Class 12 Chapter- 9 Notes
Biology Biotechnology and Applications
INTRODUCTION-
• Biotechnology deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals and
biologicals using genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants and animals.
• Applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically
modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment,
and energy production.
• Human beings have used biotechnology to improve the quality of human life
especially in the field of food production and health.
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
• Methods opted for increasing food production are-
1. Agro-chemical based agriculture.
2. Organic agriculture.
3. Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture.
4. Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by
manipulation are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).
• Genetic modification has-
1. Made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses.
2. Reduced reliance on chemical pesticides.
3. Helped to reduce post-harvest losses.
4. Increased efficiency of mineral usage by enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g.,
Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice.
Note-To produce vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice two genes from daffodil and one from the
bacterium Erwinia uredovora were inserted in the rice genome and these three genes
produce the enzymes necessary to produce provitamin-A. When golden rice is ingested,
the human body splits the provitamin-A to make vitamin A.
• The production of pest resistant plants such as Bt cotton and tobacco plants
decreased the amount of pesticide used.
BT COTTON-
1. Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce
protein crystals during a particular phase of their
growth.
2. The crystals contain a toxic insecticidal protein that
kill certain insects such as lepidopterans (tobacco
budworm, armyworm), coleopterans (beetles)
and dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).
3. The toxin does not kill the Bacillus because the Bt
toxin protein exists as inactive protoxins but once
the insect ingests the inactive toxin, it is converted
into an active formof toxin due to the alkaline pH of
the gut which solubilize the crystals.
4. The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells and create
pores that cause cell swelling and lysis and cause death of the insect.
5. The toxin is coded by a gene named cry.
6. There are a number of genes acting against the insects , for example, the proteins
encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton bollworms, that
of cryIAb controls corn borer.
7. Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis based on the
crop and the targeted pest which is then incorporated into the several crop
plants.
DISEASE RESISTANT TOBACCO PLANTS-
1. A nematode Meloidegyneincognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants.
2. The process of RNA interference was adopted to prevent the infection of tobacco
plants.
3. The process of RNA interference (RNAi) involves
silencing of a specific mRNA due to a
complementary dsRNA (double stranded RNA)
molecule that binds to and prevents translation
of the mRNA, also referred as RNA silencing.
4. The source of this complementary RNA could be
from an infection by viruses having RNA
genomes or transposons which are mobile genetic
elements that replicate via an RNA
intermediate.
5. Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes were introduced into the
host plant such that it produced both sense and anti-sense RNA in the host cells.
6. Two RNA’s being complementary to each other formed a double stranded RNA
(dsRNA) that initiated RNAi and thus, silenced the specific mRNA of the
nematode.
APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE-
The recombinant DNA technological processes have made immense impact in the area of
healthcare by enabling mass production of genetically engineered medicines such as
insulin, by creating methods like gene therapy, recombinant DNA technology,
polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA).
About 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human-use over the world.
Genetically Engineered Insulin-
1. Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from
pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs which caused some
patients to develop allergy.
2. Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains: chain A
and chain B that are linked together by disulphide bridges.
3. In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesized as
a pro-hormone which contains an extra stretch called the C
peptide and the C peptide is not present in the mature
insulin which is removed during maturation into insulin.
4. Two DNA sequences were prepared corresponding to A and B, chains of human
insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.
5. Chains A and B were produced separately, which were extracted and combined
by creating disulfide bond to form human insulin.
Gene Therapy-
1. Gene therapy is a collection of methods that allows correction of a faulty gene by
a healthy and functional gene.
2. Correction of a genetic defect involves delivery of a normal gene into the cells or
tissues to take over the function of and compensate for the non-functional gene.
3. The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year old girl
with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency which is caused due to the deletion
of the gene for adenosine deaminase.
4. ADA enzyme is crucial for the immune system to function.
5. Lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside the
body and a functional ADA cDNA (using a retroviral vector) is then introduced
into these lymphocytes using a retroviral vector which are returned to the
patient.
6. In some children, ADA deficiency can be cured by bone marrow transplantation
or by enzyme replacement therapy in which functional ADA is given to the
patient by injection.
MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS-
1. Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme
Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some of the molecular diagnosis that
serve the purpose of early diagnosis to understand the pathophysiology of the
disease.
2. PCR is used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients, to detect mutations in
genes in suspected cancer patients too.
3. Very low concentration of a bacteria or virus can be detected by amplification of
their nucleic acid by PCR.
4. A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe) is
allowed to hybridize to its complementary DNA in a clone of cells followed by
detection using autoradiography where the clone having the mutated gene will
hence not appear on the photographic film, because the probe will not have
complementarity with the mutated gene.
5. ELISA is performed based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction,
infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens or by detecting
the antibodies synthesized against the pathogen.
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS-
Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express a foreign gene
are known as transgenic animals. Example- Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep etc.
Transgenic animals are created-
1. To study how genes are regulated, and how they affect the normal functions of
the body and its development. Example- study of complex factors involved in
growth such as insulin-like growth factor.
2. To study how genes contribute to the development of disease.
3. To produce biological products such as human protein (α-1-antitrypsin) used to
treat emphysema, proteins to treat phenylketonuria and cystic fibrosis, human
alpha-lactalbumin enriched milk. Example- the first transgenic cow, Rosie,
produced human protein-enriched milk 2.4 grams per litre.
4. For testing the safety of vaccines before they are used on humans. Example-
Transgenic mice are being used to test the safety of the polio vaccine.
for testing toxicity of drugs.
ETHICAL ISSUES-
1. Genetic modification of organisms can have unpredictable results when such
organisms are introduced into the ecosystem, hence the Indian Government has
set up organizations such as GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee),
to make decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of
introducing GM-organisms for public service.
2. The modification/usage of living organisms for public services has also created
problems with patents granted for the same.
3. Patent is the right granted by the Government to a producer to prevent other
from using his product.
4. An American company got patent rights on Basmati rice but the variety of
Basmati had actually been derived from Indian farmer’s varieties.
5. Several attempts have also been made to patent uses, products and processes
based on Indian traditional herbal medicines. Example- turmeric, neem.
6. Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by multinational
companies and other organizations without proper authorization from the
countries and people concerned without compensatory payment.
7. Some nations are developing laws to prevent such unauthorized exploitation of
their bio-resources and traditional knowledge.
Note:- The present Patents Act, 1970 came into force in the year 1972, amending and
consolidating the existing law relating to Patents in India. ... An invention relating
to a product or a process that is new, involving inventive step and capable of
industrial application can be patented in India
