MATRICES content for G013 and G014 students

5.1. Fundamentals of Matrices

Matrices arise naturally in almost all branches of engineering and physical sciences. The
rules defining the operations on matrices are usually called matrix algebra. We shall
discuss matrix algebra and its use in solving linear system of algebraic equations.

Matrix

An
×  matrix is an arrangement of  elements (not necessarily distinct) in  rows

and  columns in the form

 a11 a12 L a1n 

a a22 L a2 n 
A=  21
 ...(1)
 M 
 
 am1 am 2 L amn 

We confine to matrices whose elements are real or complex numbers; or real or

complex valued functions.

If all the elements of a matrix are real numbers (complex numbers), then it is called a
real matrix (complex matrix).

and column in which the element is present. For example  is the element in the third
Notice that every element in the matrix is specified by its position in terms of the row

row and second column. In general  is the element in th row and th column of the
matrix.

=  × , where = 1,2, … ,  and

= 1,2, … , .
The matrix (1) is denoted, in compact form, as

The matrices are usually denoted by upper case letters , , , … , .

Order of a matrix

A matrix is said be of order  ×  (read as  by ) if the matrix has  rows and 

columns.
 =   is said to be a rectangular matrix if  ≠ , i.e., the number
×
∗ A matrix

∗ A matrix =   is said to be a square matrix if  = , i.e., the number of

of rows in is not equal to the number of columns in .
×

A matrix of order  ×  is called a square matrix of order .

rows in is equal to the number of columns in .

Examples

3 −2 0
= " 0 −6$ is a real rectangular matrix of order 2 × 3.

i)

1 & &
= % & &  1 ' is a complex square matrix of order 3 (where & is a cube root
& 1 &
ii)

cos , sin ,
of unity).
iii) = ( / is a real square matrix of order 2.
− sin , cos ,
Equality of matrices

Two matrices and  are said to be equal (written as = ) if

(i) and  are of the same order

(ii) The corresponding elements are equal.

 0 1 6
= % 1 ' and  = %2 5' are equal, i.e., =  iff
 2 3 4
Example: If

 = 1, 0 = 6,  = 2, 1 = 5,  = 3 and 2 = 4.

Null matrix or a zero matrix, Row matrix and column matrix

zero matrix of order  ×  is denoted by 5× or simply by 6.

If each element of a matrix is zero, then it is said to be a Null matrix or zero matrix. The

0 0 0 0 0
Examples: 5× = ( / , 5 = 5× = ( /
0 0 0 0 0
A matrix is said to be a row matrix (row vector) if it contains only one row.

A matrix is said to be a column matrix (column vector) if it contains only one column.
Examples: 71 0 −28 is a row matrix (It is a matrix of order 1 × 3)


9 1 : is a column matrix (It is a matrix of order 3 × 1)



−1
Negative of a Matrix

The matrix obtained from a matrix by multiplying each element by −1 (i.e., by

changing the sign of each element) is called the negative of ; (or additive inverse of ;)
and it is denoted by −;. Thus, if =   then − = − 
× ×

1 −2 3 −1 2 −3
=%2 1 4 ' then − = %−2 −1 −4'
−6 −4 −1 6 4 1
Example: If

Submatrix

A submatrix of a matrix is an array formed by deleting one or more rows or columns

of . Note that this definition allows the deletion of a combination of rows and columns.

2 5 −1
= %4 −7 13 '
3 −9 6
Example: Let

2 5 −1
gives the submatrix ( /. Deleting second row and
4 −7 13
5 −1
Deleting the third row of

gives the submatrix ( /

9 6
first column of

Trace of a square matrix

If =  × is a square matrix of order , then the elements "" ,  , … ,  are said
to constitute the principal diagonal (or simply diagonal) of .

The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called the trace of ; and is

denoted by >( ) i.e., tr ( A) = ∑ a ii

n

i =1
Types of matrices

Diagonal matrix

=  × is called a diagonal matrix if  = 0 for ≠

each non diagonal element is zero) and is denoted by diag7"" ,  , … ,  8.
A square matrix (i.e., if

−2 0 0
0 0 0 0
Examples: ( /,( / ,% 0 1 0 ' are diagonal matrices.
0 0 0 3
0 0 −
Scalar matrix

=   is called a scalar matrix if  = 0, for ≠ and

×
"" =  = ⋯ =  . (i.e., if each non diagonal element is zero and all the diagonal
A square matrix

elements are equal to each other)

− 0 0
0 0 3 0
Examples: ( /,( / ,% 0 − 0 ' are scalar matrices
0 0 0 3
0 0 −
Note that every scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix but not conversely.

Unit matrix or Identity matrix

=   is called a unit matrix or identity matrix if  = 0, for

×
≠ and "" =  = ⋯ =  = 1 (i.e., if each non diagonal element is zero and each
A square matrix

diagonal element is equal to 1)

The identity matrix of order  is usually denoted by B or simply B when there is no

ambiguity about its order.

1 0 0
1 0
BC = ( / , B = %0 1 0'
0 1 D
0 0 1
Triangular matrices

A square matrix =  × is said to be an upper triangular matrix if

 = 0 for all >

 2 −1 0
−1

Examples:  F $ , %0 −2 3' are upper triangular matrices.
0 4 0 0 4

=  
×
A square matrix is said to be a lower triangular matrix if

 = 0 for all <

1 0 0
1 0
Examples: ( / , %2 4 0' are lower triangular matrices.
−2 4
1 0 2
Note that H and 5 (identity and zero matrix of order ) are both upper and lower
triangular matrices.

Transpose of a matrix

called the transpose of . That is, if =   then I =   . The transpose of

Let be a matrix. The matrix obtained by interchanging the row and columns of is
× ×
I J
is denoted by (or ).

1 −5
1 √2 −2
=K N then I
= 9 √2 2 :.
−5 2 1 + √7
−2 1 + √7
Example: If

1 √2 −2
Observe that ( I )I
=K N= .
−5 2 1 + √7

Note:

(i) If is an  ×  matrix then I is an  ×  matrix.

(ii) The transpose of a row matrix is a column matrix and the transpose of a column

(iii) For any matrix , ( I )I = .

matrix is a row matrix

Symmetric and Skew-symmetric matrices

A square matrix =  × is said to be

(i) Symmetric if I
= , i.e.,  =  , ∀ ,
(ii) Skew symmetric if I
= − , i.e.,  = − , ∀ ,

Note:

(i) The zero matrix 5 is both symmetric and skew symmetric.

(ii) Any diagonal matrix and the identity matrix are symmetric

Example

3 5 −6 3 5 −6
=% 5 0 2 ' is a symmetric matrix for I
=% 5 0 2 '=
−6 2 1 −6 2 1
The matrix

0  0 0 − −0
= %− 0 − ' is a symmetric matrix for I
= % 0  '=−
−0  0 0 − 0
The matrix

The following are simple results

Lemma: If a square matrix of order  is both symmetric and skew symmetric then ; is
the zero matrix of order .

=  
×
Proof: We have and

is symmetric ⟹  =  , ∀ ,
is skew symmetric ⟹  = − , ∀ ,

Since is both symmetric and skew symmetric, we have

 = − = − , ∀ ,

i.e., 2 = 0 , ∀ , ⇒  = 0 , ∀ ,

Therefore, is a zero matrix of order . Hence the result.

Lemma: If ; is a skew symmetric matrix, then all its diagonal elements are zero.

(The diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are all zero).

Proof: We have =  × and is skew symmetric i.e.,  = − for all , .

Taking = , we get  = − for all , i.e., 2 = 0 for all ⇒  = 0, for all .

Thus, the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are all zero.
PROBLEM SET:
IP1:

RS − T U V −YX + VR U V
If % C WS − DX D'=% C V[ − YT D ', then find the values of
YZ − ZX R VC CS + T R VC
, T, X .

5, − 6\ 0 1 −4] + 15 0 1
Solution: Given that % 2 7, − 3] 3'=% 2 19 − 4\ 3'
46 − 6] 5 12 2, + \ 5 12

(If two matrices are equal then their corresponding elements are also equal)

∴ 5, − 6\ = −4] + 15 ⟹ 5, − 6\ + 4] = 15 … (1)

7, − 3] = 19 − 4\ ⟹ 7, + 4\ − 3] = 19 … (2)
46 − 6] = 2, + \ ⟹ 2, + \ + 6] = 46 … (3)

(2) × 1 ⟹ 7, + 4\ − 3] = 19
⟹ , + 27] = 165
(3) × 4 ⟹ 8, + 4\ + 24] = 184

(1) × 1 ⟹ 5, − 6\ + 4] = 15
⟹ 17, + 40] = 291
(3) × 6 ⟹ 12, + 6\ + 36] = 46

⟹ 17(, + 27]) = 165 × 17 ⟹ 17, + 459] = 2805

⟹]=6
⟹ 17, + 40] = 291

∴ , + 27] = 165 ⟹ , + 162 = 165 ⟹ , = 3

(3) ⟹ 2(3) + \ + 6(6) = 46 ⟹ \ = 4

Therefore, , = 3 , \ = 4 , ] = 6

IP2. Consider the following the statements

I. Every diagonal matrix is a scalar matrix

 II. An identity matrix is both diagonal and scalar matrix.

A. Only I is true
B. Only II is true
C. Both I and II are true
D. Neither I nor II is true

Answer: B

` U V
IP3. Find the additive inverse of the matrix ; = % U −` C'
−V V R
Solution: The additive inverse of is the negative of denoted by − and it is the
matrix obtained from the matrix by changing the sign of each element of .

− 0 −1
Therefore, − = % 0 −2'
1 −1 −5
−V C −D
IP4. If ; = % C R Z ' is a symmetric matrix, then find S
−D S W
U C V
If ; = %−C U C' is a skew symmetric matrix, then find S
−V S U
I.

−1 2 −3
=% 2 5 6'
−3 , 7
Solution: Given

−1 2 −3 I −1 2 −3
I
=% 2 5 6 ' =% 2 5 , '
−3 , 7 −3 6 7
Therefore,

Since is symmetric, I
=

−1 2 −3 −1 2 −3
Therefore, % 2 5 , '=% 2 5 6'
−3 6 7 −3 , 7
⟹,=6
 0 2 1
= %−2 0 2'
−1 , 0
I. Given

0 2 1 I 0 −2 −1
I
= %−2 0 2' = %2 0 , '
−1 , 0 1 2 0
Therefore,

Since is skew symmetric, I

=−

0 −2 −1
Now, − = %2 0 −2'
1 −, 0
0 −2 −1 0 −2 −1
Therefore, %2 0 , ' = %2 0 −2' ⟹ , = −2
1 2 0 1 −, 0
P1. Let a and b be prime numbers.

If a matrix has a elements then the possible sizes of the matrix are 1 × a and
a×1
I.

II. If a matrix has ab elements then the possible sizes of the matrix are 1 × ab
, a × b , b × a and ab × 1.

A. Only I is true
B. Only II is true
C. Both I and II are true
D. Neither I and II are true

Answer: C

P2. Match the following

a) Nullmatrix i) [0 0 0 -1]
0 0 0
b) Rowmatrix ii) 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 
-1 0
c) Columnmatrix iii) 
0 1 
1 0
d ) Diagonalmatrix,which is not scalar iv) 
0 1 
2 - 4 0
e) Scalarmatrix( ≠ 1) v) 0 3 0
 
0 0 1 
1 0
f) Unitmatrix vi) 
2 3 
 5
vii) 7 
 
2 
3 0 0
viii) 0 3 0 
 
0 0 3 

Ans:  → , 0→ , →d , 1→ ,  → d , 2 → d,

−Y C −
V
C
P3. Find the trace of the matrix ; = e U −V Cf
− C V
V
C

Solution: The elements of the principal diagonal of are −4, −1, 1. The trace of is the
sum of the elements of the principal diagonal.

Therefore, >( ) = −4 − 1 + 1 = −4
 g h i
P4. Find the number of sub matrices of order C × C of the matrix ; = %j k l'.
S T X

Solution: The 2 × 2 submatrices of the matrix arise if we delete one row and one
column.

We delete the following rows and columns to get the 2 × 2 submatrices of the matrix :

1st row, 1st column ; 1st row, 2nd column ; 1st row, 3rd column;

2nd row, 1st column ; 2nd row, 2nd column ; 2nd row, 3rd column;

3rd row, 1st column ; 3rd row, 2nd column ; 3rd row, 3rd column

Thus, we get 9 submatrices and they are:

b > a > a b
(\ ]/ ; ( / ; (, \/
, ]
0     0
K N ; ( / K N
\ ] , ] , \
;

0     0
K N ; (a >/ ; K N
b > a b

EXERCISE:
1. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix whose elements  are given by:
()  = ( )  =
( n )o ( p )o
 

( )  = ( d)  =
( p )o ( n )o
 
(d )  = ( d)  =
| p | |p n |
 
Construct a 3 × 4 matrix =   whose elements  are given by:
()  = + ( )  = − ( )  =2
2.

( d)  = ( d)  = |−3 + |
"


3. Write the size, rows ,columns and submatrices for the following matrices:
 1 0 2
a) ( /
3 4 5
8 0
b) %4 −2'
3 6
7 14
c) ( /
15 14
2 3 4
d) %−3 4 8'
2 3 4

,−1 2 \−5 1−, 2 −\

4. If % ] 0 2 ' = % 2 0 2 ' then find the values of ,, \, ] and .
1 −1 1+ 1 −1 1

1 3 −5
5. Find the trace of the matrix %2 −1 5'
2 0 1

0 1 4
6. Is the matrix %−1 0 7' symmetric or skew symmetric?
−4 −7 0

−5 2 3
7. Find ,, if the matrix % 2 , −2' is symmetric?
3 −2 6

8. Find ,, if the following matrix is a skew symmetric.

0 4 −2 0 1 4
) %−4 0 8' ) %−1 0 7'
2 −8 , −, −7 0
5.2. Algebra of Matrices
We confine to matrices whose elements are complex numbers.

Addition of two matrices

If and  are two matrices of the same order then their sum is defined to be the matrix
obtained by adding the corresponding elements of and  and it is denoted by ; + r.

=   and  = 0 
× ×
If , then

+  =   , where  =  + 0 for all , .

×

2 1 −3
=( / and  = K−√2 1 0N, then
4 1 −2 −1 3+ 2
Example: If

2 + s−√2t 1+1 −3 + 0
+ = $ = K2 − √2 2 −3N
4 + (−1) 1 + 3 + −2 + 2 3 4+ 0

Two matrices are said to be conformable for addition if they have the same order.

Properties of addition of matrices

Let =  ,  = 0  and  =   be matrices conformable for addition, i.e., they

have the same order say  × . The addition of matrices satisfies the following
properties:

i) Commutative property : +  =  +
ii) Associative property : + ( +  ) = ( +  ) + 

There exists 5× the zero matrix of order  ×  such that

iii) Existence of additive identity:

; + 6
× = 6
× + ; = ;

The zero matrix 5× is the identity for addition or additive identity for addition
matrices.

For each matrix , there is − the negative of

iv) Existence of additive inverse:

; + (−;) = (−;) + ; = 6
such that
 Here − is called additive inverse of .

We now study the multiplication of a matrix by a scalar and its properties.

Scalar multiple of a matrix

Let be a matrix of order  ×  and u be a scalar (i.e., a real or a complex number).

The  ×  matrix obtained by multiplying each element of by u is called a scalar
multiple of ; and is denoted by v;.

=   then u = u 
× ×
i.e., if

=K1 −2√2 4 N and u = " , then

−7 14 −2 
Example: If

s−2√2t −√2 2
" " w "

u =% x   
' = %

'
− − − 7 −1
"w x
   

Note:

(i) (−1) = − , for (−1) = (−1)  = (−1)  = −  = −

(ii) −  = + (− ) = + (−1).
(iii) 0 = 5× , for 0 = 0  = 0  = 708× = 5×
(iv) u5× = 5× , for any scalar u.

and  be matrices of the same

order and u, y are scalars. Then
Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix Let

(i) u ( +  ) = u + u
(ii) (u + y) = u + y
(iii) u (y ) = (uy)

Multiplication of matrices: Let and  be matrices. Matrices ,  are said to be

conformable for multiplication (in this order) giving the product  if the number of
columns of is equal to the number rows of .

Product of two matrices: Let = 7 z 8× ,  = 0z ×{ be two matrices which are
conformable for multiplication to give the product  of order  × a. The product ;r
is defined as
  =  = 7 z 8×{ ,

where  = ∑ aik bkj .

n

k =1

Note that  is the sum of the products of the elements of

corresponding elements of the th column of .
th
row of with the

 2 −1 0 
 0 4 −1
 2 −1 −2 1   
Example: Let A =   and B =  −2 1 0 
 −1 1 1 −1
 
 1 3 −2 
Note that and  are of orders 2 × 4 and 4 × 3 respectively. The product  is defined
since ,  are comformable for multiplication (i.e., the number of columns of is equal
to the number of rows of ) and  is of order 2 × 3.
 2 −1 0 
 
 2 −1 −2 1   0 4 −1
AB =  
−1 1 1 −12×4 −2 1 0 
 
 1 3 −24×3
2( 2) + ( −1)( 0) + ( −2)( −2) +1(1) 2( −1) + ( −1)( 4) + ( −2)1+1( 3) 2( 0) + ( −1)( −1) + ( −2)( 0) +1( −2) 
= 
 ( −1)( 2) +1( 0) +1( −2) + ( −1)1 ( −1)( −1) +1( 4) +1(1) + ( −1) 3 −1( 0) +1( −1) +1( 0) + ( −1)( −2) 
 9 −5 −1
= 
−5 3 1 2×3
Note that  is not defined since the matrices  and are not conformable for
multiplication.

−2 3
1 2 3
=( / and  = % 4 −5'
4 −2 −5
−2 1
Example: Let

Notice that and  are of orders 2 × 3 and 3 × 2 respectively. The product  is

defined since ,  are conformable for multiplication and the order of  is 2 × 2.

The product  is also defined since ,

order of  is 3 × 3. Now,
are conformable for multiplication and the
 −2 3
1 2 3
=( / %4 −5'
4 −2 −5 ×
−2 1 ×

1(−2) + 2(4) + 3(−2) 1(−2) + 2(−5) + 3(1)

=K N=
4(−2) + (−2)4 + (−5)(−2) 4(−2) + (−2)(−5) + (−5)(1)
0 −4
( /
−6 17 ×
−2 3
1 2 3
 =% 4 −5' ( /
4 −2 −5 ×
−2 1 ×

(−2)1 + 3(4) (−2)2 + 3(−2) (−2)3 + 3(−5) 10 −10 −21

= 94(1) + (−5)4 4(2) + (−5)(−2) 4(3) + (−5)(−5): = %−16 18 37 '
(−2)1 + 1(4) (−2)(2) + 1(−2) (−2)3 + 1(−5) 2 −6 −11 ×

Observe that  and  are defined but  ≠  .

Note 1: The matrix multiplication, in general, is not commutative.

Note 2: It is known that, for non zero real number , 0 we have 0 ≠ 0. But in matrix

≠ 5,  ≠ 5 but  = 5.
algebra, the product of two non-zero matrices can be a zero matrix. That is, if

Example: Given an example of two square matrices and  of the same order for which

 = 5 but  ≠ 5
= =5
(i)
(ii)

Solution:

1 0 0 0
=( /, =( /. Then
2 0 4 3
(i) Let

0 0 0 0
=( / but  =( / ≠ 5. (do it!)
0 0 10 0
0 3 2 1 −2 3
Let = %−3 0 1' ,  = %−2 4 −6'. Then
−2 −1 0 3 −6 9
(ii)

0 0 0
 =  = %0 0 0' = 5
0 0 0
(verify!)
Note 3: It is known that for real numbers , 0, ,  ≠ 0, if 0 =  then 0 = . That is
cancellation laws hold. But in matrix algebra, if  =  then  need not be equal to 
even if ≠ 5.

1 2 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
= %−1 1 0' , = %−1 1 −1' ,  = %−1 1 −1'
1 −4 0 3 −4 5 −6 7 −8
Example: Let

Note that ≠ 5,  ≠ .

−1 4 1 −1 4 1
Then  = %−2 −1 −4 '  = % −2 −1 −4'
5 −2 7 5 −2 7
and (do it!)

Note that, ≠ 5 and  =  but  ≠ .

Remark: We cannot cancel A in the matrix equation  =  even if ≠ 5. However,

there is an impartant special case when the cancellation is possible. We will learn this in
a later lesson.

Properties of multiplication of matrices

We state the properties of multiplication of matrices without proof.

The multiplication of matrices is associative, i.e., if the ,  and ,  are conformable

1. The associative law

( ) = (  )
for multiplication then

For any matrices ,  and  (subject to the conformability)

2. The distributive laws

( +  ) =  + 
(ii) Right distributive law: ( +  ) =  + 
(i) Left distributive law:

3. If is a matrix of order  ×  then

H = H =

Note: i) If is a square matrix then H = H = . The matrix H is called the

multiplicative identity matrix.

ii) If ,  are compatible for multiplication and u, y are scalars, then

(u )(y ) = (uy)(  ) = s(uy) t = s(uy)t

Powers of matrices

If is a square matrix and  is a positive integer, then multiplied by itself  times is

denoted by  , i.e.,

= |}
}~}
…
}
 € ‚

Further, by definition ƒ
= H

Familiar rules of exponents of real numbers hold for matrices.

Lemma: If ; is a square matrix of order  and l, „ are non negative integers and v is a
scalar, then

(i) ;l ;„ = ;ln„ (ii) (;l )„ = ;l„ (iii) (v;)l = vl ;l

1 −2
=( /, then compute w
−1 0
Example: If .

w
=
=(  )
Solution: We have . However, the number of multiplications can be
w
reduced if we write . Now,

1 −2 1 −2 3 −2

= =( /( /=( /
−1 0 −1 0 −1 2
3 −2 3 −2 11 −10
w
=(  )
=( /( /=( /
−1 2 −1 2 −5 6
and

3 −4 1 + 2 −4
=( /, then prove that 
=( / for all positive
1 −1  1 − 2
Example: If
integers .

Solution: We prove this by induction.

1 + 2 −4
We have the statement () ∶ 
=( /
 1 − 2
1+2 −4 3 −4
Taking  = 1, ( /=( /= = "
1 1−2 1 −1
Thus, () is true when  = 1.

1 + 2‡ −4‡
Suppose that () is true for  = ‡, (‡ ≥ 1) i.e., z
=( /. Then
‡ 1 − 2‡
 3 −4 1 + 2‡ −4‡ 3(1 + 2‡ ) − 4‡ 3(−4‡ ) − 4(1 − 2‡ )
zn"
= z
=( /( /=K N
1 −1 ‡ 1 − 2‡ 1 + 2‡ − ‡ −4‡ − 1(1 − 2‡ )

3 + 2‡ −4‡ − 4 1 + 2(‡ + 1) −4(‡ + 1)

=( /=K N
1+‡ −2‡ − 1 ‡+1 1 − 2(‡ + 1)

This shows that () is true when  = ‡ + 1.

By mathematical induction

1 + 2 −4

=( /
 1 − 2
for all positive integers .

V −C V
Example: If ; = %U V −V' then show that ;D − D;C − ; − DB = 6
D −V V
1 −2 1
= %0 1 −1'
3 −1 1
Solution: Given Matrix is

1 −2 1 1 −2 1 4 −5 4

= . = %0 1 −1' %0 1 −1' = %−3 2 −2'
3 −1 1 3 −1 1 6 −8 5
4 −5 4 1 −2 1 16 −17 13

= 
. = %−3 2 −2' %0 1 −1' = %−9 10 −7'
6 −8 5 3 −1 1 21 −25 19
Now, 
−3 
− − 3B

16 −17 13 4 −5 4 1 −2 1 1 0 0
= %−9 10 −7' − 3 %−3 2 −2' − %0 1 −1' − 3 %0 1 0'
21 −25 19 6 −8 5 3 −1 1 0 0 1
16 −17 13 12 −15 12 1 −2 1 3 0 0
= %−9 10 −7' − %−9 6 −6' − %0 1 −1' − %0 3 0'
21 −25 19 18 −24 15 3 −1 1 0 0 3
0 0 0
= %0 0 0' = 5
0 0 0
Hence 
−3 
− − 3B = 5
PROBLEM SET:
3 −3 0 4 1 5
and  are matrices such that 2 −  = ( /, 2 + =( /,
3 3 2 −1 4 −4
IP1. If
then find and .

Solution:

3 −3 0 4 1 5
We have 2 −  = ( / and 2 + = + 2 = ( /
3 3 2 −1 4 −4
3 −3 0 6 −6 0
Now, 4 − 2 = 2(2 −  ) = 2 ( /=( /
3 3 2 6 6 4
4 1 5
+ 2 = ( /
−1 4 −4
4+6 1−6 5+0 10 −5 5
Adding, we get 5 = ( /=( /
−1 + 6 4+6 −4 + 4 5 10 0
10 −5 5 2 −1 1
⟹ = ( /=( /
"
F 5 10 0 1 2 0
4 1 5 4 1 5
+ 2 = ( / ⟹ 2 = ( /−
−1 4 −4 −1 4 −4
We have

4−2 1+1 5−1 2 2 4

⟹ 2 = ( /=( /
−1 − 1 4−2 −4 − 0 −2 2 −4
" 2 2 4 1 1 2
⟹= ( /=( /
 −2 2 −4 −1 1 −2
2 −1 1 1 1 2
∴ =( /, = ( /
1 2 0 −1 1 −2
IP2. State and prove the properties of the scalar multiplication of matrices.

Properties of scalar multiplication of matrices

Let and  be matrices of the same order and u, y are scalars. Then

u ( +  ) = u + u
(u + y ) = u + y
(iv)

u (y ) = (uy)
(v)
(vi)

Proof: Let =  × ,  = 0 × and u, y be scalars.

(i) u ( +  ) = u + 0  = us + 0 t = u + u0  (by distributivity)
= u  + y0  = u + u
(ii) (u + y) = (u + y)  = u + y  (by distributivity)
= u  + y  = u + y
(iii) u (y ) = uy  = usy t = (uy)  (by associativity for multiplication)
= (uy)  = (uy)

U −Šg
v

IP3. If ; = % C
' and BC×C is a unit matrix, then show that
Šg U
v
C

(B − ;) (i‹„v −„`v
/=B+;
„`v i‹„v

0 −
Œ
1 0
=% 
' and H = =( /

Œ
0 0 1
Solution: Given


1 
Œ
Žu −Ž u Žu −Ž u
Now, (H − ) ( /=% '(

/
Ž u Žu −
Œ
1 Ž u Žu


“ “

 ‘"n€’o“o –
"p€’o
−
€’
1
Πo o

 
“
•
"n€’o
=% ' o

− 1  €’ o •
Œ “ “
"p€’o
o
"n€’o o ”
 “ “
"n€’o
o

“ “ “ “ “
‘ –
"p€’o €’ —"p€’o ˜
+
€’o
−
€’
o o o
+ o o

 •
“ “ “ “
"n€’o "n€’o "n€’o "n€’o
= o o o o
•
 •
“ “ “ “ “
p€’ —"p€’o ˜
+
€’ €’o
+
o o
"p€’o
o o o
 ”
“ “ “ “
"n€’o "n€’o "n€’o "n€’o
o o o o

“ “ “
‘ –
"n€’o €’ —p"n€’o ˜
−
• % 1 −
o o o Œ

“ “
"n€’o "n€’o
= o o
• =  Œ

'
 • 1
“ “ “
€’ —p"n€’o n˜ "n€’ o
o o o
 ”
“ “ 
"n€’o "n€’o
o o

0 −
Œ
1 0
=( /+% 
'=B+
0 1 
Œ
0


` U
IP4. If ; = ( /, then prove that ; = BC , ;, −BC , −; according as  = Y™,
U `
Y™ + V, Y™ + C and Y™ + D respectively.

0 
0/ , 
0/, …
=( / and 
=( 
=(
0 0 
0 
Solution: We have


0

=( / for all positive integers  by induction.
0
We will prove that


0
Let the statement () be 
=( /
0
Clearly, () is true for  = 1

Suppose that () is true for  = ‡, (‡ ≥ 1). i.e., z

=K
z
0 N.
0 z

0 z
0N = K zn"
0 N
zn"
= z
=( /K
0 0 z
0 zn"

Thus, () is true for  = ‡ + 1

By the principle of mathematical induction () is true for all positive integers .

If  = 4‡, then wz
=K
wz
0 N = (1 0
/ = BC
0 wz 0 1
wzn"
0 N=( 0
If  = 4‡ + 1, then wzn"
=K /=
0 wzn" 0

If  = 4‡ + 2, then wzn
=K
wzn
0 N = (−1 0
/ = −BC
0 wzn 0 −1

If  = 4‡ + 3, then wzn
=K
wzn
0 N = (− 0
/ = −;
0 wzn 0 −
V C −D D −V C Y V C
P1. If = %R U C ' , r = %Y C R' and š = %U D C' then verify ; +
V −V V C U D V C D
( r − š ) = ( ; + r) − š

1 2 −3 3 −1 2 4 1 2
= %5 0 2 ' , = %4 2 5' ,  = %0 3 2'
1 −1 1 2 0 3 1 2 3
Solution: Given
 3 −1 2 4 1 2 3−4 −1 − 1 2−2 −1 −2 0
Now,

 −  = %4 2 5 ' − %0 3 2 ' = %4−0 2−3 5−2 ' = % 4 −1 3'

2 0 3 1 2 3 2−1 0−2 3−3 1 2 0

1 2 −3 −1 −2 0 1−1 2−2 −3 + 0
+ ( −  ) = %5 0 2 '+% 4 −1 3' = %5 + 4 0−1 2+3 '
1 −1 1 1 2 0 1+1 −1 + 2 1+0
0 0 −3
= %9 −1 5'
2 1 1
1 2 −3 3 −1 2 1+2 2−1 −3 + 2
+  = %5 0 2 ' + %4 2 5' = % 5 + 4 0+2 2+5 '
1 −1 1 2 0 3 1+2 −1 + 0 1+3
4 1 −1
= %9 2 7'
3 −1 4
4 1 −1 4 1 2 0 0 −3
( +  ) −  = %9 2 7 ' − %0 3 2 ' = % 9 −1 5'
3 −1 4 1 2 3 2 1 1
Hence + ( −  ) = ( +  ) − 

P2. State and prove the properties of addition of matrices.

Solution: Properties of addition of matrices

Let =  ,  = 0  and  =   be matrices conformable for addition, i.e., they

have the same order say  × . The addition of matrices satisfies the following
properties.

v) Commutative property : +  =  +
vi) Associative property : + ( +  ) = ( +  ) + 

There exists 5× zero matrix of order  ×  such that

vii) Existence of additive identity:

+ 5× = 5× + =
The zero matrix 5× is the identity for addition or additive identity for addition
matrices.
 For each matrix , there is – the negative of
viii) Existence of additive inverse:

+ (− ) = (− ) + = 5.
such that

Here − is called additive inverse of .

Proof:

(i) +  =   + 0  =  + 0  = 0 +  

= 0  +   =  +
(since the addition of complex numbers is commutative)

Thus, Addition of matrices is commutative

(ii) + ( +  ) =   + 0 +   =  + s0 +  t = s + 0 t +  

=  + 0  +   = ( +  ) + 
(since the addition of complex numbers is associative)

Thus, Addition of matrices is associative

=   . There exists an  ×  matrix whose every element is zero.

×
i.e., 5× = 5  and
(iii) We have

+ 5× =  + 5 (since 5 is the additive identity in š)

=   =
Similarly, 5× + = . Thus, + 5× = 5× + =

=  × . For this there exists − = − × , its negative and
+ (− ) =  + s− t× = 5×
(iv) We have

Similarly, (− ) + = 5× . Thus, + (− ) = (− ) + = 5×

−V R  2 1 3 0   0 2 
1 1 
V D R
P3.Find ( / %−D C' 
C Y Z
 
U D  4 1 0 2  3 − 1
 
 
1 1 
Solution: Given
 1 1 
 −1 5   
1 3 5   2 1 3 0  0 2 
  −3 2
 2 4 6  2×3    4 1 0 2  3 −1
2× 4
 0 3  3×2  
1 1  4×2
 −1 − 9 + 0 5 + 6 + 15   2 + 0 + 9 + 0 2 + 2 − 3 + 0 
=   
 −2 − 12 + 0 10 + 8 + 18 2×2  4 + 0 + 0 + 2 4 + 2 + 0 + 2  2×2
 −10 26  11 1
=   
 −14 36  2×2  6 8 2×2
 −110 + 156 −10 + 208  46 198 
=  =  
 −154 + 216 −14 + 288 2×2  62 274  2×2
1 1 
 −1 5   
1 3 5     2 1 3 0  0 2   46 198 
∴  −3 2   = 
 2 4 6   0 3   4 1 0 2   3 −1  62 274 
   
1 1 
i‹„œ „`œ i‹„œ „`œ
P4. If ; = ( /, then show that ; = ( / for all positive
−„`œ i‹„œ −„`œ i‹„œ
integers .

Solution: We prove this by principle of mathematical induction.

Ž Ž 
Let the statement () be 
=( /
−Ž  Ž
Ž Ž 
Taking  = 1, "
=( / = . Thus, () is true for  = 1
−Ž  Ž
Ž‡ Ž ‡
Suppose that () is true for  = ‡, (‡ ≥ 1). i.e., z
=( /.
−Ž ‡ Ž‡
Ž Ž  Ž‡ Ž ‡
zn"
= z
=( /( /
−Ž  Ž −Ž ‡ Ž‡
ŽŽ‡ − Ž Ž ‡ ŽŽ ‡ + Ž Ž‡
=( /
−Ž ‡Ž‡ − ŽŽ ‡ −Ž Ž ‡ + ŽŽ‡
Ž(‡ + ) Ž (‡ +  ) Ž(‡ + 1) Ž  (‡ + 1)
=K N=K N
−Ž (‡ +  ) Ž(‡ +  ) −Ž (‡ + 1) Ž(‡ + 1)
Thus, () is true for  = ‡ + 1

By the principle of mathematical induction

Ž Ž 

=( /
−Ž  Ž
is true for all positive integers .

Exercises

1. Find ; + r and ; − r

1 4 3 6  2 0 1 −2 
i) A = 2 1 0 2  , B = 1 1 −3 1 
   
1 −1 0 1   0 1 1 0 
1 2 4 0 2 3
3 1 0 3 1 1 
ii ) A =   , B= 
1 1 0 0 1 1 
   
2 2 4 1 3 2 
1 4 3 6 1 0 0 0 
0 2 1 4 3 1 0 0 
iii ) A =   , B= 
0 0 3 1 1 2 4 0 
   
0 0 0 2 1 1 1 3 

1 4 2 2 3 −1
2. Find the following

i) If = %2 1 4' ,  = %1 2 4 ', then find 13 − 15

3 2 2 1 0 3
−1 −2 3 1 −2 5 −2 1 2
ii) If = % 1 2 4 ' ,  = %0 −2 2 '  = % 1 1 2' then find
2 −1 3 1 2 −3 2 0 1
and

2 + 22 − 222.

0 1 2 −1 2 3
= %2 3 4' ,  = % 0 1 0 ', then find  − and 4 − 5
4 5 6 0 0 −1
iii) If
 1 2 3 8
=— ˜, = — ˜ and 2ž + = , then find ž
3 4 7 2
iv) If

3. Find  and 

i ) A = [1 4 −2 3] , B = [ 2 1 −1 2]
T

ii ) A = [1 3 −1 2 0] , B = [ −1 2 13 4 1]
T

1 2 1 0 3 4
2 1 1 4 4 2
iii ) A =  , B =  
1 0 2 1  6 −2 
   
1 1 2 1  −1 4 
2 3 1
4 5 2 3
1 2
iv) A =   , B = 2 0 4
2 2 6  
  
 1 4 7 
1 5 2

1 −2 3 1 0 2
4. If = % 2 3 −1' and  = %0 2 1', then examine whether and 
−3 1 2 1 2 0

5. If  − Ÿ = , then show that

commute w.r.t multiplication of matrices.

( Ž  ŽŽ / K Ž Ÿ ŽŸŽ Ÿ

 
N=5
ŽŽ  Ž 
 ŽŸŽ Ÿ Ž  Ÿ
1 2 2
= %2 1 2', then show that  − 4 − 5B = 5
2 2 1
6. If

1 −2 1
= 0 1 −1', then find  − 3  − − 3B
%
3 −1 1
7. If

u 0 1 0
=( / and  = ( /, then find the value of u for which 
= .
1 1 3 1
1 0
8. If

= ¡ " 1¢, then find the value of "ƒƒ


9. If

10. Under what conditions is the matrix equation 

−   = ( −  )( + ) is true?
 0  −0  0 
11. If = %− 0  ' and  = %0 0 0 ' then show that  =  = 5
0 − 0  0  
12. If £ is a complex cube root of unity, show that
1 £ £ £ £ 1 1 0
¤% £ £ 
1 ' + %£ 
1 £'¥ % £ ' = %0'
£ 
1 £ £ £ 1 £ 0
13. If and  are square matrices of the same order, explain, why in general
i) ( + ) ≠  + 2  +  
ii) ( − ) ≠  − 2  +  
iii) ( −  )( +  ) ≠  −  

10.3. Some Special Matrices

In this module we study the properties of (i) transposes of matrices (ii) Symmetric and
Skew symmetric matrices and (iii) Traces of matrices. Further, we introduce the
concepts of Idempotent, Involutary, Nilpotent and Orthogonal matrices.

Properties of transposes of matrices

Lemma: If ; and r are matrices of suitable orders, then

(i) (; + r)¦ = ;¦ + r¦
(ii) (v;)¦ = v;¦ , where v is a scalar
(iii) (;r)¦ = r¦ ;¦ (Reversal Law)

Proof:

(i) Let =  × ,  = 0 × . Then I

=  × ,  I = 0 ×

Now, +  =  × + 0 × =  × , where  =  + 0

I
( +  )I = —  ˜ =   =  + 0 ×
× ×

=  × + 0 × = I
+ I

(ii) Let =  × , u be a scalar. Then

u = u × = 1 × , where 1 = u

 I
Now, (u )I = —1  ˜ = 1  = u  = u  =u I
× × × ×

(iii) Let =  × and  = 0 ×{ . That is is comformable to  for

multiplication. Then  is of order  × a. Note that  I , I are of orders a × ,
 ×  and  I I is of order a × . Thus, (  )I and  I I are the matrices of the
same order a × . We will now show that (  )I =  I I by showing the

Now, ( , )th entry of (  )I = ( , )th entry of 

corresponding entries are equal.

n n n
= ∑ a jk bki = ∑ bki a jk = ∑ b 'ik a 'kj ,

where 0′ z = ( , ‡)€¨ >\ 2 I = 0z , ′z = (‡, )€¨ >\ 2 I

= z
k =1 k =1 k =1

= ( , )th entry of  I I

Thus, (  )I =  I I

matrices. For example, for three matrices ,  and 

The results for the transpose of a sum and a product can be extended to any number of

( +  +  )I = I
+ I +  I

(  )I =  I  I I
(reversal law)

Symmetric and Skew symmetric matrices

Lemma: If ; is a square matrix then

; + ;¦ is symmetric
; − ;¦ is skew symmetric
(i)

;;¦ and ;¦ ; are symmetric

(ii)
(iii)

Proof:

( + I )I
= I + ( I )I = I + (∵ ( I )I = )
= + I
(i)

⇒ + I is a symmetric matrix
( − I )I = I + (− I )I = I + (−1)( I )I = I − = −( − I)

⇒ − I is a symmetric matrix
(ii)

(iii) ( I )I = ( I )I I (∵ (  )I =  I I )
= I
 ⇒ I
is a symmetric matrix
I
Similarly, is a symmetric matrix.

Note: If is a symmetric matrix (skew symmetric), u is a scalar then u is also

symmetric (skew symmetric).

Lemma:

Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a symmetric matrix and
a skew symmetric matrix.

Proof: Let be any square matrix. Note that

= ( + I)
+ ( − I)
=  + ,
" "
 

where  = ( + I)
and  = ( − I)
" "
 

Now,  is symmetric since + I is symmetric and  is skew symmetric since − I is

skew symmetric. Thus, every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric
matrix and a skew symmetric matrix.

To prove the uniqueness, let = ª + «, where ª I = ª and « I = −«

Now, =ª+« ⇒ I
= (ª + «)I = ª I + « I = ª − «. Thus,

=ª+«
I
=ª−«

+ I
= 2ª
− = 2«. Therefore, ª = ( + I)
and « = ( − I)
Adding the above and subtracting second from the first, we get
I " "
 
and

Thus, every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a symmetric
matrix and a skew symmetric matrix and

= ( + I)
+ ( − I)
" "
 

Example: If ; and r are symmetric matrices, then

(i) ;r + r; is symmetric
(ii) ;r − r; is skew symmetric
Proof: We have that and  are symmetric, i.e., I
= and  I = 

(  +  )I = (  ) I + ( )I
=  I I + I  I (reversal law)
(i)

= +  = +
⇒  +  is symmetric
(  −  )I = (  + (−1) )I = (  )I + s(−1) t
I

= (  )I + (−1)( )I
(ii)

=  I I − I  I (reversal law)
=  −  = −(  −  )
⇒  −  is skew symmetric

Example: Let ; and r be symmetric matrices of the same order. Prove that ;r is
symmetric if and only if ;r = r;.

Proof: Given that and  are symmetric matrices of the same order. Therefore, I
=
,  I =  and ,  are defined.

Suppose that  is symmetric. Then

 = (  )I =  I I
=

Thus, if  is symmetric then  =  .

Conversely, suppose that  =  . Then

(  ) I = ( ) I ⇒ (  ) I = I
 I =  ⇒  is symmetric

Thus, if  is symmetric then  =  .

Hence the result.

Properties of trace

Let and  be square matrices of the same order and u be a scalar. Then

>( +  ) = >( ) + >( )

>(u ) = u >( )
(i)

>(  ) = >( )
(ii)

>( I ) = >( )
(iii)
(iv)

We prove the property 3:

 =   ,  = 0 
× ×
Let .

Let  =  =  × , where cij = ∑ aik bkj

n

k =1

n n  n 
Then, tr ( AB ) = ∑ cii = ∑  ∑ aik bki .
i =1 i =1  k =1 

Further, let  = ¬ = 1 
n

×
where dij = ∑ bik akj
k =1

n  n n 
Then, tr ( BA) = ∑ dii = ∑  ∑ bik aki . Now,
i =1 i =1  k =1 
n n n n
tr ( AB ) = ∑ ∑ aik bki = ∑ ∑ akibik (exchanging the roles of and )
i =1 k =1 i =1 k =1

n n
= ∑ ∑ bik aki = tr ( BA)
i =1 k =1

Similarly, the other results can be proved.

Idempotent Matrix

A square matrix is said to be an idempotent matrix if 

= .

2 −2 −4
= %−1 3 4 ' is idempotent.
1 −2 −3
Example: The matrix

2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4

= ∙ = %−1 3 4 ' %−1 3 4'
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3
Solution:

2 −2 −4
= %−1 3 4 '=
1 −2 −3
(verify!)

Thus, the given matrix is idempotent.

Example: If is an idempotent matrix, then show that  = B −
that  =  = 5.
is idempotent and

Solution: Given that is idempotent, i.e., 

= and  = B −

Now,   = (B − ) = (B − )(B − ) = BB − B − B + =B− − + 

=B− − + (∵ is idempotent)

=B− =

Thus,  = B − is idempotent.

Further  = (B − ) = − 
= − =5

 = (B − ) = − 
= − =5

Thus,  =  = 5.

Involutory matrix

A square matrix is said to be involutary matrix if 

= B.

Y D D
Example: The matrix ; = %−V U −V' is involutory.
−Y −Y −D
4 3 3 4 3 3 1 0 0

= ∙ = %−1 0 −1' %−1 0 −1' = %0 1 0'
−4 −4 −3 −4 −4 −3 0 0 1
Solution: (do it!)

Example: Show that a matrix ; is involutory if and only if (B − ;)(B + ;) = 6.

Solution: Suppose that is involutory. Then 

=B

Now (B − )(B + ) = B − + − 
=B− 
=B−B=5

Conversely, suppose that (B − )(B + ) = 5.

⇒B− 
=5⇒ 
=B⇒ is involutory.

Nilpotent matrix

Let be a square matrix. If  is the least positive integer such that 

= 5, then
called the nilpotent matrix of index .
is
 V −D −Y
Example: The matrix ; = %−V D Y ' is a nilpotent matrix of index 2.
V −D −Y
1 −3 −4 1 −3 −4 0 0 0

= ∙ = %−1 3 4 ' %−1 3 4 ' = %0 0 0'
1 −3 −4 1 −3 −4 0 0 0
Solution: (do it!)

Here 2 is the least positive integer such that 

=5

Therefore, is a nilpotent matrix of index 2.

Orthogonal matrix

A real square matrix of order  is said to be an orthogonal matrix if I

= B .

®¯° œ °±² œ
Example: The matrix ; = ( / is an orthogonal matrix.
− °±² œ ®¯° œ
cos  sin  cos  − sin 
I
=( /( /
− sin  cos  sin  cos 
Solution:

=K cos   + sin  − cos  sin  + sin  cos  N

− sin  cos  + cos  sin  sin  + cos 
1 0
=( / = B
0 1
Thus, is an orthogonal matrix.

PROBLEM SET:

 −1

IP1. If ; =   , r = [ 6 −2 0 1] then find Šl(R;r) and Šl(r¦ ;¦ ).

2
3
 
 −5 

 −1

=   ,  = [ 6 −2 0 1]
2
Solution: Given
3
 
 −5 
  −1  −6 2 0 −1

Now,  = 6 −2 0 1] = 
2  12 −4 0 2

3
 [  18 −6

0 3
   
 −5   −30 10 0 −5

⇒ >(  ) =sum of the diagonal entries= −6 − 4 + 0 − 5 = −15

⇒ >(  ) = −15

Now, >(5  ) = 5>(  ) (∵ >(‡ ) = ‡>( ))

= 5(−15) = −75

⇒ >(5  ) = −75

We have (  )I =  I I

∴ >( I I)
= >((  )I ) (∵ >( I)
= > )

= >(  ) = −15

Therefore, >(5  ) = −75 ; >( I I)

= −15

IP2. If ; and r are square matrices of order  such that ;r = ; and r; = r then
show that ; and r are Idempotent matrices.

Solution: Given and  are square matrices of order  such that  = ,  = .

We have  = (  ) = = 

Again  = ( ) =  =

Hence  = 
= ⇒ 
=

∴ is an Idempotent matrix.

Similarly,   =  (  ) =  ( ) = 

Again   = ( ) =  =  

Hence   =   =  ⇒   = 

∴  is an Idempotent matrix.
IP3. If both ; − B and ; + B are orthogonal matrices then prove that ; is skew
V V
C C

symmetric matrix and ; = − B. C D

Y

− B and + B are orthogonal matrices.

" "
 
Solution: Given

We have is an orthogonal matrix ⇒ I

=B
I I
∴ — − H ˜ — − H ˜ = B and — + H ˜ — + H ˜ = B
" " " "
   

⇒ — − H ˜— − HI ˜ = B and — + H ˜ — + HI ˜ = B
" I " " I "
   

(∵ ( +  )I = I
+ I )

⇒ — − B ˜— − B ˜ = B and — + B ˜ — + B˜=B
" I " " I "
   

⇒ − B− B + B = B and + B+ B + B=B
I " " I " I " " I "
  w   w

⇒ − B( + I)
+ B = B and + B( + I)
+ B=B
I " " I " "
 w  w

Both conditions are true only when

+ I
=0⇒ I
=− and

+ B = B ⇒ (− ) = B ⇒ − = B⇒ =− B
I "     
w w w w

=− B
 
w
i.e., is a skew symmetric matrix and

−R −³ U
IP4. Show that the matrix ; = % D R U ' is an involutary matrix.
V C −V
−5 −8 0
=% 3 5 0'
1 2 −1
Solution: Given

−5 −8 0 −5 −8 0

= . =% 3 5 0 '% 3 5 0'
1 2 −1 1 2 −1
Now,
 25 − 24 + 0 40 − 40 + 0 0+0+0
= %−15 + 15 + 0 −24 + 25 + 0 0 + 0 + 0'
−5 + 6 − 1 −8 + 10 − 2 0+0+1
1 0 0
= %0 1 0' = B
0 0 1
⟹ 
=

⟹ is an involutary matrix.

D C D
P1. Express the matrix ; = %Y R D' as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew
C Y R
symmetric matrix.

3 2 3
= %4 5 3'.
2 4 5
Solution: Given

symmetric matrix  and a skew symmetric matrix , i.e., =  + , where  =

It is known that every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a

( + I)
, = ( − I)
" "
 
.

3 4 2
I
= %2 5 4'
3 3 5
Now,

3 2 3 3 4 2 6 6 5
= ( + I)
= ´%4 5 3' + %2 5 4'µ =  %6 10 7'
" " "

2 4 5 3 3 5 5 7 10
 

3 2 3 3 4 2 0 −2 1
= ( − I)
= ´%4 5 3' − %2 5 4'µ =  % 2 0 −1'
" " "

2 4 5 3 3 5 −1 1 0
 

6 6 5 0 −2 1
∴ = %6 10 7 ' + % 2 0 −1'
" "

5 7 10 −1 1 0


C −C −Y
P2. If ; = %−V D Y ' then prove that ; is an idempotent matrix?
V −C −D
 2 −2 −4
= %−1 3 4'
1 −2 −3
Solution: Given

2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4

= %−1 3 4 ' %−1 3 4'
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3
Now,

4+2−4 −4 − 6 + 8 −8 − 8 + 12 2 −2 −4
= %−2 − 3 + 4 2+9−8 4 + 12 − 12 ' = %−1 3 4'=
2+2−3 −2 − 6 + 6 −4 − 8 + 9 1 −2 −3
⇒ 
=

⇒ is an Idempotent Matrix.

U C¶ ·
P3. If the matrix %v ¶ −·' is an orthogonal matrix, then find the values of
v −¶ ·
v, ¶, ·.

0 2y ¸ 0 u u
= %u y −¸ ', I
=% 2y y −y '
u −y ¸ ¸ −¸ ¸
Solution: Let

Since is orthogonal, ∴ I
=B

0 2y ¸ 0 u u 1 0 0
⇒ %u y −¸ ' %2y y −y ' = %0 1 0'
u −y ¸ ¸ −¸ ¸ 0 0 1

4y + ¸  2y − ¸  −2y + ¸  1 0 0

⇒ 9 2y − ¸  u  + y + ¸  u  − y  − ¸  : = %0 1 0'
−2y + ¸  u  − y − ¸  u  + y + ¸  0 0 1

Equating the corresponding elements, we have

4y
¹

+ ¸ = 1
º ⇒ y = ± ,¸ = ±
" "
2y − ¸ = 0
  √ ¼ √ 

u  + y + ¸  = 1 ⇒ u  + + = 1 ⇒ u = ±
" " "
¼  √

Therefore, u = ± , y=± , ¸=±

" " "
√ √¼ √
 V V D
P4. If the matrix ; = % R C Z ' is a Nilpotent matrix, then find its index.
−C −V −D
1 1 3
=% 5 2 6'
−2 −1 −3
Solution: Given

1 1 3 1 1 3

= =% 5 2 6 '% 5 2 6'
−2 −1 −3 −2 −1 −3
Now,

1+5−6 1+2−3 3+6−9 0 0 0

= %5 + 10 − 12 5+4−6 15 + 12 − 18' = % 3 3 9'
−2 − 5 + 6 −2 − 2 + 3 −6 − 6 + 9 −1 −1 −3
0 0 0 1 1 3

= 
=% 3 3 9 '% 5 2 6'
−1 −1 −3 −2 −1 −3
Again

0+0+0 0+0+0 0+0+0 0 0 0

= %3 + 15 − 18 3+6−9 9 + 18 − 27' = %0 0 0' = 5
−1 − 5 + 6 −1 − 2 + 3 −3 − 6 + 9 0 0 0
∴ 
=5

Thus, 3 is the least positive integer such that 

= 5.

Therefore, is the nilpotent matrix of index 3.

Exercises
and  are symmetric (skew symmetric) matrices of the same order, then so is
+ .
1. If

If is symmetric or skew symmetric, then prove that  is symmetric.

Let and  be skew symmetric matrices of the same order then prove that  is
2.

symmetric iff  =  .
3.

−1 3 5 −1 1 −1
Show that = % 1 −3 −5' and  = % 3 −3 3 ' are idempotent.
−1 3 5 5 −5 5
4.

0 1 −1 3 −4 4
Show that = %4 −3 4 ' ,  = % 0 −1 0 ' are involutory.
3 −3 4 −2 2 −3
5.
 1 2 3 1 1 3 1 −2 −6
6. Show that = % 1 2 3 ', =% 5 2 6 ' and  = %−3 2 9 ' are
−1 −2 −3 −2 −1 −3 2 0 −3

0
nilpotent matrices and determine their index.
" "
−1 2 2 √ √
= %2 −1 2 ' and  = e 0 1 0 f are orthogonal matrices.
"

2 2 −1

− 0
" "
7. Show that
√ √
4 0 6 1 0 1
8. If = %5 2 1',  = %9 1 2' then find >( I
+  ), >( I ), >( I
 ),
7 8 3 0 4 1
>(  ).

5.4. Determinant of a Matrix

Consider the following system of two linear equations in two variables , and \:

" , + 0" \ = "

… (1)
 , + 0 \ = 

where at least one of " and  is non zero. It is known that the system (1) has a unique
solution or no solution according as " 0 −  0" is not zero or zero respectively. That is,
" 0 −  0" determines whether the system (1) has a unique solution or no solution
and hence " 0 −  0" is called the determinant of the system (1). Thus we associate
 0"
the value " 0 −  0" with the matrix = K " N and it is called the determinant of
 0
g hV
the 2 × 2 matrix , denoted by |;| or ½¾Š ; or ¿ V ¿.
gC h C

The determinant of 1 × 1 matrix = 78"×" ,

then | | = .
is defined as the element of . That is, if

To define the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix we need the following concepts:

"" " "
= %"   '.
"  
Minor and cofactor of an element Let
The minor of g`À , denoted by Á`À , is defined as the determinant of the 2 × 2 matrix
th th
obtained by deleting the row and column of .

The cofactor of  is denoted by ;`À and ;`À = (−V)`nÀ Á`À

For example
"" "
 = The minor of  = à  à = ""  − " "
"

 = The cofactor of  = (−1)n  = (−1)(""  − " " )

Example: Find all minors and cofactors of the elements of the 3 × 3 matrix =
2 −1 4
%4 −3 1'.
1 2 1
Solution:

−3 1 = (−1)"n" Â"" = −5
Â"" =Ã Ã = −3 − 2 = −5
Minors Cofactors
""
2 1
4 1 = (−1)"n Â" = −3
Â" = Ã Ã=4−1=3 "
1 1
4 −3 = (−1)"n Â" = 11
Â" = Ã Ã = 8 + 3 = 11 "
1 2
−1 4 = (−1)n" Â" = 9
Â" = Ã Ã = −1 − 8 = −9 "
2 1
2 4 = (−1)n  = −2
 = à à = 2 − 4 = −2 
1 1
2 −1 = (−1)n  = −5
 = à Ã=4+1=5 
1 2
−1 4 = (−1)n" Â" = 11
Â" = Ã Ã = −1 + 12 = 11 "
−3 1
2 4 = (−1)n  = 14
 = à à = 2 − 16 = −14 
4 1
2 −1 = (−1)n  = −2
 = à à = −6 + 4 = −2 
4 −3
Determinant of a D × D matrix
"" " "
Let = % "   '. The sum of the products of the elements of first row and their

"  
corresponding cofactors is called the determinant of ;, denoted by ½¾Š ; or |;|.

That is, ½¾Š ; = gVV ;VV + gVC ;VC + gVD ;VD =

3
∑ a1 j A1 j
j =1

Note: 1 = "" (−1)"n" Â"" + " (−1)"n Â" + " (−1)"n Â"

= "" Â"" − " Â" + " Â"

  "  " 
= "" Ã  Ã − " Ã "  Ã + " Ã"  Ã


Extension of the definition of the determinant to square matrices of order  ( ≥ Y)

We have defined the concept of determinant to square matrices of order  for  = 1, 2 and
3.
"" " "
For  = 3, we have = %"   ' and
"  

1 = is the cofactor of " in

3
∑ a1 j A1 j , where "
j =1

This concept can be extended to square matrices of order ,  ≥ 4.

Suppose that the definition of the determinant is true for the square matrices of order

 − 1. That is, if  = 0 p"×p" , then 1 = ∑ b1 j B1 j , where "

n −1
is the cofactor of

0" .
j =1

=  × . Notice that is the cofactor of  , which is the determinant of the

of order  − 1 by deleting the €¨ row and
Let
۬

is known. Therefore, 1 is defined as

submatrix of column. By induction
hypothesis
 1 = ,for the square matrix of order .
n
∑ aij Aij
j =1

۬
This expansion of the determinant is called the expansion by cofactors along the
row.

Note (1): Expansion along any row

and their corresponding cofactors. That is, if =  × , then

We can expand the determinant as the sum of the products of the elements of any row

ÄÅÆ ; = g`V ;`V + g`C ;`C + ⋯ + g` ;` = Ç g`À ;`À

ÀÈV

۬
(expansion along row)

Note (2): Expansion along any column

We can expand the determinant as the sum of the products of elements of any column

if =  
and the corresponding cofactors of the elements of the same column. That is,
×
, then


ÄÅÆ ; = gVÀ ;VÀ + gCÀ ;CÀ + ⋯ + gÀ ;À = Ç g`À ;`À

`ÈV

۬
(expansion along column)

elements of the th row and the corresponding cofactors of the elements of the >th row
Note (3): This expansion has a very important property that the sum of the products of

(> ≠ ) is zero. That is, if =  

×
, then

g`V ;lV + g`C ;lC + ⋯ + g` ;l = U

"" " "
= %"   ', = 1 and > = 3 then
"  
For example, if

" " "" " "" "

"" " + "  + "  = "" Ã  Ã + " ( −1 ) Ã "  Ã + " Ã "  Ã

 = "" ("  −  " ) − " (""  − " " ) + " (""  − " " ) = 0

The same results holds good for the column expansion

gVÀ ;Vl + gCÀ ;Cl + ⋯ + gÀ ;l = U, where > ≠

Note (4): If and  are square matrices and =  then 1 = 1 .

C −V Y
Example: Find the determinant of ; = %Y −D V'.
V C V
Solution: det = The sum of the products of elements of the first row and their
corresponding cofactors.

= "" "" + " " + " " ,

where "" = 2, " = −1, " = 4, "" = −5, " = −3, " = 11

= 2(−5) + (−1)(−3) + 4(11) = −10 + 3 + 44 = 37

C −V Y
Example: Find the determinant of ; = %Y −D V'
V C V
(i) by expanding along 3rd row and
(ii) by expanding along 2nd column

Solution: i.Expansion of the determinant along 3rd row:

det = " " +   +  

= 1(11) + 2(14) + 1(−2) = 11 + 29 − 2 = 37

det = " " +   +  

(i) Expansion of the determinant along 2nd column:

= (−1)(−3) + (−3)(−2) + 2(14) = 3 + 6 + 28 = 37

Properties of determinants

The properties of determinants of the matrices of order  are given below. These
properties are proved for the case of  = 3.
Property 1: The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of its diagonal
elements.

 a11 a12 a13 a14 

= 
0 a a23 a24 
If
22
 (i.e., is an upper triangular matrix) then expanding the
0 0 a33 a34 
 
0 0 0 a44 
determinant along the first column, we get
  w
det = "" Ì 0  w Ì
0 0 ww
 w
= "" ( Ã 0 ww Ã/ again expanding along the first column

= ""   ww

 −3 1 −2 4

= 
0 2 −3 1
Example: The determinant of  is the product of the diagonal
0 0 −1 −7 
 

elements, i.e., (−3)(2)(−1)(4) = 24.

0 0 0 4

Example: The determinant of the identity matrix is 1.

Property 2: If each element of a row (column) of a square matrix is zero, then the
determinant of the matrix is zero.

Notice that the determinant of such a matrix is zero if we expand the determinant along
the row (column) containing zeros.

Example: The determinant of an  ×  zero matrix is zero.

square matrix ;, ½¾Š ; = ½¾Š(;¦ ).

Property 3: The determinant of a matrix and its transpose are equal i.e., for any

"" " " "" " "

= %"   '. Then I
= %"   '
"   "  
Let
Now, det = "" "" + " " + " " (expanding along 1st row)

Expanding det I
along 1st column, we get

det I
= "" "" + " " + " " ,

where "" , " and " are the cofactors of "" , " , " in I

  " " " "

= "" Ã  Ã − " Ã   Ã + " Ã   Ã


= "" "" + " " + " " = det

Property 4: If ; and r are square matrices of the same order, then

½¾Š(;r) = (½¾Š ;)(½¾Š r)

This property can be verified easily if ,  are matrices of order 2 and ,  are matrices
of order 3. The proof of this property in general case is beyond the scope of this course.

Example: If is an orthogonal matrix, then 1 = ±1

Example: The determinant of a nilpotent matrix is zero.

Property 5: For any positive integer
, ½¾Š(;
) = (½¾Š ;)

Property 6: If each element in a row (column) of a square matrix is the sum of two
elements then its determinant can be expressed as the sum of the determinants as
shown below:

"" + 0" " " "" " " 0" " "
Ì" + 0   Ì = Ì"   Ì + Ì0   Ì
" + 0   "   0  

The above follows easily as shown below:

"" + 0" " "

Ì" + 0   Ì
" + 0  
  " " " "
= ("" + 0" ) Ã  Ã − ( " + 0 ) Ã   Ã + ( " + 0 ) Ã   Ã


  " " " "  

= "" Ã  Ã − " Ã  Ã + " Ã  Ã + 0" Ã   Ã

 " " " "
−0 Ã  Ã + 0 Ã  Ã


"" " " 0" " "


= Ì "   Ì + Ì0   Ì
"   0  

Hence the result

Property 7: If the elements of a square matrix are polynomials in S and its determinant
is zero when S = g, then S − g is a factor of the determinant of the matrix.

2" (,) 2 (,) 2 (,)

Let (,) = 9Í" (,) Í (,) Í (,):. Note that det7 (,)8 is a polynomial in ,. If
ℎ" (,) ℎ (,) ℎ (,)
det7 ()8 = 0, then , −  is a factor of det7 (,)8 (by remainder theorem).

PROBLEM SET:

U V D
IP1. Find the determinant of r = %−C −D −R'
Y −Y Y
Solution: We use the cofactor expansion along the first row


det = Ç 0" "

È"

−3 −5 −2 −5 −2 −3
= 0(−1)"n" à à + 1(−1)"n à à + 3(−1)"n à Ã
−4 4 4 4 4 −4
= 0 − (−8 + 20) + 3(8 + 12) = −12 + 60 = 48

IP2. Prove that the determinant of an identity matrix of order  is 1.

Solution: Note that B is a triangular matrix with each diagonal element 1.

Therefore det B is the product of diagonal elements. Thus,

det B = 1
|}∙}
1}~}
∙1∙}
…}
∙1=1
 € ‚
 ` C V
IP3. Find the determinant of ; = % D V+` C '
−C` V Y+`
Solution: det = ∑È" " "

1+ 2 3 2 3 1+
= ( )(−1)"n" à à + (2)(−1)"n à à + (1)(−1)"n à Ã
1 4+ −2 4+ −2 1
= 7(1 + )(4 + ) − 28 − 273(4 + ) + 4 8 + 173 + 2 (1 + )8

= 74 + 5 − 18 − 2712 + 7 8 + 71 + 2 8

= 4 − 5 − − 24 − 14 + 1 + 2

= −9 + 28

IP4. If ; is a nilpotent matrix, then prove that ÄÅÆ ; = U.

Solution: Let be a nilpotent matrix of index  , then 

= 5.
Then det(  ) = det 5 ⇒ (det ) = 0 ⇒ det = 0

V D −D
P1. Find the determinant of ; = %−D −R C'
−Y Y −Z
Solution: We use the cofactor expansion along the first row.


det = Ç " "

È"

−5 2 −3 2 −3 −5
= 1(−1)"n" à à + 3(−1)"n à à + (−3)(−1)"n à Ã
4 −6 −4 −6 −4 4
= (−5)(−6) − 2(4) − 37(−3)(−6) − (−4)28 − 37−3(4) − (−4)(−5)8

= 22 − 3(26) − 3(−32) = 40

P2.
  −1 0 −2 4 

Find the determinant of the matrix š = 

 0 1 −3 −4 

 0 3 −5 4 
 
 −2 −3 2 −6 
Solution: We use the cofactor expansion along the first column. (why?)
w

det = Ç  " "

È"

1 −3 −4 0 −2 4
( )(
= −1 −1 )"n"
Ì3 −5 (
4 Ì + 0 + 0 − 2 −1 )"nw
Ì1 −3 −4Ì
−3 2 −6 3 −5 4
1 −3 −4 0 −2 4
= − det I
+ 2 det  , where
I
=% 3 −5 4 ',  = %1 −3 −4'
−3 2 −6 3 −5 4
= − det + 2 det  (∵ det ž I = det ž)

= −40 + 2(48) = 56 (see P1 and IP1)

−V C+` D
%
P3.mFind the determinant of ; = V − ` ` V '
D` C −V + `
Solution: det = ∑È" " "

1 1− 1 1−
= (−1)(−1)"n" à à + (2 + )(−1)"n à à + 3(−1)"n à Ã
2 −1 + 3 −1 + 3 2
= (−1)7 (−1 + ) − 28 − (2 + )7(1 − )(−1 + ) − 3 8 + 372(1 − ) − 3  8

= (−1)7− − 1 − 28 − (2 + )7−(1 − )
− 3 8 + 372 − 2 + 38

= + 3 − (2 + )7−2 − 3 8 + 375 − 2 8

= + 3 + 4 + 2 + 6 − 3 + 15 − 10 = 19 −

P4. If ; is an orthogonal matrix (of order ) then prove that ÄÅÆ ; = ±V.

Solution: is an orthogonal matrix of order  ⇒ I

= I
= B
Taking determinants on both sides

det( I)
= det B

⇒ det det I
= 1 ⇒ det det =1

⇒ (det ) = 1 ⇒ det = ±1 (∵ is a real matrix)

Exercise
Evaluate the determinants of the following matrices
−1 7
( /
3 8
(i)

4 −5
( /
2 3
(ii)

2+ −1 + 3
( /
1−2 3−
(iii)

6 4
( /
−6 2
(iv)

1 2 3
%4 5 6' along second column
7 8 9
(v)

−1 3 2
% 4 −8 1' along 3rd column
2 2 5
(vi)

0 1+ 2
%−2 0 1 − ' along 2nd row
3 4 0
(vii)

2+ 0
%−1 3 2 ' along 2nd column
0 −1 1 −
(viii)

‘ 0 3–

−2 2 ••
2 1
 1
 • along 4 column
0
 3 −1 0 1 •
th
(ix)

 •
 −1 1 2 0”

‘ 1 0 −2 3 –

 −3 2 ••
 • along 3 column
1 1
 0 1•
rd
(x)

 •
4 −1
 2 3 0 1”
5.5. Evaluation of Determinants using Properties
Elementary row (column) operations

There are two types of elementary matrix operations- row operations and column
operations. These are useful in matrix algebra. (for example in the evaluation of
determinants).

Let ; be an
×  matrix. Let ª" , ª , … , ª be the rows and " ,  , … ,  be the

columns of . Any one of the following three operations on the rows (columns) of ; is
called an elementary row (column) operation:

i) Interchange of any two rows (columns) of ;.

Interchange of the rows ª and ª (column  and  ) is denoted by
ª ↔ ª s ↔  t.
ii) Multiplying the elements of any row (column) of ; by a non zero scalar v.
Multiplying the elements of row ª (column  ) by a non zero scalar u is denoted by
ª → uª ( → u ).
iii) Adding any scalar multiple of the elements of a row (column) to the corresponding

ª → ª + uª s →  + u t denotes adding u multiples of the elements of ª s t

elements of another row (column).

to the corresponding elements of ª ( ).

Property 8: If a matrix r is formed from a matrix ; by interchanging any two rows

(columns) of ;, then

½¾Š r = − ½¾Š ;
"" " "
= %"   '. Then
"  
Let

det = Ç " "

È"

= "" (  −   ) − " ("  − "  ) + " ("  − "  )
Let  be the matrix obtained from by interchanging the 1st and 3rd row (i.e., ª" ↔ ª )
"  
. Then  = %"   '.
"" " "

Using the cofactor expansion along the 3rd row,

  "  " 
det  = "" (−1)n" Ã  Ã + " (−1)
n
à  à + " (−1)
n
à  Ã
 " "

= "" (  −   ) − " ("  − "  ) + " ("  − "  )

= (−1)7(  −   ) − " ("  − "  ) + " ("  − "  )8

= − det

Property 9: If two rows (columns) of a square matrix ; are identical, then ½¾Š ; = U.

Proof: Let be a square matrix when th and th rows (columns) are identical. Let  be

det  = − det . Notice that  = (since the th and th rows are identical). Therefore,
the matrix obtained from by interchanging th and th rows (columns). By property (1)

det  = det . Thus,

det  = det = − det ⇒ 2 det = 0 ⇒ det = 0.

+0 0+ +  0 

Example: Show that Ì 0 +  +  + 0 Ì = 2 Ì0  Ì.
+ +0 0+   0
Solution:

+0 0+ +  0+ + 0 0+ +

Ì0 +  +  + 0 Ì = Ì0 +  + 0Ì + Ì  +  + 0Ì (by property 6)
+ +0 0+  +0 0+  +0 0+
 0 +   + 0 0 + 0  +
= Ì0   + 0 Ì + Ì0   + 0Ì + Ì    + 0Ì + Ì    + 0Ì
  0+  0 0+ |}}}~}}}
  0+  0 0+
сÒÓ, ‚ ԁ €ÕÓ
ÔÓÖׂ ’ҁ
؁€ ԒÖ

 0   0        0   0  
= Ì0   Ì + Ì0  0 Ì + Ù 0   Ù+Ù 0  0 Ù + Ì   Ì + Ì   0Ì
  0 |}}~}}
   |} }~}
0 }
0 |} }~}
0 }
 |}
 }~}
0 }
0  0 
сÒÓ ÑÒÓ ÑÒÓ ÑÒÓ
  0  0   0    0   0 
= 2 Ì0  Ì ´Ž  Ì   0 Ì = (−1) Ì  0 Ì = (−1) Ì0

  Ì = Ì0  ̵
  0  0    0   0   0
Property 10: If a matrix r is obtained from a matrix ; by multiplying the elements of a
row (column) by a scalar v, then ½¾Š r = v ½¾Š ;.
"" " "
Let = % "   '. Then det = ∑ a3 j A3 j . Let  be the matrix obtained from

"  
3

by multiplying the elements of 3 row by the scalar u (i.e., ª → uª ). Then

j =1
rd

"" " "


 = % "   '
u" u u

Notice that the cofactor of u in  is same as the cofactor of  in for = 1,2,3.
Therefore,
  

det  = Ç u s2> 2 u t = Ç u  = u Ç   = u det

È" È" È"

Property 11: If ; is a square matrix of order  and v is a scalar then

½¾Š(v;) = v ½¾Š ;
"" " "
= %"   ' be a square matrix of order 3 and u be a scalar then
"  
Let

u"" u" u" "" " "

u
det(u ) = Ì " u u Ì = u Ìu" u u Ì
u" u u u" u u
"" " " "" " "
= u ∙ u Ì "   Ì = u ∙ u Ì"
   Ì = u  det
u" u u "  

Example: If ; is skew symmetric matrix of odd order, then ÄÅÆ ; = U.

Solution: Let be a skew symmetric matrix of odd order say 2‡ + 1. Then =− I

.

⇒ det = det(− I)
= (−1)zn" det I
(by property 11)
 = (−1) det (∵ det( I)
= det ) ⇒
2 det = 0 ⇒ det =0

Property 12: If the corresponding elements of two rows (columns) of a square matrix ;
are in the same ratio, then the determinant of ; is zero.
"" " "

= % "   '. Then
u" u u
Let

"" " " "" " "

det = Ì "   Ì = u Ì"   Ì (by property 10)
u" u u "  

= u. 0 = 0 (since the 2nd and 3rd rows are identical)

Property 13: If a matrix r is obtained from a matrix ; by adding a scalar multiple of

the elements of a row (column) to the corresponding elements of another row
(column), then

½¾Š r = ½¾Š ;
"" " "
Let = %"   '. Let  be the matrix obtained from by adding u multiples of
"  
the elements of 2nd row to the corresponding elements of the 3rd row (i.e., ª → ª +
uª ). Then
"" " "
=% "   '
" + u"  + u  + u
"" " "
Now, det  = Ì "   Ì
" + u"  + u  + u
"" " " "" " "
= Ì"   Ì + Ì "   Ì
"   u" u u
(by property 6)

= | | + 0 (by property 12)

=| |
matrix are given in properties 8, 10 and 12.
Note: The effect of an elementary row (column) operations on the determinant of a

These properties of the determinants can be used to simplify the evaluation of a

determinant.

g−h h−i i−g

Example: Show that Ì h − i i−g g − hÌ = U
i−g g−h h−i
−0 0− −
Solution: Ì 0 −  −  − 0Ì applying ÚV ⟶ ÚV + ÚC + ÚD
− −0 0−
0 0 0
= Ì0 −  −  − 0Ì
− −0 0−
= 0 (since each element in the 1st row is zero)

Dg h−g i−g
Ì
Example: Show that g − h Dh i − hÌ = D(g + h + i)(gh + hi + ig)
g−i h−i Di
3 0− −
Solution: Ì − 0 30  − 0Ì applying šV → šV + šC + šD
− 0− 3
+0+ − + 0 − + 
= Ì + 0 +  30 −0 +  Ì
+0+ − + 0 3
1 − + 0 − + 
= ( + 0 + ) Ì1 30 −0 +  Ì applying ÚC → ÚC − ÚV , ÚD → ÚD − ÚV
1 − + 0 3
1 0− −
= ( + 0 + ) Ì0 20 +  −0Ì
0 − 2 + 

= ( + 0 +  )7(20 + )(2 + ) − ( −  )( − 0)8

(expanding along the first column)

= ( + 0 + )Ü(40 + 20 + 2 +  ) − (0 − 0 −  +  Ý

= ( + 0 +  )(30 + 30 + 3) = 3( + 0 +  )(0 + 0 + )

3 0− −
∴ Ì − 0 30  − 0 Ì = 3( + 0 +  )(0 + 0 + )
− 0− 3

 1 −1 0 x

 is −Z[ then
 3 −2 5 6
Example: If the determinant value of the matrix A = 
4 1 7 3
 
0 1 2 3
find the value of S.

1 −1 0 x

applying ÚC → ÚC − DÚV , ÚD → ÚD − YÚV

3 −2 5 6
Solution: A =
4 1 7 3
0 1 2 3

1 −1 0 x
0 1 5 6 − 3x
= (expanding along 1st column)
0 5 7 3 − 4x
0 1 2 3

1 5 6 − 3,
= 1 Ì5 7 3 − 4, Ì applying ÚC → ÚC − RÚV , ÚD → ÚD − ÚV
1 2 3
1 5 6 − 3,
= Ì0 −18 11, − 27Ì
0 −3 3, − 3
(expanding along 1st column)

| | = 1 Ã−18 11, − 27
à = −18(3, − 3) + 3(11, − 27)
−3 3, − 3
∴ −69 = −21, − 27 ⟹ , = 2
PROBLEM SET:

IP1.

( n + 3)!
( n − 1) ! ( n + 1) !
n( n + 1)

For a fixed positive integer , if D = ( n + 1) !

( n + 5 )! , then find
( n + 3) !
( n + 2 )( n + 3)
( n + 7 )!
( n + 3)! ( n + 5 ) !
( n + 4 )( n + 5 )
Þ!
the value of (pV)!(nV)!(nD)!

Solution:

( n + 3) !
( n − 1) ! ( n + 1) !
n( n + 1)

D = ( n + 1) !
( n + 5)!
( n + 3) !
( n + 2 )( n + 3)
( n + 7 )!
( n + 3) ! ( n + 5 ) !
( n + 4 )( n + 5)
1 ( n + 1) n ( n + 3)( n + 2 )
D = ( n − 1) ! ( n + 1) ! ( n + 3) ! 1 ( n + 3)( n + 2 ) ( n + 5 )( n + 4 )
1 ( n + 5 )( n + 4 ) ( n + 7 )( n + 6 )
1 ( n + 1) n ( n + 3)( n + 2 )
D
= 1 ( n + 3)( n + 2 ) ( n + 5 )( n + 4 )
( n − 1) ! ( n + 1) ! ( n + 3) ! 1 n + 5 n + 4 n + 7 n + 6
( )( ) ( )( )
applying ÚD ⟶ ÚD − ÚV and ÚC ⟶ ÚC − ÚV , we get

( n + 1) n ( n + 3)( n + 2 )
applying ÚD ⟶ ÚD − CÚC
1
=0 4n + 6 4n + 14
0 8n + 20 8n + 36
 1 ( n + 1) n ( n + 3)( n + 2 )
=0 4n + 6 4n + 14 (expanding along 1st column)
0 8 8

= 1732 + 48 − 32 − 1128 = −64

¬
⟹ = −64
( − 1)! ( + 1)! ( + 3)!

IP2: For all values of ;, r, š and à, á, Ú, show that

®¯° (; − à) ®¯° (; − á) ®¯° (; − Ú)

⮯° (r − à) ®¯° (r − á) ®¯° (r − Ú)â = U
®¯° (š − à) ®¯° (š − á) ®¯° (š − Ú)

cos ( − ) cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)

Solution: âcos ( − ) cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)â
cos ( − ) cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)

Ž Ž + Ž  Ž  cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)

= ⍎Ž + Ž Ž  cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)â
ŽŽ  + Ž Ž  cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)

Ž cos( − ã) cos( − ª )

= Ž ⍎ cos( − ã) cos( − ª )â
Ž cos( − ã) cos( − ª )

Ž cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)
+Ž  ⎠ cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)â
Ž  cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)

applying šC ⟶ šC − šV i‹„á ; šD ⟶ šD − šV i‹„Ú on first determinant and

šC ⟶ šC − šV „`á ; šD ⟶ šD − šV „`Ú on second determinant, we get

Ž Ž  Ž 㠎  Ž ª
= Ž ̍Ž Ž Ž 㠎 Ž ª Ì
Ž Ž Ž 㠎 Ž ª
Ž Ž Žã Ž Žª
+Ž  ̎  ŽŽã ŽŽªÌ
Ž  ŽŽã ŽŽª
 Ž Ž Ž
= Ž Ž ㎠ª ̍Ž Ž  Ž  Ì
Ž Ž  Ž 
Ž Ž Ž
+Ž  ŽãŽª ̎  Ž ŽÌ
Ž  Ž Ž
= 0 + 0 = 0 (Since the columns šC , šD are same in both determinants)

Aliter:
For all values of ;, r, š and à, á, Ú, show that

®¯° (; − à) ®¯° (; − á) ®¯° (; − Ú)

⮯° (r − à) ®¯° (r − á) ®¯° (r − Ú)â = U
®¯° (š − à) ®¯° (š − á) ®¯° (š − Ú)

Solution:

cos ( − ) cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)

= 9cos ( − ) cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª):
cos ( − ) cos ( − ã) cos ( − ª)
Note that

Ž Ž 0 Ž Žã Žª

= %Ž Ž  0' + % Ž  Ž 㠎 ª '
Ž Ž  0 1 1 1
= 
Now, 1 = 1 = 1. 1
= 0 (∵ 1 = 0)
Hence, 1 = 0

V gC gD
IP3: Show that ÌV hC hD Ì = (g − h)(h − i)(i − g)(gh + hi + ig)
V iC iD
1  
Solution: Ì1 0 0 Ì applying ÚV → ÚV − ÚD , ÚC → ÚC − ÚD
1  
 0  −    −  
= Ì0 0 −   0 −   Ì
1  
0 +  +  +  
= ( −  )(0 − ) Ì0 0+ 0 + 0 +   Ì applying ÚC → ÚC − ÚV
1  
0 +  +  +  
( )
=  −  (0 − ) Ì0 0− 0 −  + 0 −  Ì
1  

0 +  +  +  
= ( −  )(0 −  )(0 − ) Ì0 1 0++ Ì
1  

= ( −  )(0 −  )(0 − ) ¿ +   +  +   ¿
1 +0+

= ( − 0)(0 −  )( − )7( +  )( + 0 +  ) − ( +  +   )8

= ( − 0)(0 −  )( − )(0 + 0 + )

1  
∴ Ì1 0 0 Ì = ( − 0)(0 −  )( − )(0 + 0 + )
1  

Note:

g h i V V V
If ; = %g C
hC i C ' and r = % C
g hC iC ', then show that
hi ig gh gD hD iD
|;| = |r| = (g − h)(h − i)(i − g)(gh + hi + ig)

Solution:

 0 
We have | | = Ì 0  Ì
0  0
Multiplying šV , šC and šD by , 0 and  respectively, we get

 0   0 
| |= Ì  0   Ì = ’äÔ Ì 0 Ì
" ’äÔ
’äÔ
0 0 0 1 1 1
 0  1 1 1
= Ì  0   Ì = Ì  0   Ì = | |
1 1 1  0 
1  
Note that | | = | I|
i.e., | | = Ì1 0 0 Ì
1  
∴ | | = | | = ( − 0)(0 −  )( − )(0 + 0 + )

1+ a 1 1 1
1 1+ b 1 1  1 1 1 1
IP4. Show that = abcd  1 + + + + 
1 1 1+ c 1  a b c d
1 1 1 1+ d

1+ a 1 1 1
1 1+ b 1 1
Solution:
1 1 1+ c 1
1 1 1 1+ d

Multiplying the elements of šV , šC , šD and šY by , , and

" " " "
’ ä Ô Ø
multiplying the determinant by 01 to compensate it
respectively and

1 1 1 1
+1
a b c d

applying šV ⟶ šV + šC + šD + šY
1 1 1 1
+1
a b c d
= abcd
1 1 1 1
+1
a b c d
1 1 1 1
+1
a b c d
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+
+ + +
a b c d b c d
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +1
a b c d b c d
= abcd
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +1
a b c d b c d
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +1
a b c d b c d

1 1 1
1
b c d
1 1 1
1 +1
 1 1 1 1 b c d
= abcd  1 + + + + 
 a b c d 1 1 1
+1
1
b c d
1 1 1
1 +1
b c d

applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − ÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − ÚV , ÚY ⟶ ÚY − ÚV

1 1 1
1
b c d
 1 1 1 10 1 0 = abcd 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 
= abcd 1 + + + +  0
 a b c d0 0 1 0  a b c d
0 0 0 1

(The det is the product of diagonal entries, as it is the det of an upper triangular matrix).

P1. Evaluate

2 2 2
12 22 32 42
1 2 3
22 32 42 52
( i ) 22 32 42 ( ii ) 2
3 42 52 62
32 42 52
42 52 62 72

Solution:
 12 22 32 1 4 9
(i ) 22 32 42 = 4 9 16 applying R2 → R2 − 4 R1 , R5 → R3 − 9 R1
32 42 52 9 16 25
1 4 9
=0 −7 −20
0 −20 −56
= 1( −7 )( −56 ) − ( −20 )( −20 )  = 392 − 400 = −8

12 22 32 42 1 4 9 16
2 2 2 2
2 3 4 5 4 9 16 25
(ii ) = applying R4 → R4 − R3
32 42 52 62 9 16 25 36
42 52 62 72 16 25 36 49
1 4 9 16
4 9 16 25
= applying R3 → R3 − R2
9 16 25 36
7 9 11 13

1 4 9 16
4 9 16 25
= applying R2 → R2 − R1
5 7 9 11
7 9 11 13
1 4 9 16
3 5 7 9
= applying R4 → R4 − R2 , R3 → R3 − R2
5 7 9 11
7 9 11 13
1 4 9 16
3 5 7 9
=
2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4
=0
(Since the elements of 4th row and the corresponding elements of 3rd row are in the
same ratio)

P2: If gV , gC , gD , … , g , … are in Geometric Progression, then find the value of the

åg ågnV ågnC
determinant of the matrix ; = %ågnD ågnY ågnR '
ågnZ ågnW ågn³

Solution: Given " ,  ,  , … ,  , … are in Geometric Progression (G.P)

Let > be the common ratio of the given G.P. Then

 = > p" , n" = >  , n = > n" , … , …

æ æn" æn

Now, | | = Ìæn ænw ænF Ì
æn¼ ænx ænç

æ> p" æ>  æ> n"

= Ìæ> n æ> n æ> nw Ì applying šD ⟶ šD − šC
æ> nF æ> n¼ æ> nx
æ> p" æ>  æ>
= Ìæ> n æ> n æ> Ì applying šC ⟶ šC − šV
æ> nF æ> n¼ æ>
æ> p" æ> æ>
= Ìæ> n æ> æ> Ì
æ> nF æ> æ>
= 0 (Since the columns šC , šD are identical)

⟹| |=0

V g gC
Show that ÌV h hC Ì = (g − h)(h − i)(i − g)
V i iC
P3:

1  
Ì1 0 0 Ì applying ÚC → (ÚC − ÚV ); ÚD → (ÚD − ÚV )
1  
Solution:

1  
= Ì0 0− 0 −  Ì


0 −   − 
 = 1. Ã0 −  0 −  Ã = (0 − )( − ) Ã1 0−
Ã
−   −  1 −

= (0 − )( − )( −  − 0 − ) = (0 − )( − )( − 0)

= ( − 0)(0 −  )( − )

1  
∴ Ì1 0 0 Ì = ( − 0)(0 −  )( − )
1  
Note 1:

, \ ] 1 1 1
Ì, \ ] Ì = ,\] â , \ ]â
 

, \ ] , \ ]
(why?)

1 , ,
= ,\] Ì1 \ \Ì
1 ] ]
(why?)

= ,\](, − \)(\ − ])(] − ,)

, , 1 + ,
Note 2: If ,, \, ] are pairwise distinct and â\ \ 1 + \  â = 0, then prove that
] \ 1 + ]
,\] = −1 (how?)

S−C CS − D DS − Y
P4: If ÌS − Y CS − [ DS − VZÌ = U then find the value of S.
S−³ CS − CW DS − ZY
,−2 2, − 3 3, − 4
Solution: 0 = Ì, − 4 2, − 9 3, − 16Ì applying ÚC ⟶ (ÚC − ÚV ), ÚD ⟶
,−8 2, − 27 3, − 64
(ÚD − ÚV )
 ,−2 2, − 3 3, − 4
= Ì −2 −6 −12 Ì
−6 −24 −60
,−2 2, − 3 3, − 4
= (−2)(−6) Ì 1 3 6 Ì applying ÚC ⟶ (ÚC − ÚD )
1 4 10
,−2 2, − 3 3, − 4
( )
= −2 (−6) Ì 0 −1 −4 Ì
1 4 10
,−2 2, − 3 3, − 4
⟹Ì 0 −1 −4 Ì = 0
1 4 10
⟹ (, − 2)(−10 + 16) + (1)Ü(2, − 3)(−4) + (3, − 4)Ý = 0

(expanding along 1st column)

⟹ 6(, − 2) − 4(2, − 3) + (3, − 4) = 0

⟹ , − 4 = 0 ⟹ , = 4.

Exercise
1  0+
1. Show that Ì1 0  +  Ì = 0.
1  +0

1 0 (0 + )
2. Show that â1  0( + )â = 0
1 0 ( + 0)

,+\ \+] ]+,

3. Without expanding prove that Ì ] , \ Ì = 0.
1 1 1

a−b−c 2a 2a
3
4. Show that 2b b−c−a 2b = (a + b + c)
2c 2c c −a −b
 sin u cos u sin(u + è)
5. Without expanding evaluate the determinant âsin y cos y sin(y + è)â
sin ¸ cos ¸ sin(¸ + è)

 2 −1 3 0 
 5 4 −2 1 
6. Find the determinant of the matrix A =  
3 1 0 2 
 
 4 −5 6 −1

(0 + ) 0 
7. Show that â 0 ( + ) 0 â = 20( + 0 + )
 0 ( + 0)

 0− +0
8. Show that Ì +  0  − Ì = ( + 0 +  )( + 0 +   )
−0 0+ 

−0− 2 2
9. Show that Ì 20 0−− 20 Ì = ( + 0 +  )
2 2 −−0

1 £ £
10. If £ is complex (non-real) cube root of 1, then show that Ì £ £ 1Ì=0
£ 1 £

 0−\ −]
11.If ,, \, ] are different from zero and Ì − , 0  − ]Ì = 0 , then find the value
−, 0−\ 

of the expression + +
’ ä Ô
é ê Ñ

1 1 1
12. Let £ = . Then the value of the determinant Ì1 −1 − £ £ Ì is
p"n √

1 £ £w


A. 3£ B. 3£(£ − 1) C. 3£ D. 3£(£ − 1) : Ans. B

13. For positive numbers ,, \ and ], find the numerical value of the determinant

1 log é \ log é ]
âlog ê , 1 log ê ]â
log Ñ , log Ñ \ 1

,a + \ , \
14.Find the value of the determinant Ì\a + ] \ ] Ì.
0 ,a + \ \a + ]

6 −3 1
15.If Ì 4 3 −1Ì = , + \, then (,, \) =
20 3

A. (3, 1) B. (1, 3) C. (0, 3) D. (0, 0) ; Ans. D

5.6. Finding Inverse of a Matrix

In this module, we develop a formula for the inverse of a nonsingular matrix and study
the related concepts.

= s t× be an  ×  matrix and be the cofactor of  . The matrix whose

Definition

( , )۬ element is
Let

is called the adjoint of ; and is denoted by g½À; .

is called the matrix of cofactors of . The transpose of this matrix

T
 A11 A12 L A1n   A11 A12 L A1n 
A A22 L A2n  A A22 L A2 n 
 21  adjA =  21 
 M M M M   M M M M 
   
 An1 An 2 L Ann   An1 An 2 L Ann 
matrix of cofactors adjoint matrix
 C U D
Example1: Give the matrix of cofactors and the adjoint matrix of the following matrix:

; = %−V Y −C'
V −D R

Solution
The cofactors of are given below.

4 −2 −1 −2 −1 4
=Ã Ã = 14, =Ã Ã = 3, =Ã Ã = −1
""
−3 5 "
1 5 "
1 −3
Similarly, " = −9,  = 7,  =6

= −12,  = 1,
"  =8
The matrix of cofactors of is

"" " " 14 3 −1

% "   ' = % −9 7 6'
"   −12 1 8

The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .

14 −9 −12 I 14 −9 −12
1 =% 3 7 1 ' = % 3 7 1 '
−1 6 8 −1 6 8
Theorem 1

If ; is a square matrix of order  then ;. g½À; = g½À;. ; = |;|B

Proof: Let = s t× . We have

T
 A11 A12 L A1n   A11 A21 L An1 
A A22 L A2n  A A22 L An 2 
adjA =  21  =  12 
 M M M M   M M M M 
   
 An1 An 2 L Ann   A1n A2n L Ann 

Now, consider . 1 . The ( , )۬ element of this product is:

( , )€¨ æ = ( €¨
>& 2 ) × ( €¨
æí 2 1 )
  A j1 
 
 Aj2 
= [ ai1 ai 2 L ain ] 
M 
 
 A jn 
n
= ai1 A j1 + ai 2 A j 2 + L + ain A jn = ∑ aik A jk
k =1

| | , = ¹
=î
0 , ≠

The product of . 1
being | |.
is thus a diagonal matrix with the diagonal elements all

∴ . 1 = | | B

Similarly, 1 . = | | B

Thus, . 1 = 1 . = | |B

Corollary: If is singular then (1 ) = (1 ) =5

Theorem 2

The inverse of a square matrix ; exists if and only if ; is non-singular.

(A square matrix ; is invertible if and only if |;| ≠ U)

Proof: Let be a square matrix of order .Suppose the inverse of A exists,

say B, then

 =  = B

⟹ |  | = |B | ⟹ | || | = 1 ⟹ | | ≠ 0 ⟹ is non-singular.

Conversely, suppose that A is non-singular. Then | | ≠ 0. We have

. 1 = 1 . = | |B

⟹ —|ï| 1 ˜ = —|ï| 1 ˜ = B ( ∵ | | ≠ 0 )
" "
⟹ —|ï| 1 ˜ is the inverse of . Thus, the inverse of
"
exists.

Hence the theorem.

exists and ;pV = |;| g½À;

p" V
Note: If A is non-singular then

Lemma

g h ½ −h
If ; = — ˜ is non-singular then ;pV = — ˜
V
i ½ g½phi −i g
 0
=— ˜ is non-singular
 1
Proof: Given

⟹ | | = 1 − 0 ≠
p"
Therefore, exists.

Now, "" = (−1)"n" Â"" = 1, " = (−1)"n Â" = −

" = (−1)n" Â" = −0,  = (−1)n  = 

1 − I 1 −0
I
∴ 1 =ð "" "
ñ =— ˜ =— ˜
"  −0  − 

1 −0
∴ = |ï| 1 = — ˜
p" " "
’ØpäÔ − 

g h pV ½ −h
Thus, — ˜ = — ˜, if 1 − 0 ≠ 0
V
i ½ g½phi −i g

Example 2: Find out which of the following matrices are invertible.

 2 4 −3   1 2 −1
1 −1 4 2
A=  , B=  , C = 4 12 −7 , D =  −1 1 2 
 
3 2  2 1     
 −1 0 1   2 8 0 

Solution

| |=5≠0⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, is invertible

| | = 0 ⟹  is singular. Therefore, inverse does not exist.

| | = 0 ⟹  is singular. Therefore, inverse does not exist.

|¬ | = 2 ≠ 0 ⟹ ¬ is non-singular. Therefore, ¬ is invertible.

2 0 3
= %−1 4 −2'
1 −3 5
Example 3: Compute the inverse of the matrix

Solution: We first compute the ½¾Š;.

2 0 3
| | = Ì−1 4 −2Ì applying ÚV ↔ ÚD
1 −3 5

1 −3 5
= (−1) Ì−1 4 −2Ì applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC + ÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − CÚV
2 0 3

1 −3 5
1 3
= (−1) Ì0 1 3 Ì = (−1) Ã Ã = 25
6 −7
0 6 −7

Since |;| ≠ U, ;pV exists.

14 −9 12
Now, 1 = % 3 7 1'
−1 6 8
(see example 1)

 14 9 12 
 − −
14 −9 12   25 25 25 

adjA =  3 7 1  = 
1 1 1 3 7 1 
∴ A−1 = adjA =
A 25 25    25 25 25 
 −1 6 8  
− 1 6 8 
 25 25 25 

V −V
Example 4: Compute the inverse of the matrix ; = ( /
D C
Solution:

| | = Ã1 −1
Ã=2+3=5≠0
3 2
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, A has inverse and

1 −0 " 2 1
∴ = — ˜= — ˜
p" "
’ØpäÔ −  F −3 1
V V V
Example 5: If the matrix ; = %V C −D' satisfies the equation
C −V D
;D − Z;C + R; + VVB = U, then find ;pV

1 1 1
= %1 2 −3'
2 −1 3
Solution: Given

1 1 1
Now, | | = Ì1 2 −3Ì applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − ÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − CÚV
2 −1 3

1 1 1
= Ì0 1 −4Ì = −11 ≠ 0
0 −3 1

⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, p"

exists.

By hypothesis, satisfies the equation 

−6 
+ 5 + 11B = 0

p" ( 
⟹ 
−6 
+ 5 = −11B ⟹ −6 
+ 5 ) = −11 p"
B

⟹ p"
. 
−6 p"
. 
+5 p"
= −11 p"

⟹ ( p"
. ) 
− 6( p"
. ) + 5( p"
) = −11 p"

⟹ B. 
− 6B. + 5B = −11 p"
⟹ 
− 6 + 5 B = −11 p"

⟹ =− ( −6 +5B)
p" " 
""

1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 1

= . = %1 2 −3' %1 2 −3' = %−3 8 −14'
2 −1 3 2 −1 3 7 −3 14
Now,
 1
∴ p"
= (− 
+ 6 − 5B )
11

−4 −2 −1 6 6 6 5 0 0 −3 4 5
= ´% 3 −8 14 ' + % 6 12 −18' − %0 5 0'µ = "" % 9 −1 −4'
" "

−7 3 −14 12 −6 18 0 0 5 5 −3 −1
""

−9 −8 −2
⟹ = % 8 7 2'
p" "

−5 −4 −1
""

Some properties of adjoint of a matrix

Theorem 3

i) If ; and r are non singular matrices of order , then g½À(;r) = (g½Àr)(g½À;)

ii) If ; is square matrix of order  then |g½À;| = |;|pV
iii) If ; is non singular matrix of order , then prove that g½À(g½À;) = |;|pC ; and
deduce that |g½À(g½À;)| = |;|(pC) .
C

Proof:

(See P4 for (i) and IP4 for (iii))

ii) We have two cases to consider

(i) is a zero matrix

(ii) is a non zero matrix

Case (i): If = 0, then 1 = 0 and | | = 0, |1 |=0

Therefore |1 | = 0 = | |p"

Case (ii): ≠ 0. We have two subcases (a) is singular (b) is non singular.

(a) Suppose that is singular then | | = 0

We have (1 ) = | |H = 0 ------- (1)

 Assume that |1 | ≠ 0. Then 1 is non singular and ( 1 )p" exists. Post
multiplying (1) on both sides by ( 1 )p" we get

(1 )(1 )p" = 0 ∙ (1 )p" ⇒ = 5 a contradiction

Therefore |1 | = 0 and |1 | = 0 = | |p" .

(b) Suppose that is non singular, i.e., | | ≠ 0.

We have ∙ 1 = | |H

⇒ | ∙ 1 | = ò| |H ò = | | ⇒ | ||1 | = | |

⇒ |1 | = | |p" (∵ | | ≠ 0)

PROBLEM SET:

V D D
IP1. Find the inverse of the matrix ; = %V Y D'
V D Y
1 3 3
= %1 4 3'
1 3 4
Solution: Given

1 3 3
Now, | | = Ì1 4 3Ì = (16 − 9) − 3(4 − 3) + 3(3 − 4) = 1 ≠ 0.
1 3 4
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore, is invertible.

Let be the cofactor of  in =  × , then

4 3 1 3
= (−1)"n" à Ã=7 = (−1)"n à à = −1
""
3 4 "
1 4
;

1 4 3 3
= (−1)"n à à = −1 = (−1)n" à à = −3
"
1 3 "
3 4
;

1 3 1 3
= (−1)n à Ã=1 = (−1)n à Ã=0

1 4 
1 3
;
 3 3 1 3
= (−1)n" à à = −3 = (−1)n à Ã=0
"
4 3 
1 3
;

1 3
= (−1)n à Ã=1

1 4
The matrix of cofactors of is

"" " " 7 −1 −1

% "   ' = %−3 1 0'
"   −3 0 1

The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .

7 −1 −1 I 7 −3 −3
1 = %−3 1 0 ' = %−1 1 0'
−3 0 1 −1 0 1
7 −3 −3 7 −3 −3
= |ï| 1 = %−1 1 0 ' = %−1 1 0'
p" " "

−1 0 1 −1 0 1
"
Therefore,

7 −3 −3
⟹ p"
= %−1 1 0'
−1 0 1
C V −D C
IP2. Find the matrix ; satisfying the matrix equation ( /;( /=B
D C R −D
2 1 −3 2 1 0
Solution: Given ( / ( /=( /
3 2 5 −3 0 1
2 1 −3 2
Let  = ( / and  = ( /. Then   = B
3 2 5 −3
2 1 | | = Ã−3 2
⟹ | | = Ã Ã=4−3=1≠0 Ã = 9 − 10 = −1 ≠ 0
3 2 5 −3
and

⟹  and  are non-singular matrices. Therefore,  p" and  p" exists.

Now,   = B

⟹  p" (  ) p" =  p" B p"

⟹ ( p"  ) ( p" ) =  p"  p"

⟹ | | =  p"  p" ⟹ =  p"  p"

 2 −1 −3 −2 3 2
∴  p" = ( / and  p" = − ( /=( /
−3 2 −5 −3 5 3
2 −1 3 2 1 1
∴ =  p"  p" = ( /( /=( /
−3 2 5 3 1 0
V U −C
IP3. If the matrix ; = %−C −V C ' satisfies the equation ;D − ;C − D; − B = U,
D Y V
then find ; pV

1 0 −2
= %−2 −1 2'
3 4 1
Solution: Given

1 0 −2
Now, | | = Ì−2 −1 2 Ì applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC + CÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − DÚV
3 4 1
1 0 −2
= Ì0 −1 −2Ì = 1 ≠ 0
0 4 7
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, p"
exists.

By hypothesis, satisfies the equation 

− 
−3 −B=0

⟹ ( 
− 
−3 )=B⟹ p" ( 
− 
−3 )= p"
B

⟹ p"
. 
− p"
. 
−3 p"
= p"
B

⟹ ( p"
. ) 
−( p"
. ) − 3( p"
)= p"
B

⟹ B. 
− B. − 3B = p"
B⟹ 
− −3B= p"

⟹ p"
= 
− − 3B
1 0 −2 1 0 −2

= . = %−2 −1 2 ' %−2 −1 2'
3 4 1 3 4 1
Now,

1+0−6 0+0−8 −2 + 0 − 2 −5 −8 −4
= %−2 + 2 + 6 0+1+8 4−2+2 '=% 6 9 4'
3−8+3 0−4+4 −6 + 8 + 1 −2 0 3
∴ p"
= 
− − 3B

−5 −8 −4 1 0 −2 3 0 0
=% 6 9 4 ' − %−2 −1 2 ' − %0 3 0'
−2 0 3 3 4 1 0 0 3
−5 − 1 − 3 −8 − 0 − 0 −4 + 2 − 0 −9 −8 −2
= % 6+2−0 9+1−3 4 − 2 − 0' = % 8 7 2'
−2 − 3 + 0 0−4+0 3−1−3 −5 −4 −1
−9 −8 −2
⟹ p"
=% 8 7 2'
−5 −4 −1
IP4. If ; is non singular matrix of order , then prove that

g½À(g½À;) = |;|pC ;

and deduce that |g½À(g½À;)| = |;|(pC) .

C

Proof: We have, for any square matrix of order 

(1 )s1 (1 )t = |1 | ∙ H = | |p" H (∵ |1 | = | |p" )

Pre multiplying both sides by we get

(1 )s1 (1 )t = | |p"

⇒ | |H s1 (1 )t = | |p"

Given that is non singular, i.e., | | ≠ 0.

⇒ 1 (1 ) = | |p

Deduction: Taking determinants on both sides, we get

⇒ |1 (1 )| = || |p | = | |(p) | | = | |(p")

o

V U −C
P1. Find the inverse of the matrix ; = %−C −V C'
D Y V
 1 0 −2
= %−2 −1 2'
3 4 1
Solution: Given

Now, | | = 1(−1 − 8) − 2(−8 + 3) = 1 ≠ 0

⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore, is invertible.

be the cofactor of  in = s t
×
Let , then we have

−1 2 −2 2
= (−1)"n" à à = −9 = (−1)"n à Ã=8
""
4 1 "
3 1
;

−2 −1 0 −2
= (−1)"n à à = −5 = (−1)n" à à = −8
"
3 4 "
4 1
;

1 −2 1 0
= (−1)n à Ã=7 = (−1)n à à = −4

3 1 
3 4
;

0 −2 1 −2
= (−1)n" à à = −2 = (−1)n à Ã=2
"
−1 2 
−2 2
;

1 0
= (−1)n à à = −1

−2 −1
The matrix of cofactors of is

"" " " −9 8 −5

% "   ' = %−8 7 −4'
"   −2 2 −1

The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .

−9 8 −5 I −9 −8 −2
1 = %−8 7 −4 ' = % 8 7 2'
−2 2 −1 −5 −4 −1
−9 −8 −2 −9 −8 −2
= |ï| 1 = %8 7 2 '=% 8 7 2'
p" " "

−5 −4 −1 −5 −4 −1
"
Therefore,

−9 −8 −2
⟹ p"
=% 8 7 2'
−5 −4 −1
V −Y VZ −Z
P2. Find the matrix r such that ( /r = ( /
D −C W C
 1 −4 16 −6
Solution: Given ( / = ( /
3 −2 7 2
1 −4 16 −6
=( / and  = ( /. Then  = 
3 −2 7 2
Let

1 −4
⟹| |=Ã Ã = −2 + 12 = 10 ≠ 0
3 −2
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, p"
exists.

Now,  = 
p" (
⟹ ) = p"
⟹( p"
) = p"


⟹ B = p"
⟹= p"


1 −0 " −2 4
∴ = — ˜= ( /
p" "
’ØpäÔ −  "ƒ −3 1
−2 4 16 −6
∴= = ( /( /
p" "
"ƒ −3 1 7 2

32 + 28 12 + 8 6 2
= ( / = "" 2$
"
"ƒ 48 + 7 18 + 2 

V C C
P3. If the matrix ; = %C V C' satisfies the equation ;C − Y; − RB = U, then find
C C V
; pV

1 2 2
= %2 1 2'
2 2 1
Solution: Given

1 2 2
Now, | | = Ì2 1 2Ì applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − CÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − CÚV
2 2 1
1 2 2
= Ì0 −3 −2Ì = 5 ≠ 0
0 −2 −3
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, p"
exists.

By hypothesis, satisfies the equation 

− 4 − 5B = 5
 p" ( 
⟹ − 4 − 5B) = p"
.5

⟹ p" 
−4 p"
. −5 p"
B=5

⟹ ( p"
. ) −4( p"
. )−5 p"
B=5

⟹ B. −4B−5 p"
B=0⟹ −4B−5 p"
=0⟹ 5 p"
= −4B

1 2 2 1 0 0
∴ = 7 − 4B8 = ´ %2 1 2 ' − 4 %0 1 0' µ
p" " "

2 2 1 0 0 1
F F

1−4 2−0 2−0

= %2 − 0 1−4 2 − 0'
"

2−0 2−0 1−4

F

−3 2 2
= %2 −3 2'
p" "

2 2 −3
F

P4. If ; and r are non singular matrices of order , then prove that

g½À(;r) = (g½Àr)(g½À;)

Proof: For any square matrices of order , we have

(1 ) = (1 ) = | | B

 (1  ) = (1  ) = | |B

Further, (1  )  = |  |B … (1)

Now (1  )(1 )  = (1  )s(1 ) t (associativity)

= (1  )(| |B )

= | |(1  ) = | || |B = |  |B … (2)

From (1) and (2), we have

(1  )  = (1  )(1 ) 

Since and  are nonsingular,  is also nonsingular.

Therefore (  )p" exists.

 ∴ (1  )  (  )p" = (1  )(1 )  (  )p"

⇒ 1  = (1  )(1 )

EXERCISE

1 −2 3
If = % 0 2 −1' then find 1
−4 5 2
1.

1 2 5
If = % 2 3 1' then find 1 I
−1 1 1
2.

−1 −2 −2
If = % 2 1 −2', show that 1 =3 I
2 −2 1
3.

4. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices:

 0
( ) ( cos  sin 
/ ( ) (1 0
/ ( )  "näÔ$ ( d) ( 2 5
/
− sin  cos  0 1  −3 1
’

1 2 3 1 2 5 2 −1 1
(d ) % 2 3 1' (d ) %1 −1 −1' (d ) %−1 2 −1'
3 1 2 2 3 −1 1 −1 2
2 0 −1 0 1 −1 0 0 −1
(d ) %5 1 0 ' ( ,) %4 −3 4' (, ) % 3 4 5'
0 1 3 3 −3 4 −2 −4 −7
1 0 0
(, ) %0 cos u sin u '
0 sin u − cos u

5 4 1 −2
5. Find the matrix A satisfying the matrix equation
a. ( / =( /
1 1 1 3
3 2 −1 1 2 −1
b. ( / ( /=( /
7 5 −2 1 0 4
5 3 14 7
( /=( /
−1 −2 7 7
2 1 1 0
c.

d. ( / =( /
5 3 0 1
 2 −1 1
6. If = %−1 2 −1' then show that 
−6 
+ 9 − 4B = 5 and p"
=
1 −1 2
( − 3B) and hence find p"
"
w
21 0
= %1
1' then show that  − 6  + 7 + 2B = 5 and find p" .
2
32 0
7. If

5 5u u
8. Let = %0 u 5u', where u is scalar. If | | = 25, then find the value of |u|.
0 0 5
0
"

9. If = %F " ' = ( 5 0/ , then find ,.

p

, −1 5
F
is a square matrix of order  such that |1 (1 )| = | |ó , then find .
1 3 3
10.If

= %1 4 3', then find |1 (1 )|

1 3 5
11.If

 2 1 1 1
 then find |1 |
1 2 1 1 
12.If A = 
1 1 2 1 
 
1 1 1 2 

5.7. Rank of a Matrix

l-rowed minor of a matrix

Let be a given matrix. If  is a square submatrix of order > of , then det  is called an
l-rowed minor of ;.

 0 1 1 −2  0 1 −2
= 4 0 2 5 , then Ì4 0 5 Ì is 3 – rowed minor of
 
2 3 1
Example: If and
 
 2 1 3 1 
0 2 1 −2
à Ã, à à are 2 – rowed minors of .
1 3 3 1
Rank of a matrix

Let be a non-zero matrix. A positive integer > is said to be the rank of ; if

i) there exists a non zero >-rowed minor of

ii) every (> + 1)-rowed minor of (if exists) is zero

That is, the rank of is the order of the largest non-vanishing minor.

The rank of a zero matrix is defined to be zero.

The rank of is denoted by ô(;) or rank ;.

C V −V
Example: Find the rank of the matrix ; = %U D −C'.
C Y −D

is | | of order 3. Note that

Solution: The matrix is a square matrix of order 3. The only minor of of largest order

2 1 −1
| | = Ì0 3 −2Ì applying ÚD → ÚD − ÚC
2 4 −3
2 1 −1
3 −2
= Ì0 3 −2Ì = 2 Ã Ã=0
3 −2
0 3 −2
Therefore, õ( ) ≠ 3 and so õ( ) < 3.

2 1
Now we consider 2 – rowed minors of . Note that à à = 6 ≠ 0. By definition
0 3
õ( ) = 2.

1 2 −3 −4 
Example: Find the rank of the matrix ; =  −2 −4 6 8 
 
 3 6 −9 −12 

Solution: The given matrix is of order 3 × 4. Therefore it has four submatrices of order
3. They are

1 2 −3 1 2 −4 1 −3 −4
" = %−2 −4 6',  = %−2 −4 8 ',  = %−2 6 8 ',
3 6 −9 3 6 −12 3 −9 −12
 2 −3 −4
w = %−4 6 8 '
6 −9 −12
1 2 −3
Note that | " | = Ì−2 −4 6 Ì = 0 and | | =| | =| w| = 0.
3 6 −9
Thus, õ( ) ≠ 3 and so õ( ) < 3.

We now compute the 2 – rowed minors of .

Note that a square submatrix of order 2 from is obtained by deleting one row and 2
columns. Thus, we get C1 × C2 = 12 submatrices of order 2. We note that each
3 4

õ( ) ≠ 2. Thus õ( ) = 1 (since is not a zero matrix).

submatrix of order 2 is singular, i.e., each 2 – rowed minor of is zero. Therefore,

Note 1: Suppose that is a non zero matrix of order 3. Then

i) If is non singular then õ( ) = 3

singular then õ( ) = 2
ii) If is singular and if there is at least one of its submatrix of order 2 of is non

iii) If is singular and every submatrix of order 2 of is singular then õ( ) = 1.

Note 2: Suppose is a matrix of order 3 × 4 or 4 × 3. The rank of

ranks of all submatrices of order 3 of . (i.e., õ( ) ≤ 3).
is the maximum of

Note 3: Suppose is a matrix of order  ×  or  ×  then õ( ) ≤  (, ).

Note 4: If is a nonsingular square matrix of order  then õ( ) = 

Echelon form: A matrix is said to be in echelon form if

(i) Every row of which has all its elements 0 occurs below every row which has a non
zero element
(ii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less than the
number of such zeros in the next row.
 1 2 −1 −3 
0 0 −2 1 
= 0
 
Example: If 0 0 6  then is in echelon form.
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

Note: The rank of a matrix is equal to the number of non zero rows in echelon form
of .

Equivalence of matrices

A matrix is said to be equivalent to another matrix , written as ~ if  can be

obtained from by applying finite number of elementary transformations on .

Note: The relation ~ (is equivalent to) is an equivalence relation on the set of all  × 
matrices with entries from the set of real numbers.

Elementary transformations enable us to transform a given matrix into echelon form. In

an echelon form, finding the highest order non singular sub matrix is easy. The following
theorem enables us to find the rank of a matrix using elementary transformations.

Theorem 1: Elementary transformations on a matrix do not change its rank.

4 3 0 −2 
Example: Find the rank of = 3 4 −1 −3 using elementary transformations.
 
 −7 −7 1 5 

Solution:

4 3 0 −2 
= 3 4 −1 −3  applying ÚV → ÚV − ÚC
 
 −7 −7 1 5 

 1 −1 1 1 
~ 3 4 −1 −3 applying ÚC → ÚC − DÚV , ÚD → ÚD + WÚV
 
 −7 −7 1 5 
 1 −1 1 1 
~ 0 7 −4 −6  applying ÚD → ÚD + CÚC
 
0 −14 8 12 

 1 −1 1 1 
~  0 7 −4 −6  echelon form of
 
0 0 0 0 

õ( ) = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form of = 2.

 3 −2 0 −1 −7 

= 
0 2 2 1 −5 
Example: Find the rank of the matrix  using elementary
1 −2 −3 −2 1 
 
0 1 2 1 −6 
transformations.

Solution:

 3 −2 0 −1 −7 

=  applying ÚV ↔ ÚD
0 2 2 1 −5 

1 −2 −3 −2 1 
 
0 1 2 1 −6 

1 −2 −3 −2 1 

~ applying ÚD → ÚD − DÚV
0 2 2 1 −5 

 3 −2 0 −1 −7 
 
0 1 2 1 −6 

1 −2 −3 −2 1 

~ applying ÚC ↔ ÚY
0 2 2 1 −5 

0 4 9 5 −10 
 
0 1 2 1 −6 
 1 −2 −3 −2 1 

~ applying ÚD → ÚD − YÚC , ÚY → ÚY − CÚC

0 1 2 1 −6 

0 4 9 5 −10 
 
0 2 2 1 −5 

1 −2 −3 −2 1 

~  applying ÚY → ÚY + CÚD , ÚY → ÚY − CÚC

0 1 2 1 −6 
0 0 1 1 14 
 
0 0 0 −2 7 

1 −2 −3 −2 1 
 0 1 2 1 −6 
~  echelon form of
0 0 1 1 14 
 
∴ õ( ) = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form of = 4.
0 0 0 0 35 

Exercise:

Find the rank of the following matrices:

1 0 −4
( /
2 −1 3
1 2 6
(i)

( /
2 4 3
1 0 0
(ii)

%0 0 1'
0 1 0
(iii)

1 1 1
%1 1 1'
1 1 1
(iv)

1 4 −1
%2 3 0 '
0 1 2
(v)

 2 3 −1 −1
1 −1 −2 −4 
(vi)  
3 1 3 −2 
 
6 3 0 −7 
 1 3 4 3
(vii) 3 9 12 9 
 
 −1−3 −4 −3
6 1 3 8
4 2 6 −1
(viii)  
10 3 9 7
 
16 4 12 15 
1 2 3 1 
(ix)  2 4 6 2
 
1 2 3 2 

3 9 12 3
(x) 1 3 4 5
 
1 3 4 1

Answers:

2
2
(i)

3
(ii)

1
(iii)

3
(iv)

3
(v)

1
(vi)

2
(vii)

2
(viii)

2
(ix)
(x)
5.8. System of Linear Equations and consistency
Consider a system of  linear equations in  unknown ," , , , … , ,
(where  > ,  = ,  < ). Such a system can be written as

"" ," + " , + ⋯ + " , = 0"

" ," +  , + ⋯ +  , = 0
… (1)
… … ….
" ," +  , + ⋯ +  , = 0

where  and 0 are real numbers for 1 ≤ ≤  and 1 ≤ ≤ .

If each 0 = 0, 1 ≤ ≤ , then the system (1) is said to be a homogeneous system. If at

least one 0 ≠ 0, then the system (1) is said to be a non-homogeneous system.

System (1) can be represented by the matrix equation

;ø = r … (2)
," 0"
, 0
=   , ž = e ⋮ f and  = e  f
× ⋮
,
where
0

The matrix is called the coefficient matrix and the matrix 7  8 (the matrix obtained
by placing the column matrix  to the right of the matrix ) is called the augmented
matrix.

 a11 a12 ... a1n b1 

i.e., 7  8 = 
a b2 
21 a22 ... a2n
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 am1 am 2 ... am n bm 

A set of values ," , , , … , , satisfying the equations in the system (1) is called a
solution of the system (1)

The system (1) is said to be consistent if the system has a solution. If the system has no
solutions then it is said to be inconsistent.
The solution of the system of linear equations (2) depends on the ranks of the
coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix 7  8.The following theorem gives the
nature of solutions of the system.

Theorem 1: The system of
linear equations in  unknowns

;ø = r , … (C)

is consistent if and only if ô(;) = ô7; r8.

Further, the system (C) has

(i) unique solution if ô(;) = ô7; r8 =  (the number of unknowns)

(ii) Infinitely many solutions if ô(;) = ô7; r8 < 

Note:

1. The system (2) is inconsistent if ô(;) ≠ ô7; r8.

2. Suppose
= , `. ¾, the number of equations is equal to the number of unknowns.
Then in ;ø = r, ; is a square matrix of order . If ; is singular then we cannot

But we can apply this method. Further, we can apply this method even if ; is non
apply crammer’s rule and matrix inversion method for the solution of the system.

3. If
<  and the system is consistent then it has infinitely many solutions.
singular.

4. We use only elementary row transformation to reduce 7; r8 to an echelon form.

Example: Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or

inconsistent:

5, + \ + 2] = 3

3, + 2\ − 2] = 2

2, + \ + 4] = −1

If consistent find the complete solution.

Solution: The given system is a non-homogeneous system of three equations in three

unknowns.
The matrix equation of the given system of equations is ž = , where =
5 1 2 , 3
%3 2 −2' , ž = \$ ,  = % 2 '
2 1 4 ] −1
The augmented matrix is 7  8

7  8 =  3 2 −2 2  applying ÚV ⟶ ÚV − CÚD
5 1 2 3 
 
 2 1 4 −1

applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − DÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − CÚV

 1 −1 −6 5 
~  3 2 −2 2 
 2 1 4 −1

applying ÚD ⟶ RÚD − DÚC

 1 −1 −6 5 
~  0 5 16 −13
 0 3 16 −11

~  0 5 16 −13 echelon form of 7  8 … (3)

 1 −1 −6 5 

 0 0 32 −16 

Now, õ7  8 = the number of nonzero rows in the echelon form of 7  8

=3
1 −1 −6
and õ( ) =rank of %0 5 16 ' = 3
0 0 32
Thus, õ( ) = õ7  8 = 3 =the number of unknowns.

Therefore, by theorem 1 the given system is consistent and it has a unique solution.

From (3) we write the equivalent system of equations

, − \ − 6] = 5

5\ + 16] = −13

32] = −16
32] = −16 ⟹ ] = −
"


5\ + 16] = −13 ⟹ 5\ − 8 = −13 ⟹ \ = −1

, − \ − 6] = 5 ⟹ , + 1 + 3 = 5 ⟹ , = 1

Thus, , = 1, \ = −1, ] = − is the solution of the given system.

"


Example: Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or

inconsistent:

RSV − DSC − WSD + SY = VU

−SV + CSC + ZSD − DSY = −D

SV + SC + YSD − RSY = U

Solution: The given system is a non homogeneous system of three equations in four
unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is

ž=

,"
5 − 3 −7 1 
, 10
=  −1 2 6 −3 , ž = 9, : ,  = % −3 '
0

,w
where
1 4 −5
 1

The augmented matrix is 7 8

5 −3 −7 1 10 
7 8 = −1 2 6 −3 −3  applying ÚV ↔ ÚD
1 1 4 −5 0 


1 −5 0 
−3 −3  applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC + ÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − RÚV
1 4
~  −1 2 6
5 −3 −7 1 10 

  −5 0 
−8 −3  applying ÚD ⟶ DÚD + ³ÚC
1 1 4
~ 0 3 10
 0 −8 − 27 26 10 

 −5 0 
−8 −3  echelon form of 7 8 … (3)
1 1 4
~ 0 3 10
 −1 14 6 
 0 0

Now õ7  8 = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form of 7  8

=3

1 − 5
and õ( ) = >‡ 2  0 −8  = 3
1 4
3 10
0 −1 14 
 0

Thus, õ( ) = õ7  8 = 3 < 4, (the number of unknowns).

Therefore, by theorem 1 , the given system is consistent and it has infinite number of
solutions. We have the following equivalent system of equations:

," + , + 4, − 5,w = 0

3, + 10, − 8,w = −3

−, + 14,w = 6

If ,w = ‡ ∈ Ú, then
−, + 14,w = 6 ⟹ −, + 14‡ = 6 ⟹ , = 14‡ − 6,

3, + 10, − 8,w = −3 ⟹ 3, + 10(14‡ − 6) − 8‡ = −3 ⟹ , = 19 − 44‡,

," + , + 4, − 5,w = 0 ⟹ ," = 5‡ − 4(14‡ − 6) − 19 + 44‡ ⟹ ," = 5 − 7‡

Thus ," = 5 − 7‡ , , = 19 − 44‡ , , = 14‡ − 6 , ,w = ‡

where ‡ ∈ Ú is arbitrary . Therefore, we get infinite number of solutions.

Example: Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or
inconsistent.

YSV − CSC − SD + CSY = −R

DSV − CSD + DSY = −Y

RSV − YSC + SY = −D

If consistent ,find the complete solution.

Solution: The given system is a non homogeneous system of three equations in four
unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is

ž=

,"
 4 −2 −1 2
, −5
=  −3 3 , ž = 9, : ,  = % −4 '
 

−3
−2

,w
where 0
 5 −4 1 
 0

The augmented matrix is 7 8

 4 −2 −1 2 −5 
7 8 =  3 0 −2 3 −4  applying ÚV ⟶ ÚV − ÚC
 5 −4 1 −3 
 0

 1 −2 1 −1 −1 
~ 3 0 − 2 3 −4  applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − DÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − RÚV
 5 −4 0 1 −3 


 1 −2 − 1 −1 
6 −1  applying ÚD ⟶ ÚD − ÚC
1
~ 0 6 −5
 −5 6 2 
 0 6
  1 −2 − 1 −1 
6 −1  echelon form of 7 8 … (3)
1
~ 0 6 −5
 0 3 
 0 0 0
Now, õ7  8 = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form of 7  8

=3

 1 −2 1 −1
And õ( ) = >‡ 2  0 6 −5 6 = 2
 0 0 
 0 0

Thus õ( ) ≠ õ7  8.Therefore , by theorem 1 the given system is inconsistent.

Example: Investigate for what values of û and ü the simultaneous equations

S+T+X=Z

S + CT + DX = VU

S + CT + ûX = ü

have i) no solution ii) unique solution iii) infinitely many solutions

Solution: The given system is a non-homogeneous system of three equations in three

unknowns.

The matrix equation of the given system of equations is ž = , where =

1 1 1 , 6
\
%1 2 3' , ž = % ' ,  = %10'
1 2 ý þ þ

The augmented matrix is 7  8

7  8 = 1 2 3 10  applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − ÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − ÚV
1 1 1 6 
 
1 2 λ µ 
 applying ÚD ⟶ ÚD − ÚC
1 1 1 6 

~ 0 1 2 4 
 0 1 λ − 1 µ − 6 

1 1 1 6 

~ 0 1 2 4 
 0 0 λ − 3 µ − 10 

i. If ý − 3 ≠ 0, then õ( ) = õ(7  8) = 3 = number of unknowns. Therefore the

system has a unique solution

ii. If ý − 3 = 0 and þ − 10 = 0 . , ý = 3 and þ = 10 , then

õ( ) = õ(7  8) = 2, which is less than the number of unknowns.

iii. If ý − 3 = 0 and þ − 10 ≠ 0 . . , ý = 3 and þ ≠ 10 , then

Therefore , the system has infinitely many solutions.

õ( ) = 2, õ(7  8) = 3, . . , õ( ) ≠ õ(7  8). Therefore the system is

inconsistent .

Homogeneous system of linear equations.

Consider the following system of  homogeneous linear equations in  unknowns

"" ," + " , + ⋯ + " , = 0

" ," +  , + ⋯ +  , = 0
… (1)
… … ….
" ," +  , + ⋯ +  , = 0

The matrix equation of the above system is

;ø = U … (2)
," 0
, 0
=  × , ž = e ⋮ f and 5 = e f
⋮
,
where
0 ×"
Note that the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix 7 58 have the same rank(
because they differ by a column of zeros). Therefore, a homogeneous system of linear
equations is always consistent. We see that

," = , = , = ⋯ = , = 0
is always a solution. This solution is called the trivial solution . A solution which is not
trivial solution is called a nontrivial solution. We are interested in finding a nontrivial
solutions of a homogeneous system of linear equations.

The following theorem gives the nature of solutions of the system (2)

Theorem 2:

The system of
homogeneous linear equations in  unknowns ;ø = 6 has

a. the trivial solution only if ô(;) =  (the number of unknowns)

b. an infinite number of solutions if ô(;) < 

Note: if
< ( the number of equations is less than the number of unknowns) then a
system of
homogeneous linear equations in  unknowns always has an infinite
number of nontrivial solutions

Example: Find all the nontrivial solutions ,if any, for the following linear system of
equations:

," − , + , = 0

," + 2, + , = 0

2," + , + 3, = 0

unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is ž = 0, where

Solution: The given system is a homogeneous system of three linear equations in three

1 −1 1 ," 0
= %1 ,
2 1' , ž = %  ' , 5 = %0'
2 1 3 , 0
1 −1 1
= %1 2 1' applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − ÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − CÚV
2 1 3
Now,
 1 −1 1
~ %0 3 0' applying ÚD ⟶ ÚD − ÚC
0 3 1
1 −1 1
~ %0 3 0'
0 0 1
echelon form of

and õ( ) = the number of non zero rows of

= 3 = the number of unknowns

Therefore , by theorem 2, the trivial solution ," = , = , = 0 is the only solution of

the given system.

Example: Find all nontrivial solutions , if any, for the following system of equations:

CSV − YSC − RSD = U

DSV − ZSC + SD = U

RSV − VUSC − DSD = U

WSV − VYSC − VZSD = U

unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is ž = 0, where

Solution: The given system is a homogeneous system of four linear equations in three

, 0
2 −4 −5 

, ž = %  ' , 5 = 90 :
"
= ,
3 −6 1 
5  , 0
0
−10 −3
 
7 −14 −16 

2 −4 −5 

= applying ÚV ⟷ ÚC
3 −6 1 
−3 
Now ,
5 −10
 
7 −14 −16 
 3 −6 
1

applying ÚV ⟶ ÚV − ÚC
2 −4 −5 
~
5 −10 −3 
 
7 −14 −16 

1 −2 
6

applying ÚC ⟶ ÚC − CÚV , ÚD ⟶ ÚD − RÚV , ÚY ⟶ ÚY −

2 −4 −5 
~
5 −10 −3 
 
7 −14 −16 
WÚV

1 −2 6 
applying ÚC ⟶ —− ˜ ÚC , ÚD ⟶ —− ˜ ÚD , ÚY ⟶
V V
0 0 −17 
VW DD
~ 
0 0 −33
 
0 0 −58 
—− ˜ ÚY
V
R³

1 −2 6 

applying ÚD ⟶ ÚD − ÚC , ÚY ⟶ ÚY − ÚC ,
0 0 1
~
0 0 1
 
0 0 1

1 −2 6 
0 0 1
~
0
echelon form of
0 0
 
0 0 0

and õ( ) = 2 < 3 (the number of unknowns). Therefore , by theorem 2, the system has
an infinite number of nontrivial solutions. We have the following equivalent system of
equations

," − 2, + 6, = 0

 , = 0

. . , , = 0 and ," = 2,

If , = ‡ ∈ Ú then ," = 2‡, , = 0

Thus ," = 2‡, , = ‡, , = 0, where ‡ ∈ Ú is arbitrary. If ‡ ≠ 0, then we get an infinite

number of nontrivial solutions

Example: Find all nontrivial solutions, if any , for the following system of equations:

CSV + DSC − SD + SY = U

DSV + CSC − CSD + CSY = U

RSV − YSD + YSY = U

Solution: The given system is a homogeneous system of three linear equations in four
unknowns. Since the number of equations is less than the number of unknowns, the
system has an infinite number of nontrivial solutions.

The matrix equation of the given system of equations is ž = 0,

,"
, 0
 2 3 −1 1 
=  3 2 −2 2  ž = e, f , 5 = %0'
 
0

,w
Where
 5 0 −4 4 

 2 3 −1 1 
=  3 2 −2 2  applying ÚV ⟷ ÚC
 
Now,
 5 0 −4 4 

 3 2 −2 2 
~  2 3 −1 1  applying Ú ⟶ Ú − Ú
V V C
 5 0 −4 4 

1 −1 −1 1 
~  2 3 −1 1  applying Ú ⟶ Ú − CÚ , Ú ⟶ Ú − RÚ
C C V D D V
 5 0 −4 4 
 1 −1 −1 1
~  0 5 1 −1 applying Ú ⟶ Ú − Ú
D D C
 0 5 1 −1

 1 −1 −1 1
~  0 5 1 −1 echelon form of
 0 0 0 0 

And õ( ) = 2 < 4 (the number of unknowns). Therefore, by theorem 2, the system

has an infinite number of nontrivial solutions. We have the following equivalent system
of equations.

," − , − , + ,w = 0

5, + , − ,w = 0

. . , 5, = −, + ,w and ," − , + 5, = 0 ⟹ ," = −4,

If , = ý ∈ Ú and ,w = þ ∈ Ú, then , = − ý + þ and ," = −4 —− ý + þ˜

" " " "
F F F F

If ( ý, þ) ≠ (0,0), then we get the following infinite number of solutions

," = ý − þ ,− ý + þ , , = ý , ,w = þ , where ý and þ are arbitrary constants.

w w " "
F F F F

Exercise:
I. Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or inconsistent .If it

1. SV + CSC = V , −DSV + CSC = −C, −SV + ZSC = U

is consistent, find the complete solution.

2. CSV − SC + SD = Y, DSV − SC + SD = Z, YSV − SC + CSD = W, −SV + SC − SD = [

3. SV − SC + SD = C , DSV − SC + CSD = −Z, DSV + SC + SD = −V³

4. SV + CSC + SD = C , CSV + YSC + DSD = D , DSV + ZSC + RSD = Y

5. CS + ZT = −VV , ZS + CUT − ZX = −D , ZT − V³X = −V

 6. S + T + X = [ , CS + RT + WX = RC, CS + T − X = U

7. 3, + \ − 4] = 0, 2, + 5\ + 6] = 0, , − 3\ − 8] = 0
II. Find all the non trivial solutions, if any , for the following system of equations

8. 2, + \ + 3] = 0, , + 2\ − ] = 0, , − \ + ] = 0

9. , + \ − ] +  = 0, , − \ + 2] −  = 0, 3, + \ +  = 0

10. 2& + 3, − \ − ] = 0, 4& − 6, − 2\ + 2] = 0, −6& + 12, − 3\ − 4] = 0

11. 2, + 3\ − ] = 0, , − \ − 2] = 0, 3, + \ + 3] = 0

Answers:

1. Consistent , unique solution, ," = , , =

I.
 "
w ç

2. Inconsistent

3. Consistent, Infinitely many solutions,," = − ‡ − 4 ,, = ‡ − 6 , , = ‡ ∈ Ú

" "
 

4. Consistent , infinitely many solutions, ," = 3 − 2‡ , , = ‡, , = −1, ‡ ∈ Ú

5. Inconsistent

6. Consistent , unique solution, , = 1, \ = 3, ] = 5

II.
7. , = 2‡, \ = −2‡, ] = ‡, ‡ ∈ Ú, infinitely many nontrivial solutions

8. , = \ = ] = 0

9. , = − , \ = ý − þ, ] = ý,  = þ, ý, þ ∈ Ú, infinitely many nontrivial solutions


 
ఒ

10. , = , \ = þ, ] = ý, & = , ý, þ ∈ Ú, infinitely many nontrivial solutions

 
ఒ ఓ

11. Trivial solution only