

1. Digital
2. Analog
3. a. 23 volts

10 20
© Delmar Cengage Learning

0 30

b. 220 milliamperes

100 200

0 300

c. 2700 ohms

2000 1000

∞ 0

4. One meter can be used to measure voltage, current, and resistance.

5. Measuring
Current Measuring
+ – Voltage
A

Measuring
Resistance +–
+
ET
–
R1

6. VOM is an analog multimeter and stands for volt-ohm-milliammeter. A DMM is a

digital multimeter. The DMM is easier to read with autoranging, autozeroing, and
autolock capabilities, but it does require batteries and the meter could be damaged
if voltage limitations are exceeded. The VOM simplifies the measuring of instanta-
neous signal changes, but the range must be manually changed, manually zeroed,
and does not offer autolock capabilities.
7. Always set the meter to the highest range being measured.
8. Remove power and reverse the meter leads if the meter deflects to the left side of
the meter; if the meter deflects to the right side of the meter then check to be sure
© Delmar Cengage Learning

the right range is selected.

9. An ohmmeter measures resistance by placing a voltage across the resistance
and measuring the amount of current flowing through the resistor. A high
current reading indicates a low resistance and a low current indicates a high
reistance.
10. No, it is autozeroing.

CHAPTER 7 POWER
1. Given: Solution:
P"? P " IE
I " 40 mA " 0.04 A P " (0.04)(30)
E " 30 V P " 1.2 W
2. Given: Solution:
P"1W P " IE
I " 10 mA " 0.01 A 1 " (0.01)(E)
1 (0.01)(E)
E"? "
0.01 (0.01)
1
" 1E
0.01
100 V " E
3. Given: Solution:
P " 12.3 W P " IE
I"? 12.3 " (I)(30)
12.3 (I)(30)
E " 30 V "
30 30
12.3
" 11
30
0.41 A " 1
I " 0.41 A or 410 mA
4. a.
R1 = 5.6 k Ω

ET = 120 V
IT = ?
R2 = 5.6 k Ω

First, find the total resistance of the circuit (series).

RT " R1 & R2
RT " 5600 & 5600
RT " 11,200 %
Second, redraw the circuit using total resistance.
© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET = 120 V RT = 11,200 Ω

IT = ?

Third, find the total circuit current.

Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
RT
120
ET " 120 V IT "
11,200
RT " 11,200 % IT " 0.0107 A or 10.7 mA
Now, find the total circuit power.
PT " ITET
PT " (0.0107)(120)
PT " 1.28 W
b.

ET = 120 V R1 = R2 = 2.2 k Ω
1kΩ

First, find the total resistance of the circuit (parallel).

1 1 1
" &
RT R1 R2
1 1 1
" &
RT 1000 2200
1
" 0.001 & 0.000455
RT
1
" 0.001455
RT
0.001455
RT "
1
(0.001455)(RT) " (1)(1)
1
RT "
0.001455
RT " 687.29 %
Second, redraw the circuit using total resistance.
© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET = 120 V RT = 687.29 Ω

Third, find the total circuit current.

Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
RT
120
ET " 120 V IT "
687.29
RT " 687.29 % IT " 0.175 A or 175 mA
Now, find total circuit power.
Given: Solution:
PT " ? PT " ITET
IT " 0.175 A PT " (0.175)(120)
ET " 120 V PT " 21 W
c. R1 = 3.3 k

ET = 120 V R2 = 4.7 k R3 = 1.5 k

First, find the equivalent resistance for the parallel portion of the circuit.
1 1 1
" &
RT 1500 4700
1
" 0.000667 & 0.000213
RA
1
" 0.000880
RA
0.0008801
" 1 RA
(0.000880)(RA) " (1)(1)
1
RA "
0.000880
RA " 1,136.36 %
Second, redraw the circuit using the equivalent resistance.

RA = 1136.36 Ω
© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET = 120 V R3 = 3.3 k Ω

Third, find the total resistance of the circuit.

RT " RA & R3
RT " 1136.36 & 3300
RT " 4436.36 %
Fourth, find the total current for the circuit.
Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
RT
120
ET " 120 V IT "
4436.36
RT " 4436.36 % IT " 0.027 A or 27 mA
Fifth, find the total power for the circuit.
Given: Solution:
PT " ? PT " ITET
IT " 0.027 A PT " (0.027)(120)
ET " 120 V PT " 3.24 W (with rounding)
3.25 W (without rounding)
5. Remember that rounding will give a slightly different answer.
a. Given:
IT " 0.010714 A I1 " E1/R1 I2 " E2/R2
ET " 120 V 0.010714 " E1/5600 0.010714 " E2/5600
RT " 11,200 % (0.010714)(5600) " E1 (0.010714)(5600) " E2
PT " 1.28 W 60 V " E1 60 V " E2

P1 " I1E1 P2 " I2E2

P1 " (0.10714)(60) P2 " (0.10714)(60)
P1 " 0.64 W P2 " 0.64 W

b. Given:
IT " 0.175 A I1 " E1/R1 I2 " E2/R2
ET " 120 V I1 " 120/1000 I2 " 120/2200
RT " 687.29 % I1 " 0.12 A I2 " 0.055
PT " 21 W

P1 " I1E1 P2 " I2E2

P1 " (0.12)(120) P2 " (0.055)(120)
P1 " 14.4 W P2 " 6.6 W

c. Given:

IT " IA " 0.027 A IA " EA/RA I1 " E1/R1

RA " 1136.36 % 0.027 " EA/1136.36 I1 " 30.672/1500
(0.027)(1136.36) " EA I1 " 0.0205 A
30.672 V " EA
I2 " E2/R2 P1 " I1E1 P2 " I2E2
I2 " 30.672/4700 P1 " (0.0205)(30.672) P2 " (0.00653)(30.672)
I2 " 0.00653 A P1 " 0.629 W P2 " 0.200 W

Given:
IT " I3 " 0.027 A I3 " E3/R3 P3 " I3E3
ET " 120 V 0.27 " E3/3300 P3 " (0.0.27)(89.1)
RT " 4436.36 % (0.027)(3300) " E3 P3 " 2.4057 W
PT " 3.24 W 89.1 V " E3

CHAPTER 8 DC CIRCUITS
1. a. R1 = 150 Ω

ET = 30 V R2 = 300 Ω

Find the total circuit resistance.

RT " R1 & R2
RT " 150 & 300
RT " 450 %
Redraw the equivalent circuit.

ET = 30 V RT = 450 Ω

Find the total circuit current.

ET
IT "
RT
30
IT "
450
IT " 0.0667 A or 66.7 mA
Find the voltage drop across each resistor.
IT " I1 & I2 (the current flow in a series circuit is the same throughout the circuit)
ER1 ER2
IR1 " I R2 "
R1 R2
E R1 ER2
0.0667 " 0.0667 "
150 300
© Delmar Cengage Learning

0.0667 ER1 0.0667 ER2

" "
1 150 1 300
(1)(ER1) " (0.0667)(150) (1)(ER2) " (0.0667)(300)
ER1 " (0.0667)(150) ER2 " (0.0667)(300)
ER1 " 10V ER2 " 20V

Find the power for each resistor.

PR1 " IR1ER1 PR2 " IR2ER2
PR1 " (0.0667)(10) PR2 " (0.0667)(20)
PR1 " 0.667 W PR2 " 1.334 W
Find the total power of the circuit.
PT " ITET PT " PR1 & PR2
PT " (0.0667)(30) or PT " 0.667 & 1.334
PT " 2.001 W PT " 2.001 W
b.

ET = 30 V R1 = R2 = 300 Ω
150 Ω

Find the total circuit resistance.

1 1 1
" &
RT R1 R2
1 1 1
" &
RT 150 300
1 2 1
" &
RT 300 300
1 3
"
RT 300
(3)(RT) " (1)(300)
(3)(RT) (1)(300)
"
3 3
300
RT "
3
RT " 100 %
Redraw the equivalent circuit.

ET = 30 V RT = 100 Ω

Find the total circuit current.

ET
IT "
RT
30
IT "
100
IT " 0.3 A or 300 mA

Find the current through each branch of the parallel circuit. The voltage is the same
across each branch of the parallel circuit.
ET " E 1 " E 2
ER1 ER2
IR1 " IR2 "
R1 R2
30 30
IR1 " IR2 "
150 300
IR1 " 0.2 A IR2 " 0.1 A
Find the power for each resistor.
PR1 " IR1ER1 PR2 " IR2ER2
PR1 " (0.2)(30) PR2 " (0.1)(30)
PR1 " 6 W PR2 " 3 W
Find the total power of the circuit.
PT " ITET
PT " (0.3)(30)
PT " 9W

c. R1 = 150

© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET = 120 V R2 = 50 R1 = 100

Find the equivalent resistance for the parallel portion of the circuit.
1 1 1
" "
RA R1 R2
1 1 1
" &
RA 100 50
1 1 2
" &
RA 100 100
1 3
"
RA 100
(3)(RA) " (1)(100)
(3)(RA) (1)(100)
"
3 3
100
RA "
3
RA " 33.3 %

Redraw the circuit.

RA = 33.3 Ω

© Delmar Cengage Learning

ET = 30 V

R3 = 150 Ω

Now find the total circuit resistance.

RT " RA ! R3
RT " 33.3 ! 150
RT " 183.3 %
Find the current flow (IT) for the equivalent circuit.
ET
IT "
RT
30
IT "
183.3
IT " 0.164 A or 164 mA
Find the voltage drop across resistors in the equivalent circuit. (Current is the same
throughout a series circuit.)
IT " IRA " IR3
ERA ER3
IRA " IR3 "
RA R3
ERA ER3
0.164 " 0.164 "
33.3 150
(1)(ERA) " (0.164)(33.3) (1)(ER3) " (0.164)(150)
ERA " 5.46 V ER3 " 24.6 V

Find the current across each of the resistors in the parallel portion of the circuit.
ER1 ER2
IR1 " IR2 "
R1 R2
5.46 5.46
I R1 " I R2 "
100 50
IR1 " 0.056 A IR2 " 0.109 A
Find the power across each component, and then find the total power.
PT " ITET PR1 " IR1ER1 PR2 " IR2ER2 PR3 " IR3ER3
PT " (0.164)(30) PR1 " (0.056)(5.46) PR2 " (0.109)(5.46) PR3 " (0.164)(24.6)
PT " 4.92 W PR1 " 0.298 W PR2 " 0.595 W PR3 " 4.034 W

2. Assume I4 is 10 mA.
Given:
I4 " 10 mA 14 " E4/R4 E3 " 6 $ 1.5 E2 " 9 $ 7.5 E1 " 12 $ 9
E4 " 1.5 V 0.010 " 1.5/R4 E3 " 4.5 V E2 " 1.5 V E1 " 3 V
R4 " 1.5/0.010 R4 " 150 % 13 " 0.010 ! 0.150 12 " 0.260 ! 0.750 11 " 1.010 ! 0.500
13 " 0.260 A 12 " 1.01 A 11 " 1.51 A
13 " E3/R3 12 " E2/R2 11 " E1/R1
0.260 " 4.5/R3 1.01 " 1.5/R2 1.51 " 3/R1
R3 " 4.5/0.260 R2 " 1.5/1.01 R1 " 3/1.51
R3 " 17.31 % R2 " 1.5 % R1 " 2 %

3.
1.510 A R1 2Ω

9V @ 500 mA
1.010 A R2 1.5 Ω

6V @ 750 mA
ET = 12 260 mA R3 17.31 Ω

1.5V @ 250 mA

10 mA R4 150 Ω

4. Assume I2 is 10 mA.
R1 =
I1 = 160 mA
30 Ω

ET = 13.8 V
9V @ 150 mA
R2 =
V
900 Ω
I2 = 10 mA

Given:
I2 " 10 mA 12 " E2/R2 E1 " 13 $ 8 $ 9
E2 " 9 V 0.010 " 9/R2 E1 " 4.8 V
R2 " 9/0.010 R2 " 900 % 11 " 0.010 ! 0.150
© Delmar Cengage Learning

11 " 0.160 A
11 " E1/R1
0.160 " 4.8/R1
R1 " 4.8/0.160
R1 " 30 %

RX RB = 1 kΩ
1 kΩ

ET V

RA = 1 kΩ RC =
7.59 kΩ

Given:
RA " 1 k% RX/RA " RB/RC RX " (RB)(RA)/RC
RB " 1 k% (RX)(RC) " (RB)(RA) RX " (1000)(1000)/7590
RC " 7.59 k% RX " (RB)(RA)/RC RX " 131.75 %
RX " ?

CHAPTER 9 MAGNETISM
1. The domain theory of magnetism can be verified by jarring the domains into a
random arrangement by heating or hitting with a hammer. The magnet will even-
tually lose its magnetism.
2. The strength of an electromagnet can be increased by increasing the number of turns
of wire, by increasing the current flow, and by inserting a ferromagnetic core in the
center of the coil.
3. The left-hand rule for conductors: grasp the wire in the left hand with the thumb
pointing in the direction of the current flow, the fingers will point in the direction of
the flux lines.
4. In Figure 9–15, when the loop is rotated from position A to position B, a voltage is
induced when the motion is at right angles to the magnetic field. As the loop is rotated
to position C, the induced voltage decreases to zero volts. As the loop continues to
position D, a voltage is again induced, but the commutator reverses the output polar-
ity so it is the same as was first output by the DC generator. The output pulsates in one
direction, varying twice during each revolution between zero and maximum.
5.

6. Polarity of an electromagnet can be determined by grasping the coil with the left
hand with the fingers pointing in the direction of current flow; the thumb will point
in the direction of the north pole.
7. Electromagnets can be made stronger by increasing the number of turns in the coil,
increasing the amount of current flowing and/or inserting a ferromagnetic core in
the center of the coil.
8. Left-hand rule for generator: holding the left hand with the thumb, index,
and middle fingers extended at right angles to each other (Figure 9-13,
Page 112). With the thumb pointing in the direction of movement, the index
finger in the direction of flux lines, the middle finger points in the direction of
current flow.
9. Armature

Field

Commutator

10. DC motor operation is dependent on the principle that a current-carrying conductor

placed at right angles to a magnetic field will move at right angles to the direction of
the field. A commutator reverses the direction of the current flow at the top or zero
torque position resulting in the DC motor armature rotating.
11. The basic meter movement relies on the same principles of the DC motor. A pointer
is attached to a rotating coil and moves according to current flow. The pointer moves
across a graduated scale and indicates the amount of current flow.

CHAPTER 10 INDUCTANCE
1. Lenz’s law: An induced emf in any circuit is always in a direction to oppose the effect
that produced it. When current stops or changes direction in a circuit, an emf (elec-
tromotive force) is induced back into the conductor through the collapsing magnetic
field. This opposition to current flow is referred to as counter emf. The faster the rate
of change the greater the counter emf.
2. All conductors have some inductance depending on the conductor and the shape of
it. When a signal is removed, a counter emf is induced back into the conductor.
3. Inductors can be fixed or variable, made of either air or ferrite or powdered iron
core. Toroid cores are round and offer high inductance for a small size and contain
the magnetic field within the core.
4. The magnetic field around an inductor can be increased by using an iron core.

5. L1 = 75 µH

L2 = L3 =
1.6 mH 800 µH

L4 = 125 µH

Given: Solution:
1 1 1
L1 " 75 $H " &
Lp L2 L3
1 1 1
L2 " 1.6 mH " 1600 $H " &
Lp 0.0016 0.0008
1
L3 " 800 $H " 1875
Lp
L4 " 125 $H Lp " 533.33 $H
LT " L1 & Lp & L4
LT " 75 $H & 533.33 $H & 125 $H
LT " 733.33 $H
6. First, draw the circuit:
L1 = 500 mH

ET = R1 =
25 V 10 kΩ

Given: Solution:
L
ET " 25 V t"
R
0.5
L1 " 500 mH " 0.5 H t"
10,000
R1 " 10 k% " 10,000 % t " 0.00005
t " 50 $sec
100 $sec " 2 time constants, energized 86.5%
© Delmar Cengage Learning

25 ! 86.5% " 21.63 V

This voltage represents ER on rise.
E L " ET # ER
EL " 25 # 21.63
EL " 3.37 V

7. t " L/R
a. t " 1/100 " 0.01 s
b. t " 0.1/10000 " 0.00001 s
c. t " 0.010/1000 " 0.00001 s
d. t " 10/10 " 1 s
e. t " 1/1000 " 0.001 s

Growth
Time Constants
1 2 3 4 5
63.2% 86.5% 95% 98.2% 99.3%

a. 0.01 s 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

b. 0.00001 s 0.00001 0.00002 0.00003 0.00004 0.00005

c. 0.00001 s 0.00001 0.00002 0.00003 0.00004 0.00005

d. 1 s 1 2 3 4 5

e. 0.001 s 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

Decay
Time Constants
1 2 3 4 5
36.8% 13.5% 5% 1.8% 0.7%

a. 0.01 s 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

b. 0.00001 s 0.00001 0.00002 0.00003 0.00004 0.00005

c. 0.00001 s 0.00001 0.00002 0.00003 0.00004 0.00005

d. 1 s 1 2 3 4 5

e. 0.001 s 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

CHAPTER 11 CAPACITANCE
1. The charge is stored on the plates of the capacitor.
2. A capacitor is two conductor plates separated by an insulator. When a DC voltage is
applied to the capacitor, a current will flow until the plates are charged and then cur-
rent flow will stop.
3. When a capacitor is charged and removed from a circuit, it will hold the last charge
indefinitely.
4. To discharge a charged capacitor, short both leads together.
5. The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the plate. For
example, increasing the plate area will increase the capacitance. Capacitance is
also inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. If the plates are

moved further apart, the strength of the electric field between the plates will
decrease.
6. Types of capacitors include polarized electrolytic capacitors, paper and plastic capac-
itors, ceramic disk capacitors, and variable capacitors. Styles of capacitors include
radial leads and axial leads.
7. First, draw the circuit:

C1 = 1.5 µ F C2 = 0.05 µ F

C4 = 25 pF C3= 2000 pF

Given:
C1 " 1.5 $F
C2 " 0.05 $F
C3 " 2000 pF " 0.002 $F
C4 " 25 pF " 0.000025 $F
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1 40,520.667
" & & & "
CT C1 C2 C3 C4 CT 1
1 1 1 1 1
" & & &
CT 1.5 0.05 0.002 0.000025 (40,520.667)(CT) " (1)(1)
1 1
" 0.667 & 20 & 500 & 40000 CT "
CT 40,520.667
1
" 40,520.667 CT " 0.000024678
CT
CT " 24.678 pF

8. First, draw the circuit.

Given: Solution:
C1 " 1.5 $F C T " C1 & C2 & C3 & C4
C2 " 0.05 $F CT " 1.5 & 0.05 & 0.002 & 0.000025
C3 " 2000 pF " 0.002 $F CT " 1.552025 $F or 1.55 $F
C4 " 25 pF " 0.000025 $F

9.
Charge
Time Constants
1 2 3 4 5
63.2% 86.5% 95% 98.2% 99.3%
100 V 63.2 V 86.5 V 95 V 98.2 V 99.3 V

Discharge
Time Constants
1 2 3 4 5
36.8% 13.5% 5% 1.8% 0.7%

100 V 36.8 V 13.5 V 5V 1.8 V 0.7 V

10.
Charge
Time Constants
1 2 3 4 5
63.2% 86.5% 95% 98.2% 99.3%
t = 1 sec 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

Discharge
Time Constants
1 2 3 4 5
36.8% 13.5% 5% 1.8% 0.7%

t = 1 sec 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s

CHAPTER 12 ALTERNATING CURRENT

1. A conductor must be placed in a magnetic field in order for magnetic induction to occur.
2. To apply the left-hand rule, the thumb is pointed in the direction of the conductor
movement, the index finger (extended at right angles to the thumb) indicates the
direction of the magnetic lines of flux from north to south, and the middle finger
(extended at a right angle to the index finger) indicates the direction of current flow
in the conductor. The left-hand rule is used to determine the direction of current
flow in a conductor that is being passed through a magnetic field.
3. The peak-to-peak value is the vertical distance between the two peaks of a wave-
form.
4. The effective value of alternating current is the amount that will produce the same
degree of heat in a given resistance as an equal amount of direct current.
5. ERMS " 0.707EP
ERMS " (0.707)(169)
ERMS " 239 V

6. ERMS " 0.707EP

85 " 0.707EP
85/0.707 " EP
120 V " EP
7. f"1/t
f " 1/0.02
f " 50 Hz
8. f"1/t
400 " 1/t
t " 1/400
t " 0.0025 s
9. a. Square wave:

c. Sawtooth wave:

10. Nonsinusoidal waveforms can be considered as being constructed by algebraic addi-

tion of sine waves having different frequencies (harmonics), amplitudes, and phases.

CHAPTER 13 AC MEASUREMENTS
1. A DC meter movement can be used to measure AC by using rectifiers to convert the
AC signal to a DC current.
2. The clamp-on ammeter uses a split-core transformer. The core can be opened and
placed around the conductor. A voltage is induced into the core, which is also cut by a
coil. The induced voltage creates a current flow that is rectified and sent to a meter
movement.
3. An oscilloscope can provide the following information about an electronic circuit:
the frequency of a signal, the duration of a signal, the phase relationship between
signal waveforms, the shape of a signal’s waveform, and the amplitude of a signal.
4. Initially set the oscilloscope controls as follows: intensity, focus, astigmatism, and
position controls (set to the center of their range).
Triggering: INT &
Level: Auto
Time/CM: 1 msec
Volts/CM: 0.02
Power: On
Connect the oscilloscope probe to the test jack of the voltage calibrator. Adjust the
controls for a sharp, stable image of a square wave; check the values shown on the
scope display against those set on the voltage calibrator.
5. Connect the oscilloscope probe to the test jack of the voltage calibrator to make sure
the probe is not faulty and is calibrated properly.

6. Prior to hooking the oscilloscope probe to an input signal, set the volt/cm switch to
its highest setting.
7. A frequency counter consists of a time base, an input-signal conditioner, a gate-
control circuit, a main gate, a decade counter, and a display.
Time base: compensates for the different frequencies being measured.
Signal conditioner: converts the input signal to a waveshape and amplitude com-
patible with the circuitry in the counter.
Gate-control circuitry: acts as the synchronization center of the counter. It opens
and closes the main gate and provides a signal to latch the count at the end of the
counting period and resets the circuitry for the next count.
Main gate: passes the conditioned input signal to the counter circuit.
Decade counter: keeps a running tally of all the pulses that pass through the main
gate.
Display: provides a visual readout of the frequency being measured.
8. The integrated circuit has been the primary force for moving the frequency
counter from the laboratory to the work bench. It has reduced the physical size
of the counter.
9. A frequency counter measures frequency in a repair shop, an engineering depart-
ment, or a ham radio shack, on an industrial production line, or anywhere a fre-
quency measurement is necessary.
10. To check the frequency response of a circuit.

CHAPTER 14 RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS

1. In a pure resistive AC circuit, the current and voltage waveforms are in phase.
2. Given: Solution:
ET
IT " 25 mA " 0.025 A IT "
RT
ET
ET " ? 0.025 "
4700
0.025 ET
RT " 4.7 k% " 4700 % "
1 4700
(1)(ET) " (0.025)(4700)
ET " 117.5 V
3. Given: Solution:
R1 = 4700 Ω ET
IT " ? RT " R1 & R2 IT "
RT
© Delmar Cengage

12
R2 = 3900 Ω ET " 12 V RT " 4700 & 3900 IT "
8600
Learning

RT " ? RT " 8600 IT " 0.0014 A

R1 " 4.7 k% " 4700 % or 1.4 mA
R2 " 3.9 k% " 3900 %
E1 " ?
E2 " ? IT " I1 " I2

E1 0.0014 E1 E2
I1 " " I2 "
R1 1 4700 R2
E1 E2
0.0014 " 0.0014 "
4700 3900
(1)(E1) " (0.0014)(4700)
0.0014 E2
E1 " 6.58 V "
1 3900
(1)(E2) " (0.0014)(3900)
E2 " 5.46 V
4. Given: Solution:
E2
ET " 120 V ET " E 1 " E 2 I2 "
R2
E1 120
R1 " 2.2k% " 2200 % I1 " I2 "
R1 5600
120
R2 " 5.6 k% " 5600 % I1 " I2 " 0.021 A or 21 mA
2200
I1 " ? I1 " 0.055 A or 55 mA
I2 " ?
5. In a series circuit, current flow is the same throughout the circuit. In a parallel cir-
cuit, voltage is the same throughout the circuit.
6. The rate at which energy is delivered to a circuit or energy (heat) is dissipated deter-
mines the power consumption in an AC circuit, just as in a DC circuit.
7. Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT " PT " ITET
RT
120
ET " 120 V IT " PT " (0.1)(120)
1200
RT " 1200 % IT " 0.1 A or 100 mA PT " 12 W
PT " ?
8. Given:
IT " ? RT " R1 & R2 & R3 IT " ET/RT PT " IT ET
ET " 12 V RT " 47 & 100 & 150 IT " 12/297 PT " (0.04)(12)
RT " ? RT " 297 % IT " 0.040 A PT " 0.48 W
9. Given:
IT " ? I1 " E1/R1 P1 " I1 E1
ET " 12 V I1 " 12/47 P " (0.255)(12)
RT " ? I1 " 0.255 A P1 " 3.06 W
10. Given:
IT " ? 1/RA " 1/R2 & 1/R3 RT " R1 & RA
ET " 12 V 1/RA " 1/100 & 1/150 RT " 47 & 60
RT " ? RA " 60 % RT " 107 %
IT " ET/RT IA " EA/RA I3 " E3/R3 P3 " I3 E3
IT " 12/107 0.112 " EA/60 I3 " 6.72/150 P3 " (0.0448)(6.72)
IT " 0.112 (0.112)(60) " EA I3 " 0.0448 A P3 " 0.301 W
6.72 V " EA

CHAPTER 15 CAPACITIVE AC CIRCUITS

1. In a capacitive AC circuit, the current leads the applied voltage.
2. Capacitive reactance is a function of the frequency of the applied AC voltage and the
capacitance of the circuit.
3. Given: Solution:
1
Xc " ? XC "
2pfC
1
' " 3.14 XC "
(2)(3.14)(60)(0.001)
1
f " 60 Hz XC "
0.3768
C " 1000 $F " 0.001 F XC " 2.65 %
4. Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
XC
12
IT "
ET " 12 2.65
XC " 2.65 % IT " 4.53 A
5. Capacitive AC circuits can be used for filtering, coupling, decoupling, and phase
shifting.
6. A low-pass filter consists of a capacitor and resistor in series with the output taken
across the capacitor. At low frequencies the capacitive reactance is higher than the
resistance so most of the voltage is dropped across the capacitor where the output is
taken.
7. AC can be removed from a DC source using an RC low-pass filter referred to as a
decoupling network.
8. Capacitive coupling circuits allow AC components of a signal to pass through a cou-
pling network, while at the same time blocking the DC components of the signal.
9. In a phase-shift network, the input is applied across the capacitor and resistor and
the output is taken across the resistor. Current leads the voltage in a capacitive cir-
cuit. The voltage across the resistor is in-phase resulting in the output voltage lead-
ing the input voltage.
10. Phase-shift networks are valid for only one frequency because the capacitive reac-
tance varies with changes in frequencies. Changing the reactance will result in a dif-
ferent phase shift.

CHAPTER 16 INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUITS

1. In an inductive circuit, the current lags the applied voltage.
2. The inductive reactance of an inductive circuit is affected by the inductance of the
inductor and the frequency of the applied voltage.
3. Given: Solution:
XL " ? XL " 2'fL
' " 3.14 XL " (2)(3.14)(60)(0.1)
f " 60 Hz XL " 37.68 %
L " 100mH " 0.1 H

4. Given: Solution:
ET
IT " ? IT "
XL
24
ET " 24 V IT "
37.68
XL " 37.68 % IT " 0.64 A or 640 mA
5. Applications for inductors in circuits include filtering and phase shifting.
6. Given:
IL " 0.086A XL " 2'fL IL " EL/XL
L " 0.100 H XL " (2)(3.14)(50)(0.1) 0.086 " EL/31.4
f " 50 Hz XL " 31.4 % (0.086)(31.4) " EL
EL " ? 2.7 V " EL

7. Given: R1 = 680 Ω

f = 60 Hz L1 = 150 mH

L " 0.150 H XL " 2'fL Z " 2R2 & XL2

R " 680 %
f " 60 Hz XL " (2)(3.14)(60)(0.15) Z " 2(680)2 & (56.52)2
Z"? XL " 56.52 Z " 682.34 %

8. Given: ER1 = 32 V

R1 = 910 Ω

ET = 45 V
L1 = ?
f = 400 HZ

ET " 45 V IR1 " ER1/R1 EXL " ET # ER1 IXL " EXL/XL XL " 2'fL
R1 " 910 % IR1 " 32/910 EXL " 45 # 32 0.0352 " 13/XL 369.32 " (2)(3.14)(400)(L)
ER1 " 32 V IR1 " 0.0352 A EXL " 13 V XL " 13/0.0352 369.32/(2)(3.14)(400) " L
f " 400 Hz XL " 369.32 % 0.147 H or 147 mH " L
L1 " ?
© Delmar Cengage Learning

9. In a low-pass filter the input is fed across the inductor and resistor and the output is
taken from across the resistor. In a high-pass filter the input is fed across the resistor
and inductor and the output is taken from across the inductor.
10. The frequency above or below the frequencies passed or attenuated in an inductive
circuit is called the cut-off frequency.

CHAPTER 17 RESONANCE CIRCUITS

1. R1 = 56 Ω

ET = 120 V L1 = 750 mH
f = 60 Hz

C1 = 10 µ F

Find the capacitive reactance.

1
XC "
2pfC
1
XC "
(6.28)(60)(0.000010)
XC " 265.39 %
Find the inductive reactance.
XL " 2'fL
XL " (6.28)(60)(0.750)
XL " 282.60 %
Now, solve for X.
X " X L # XC
X " 282.6 # 265.39
X " 17.2 % (inductive)
Using X, solve for Z.
Z2 " X2 & R2
Z2 " (17.21)2 & (56)2
Z2 " 296.18 & 3136
Z2 " 3432.18
Z " 23432.18
Z " 58.58 %
Solve for total current.
ET
IT "
Z
120
IT "
58.58
IT " 2.05 A

ET = 120 V R1 = 560 Ω XL = 220 Ω XC = 270 Ω

f = 60 Hz 1 1

Find the individual branch current.

ER EXL EXC
IR " IXL " IXC "
R XL XC
120 120 120
IR " I XL " I XC "
560 220 270
IT " 0.214 A IXL " 0.545 A IXC " 0.444 A
Find IX and IZ using IR, IXL, and IXC.
IX " IXL # IXC I2Z " (IR)2 " (IX)2
IX " 0.545 # 0.444 I2Z " (0.214)2 & (0.101)2
IX " 0.101 A (inductive) IZ " 0.237A
3. Given:
ET " 120 V IX " EX/X
IT " 2.05 A 2.05 " EX/17.2 PX " IXEX
X " 17.2 % (2.05)(17.2) " EX PX " (2.05)(35.26)
R " 56 % 35.26 V " EX PX " 72.28 VA
IR " ER /R1 PR " IRER PA2 " PX2 & PR2
1 1
2.05 " ER /56 PR " (2.05)(114.8) PA2 " (72.28)2 & (235.34)2
1
(2.05)(56) " ER PR " 235.34 W PA " 246.19 VA
1
114.8 V " ER
1

235.34 W
TRUE POWER
θ

72.28 VA 246.19 VA

CHAPTER 18 TRANSFORMERS
1. When two electrically isolated coils are placed next to each other, and an AC volt-
age is applied across one coil, the changing magnetic field induces a voltage into the
second coil.

2. Transformers are rated in volt-amperes rather than in watts because of the different
types of loads that can be placed on the secondary winding. A pure capacitive load
will cause an excessive current to flow, so a power rating would have little meaning.
3. If a transformer is connected without a load, there is no secondary current flow. The
primary windings act like an inductor in an AC circuit. When a load is connected
across the secondary winding, a current is induced into the secondary. The current
in the secondary establishes its own magnetic field, which cuts the primary, induc-
ing a voltage back into the primary. This induced field expands in the same direction
as the current in the primary, aiding it and causing it to increase.
4. The direction in which the primary and secondary windings are wound determines
the polarity of the induced voltage in the secondary winding. An induced out-of-
phase shift would be 180° out of phase with the primary windings.
5. If a DC voltage is applied to a transformer, nothing occurs in the secondary winding
once the magnetic field is established. A changing current in the primary winding is
needed to induce a voltage in the secondary winding.
6. Given: Solution:
ES NS Ns
NP " 400 turns " turns ratio "
EP NP NP
12 NS 40
NS " ? " "
20 400 400
(12)(400) 1
EP " 120 V 1NS " " or 10:1
120 10
ES " 12 V NS " 40 turns
7. Given: Solution:
ZP NP 2 NP
NP " ? " a b 24 "
ZS NS NS
16 NP 2 2 NP
NS " ? " a b "
4 NS 1 NS
ZP " 16
ZS " 4
The turns ratio is 2:1.
8. Transformers are important for transmitting electrical power because of power loss.
The amount of power loss is related to the amount of resistance of the power lines
and amount of current. The easiest way to reduce power losses is to keep the cur-
rent low by stepping up the voltage with transformers.
9. An isolation transformer prevents connecting to ground on either side of the power
line for equipment being worked on.
10. An autotransformer is used where the applied voltage needs to be stepped up or
stepped down.

CHAPTER 19 SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS

1. Silicon has more resistance to heat than germanium, making it preferable.
2. Negative temperature coefficient is identified in a material as an increase in temper-
ature results in a decrease in resistance.

3. Covalent bonding is the process of atoms sharing electrons. When semiconductor

atoms share electrons, their valence shell becomes full with eight electrons, thereby
obtaining stability.
4. In pure semiconductor materials, the valence electrons are held tightly to the
parent atom at low temperatures and do not support current flow. As the temper-
ature increases, the valence electrons become agitated and break the covalent
bond, allowing the electrons to drift randomly from one atom to the next. As the
temperature continues to increase, the material begins to behave like a conductor.
Only at extremely high temperatures will silicon conduct current as ordinary con-
ductors do.
5. Germanium’s resistance is cut in half for every ten degrees Celsius of temperature
increase. In some applications, heat sensitive devices are necessary and germanium’s
temperature coefficient can be an advantage.
6. Current flow can be supported in semiconductor material by applying a voltage
source to the material. Free electronics are attracted to the positive terminal of
the source and holes will flow to the negative terminal. Current flow is based on
the number of free electrons and will increase with temperature increase of the
material.
7. To convert a block of pure silicon to N-type material, the silicon is doped with
atoms having five valence electrons, called pentavalent materials, such as arsenic
and antimony.
8. N-type material is identified when the number of free electrons exceed the electron-
hole pair.
9. When a voltage is applied to N-type material, the free electrons contributed by the
donor atoms flow toward the positive terminal. Additional electrons break away
from their covalent bonds and also flow toward the positive terminal.
10. N- and P-type semiconductor materials have a much higher conductivity than pure
semiconductor materials.
11. The conductivity of semiconductor materials can be increased by the addition of
impurities.

CHAPTER 20 PN JUNCTION DIODES

1. A PN junction diode allows current to flow in only one direction.
2. A diode will conduct when it is forward biased. That is, the positive terminal of the
voltage source is connected to the P-type material, and the negative terminal of the
voltage source is connected to the N-type material.
3.
Cengage Learning
© Delmar

FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

4. A diode is formed by joining N- and P-type materials together.

5. There are no majority carriers in the depletion region.
6. The barrier voltage can be represented as an external voltage.
7. An external resistor is added when connecting a diode to a voltage source for limit-
ing current flow to a safe value.
8. A silicon diode requires 0.7 volts before it starts to conduct.

9. Given: R1 = ?

+ DI
ET = 12 V
– ED1 = 0.7 V
IT = 100 mA

IT " 100 mA ER " ET # ED I1 " ER /R1

1 1 1
ET " 12 V ER " 12 # 0.7 0.1 " 11.3/R1
1
ED " 0.7 V ER " 11.3 V R1 " 11.3/0.1
1 1
R1 " ? R1 " 113 %
10. No, a diode will only conduct in the forward direction and will not conduct until a
forward bias is applied that exceeds the barrier voltage.
11. Leakage current will increase as the temperature of the device increases.
12. Diodes can be tested by checking the forward-to-reverse ratio with an ohmmeter. A
diode will show a low forward resistance and a high reverse resistance. An ohmme-
ter can determine the cathode and anode. When the reading is low, the positive lead
is connected to the anode and the negative lead is connected to the cathode.

CHAPTER 21 ZENER DIODES

1. When the breakdown voltage is exceeded, a high reversal current (IZ) flows.
2. The breakdown voltage (EZ) of a zener diode is determined by the resistivity of the diode.
3. The ability of a zener diode to dissipate power decreases as the temperature increases.
4. Zener diode ratings include the following: Maximum current (IZM); Reverse current
(IR); Reverse voltage (EZ); Zener diodes greater than 5 volts have a positive zener
voltage temperature coefficient; Zener diodes less than 4 volts have a negative tem-
perature coefficient; Zener diodes between 4 and 5 volts will have either negative or
positive temperature coefficient.
5.
RS

6. In a zener diode voltage regulator, the zener diode is connected in series with a resis-
tor with the output taken across the zener diode. The zener diode opposes an
increase in input voltage, because when the current increases the resistance drops.
The change in input voltage appears across the series resistor.
7. In a zener diode voltage regulator, the zener diode is connected in series with a cur-
rent limiting resistor that is based on the load current and the zener current. The
© Delmar Cengage Learning

resistor allows enough current to flow in the zener breakdown region of the zener
diode. When the load resistance increases, the load current decreases, which results
in an increase in voltage across the load resistance. The zener diode opposes any
change and conducts more current. The sum of zener current and load current
through the zener resistor remains constant allowing the circuit to regulate for
changes in output current and input voltage.

8. CURRENT-
LIMITING

RESISTOR

ADJUSTABLE + ZENER +
DC POWER DIODE
– V DC VOLTMETER
SUPPLY UNDER
TEST –

9. A power supply, A current-limiting resistor, an ammeter, and a voltmeter are

required for testing a zener diode. The output of the power supply is connected
across the limiting resistor in series with the zener diode and ammeter. The volt-
meter is connected across the zener diode. The input voltage is slowly increased until
the specified current is flowing through the zener diode. The voltmeter will read the
zener diode voltage value.
10. Using the test setup in question 8, the voltage is slowly increased until the specified
current is flowing through the zener diode. The current is then varied on either side
of the specified zener current. If the voltage remains constant, the zener diode is
operating properly.

CHAPTER 22 BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

1. In NPN transistors, P-type material is sandwiched between two N-type materials and
N-type material is sandwiched between two layers of P-type material to form a PNP
transistor.
2. Most transistors are identified by a number which begins with a 2 and the letter N
and has up to four more digits (2Nxxxx).
3. The package of a transistor serves as protection and provides a means of making
electrical connections to the emitter, base, and collector. The package also serves as
a heat sink.
4. Transistor leads can best be identified by referring to the manufacturer’s specification
sheet.
5. A diode is a rectifier that allows current to flow in one direction only, and a transis-
tor is an amplifier that provides current amplification of a signal.
6. The emitter-based junction is forward biased, and the collector-based junction is
reverse biased.
7. When testing a transistor with an ohmmeter, a good transistor will show a low
resistance when forward biased and a high resistance when reverse biased across
each junction.
8. A voltmeter, not an ohmmeter, is used to determine whether a transistor is silicon
or germanium by measuring the voltage drop across the junction. The leads would
be difficult to determine because it would be hard to say which end is the emitter or
collector. However, the base would be determined as low resistance when forward
biased to either emitter or collecter and high resistance when reverse biased. A PNP
or NPN transistor could be determined.
9. The collector voltage determines whether the device is an NPN or PNP transistor. If
the wrong type of transistor is substituted, a failure in the device will result.
10. Testing a transistor with a transistor tester, especially an in-circuit tester, reveals
more information about a transistor than when testing with an ohmmeter.

CHAPTER 23 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FETS)

1.
GATE (G) DRAIN (D)
SOURCE (S)

N-Channel JFET

DRAIN (D)
GATE (G)
SOURCE (S)

P-Channel JFET

DRAIN
(D)

SUBSTRATE
GATE (B)
(G)

N-Channel Depletion MOSFET SOURCE

(S)

DRAIN
(D)

SUBSTRATE
GATE (B)
(G)

SOURCE
P-Channel Depletion MOSFET
(S)

DRAIN
(D)

SUBSTRATE
GATE (B)
(G)

SOURCE
N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET (S)

SUBSTRATE
GATE (B)
(G)

SOURCE
P-Channel Enhancement MOSFET (S)

2. The two external bias voltages for a JFET are EDS (the bias voltage between the
source and drain) and EGS (the bias voltage between the gate and the source).
3. The pinch-off voltage is the voltage required to pinch off the drain current for a
JFET.
4. The pinch-off voltage is given by the manufacturer for a gate-source voltage of zero.
5. Depletion-mode MOSFETs conduct when zero bias is applied to the gate. They are
considered to be normally on devices.
6. A depletion MOSFET conducts when zero bias is applied to the gate. An enhance-
ment MOSFET conducts only when a bias voltage is applied to the gate.
7. Enhancement-mode MOSFETs are normally off and only conduct when a suitable
bias voltage is applied to the gate.
8. Safety precautions for a MOSFET include:
• Keep the leads shorted together prior to installation.
• Use a metallic wristband to ground the hand being used.
• Use a grounded-tip soldering iron.
• Always ensure the power is off prior to installation and removal of a MOSFET.
9. N-channel JFETs: Connect the positive lead to the gate and the negative lead to
the source or drain. Because the source and drain are connected by a channel,
only one side needs to be tested. The forward resistance should be a low reading.
P-channel JFETs: Connect the negative lead to the gate and the positive lead to
the source or drain. To determine the reverse resistance, reverse the leads. The
JFET should indicate an infinite resistance. A low reading indicates a short or
leakage.
10. The forward and reverse resistance can be checked with a low-voltage ohmmeter
set to its highest scale. The meter should register an infinite resistance in both the
forward- and reverse-resistance tests between the gate and source or drain. A
lower reading indicates a breakdown of the insulation between the gate and
source or drain.

CHAPTER 24 THYRISTORS
1. The PN junction diode has one junction and two leads (anode and cathode); an SCR
has three junctions and three leads (anode, cathode, and gate).
2. The anode supply voltage will keep the SCR turned on even after the gate voltage is
removed. This allows a current to flow continuously from cathode to anode.
3.
Cengage Learning
© Delmar

CLIPPED OFF

4. The load resistor is in series with the SCR to limit the cathode-to-anode current.
5. A TRIAC conducts both alternations of an AC input waveform, and an SCR conducts
in only one alternation.
6. Disadvantages of TRIACs over SCRs are as follows: TRIACs cannot carry as much
current as an SCR, TRIACs have lower voltage rating than SCRs, and TRIACs have
lower frequency handling capabilities than SCRs.
7. A DIAC is used as a triggering device for TRIACs. It prevents the TRIAC from turn-
ing on until a certain gate voltage is reached.

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