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 Contents

Chapter 1 Functions and their Graphs 7

1.1 Functions 8
1.2 Composition of Functions 21
1.3 Inverse Function 23
1.4 Quadratic Equations 25
1.5 Graphing Functions 28

Chapter 2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 39

2.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: 40
2.2 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 53

Chapter 3 Trigonometric Functions 57

3.1 Angles and their Measures: 58
3.2 Circular Functions 62
3.3 Trigonometric Identities 65
3.4 Sum and Difference Identities 69

Chapter 4 Trigonometry: Oblique Triangles 75

4.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 76
4.2 Solving Trigonometric Equations 78
4.3 Non-right Triangles: Law of Sines 83
4.4 Non-right Triangles: Law of Cosines 89

Chapter 5 Statistics 95
5.1 Measures of Central Tendency 97
5.2 Summarizing Data into Tables and Graphs 101

Chapter 6 Probability 109

6.1 Basic Concepts of Probability 110

3
4
6.2 Probability Using Tree Diagrams 117
6.3 Permutations and Combinations 119
6.4 Probability Using Permutations and Combinations 124

Chapter 7 Introduction of GeoGebra 129

7.1 GeoGebra 130
 Pure Mathematics
Learning Outcomes

A student who satisfactorily complete the course should be able to:

(a) Demonstrate understanding of the definition of a function and its graph.

(b) Solve quadratic equations using quadratic formula.

(c) Define and manipulate exponential and logarithmic functions, solve problems arising from real life appli-
cations.

(d) Understand the inverse relationship between exponents and logarithms functions, use this relationship
to solve related problems.

(e) Understand the definition of the different types of angles and measure them in degrees and radians.

(f) Describe analytically the trigonometric and circular functions.

(g) Demonstrate an understanding of trigonometric identities.

(h) Use the law of sines, law of cosines to solve a triangle, real life problems.

(i) Use appropriate software to interpret equations and graphs.

(j) Understand basic concepts of descriptive statistics,mean, median,mode and summarize data into tables
and simple graphs (bar charts, histogram, and pie chart).

(k) Understand basic probability concepts and compute the probability of simple events using tree diagrams
and formulas for permutations and combinations.

5
6
 Chapter 1

Functions and their Graphs

Contents
1.1 Functions
1.1.1 Types of functions
1.1.2 Vertical line test for a function
1.1.3 Horizontal line test for a one-to-one function
1.1.4 Find the domain of the function
1.2 Composition of Functions
1.3 Inverse Function
1.4 Quadratic Equations
1.5 Graphing Functions
1.5.1 Representing a Linear Function in Graphical Form
1.5.2 Representing a Quadratic Function in Graphical Form
1.5.3 Finding the Vertex of a Quadratic Function
1.5.4 Finding the Domain and Range of a Quadratic Function
1.5.5 Determining the Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Functions
1.5.6 Finding the x−and y−Intercepts of a Quadratic Function
1.5.7 Sketch the Graph of the Quadratic Function

Learning outcomes covered:

(a) Demonstrate understanding of the definition of a function and its graph.

(b) Solve quadratic equations using quadratic formula.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
à Determine whether a relation represents a function.
à Find the domain and range of the function.
à Find the value of a function.

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8
à Determine whether a function is one-to-one.
à Use the vertical line test to identify functions
à Use horizontal line test to identify one-to-one function.
à Find the inverse function and composition of functions.
à Solve quadratic equations using the quadratic Formula.
à Sketch the graph of linear and quadratic functions.

Introduction

Toward the end of the twentieth century, the values of stocks of Internet and technology companies rose
dramatically. As a result, the Standard and Poor’s stock market average rose as well.

This figure tracks the value of that initial investment

of just under $100 over the 40 years. It shows that
an investment that was worth less than $500 until
about 1995 skyrocketed up to about $1, 100 by the
beginning of 2000 . That five-year period became
known as the "dot-com bubble" because so many
Internet startups were formed. As bubbles tend to do,
though, the dot-com bubble eventually burst. Many
companies grew too fast and then suddenly went
out of business. The result caused the sharp decline
represented on the graph beginning at the end of 2000 .

Notice, as we consider this example, that there is a definite relationship between the year and stock market
average. For any year we choose, we can determine the corresponding value of the stock market average. In
this chapter, we will explore these kinds of relationships and their properties.

1.1 Functions
A jetliner changes altitude as its distance from the starting point of a flight increases. The weight of a growing
child increases with time. In each case, one quantity depends on another. There is a relationship between the
two quantities that we can describe, analyze, and use to make predictions. In this section, we will analyze
such relationships.

A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The set of the first components of each ordered pair is called the domain
of the relation and the set of the second components of each ordered pair is called the range of the relation.
Consider the following set of ordered pairs. The first numbers in each pair are the first five natural numbers.
The second number in each pair is twice the first.
{(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10)}
The domain is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the range is {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

Note that the values in the domain are also known as an input values, or values of the independent
variable, and are often labeled with the lowercase letter x. Values in the range are also known as an output

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values, or values of the dependent variable, and are often labeled with the lowercase letter y.

A function f is a relation that assigns a single value in the range to each value in the domain. In other words,
no x-values are used more than once.

For our example that relates the first five natural numbers to numbers double their values, this relation is a
function because each element in the domain, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is paired with exactly one element in the range,
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

Now let’s consider the set of ordered pairs that relates the terms "even" and "odd" to the first five natural
numbers. It would appear as
{(odd, 1), (even, 2), (odd, 3), (even, 4), (odd, 5)} .
Notice that each element in the domain, {even, odd} is not paired with exactly one element in the range,
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. For example, the term “odd" corresponds to three values from the domain, {1, 3, 5} and the
term “even" corresponds to two values from the range,{2, 4}. This violates the definition of a function, so
this relation is not a function.

This image compares relations that are functions and not functions.

(a) This relationship is a function because each input is associated with a single output. Note that input q
and r both give output n.

(b) This relationship is also a function. In this case, each input is associated with a single output.

(c) This relationship is not a function because input q is associated with two different outputs.

Functions

A function is a relation in which each possible input value leads to exactly one output value. We say
“the output is a function of the input."

The input values make up the domain, and the output values make up the range.

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Function Notation

Once we determine that a relationship is a function, we need to display and define the functional relationships
so that we can understand and use them, and sometimes also that we can program them into computers.
There are various ways of representing functions. A standard function notation is one representation that
makes it easier to work with functions.

To represent “height is a function of age," we start by identifying the descriptive variables h for height and
a for age. The letters f, g and h are often used to represent functions just as we use x, y and z to represent
numbers and A, B and C to represent sets.

h is f of a. We name the function f ; height is a function of age.

h = f (a). We use parentheses to indicate the function input.

f (a). We name the function f ; the expression is read as ‘‘f of a”.

Remember, we can use any letter to name the function; we can use the notation h(a) to show that h depends
on a. The input value a must be put into the function h to get an output value. The parentheses indicate
that age is input into the function; they do not indicate multiplication.

We can also give an algebraic expression as the input to a function. For example f (a + b) means first add a
and b , and the result is the input for the function. We must perform the operations in this order to obtain
the correct result.

Dependent and Independent Variable

Function Notation

The notation y = f (x) defines a function named f .

This is read as “y is a function of x". The letter
x represents the input value, or the independent
variable. The letter y , or f (x) , represents the
output value, or the dependent variable.

Functions defined by equations

It is relatively easy to determine whether an equation is a function by solving for y. When you are given an
equation and a specific value for x, there should only be one corresponding y-value for that x-value.

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Example 1

Determine the following equations represent the function or not.

(a) y = x + 1

(b) y = x2 − 1

(c) y 2 = x + 5

Solution :

(a) y = x + 1 is a function because y will always be one greater than x. Equations with exponents
can also be functions.

(b) y = x2 − 1 is a function; although x-values of 1 and -1 give the same y-value (0), that is the only
possible y-value for each of those x-values.

(c) y 2 = x + 5 is not a function; if you assume that x = 4, then y 2 = 4 + 5 = 9. y 2 = 9 has two

possible answers 3 and -3.

Functions defined by arrow diagrams

Example 2

Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {A, B, C, D}. If the arrow diagram on the right defines a function f then
(a) What is the domain of f ?

(b) What is the co-domain of f ?

(c) What is f (3)?

(d) What is the range of f ?

(e) What is the pre-image of D?

(f) What is the pre-image of A?

Solution :

(a) The domain of f is X = {1, 2, 3}

(b) The co-domain of f is Y = {A, B, C, D}

(c) f (3) = C

(d) Range of f is {C, D}

(e) The pre-image of D is 1.

(f) A has no pre-image.

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1.1.1 Types of functions

One-to-One Function (Injective Function)
An injective function or a one-to-one function is a function f : A → B with the following property. For every
element b in the codomain B there is maximum one element a in the domain A such that f (a) = b. For an
injective function, f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b.

Onto Function (Surjective Function)

A surjective function or an onto function is a function f : A → B with the following property. For every
element b in the codomain B there is at least one element a in the domain A such that f (a) = b. For a
surjective function, the range and codomain are the same.

Bijection (Bijective Function)

A bijective function is a function f : A → B that is both injective and surjective. For every element b in the
codomain B there is exactly one element a in the domain A such that f (a) = b.

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1.1.2 Vertical line test for a function

The vertical line test can be used to determine whether a graph represents a function. If we can draw any
vertical line that intersects a graph more than once, then the graph does not define a function because a
function has only one output value for each input value.

1.1.3 Horizontal line test for a one-to-one function

Once we have determined that a graph defines a function, an easy way to determine if it is a one-to-one
function is to use the horizontal line test. Draw horizontal lines through the graph. If any horizontal line
intersects the graph more than once, then the graph does not represent a one-to-one function.

1.1.4 Find the domain of the function

Polynomial Function

Let n be a non-negative integer. A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
f (x) = an xn + an−1 nxn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
This is called the general form of a polynomial function. Each ai is a coefficient and can be any real,
but an cannot ai = 0. Each expression ai xi is a term of a polynomial function. The highest power of
the variable that occurs in the polynomial function is called the degree of a polynomial function.

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How T o :: Find the domain of the function if function written in an equation form

Step 1. Identify the input values.

Step 2. Identify any restrictions on the input and exclude those values from the
How?
domain.

Step 3. Write the domain in interval form, if possible.

The domain of the polynomial function is the set of all real numbers denoted by (−∞, ∞) or R.

Example 3

Find the domain of the function f (x) = x2 − 1

Solution :
The input value, shown by the variable x in the equation, is squared and then the result is lowered
by one. Any real number may be squared and then be lowered by one, so there are no restrictions on
the domain of this function. The domain is the set of real numbers.

In interval form, the domain of f is (−∞, ∞) or R (Set of real numbers).

Example 4

Find the domain of the function f (t) = 2t7 + 2t4 − 3t3 + 7t2 − 5

Solution :
The input value, shown by the variable t in the equation, is having different positive powers multiplied
with integers and then the result is lowered by five. Any real number may be powered by positive
numbers multiplied with integers and then be lowered by five, so there are no restrictions on the
domain of this function. The domain is the set of real numbers.

In interval form, the domain of f is (−∞, ∞) or R (Set of real numbers).

Rational Function

A rational function is a function that can be written as the quotient of two polynomial functions P (x)
and Q(x).
P (x) ap xp + ap−1 xp−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
f (x) = = ; Q(x) ̸= 0
Q(x) bq xq + bq−1 xq−1 + . . . + b1 x + b0
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions is called rational function.

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Find the domain of the function if function written in an equation form

How T o ::
that includes a fraction

Step 1. Identify the input values.

Step 2. Identify any restrictions on the input. If there is a denominator in the

function’s formula, set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x .
How? If the function’s formula contains an even root, set the radicand greater
than or equal to 0, and then solve.

Step 3. Write the domain in interval form, making sure to exclude any restricted
values from the domain.

Example 5

x+1
Find the domain of the function f (x) =
2−x

Solution :
When there is a denominator, we want to include only values of the input that do not force the
denominator to be zero. So, we will set the denominator equal to 0 and solve for x.
2−x=0
−x = −2
x=2
Now, we will exclude 2 from the domain. The answers are all real numbers where x < 2 or x > 2.

In interval notation, we write the solution as: (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) or R − {2}, where R is the set of real
numbers.

Example 6

3x − 7
Find the domain of the function f (x) =
16 + x2

Solution :
When there is a denominator, we want to include only values of the input that do not force the
denominator to be zero. So, we will set the denominator equal to 0 and solve for x.

16 + x2 = 0

Now, we will not exclude any number from the domain because 16 + x2 is never zero for any real
value of x. The answers are all real numbers.

In interval form, the domain of f is (−∞, ∞) or R (Set of real numbers).

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Example 7

2x3 + 3x2
Find the domain of the function f (x) =
4 − x2

Solution :
When there is a denominator, we want to include only values of the input that do not force the
denominator to be zero. So, we will set the denominator equal to 0 and solve for x.

4 − x2 = 0
(2 − x)(2 + x) = 0
x = −2 or x = 2
Now, we will exclude −2 and 2 from the domain. The answers are all real numbers where x < −2 or
−2 < x < 2 or x > 2.

In interval notation, we write the solution as: (−∞, 2) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) or R − {−2, 2}, where R is
the set of real numbers.

Radical Function

A function in the variable x equivalent to the form

√
f (x) = n p(x)
where index n is the whole number and p(x) is the non-negative polynomial function is called radical
function

Example 8
√
3
Find the domain of the function p(r) = r+8

Solution :
If the index of the radical function is odd number then any real number may be with no restrictions on
the domain of this function. So, the domain is the set of real numbers. In interval form, the domain
of p is (−∞, ∞) or R (Set of real numbers).

Find the domain of the function if function written in an equation form

How T o ::
including an even root

Step 1. Identify the input values.

Step 2. Since there is an even root, exclude any real numbers that result in a
negative number in the radicand. Set the radicand greater than or equal
How?
to zero and solve for x.

Step 3. The solution(s) are the domain of the function. If possible, write the
answer in interval form.

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Example 9
√
Find the domain of the function g(t) = 8 + t2

Solution :

If the index of the radical function is even number and 8 + t2 is positive for all real t then any real
number may be with no restrictions on the domain of this function. So, the domain is the set of real
numbers. In interval form, the domain of g is (−∞, ∞) or R (Set of real numbers).

Example 10
√
Find the domain of the function f (x) = 7−x

Solution :
Set the radicand greater than or equal to zero and solve for x.
7−x≥0
−x ≥ −7
x≤7
Now, we will exclude any number greater than 7 from the domain. The answer is the set of all real
numbers less than or equal to 7 or (−∞, 7]

Example 11
√
Find the domain of the function f (x) = 9 − x2

Solution :
Set the radicand greater than or equal to zero and solve for x.
9 − x2 ≥ 0
(3 − x)(3 + x) ≥ 0
x ≤ −3 and x ≥ 3
Now, we will exclude any number less than 3 and greater than −3 from the domain. The answer is the
set of all real numbers less than or equal to −3 and greater than or equal to 3, or (−∞, −3] ∪ [3, ∞)

Evaluating function at a point

Example 12

Let f (t) = 4 − 5t and g(x) = 3m2 + 2m − 5. Find the following values of the indicated functions.

(a) f (−2) (b) g(3) (c) g(−3) + f (−1)

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18
Solution :

(a) f (−2) = 4 − 5 × (−2) = 14 g(−3) + f (−1)

(c) = (3 × (−3)2 + 2 × (−3) − 5) + 4 − 5 × (−1)
(b) g(3) = 3 × 32 + 2 × 3 − 5 = 28 = 27 − 6 − 5 + 4 + 5 = 25

Difference Quotient:

The difference quotient is usually the name for the expression as below:
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
Example 13

f (−3 + h) − f (−3)
If f (x) = 7 − 4x then find .
h

Solution :
Given f (x) = 7 − 4x. Then

f (−3) = 7 − 4 × (−3) = 19
f (−3 + h) = 7 − 4 × (−3 + h)
= 7 + 12 − 4h
f (−3 + h) = 19 − 4h

Substitute the values of f (−3 + h) and f (−3) in the difference quotient,

f (−3 + h) − f (−3) f (−3 + h) − f (−3)

=
h h
(19 − 4h) − (19)
=
h
−4h
=
h
f (−3 + h) − f (−3)
= −4
h

1.1 EXERCISES
Answer the following questions:
I. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3}. If the arrow diagram on the right defines a function f then
(1) What is the domain of f ?

(2) What is the co-domain of f ?

(3) What is f (a)?

(4) What is the range of f ?

(5) What is the pre-image of 1?

(6) What is the pre-image of 3?

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II. Which of the following are functions? If it is a function, write the domain, co-domain and range of the
functions.

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

III. Which of the following are functions? If it is a function, write the domain and range for each relation.
(1) {(3, 6), (4, 9), (5, 12), (6,13)} (2) {(2, -2), (2, -1), (2, 0), (2, 1) }

(3) {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1)} (4) {(10, 5), (11, 8), (12, 5), (13, 12)}

(5) {(a, -1), (b, 1), (c, 3), (d, 5)} (6) {(2, 10), (3, 10), (4, 20), (5, 30)}

IV. Determine which of the following equations defines a function.

(1) x + y = 7 (2) 3x + 2y = −5

(3) x2 + 2y = 4 (4) x2 + y 2 = 9
√
(5) y = 1 − x2 (6) x + y 3 = −1

V. Identify the graph that represents a function, by using the vertical line test.

(1) (2) (3)

VI. Identify type of the functions in the following relations.

(1) (2) (3)

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(4) (5) (6)

VII. Identify the graph that represents a one-to-one function, by using the Horizontal line test.

(1) (2) (3)

VIII. Find the domain of the following indicated functions

√
(1) f (x) = 2x2 + 5x − 3 (2) f (t) = 5 − t + t3 (3) f (t) = t−5
√ √ √
(4) f (x) = 5 + 2x (5) g(x) = 3 2 − x (6) h(u) = 3 u + 6
√ 3m2 + 1 5m
(7) f (x) = −2 + x (8) F (m) = (9) f (x) =
m−5 m+7
2x 5 − 2m
(10) f (x) = (11) G(m) = 2
x2 − 25 m +9
IX. Let g(t) = 5 − 3t, f (x) = 3x + 7, h(m) = 3m2 + 2m − 5 and k(u) = u2 + u − 1. Find the following values
of the indicated functions.
(1) g(−2) (2) f (3) (3) g(3) + f (−1)
h(2) − f (1)
(4) 2h(−2) + k(5) (5) f (2) − k(−3) (6)
g(2)
X. Answer the following:
F (2 + h) − F (2)
(1) If F (s) = 2s + 3 then find
h
f (3 + h) − f (3)
(2) If f (x) = 2 − 5x then find
h
f (−2 + h) − f (−2)
(3) If f (x) = 10 − 3x then find
h
f (x + h) − f (x) f (x) − f (a)
XI. Find and simplify i) ii) for the following functions
h x−a
(1) f (x) = 4x + 1 (2) f (x) = 3 − 7x (3) f (x) = −2x2 + 3x − 1

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1.2 Composition of Functions

Performing algebraic operations on functions combines them into a new function, but we can also create
functions by composing functions. When we wanted to compute a heating cost from a day of the year, we
created a new function that takes a day as input and yields a cost as output. The process of combining
functions so that the output of one function becomes the input of another is known as a composition of
functions. The resulting function is known as a composite function. We represent this combination by the
following notation:
(f o g) (x) = f (g (x))

We read the left-hand side as "f composed with g at x" and the right-hand side as “f of g of x". The two
sides of the equation have the same mathematical meaning and are equal. The open circle symbol ◦ is called
the composition operator. We use this operator mainly when we wish to emphasize the relationship between
the functions themselves without referring to any particular input value.

Composition is a binary operation that takes two functions and forms a new function, much as addition or
multiplication takes two numbers and gives a new number. However, it is important not to confuse function
composition with multiplication because, as we learned above, in most cases f (g (x)) ̸= f (x)g(x).

It is also important to understand the order of oper-

ations in evaluating a composite function. We follow
the usual convention with parentheses by starting with
the innermost parentheses first, and then working
to the outside. In the equation above, the function
g takes the input x first and yields an output g(x).
Then the function f takes g(x) as an input and yields
an output f (g(x)).

In general, f ◦ g and g ◦ f are different functions. In other words, in many cases f (g (x)) ̸= g (f (x)) for all
x. We will also see that sometimes two functions can be composed only in one specific order.

Example 1

If f (x) = x2 and g (x) = x + 2, then find f (g (x)) and g (f (x)).

Solution :

Given f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 2,

( )
f (g(x)) = f (x + 2) g(f (x)) = g x2
= (x + 2)2 = x2 + 2
= x2 + 4x + 4

These expressions are not equal for all values of x, so the two functions are not equal. It is irrelevant that
1
the expressions happen to be equal for the single input value x = − .
2

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22

Example 2

If f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3 − x, then find (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).

Solution :
Given f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3 − x,
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))
= f (3 − x) = g(2x + 1)
= 2(3 − x) + 1 = 3 − (2x + 1)
= 6 − 2x + 1 = 3 − 2x − 1
= 7 − 2x = 2 − 2x

1.2 EXERCISES

I. Find f (g (x)) and g (f (x)) for the following functions.

(1) f (x) = 3x + 2 and g (x) = x + 1

(2) f (x) = x + 2 and g (x) = x2

√
(3) f (x) = x2 + 1 and g (x) = x + 2
√
(4) f (x) = x + 2 and g (x) = x2 + 3

(5) f (x) = |x| and g (x) = 5x + 1

II. Evaluate each composite value.

(1) f (x) = 2x + 5 and g (x) = x − 2, find (f ◦ g) (2)
√
(2) f (x) = x + 1 and g (x) = x − 7, find (f ◦ g) (16)
1
(3) f (x) = x + 5 and g (x) = , find (f o g) (2) and (g ◦ f ) (1)
x−3
x
(4) f (x) = x + 3 and g (x) = , find (f ◦ g) (6) and (g ◦ f ) (2)
x−4
1−x 1
(5) f (x) = and g (x) = , find (g ◦ f ) (2)
x 1 + x2

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 23

1.3 Inverse Function

An inverse function reverses the operation done by a particular function. In other words, whatever a function
does, the inverse function undoes it. In this section, we define an inverse function formally and state the
necessary conditions for an inverse function to exist. We examine how to find an inverse function.

Existence of an Inverse Function

We begin with an example. Given a function f and an output y = f (x), we are often interested in finding
what value or values of x were mapped to y by f . For example, consider the function f (x) = x3 + 4. Since
√
any output is f (x) = x3 + 4, we can solve this equation for x to find that the input is x = 3 y − 4. This
equation defines x as a function of y. Denoting this function as f −1 , and writing x = f −1 (y), we see that for
any x in the domain of f , f −1 (f (x)) = f −1 (x3 + 4) = x. A function with this property is called the inverse
function of the original function.

Inverse Function

Given a function f with domain D and range R, its inverse function (if it exists) is the function
f −1 with domain R and range D such that f −1 (y) = x if f (x) = y. In other words, for a function f
and its inverse f −1 ,
( )
f −1 (f (x)) = x, for all x in D and f f −1 (y) = y, for all y in R

Recall that a function has exactly one output for each input.
Therefore, to define an inverse function, we need to map each
input to exactly one output. For example, let’s try to find the
inverse function for f (x) = x2 . Solving the equation f (x) = x2 ,
√
we arrive at the equation x = ± y. This equation does not
describe x as a function of y because there are two solutions to
this equation for every y > 0. The problem with trying to find an
inverse function for f (x) = x2 is that two inputs are sent to the
same output for each output y > 0. The function f (x) = x3 + 4
discussed earlier did not have this problem. For that function,
each input was sent to a different output. A function that sends
each input to a different output is called a one-to-one function.

How T o :: Find a Function’s Inverse

Step 1. Make sure f is one-to-one function. If f is not one-to-one, then f −1 does

not exist.

Step 2. Solve for x and write x = f −1 (y).

How?
Step 3. Interchange x and y.

Step 4. Find the domain of f −1 .The domain of f −1 must be the same as the
range of f .

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24

Example 1

Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 3x − 4.

Solution :
Let y = f (x),

y = 3x − 4 Set up an equation.

y+4 = 3x Add 4 both sides.

y+4
x = divide both sides by 3
3
y+4
f −1 (y) = Replace x = f −1 (y)
3
x+4
f −1 (x) = Replace y with x
3
Since the domain of f is (−∞, ∞), the range of f −1 is (−∞, ∞).

Since the range of f is (−∞, ∞), the domain of f −1 is (−∞, ∞).

Example 2

2
Find the inverse of the function f (x) = + 4.
x−3

Solution :
Let y = f (x),
2
y = +4 Set up an equation.
x−3
2
y−4 = Subtract 4 from both sides.
x−3
2
x−3 = Multiply both sides by x − 3 and divide by y − 4
y−4
2
x = +3 Add 3 to both sides.
y−4
2
f −1 (y) = +3 Replace x = f −1 (y)
y−4
2
f −1 (x) =
+3 Replace y with x
x−4
Since the domain of f is R − {3}, the range of f −1 is R − {3}.

Since the range of f is R − {4}, the domain of f −1 is R − {4}.

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 25

1.3 EXERCISES

I. Find the inverse function f −1 if exist.

(1) f = {(3, 6), (4, 9), (5, 12), (6, 13)} (2) f = {(2, −2), (4, −1), (6, 0), (8, 1)}

(3) f = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1)} (4) f = {(10, 5), (11, 8), (12, 5), (13, 12)}

(5) f = {(a, −1), (b, 1), (c, 3), (d, 5)} (6) f = {(2, 10), (3, 10), (4, 20), (5, 30)}

II. Find the inverse function f −1 (x).

(1) f (x) = x + 3 (2) f (x) = 2 − x
1
(3) f (x) = 5x − 1 (4) f (x) = x+5
7
x−4 2x − 3
(5) f (x) = (6) f (x) = −
3 5
5 2x + 3
(7) f (x) = −6 (8) f (x) =
8+x 5x + 4
√
(9) f (x) = 2 + x − 4

1.4 Quadratic Equations

In this section we discuss the method of solving a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula, a
formula that will solve all quadratic equations. Although the quadratic formula works on any quadratic
equation in standard form, it is easy to make errors in substituting the values into the formula. Pay close
attention when substituting, and use parentheses when inserting a negative number.
Quadratic Formula

The roots of a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ̸= 0 are given by the formula:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

To use the Quadratic Formula, we substitute the values of a, b, and c from the standard form into the ex-
pression on the right side of the formula. Then we simplify the expression. The result is the pair of roots of
the quadratic equation.

How T o :: Solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula

Step 1. Write the quadratic equation in standard form,ax2 +bx+c = 0 . Identify

the values of a, b, and c.

Step 2. Write the Quadratic Formula. Then substitute in the values of a, b, and
How? c.

Step 3. Simplify.

Step 4. Check the roots.

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26

Example 1

Solve by using the Quadratic Formula: 2x2 + 9x − 5 = 0

Solution :

Given 2x2 + 9x − 5 = 0.

Here a = 2, b = 9, and c = −5
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
√2a
−9 ± (9)2 − 4(2)(−5)
= Substitute the values of a, b, c
2(2)
√
−9 ± 81 + 40
=
√4
−9 ± 121
=
4
−9 ± 11
x=
4
−9 + 11 −9 − 11
x= , x=
4 4
2 −20
x= , x=
4 4
1
x = , x = −5
2

Example 2

Solve by using the Quadratic Formula: x2 − 6x = −5

Solution :

Given x2 − 6x = −5. We can rewrite as x2 − 6x + 5 = 0.

Here a = 1, b = −6, and c = 5 √

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a √
−(−6) ± (−6)2 − 4(1)(5)
x=
2(1)
√
6 ± 36 − 20
x=
√2
6 ± 16
x=
2
6+4 6−4
x= , x=
2 2
10 2
x= , x=
2 2
x = 5, x = 1

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 27

Example 3

1 2 2 1
Solve by using the Quadratic Formula: u + u=
2 3 3

Solution :
1 2 2 1
Given u + u = . Multiply both the sides by the LCD 6,
2 3 3 ( ) ( )
1 2 2 1
6 u + u =6
2 3 3
3u2 + 4u = 2
3u2 + 4u − 2 = 0
Here a = 3, b = 4, and c = −2
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
u=
2a
√
−4 ± (4)2 − 4(3)(−2)
=
2(3)
√
−4 ± 40
=
6 √
−4 ± 2 10
=
6√ √
−2 + 10 −2 − 10
u= , u=
3 3

Example 4

Solve by using the Quadratic Formula: 3z 2 + 2z + 9 = 0

Solution :

Given 3z 2 + 2z + 9 = 0. Here a = 3, b = 2, and c = 9

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
z=
√ 2a
−2 ± (2)2 − 4(3)(9)
=
2(3)
√
−2 ± 4 − 108
=
√6
−2 ± −104
=
6√
−2 ± i 104
=
6 √
−2 ± 2i 26
=
6 √
2(−1 ± i 26)
z=
6√ √
−1 + i 26 −1 − i 26
z= , z=
3 3

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28

1.4 EXERCISES

I. Solve the following quadratic equations using quadratic formula.

(1) 4z 2 + 2z − 6 = 0 (2) 2x2 + 10x + 11 = 0
(3) 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0 (4) y 2 − 24 = −10y
3 2 1 3
(5) y + y= (6) 2y 2 − 2y = −5
4 2 8
(7) x2 − 2x + 5 = 0 (8) 4z 2 − 2z + 8 = 0
(9) x (x + 2) + 5 = 0 (10) x (x − 6) = −10

1.5 Graphing Functions

1.5.1 Representing a Linear Function in Graphical Form

In Linear Functions, we saw that that the graph of a linear function is a straight line. We were also able to
see the points of the function as well as the initial value from a graph. By graphing two functions, then, we
can more easily compare their characteristics.

The function describing the train’s motion is a linear function, which is defined as a function with a constant
rate of change, that is, a polynomial of degree 1. There are several ways to represent a linear function, in-
cluding word form, function notation, tabular form, and graphical form. We will describe the train’s motion
as a function using each method.

Linear Function

A linear function is a function whose graph is a line. Linear functions can be written in the slope-
intercept form of a line.
f (x) = mx + b

where b is the initial or starting value of the function (when input,x = 0 ), and m is the constant rate
of change, or slope of the function. The y-intercept is at (0, b).

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 29
Finding the x−intercept of a Line:

To find the x-intercept, set a function equal to zero

and solve for the value of x.

f (x) = 0
mx + b = 0
mx = −b
−b
x=
m
b
∴ x − intercept = −
m

Example 1

1
Find the slope and intercepts, and then sketch the graph of the linear function defined by f (x) = x−3.
2

Solution :

Given
1
f (x) = x−3
2
f (x) = mx + b
1
slope (m) = and b = −3
2
−b 3
x − intercept = = =6
m 1/
2

1.5.2 Representing a Quadratic Function in Graphical Form

The graph of a quadratic function is a U-shaped
curve called a parabola. One important feature of
the graph is that it has an extreme point, called the
vertex. If the parabola opens up, the vertex repre-
sents the lowest point on the graph, or the minimum
value of the quadratic function. If the parabola opens
down, the vertex represents the highest point on the
graph, or the maximum value. In either case, the
vertex is a turning point on the graph. The graph is
also symmetric with a vertical line drawn through the
vertex, called the axis of symmetry.

The y-intercept is the point at which the parabola

crosses the y-axis. The x-intercepts are the points at
which the parabola crosses the x-axis. If they exist,
the x-intercepts represent the zeros, or roots, of the
quadratic function, the values of x at which y = 0.

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30

Quadratic Functions

A quadratic function is a function of degree two. The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The
general form of a quadratic function is f (x) = ax2 +bx+c where a, b and c are real numbers and a ̸= 0.

2
The standard form of a quadratic function is f (x) = a(x − h) + k.

b
The vertex (h, k) is located as h = − and k = f (h)
2a

Properties:
1. If a > 0 the parabola opens up and if a < 0 the parabola opens down.

2. Determine whether a is positive or negative. If a is positive, the parabola has a minimum. If a is

negative, the parabola has a maximum.

3. Determine the maximum or minimum value of the parabola,k.

4. If the parabola has a minimum, the range is given by f (x) ≥ k or [k, ∞). If the parabola has a
maximum, the range is given by f (x) ≤ k or (−∞, k].

5. If a > 0, then the graph decreases in the interval (−∞, h] and increase in the interval [h, ∞).

6. If a < 0, then the graph increases in the interval (−∞, h] and decrease in the interval [h, ∞).

1.5.3 Finding the Vertex of a Quadratic Function

How T o :: Find the vertex of the parabola for a quadratic function in general form,

Step 1. Identify a, b, and c.

Step 2. Find h, the x−coordinate of the vertex, by substituting a and b into

−b
How? h= .
2a
Step 3. Find k, the y−coordinate of the vertex, by evaluating
( )
−b
k = f (h) = f
2a

Example 2

Find the vertex of the quadratic function f (x) = 2x2 −6x + 7. Rewrite the quadratic in standard form
(vertex form).

Solution :
The horizontal coordinate of the vertex The vertical coordinate of the vertex
b k = f (h)
h=− ( )
2a 3
−6 =f
=− 2
2(2) ( )2 ( )
6 3 3
= =2 −6 +7
4 2 2
3 5
= =
2 2

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 31

Rewriting into standard form, the stretch factor will be the same as the a in the original quadratic.
First, find the horizontal coordinate of the vertex. Then find the vertical coordinate of the vertex.
Substitute the values into standard form, using the a from the general form.
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
f (x) = 2x2 −6x + 7

The standard form of a quadratic function prior to writing the function then becomes the following:
( )2
3 5
f (x) = 2 x − +
2 2

1.5.4 Finding the Domain and Range of a Quadratic Function

Any number can be the input value of a quadratic function. Therefore, the domain of any quadratic function
is all real numbers. Because parabolas have a maximum or a minimum point, the range is restricted. Since
the vertex of a parabola will be either a maximum or a minimum, the range will consist of all y−values
greater than or equal to the y−coordinate at the turning point or less than or equal to the y−coordinate at
the turning point, depending on whether the parabola opens up or down.

How T o :: Find the domain and range

Step 1. Identify the domain of any quadratic function as all real numbers.

Step 2. Determine whether a is positive or negative. If a is positive, the parabola

has a minimum. If a is negative, the parabola has a maximum.
How? Step 3. Determine the maximum or minimum value of the parabola, k.

Step 4. If the parabola has a minimum, the range is given by f (x) ≥ k, or

[k, ∞). If the parabola has a maximum, the range is given by f (x) ≤ k,
or (−∞, k].

Example 3

Find the domain and range of f (x) = −5x2 + 9x−1.

Solution :
As with any quadratic function, the domain is all real numbers.
Because a is negative, the parabola opens downward and has a maximum value. We need to
determine the maximum value. We can begin by finding the x−value of the vertex.

b
h=−
2a
9
=−
2(−5)
9
=
10
The maximum value is given by f (h).

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32

( ) ( )2 ( )
9 9 9
f = −5 +9 −1
10 10 10
61
=
20
( ]
61 61
The range is f (x) ≤ , or −∞,
20 20

1.5.5 Determining the Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Functions

The output of the quadratic function at the vertex is the maximum or minimum value of the function,
depending on the orientation of the parabola. We can see the maximum and minimum values in the below
images.

There are many real-world scenarios that involve finding the maximum or minimum value of a quadratic
function, such as applications involving area and revenue.

Example 4

A backyard farmer wants to enclose a rectangular space for a new garden within her fenced backyard.
She has purchased 80 feet of wire fencing to enclose three sides, and she will use a section of the
backyard fence as the fourth side.

(a) Find a formula for the area enclosed by the fence if the sides of fencing perpendicular to the
existing fence have length L.

(b) What dimensions should she make her garden to maximize the enclosed area?

Solution :

Lets use a diagram to record the given information. It is also

helpful to introduce a temporary variable, W, to represent
the width of the garden and the length of the fence section
parallel to the backyard fence.

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 33

(a) We have only 80 feet of fence available, and L + W + L = 80, or more simply, 2L + W = 80. This
allows us to represent the width, W , in terms of L.
W = 80−2L
Now we are ready to write an equation for the area the fence encloses. We know the area of a
rectangle is length multiplied by width, so
A = LW = L(80−2L)
A(L) = 80L−2L2

This formula represents the area of the fence in terms of the variable length L. The function,
written in general form, is
A(L) = −2L2 + 80L

(b) The quadratic has a negative leading coefficient, so the graph will open downward, and the
vertex will be the maximum value for the area. In finding the vertex, we must be careful because
the equation is not written in standard polynomial form with decreasing powers. This is why we
rewrote the function in general form above.
Since a is the coefficient of the squared term, a = −2, b = 80, and c = 0.
To find the vertex:
b
h=− k = A(20)
2a
80 = 80(20) − 2(20)2
h=−
2(−2)
= 800
= 20
The maximum value of the function is an area of 800 square feet, which occurs when L = 20 feet.
When the shorter sides are 20 feet, there is 40 feet of fencing left for the longer side. To maximize
the area, she should enclose the garden so the two shorter sides have length 20 feet and the longer
side parallel to the existing fence has length 40 feet.

Example 5

The unit price of an item affects its supply and demand. That is, if the unit price goes up, the demand
for the item will usually decrease. For example, a local newspaper currently has 84,000 subscribers
at a quarterly charge of $30. Market research has suggested that if the owners raise the price to $32,
they would lose 5, 000 subscribers. Assuming that subscriptions are linearly related to the price, what
price should the newspaper charge for a quarterly subscription to maximize their revenue?

Solution :
Revenue is the amount of money a company brings in. In this case, the revenue can be found by
multiplying the price per subscription times the number of subscribers, or quantity. We can introduce
variables, p for price per subscription and Q for quantity, giving us the equation Revenue = pQ.

Because the number of subscribers changes with the price, we need to find a relationship between the
variables. We know that currently p = 30 and Q = 84, 000. We also know that if the price rises to $32,
the newspaper would lose 5,000 subscribers, giving a second pair of values, p = 32 and Q = 79, 000.

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34

From this we can find a linear equation relating the two quantities. The slope will be
79, 000 − 84, 000
m=
32 − 30
−5, 000
=
2
= −2, 500
This tells us the paper will lose 2, 500 subscribers for each dollar they raise the price. We can then
solve for the y−intercept.
Q = −2, 500p + b Substitute in the point Q = 84, 000 and p = 30
84, 000 = −2, 500(30) + b Solve for b
b = 159, 000
This gives us the linear equation Q = −2, 500p + 159, 000 relating cost and subscribers. We now
return to our revenue equation.
Revenue = pQ
Revenue = p(−2, 500p + 159, 000)
Revenue = −2, 500p2 + 159, 000p
We now have a quadratic function for revenue as a function of the subscription charge. To find the
price that will maximize revenue for the newspaper, we can find the vertex.
159, 000
h=−
2(−2, 500)
= 31.8
The model tells us that the maximum revenue will occur if the newspaper charges $31.80 for a
subscription. To find what the maximum revenue is, we evaluate the revenue function.
Maximum Revenue = −2, 500(31.8)2 + 159, 000(31.8)
= 2, 528, 100

1.5.6 Finding the x−and y−Intercepts of a Quadratic Function

Much as we did in the application problems above, we also need to find intercepts of quadratic equations
for graphing parabolas. Recall that we find the y−intercept of a quadratic by evaluating the function at an
input of zero, and we find the x−intercepts at locations where the output is zero. Notice that the number of
x−intercepts can vary depending upon the location of the graph.

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 35

How T o :: Find the y−and x−intercepts.

Step 1. Evaluate f (0) to find the y−intercept.

How?
Step 2. Solve the quadratic equation f (x) = 0 to find the x−intercepts.

Example 6

Find the y−intercept and x−intercept of the quadratic f (x) = 3x2 + 5x−2.

Solution :
We find the y−intercept by evaluating f (0).
f (0) = 3(0)2 + 5(0)−2
= −2
So the y−intercept is at (0, −2).
For the x−intercepts, we find all solutions of f (x) = 0.
0 = 3x2 + 5x−2
In this case, the quadratic can be factored easily, providing the simplest method for solution.
0 = (3x−1)(x + 2)
0 = 3x−1or0 = x + 2
1
x = or x = −2
( ) 3
1
So the x−intercepts are at , 0 and (−2, 0).
3

Example 7

Find the y−intercept and x−intercept of the quadratic f (x) = −2x2 − 2x + 4.

Solution :
We find the y−intercept by evaluating f (0).
f (0) = −2(0)2 − 2(0) + 4
=4
So the y−intercept is at (0, 4).
For the x−intercepts, we find all solutions of f (x) = 0.
0 = −2x2 − 2x + 4
In this case, the quadratic can be factored easily, providing the simplest method for solution.
0 = −2(x−1)(x + 2)
0 = x−1or0 = x + 2
x = 1 or x = −2
So the x−intercepts are at (1, 0) and (−2, 0).

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36

1.5.7 Sketch the Graph of the Quadratic Function

Example 8

Sketch the graph of the following quadratic function f (x) = x2 + 4x + 3 and find the following:

(a) Vertex (d) Maximum (g) Interval of increasing

(b) Axis of symmetry (e) Minimum (h) x− intercept

(c) Range (f) Interval of decreasing (i) y− intercept

Solution :
Given
f (x) = x2 + 4x + 3
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
a = 1, b = 4, and c = 3
b 4
h=− = − = −2
2a 2
k = f (h)
= f (−2)
2
= (−2) + 4 (−2) + 3
= −1
a > 0 indicates that the parabola opens upward.

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0
f (x) 3 0 -1 0 3

(a) vertex : (h, k) = (−2, −1)

(b) Axis of symmetry: x = −2

(c) Range: [k, ∞) = [−1, ∞)

(d) Maximum: None

(e) Minimum: k = −1

(f) Interval of decreasing: (−∞, h] = (−∞, −2]

(g) Interval of increasing : [h, ∞) = [−2, ∞)

(h) x− intercepts are (−3, 0) and (−1, 0).

For, √
−4 ± (4)2 − 4(1)(3)
x=
2(2)

(i) y− intercept is (0, 3)

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 37

Example 9

2
Sketch the graph of the following quadratic function f (x) = −3(x + 2) + 4 and find the following:

(a) Vertex (d) Maximum (g) Interval of increasing

(b) Axis of symmetry (e) Minimum (h) x− intercept

(c) Range (f) Interval of decreasing (i) y− intercept

Solution :

Given
2
f (x) = −3(x + 2) + 4

2
f (x) = a(x − h) + k

a = −3, h = −2, k = 4
a < 0 indicates that the parabola opens downward.

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0
f (x) -8 1 4 1 -8

(a) vertex : (h, k) = (−2, 4)

(b) Axis of symmetry: x = −2

(c) Range: (−∞, k] = (−∞, 4]

(d) Maximum: k = 4

(e) Minimum: None

(f) Interval of increasing: (−∞, h] = (−∞, −2]

(g) Interval of decreasing : [h, ∞) = [−2, ∞)

(h) x− intercepts are (−3.33, 0) and (−1.33, 0).

For, √
4
x = −2 ±
3

(i) y− intercept is (0, −8).

For,
f (0) = −3(0 + 2)2 = −8

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38

1.5 EXERCISES
Answer the following questions:
I. Find the slope and intercepts and then sketch the graph of the linear functions.
(1) f (x) = 3x − 6

(2) f (x) = −2x + 3

(3) f (x) = 4 + 2x
1
(4) f (x) = x−4
4
(5) f (x) : −3x + 2y = 12

II. Sketch the graph of the quadratic functions and find the following:

(a) Vertex (d) Maximum (g) Interval of increasing

(b) Axis of symmetry (e) Minimum (h) x− intercept
(c) Range (f) Interval of decreasing (i) y− intercept

(1) f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 2

(2) f (x) = −x2 + 4x + 3

(3) f (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 9

(4) f (x) = (x − 3)2 + 2

(5) f (x) = −2(x + 3)2 − 6

1
(x + 2)2 − 3
(6) f (x) =
2
III. Real-World Applications: Determining the Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Functions
(1) Find the dimensions of the rectangular corral producing the greatest enclosed area given 200feet
of fencing.

(2) Find the dimensions of the rectangular corral split into 2 pens of the same size producing the
greatest possible enclosed area given 300 feet of fencing.

(3) Among all of the pairs of numbers whose sum is 6, find the pair with the largest product. What
is the product?

(4) Among all of the pairs of numbers whose difference is 12, fi d the pair with the smallest product.
What is the product?

(5) A rocket is launched in the air. Its height, in meters above sea level, as a function of time, in
seconds, is given by h(t) = −4.9t2 + 229t + 234. Find the maximum height the rocket attains.

(6) A ball is thrown in the air from the top of a building. Its height, in meters above ground, as a
function of time, in seconds, is given by h(t) = −4.9t2 + 24t + 8. How long does it take to reach
maximum height?

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 Chapter 2

Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions

Contents
2.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:
2.1.1 Graphing Exponential Functions
2.1.2 Properties of Exponential Functions
2.1.3 Graphing Logarithmic Functions
2.1.4 Properties of Logarithmic Functions
2.2 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Learning outcomes covered:

(c) Define and manipulate exponential and logarithmic functions and solve
problems arising from real life applications.

(d) Understand the inverse relationship between exponents and logarithms

and use this relationship to solve related problems.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
à Understand the concept of exponential and logarithmic functions.
à Understand the properties of exponential and logarithmic functions.
à Solve problems based on exponential and logarithmic equations.

39
40
Introduction

In this chapter, it is introduced the properties of exponential and logarithmic functions and the method of
applying these properties in solving problems. At the end, some applications are given using exponential and
logarithmic functions.

2.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:

Exponential Function

The equation
f (x) = bx , b > 0, b ̸= 1

defines an exponential function for each different constant b, called the base. The independent
variable x can assume any real value.

Characteristics of the graph of the parent function f (x) = bx

An exponential function with the form f (x) = bx , b > 0, b ̸= 1, has these characteristics:

• one-to-one function

• horizontal asymptote: y = 0

• domain: (−∞, ∞)

• range: (0, ∞)

• x -intercept: none

• y -intercept: (0, 1)

• increasing if b > 1

• decreasing if b < 1

The figure compares the graphs of exponential growth and decay functions.

2.1.1 Graphing Exponential Functions

How T o :: Graph the exponential function of the form f (x) = bx

Step 1. Create a table of points.

Step 2. Plot at least 3 point from the table, including the y−intercept (0, 1).
How? Step 3. Draw a smooth curve through the points.

Step 4. State the domain, (−∞, ∞), the range, (0, ∞), and the horizontal asymp-
tote, y = 0.

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 41

Example 1

Sketch a graph of f (x) = 0.25x . State the domain, range, and asymptote.

Solution :
Before graphing, identify the behavior Create a table of points as in the table below.
and create a table of points for the graph.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Since b = 0.25 is between zero and one, f (x) 64 16 4 1 0.25 0.06 0.02
we know the function is decreasing.
The left tail of the graph will increase
without bound, and the right tail will
approach the asymptote y = 0.

Plot the y−intercept, (0, 1), along with

two other points. We can use (−1, 4)
and (1, 0.25).

Draw a smooth curve connecting the

points as in the figure. The domain,
(−∞, ∞), the range, (0, ∞), and the hor-
izontal asymptote, y = 0.

Shifts of the parent function f (x) = bx

For any constants c and d, the function f (x) = bx+c + d shifts the parent function f (x) = bx

• vertically d units, in the same direction of the sign of d.

• horizontally c units, in the opposite direction of the sign of c.

• The y -intercept becomes (0, bc + d).

• The horizontal asymptote becomes y = d.

• The range becomes (d, ∞).

• The domain, (−∞, ∞), remains unchanged.

Stretches and compressions of the parent function f (x) = bx

For any factor a > 0, the function f (x) = a(b)x

• is stretched vertically by a factor of a if |a| > 1.

• is compressed vertically by a factor of a if |a| < 1

• has a y -intercept of (0, a).

• has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0, a range of (0, ∞), and a domain of (−∞, ∞), which are unchanged
from the parent function.

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42

Example 2

Graph f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. State the domain, range, and asymptote.

Solution :
We have an exponential equation of the form
f (x) = bx+c + d, with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.

Draw the horizontal asymptote y = d, so draw

y = −3.

Identify the shift as (−c, d), so the shift is (−1, −3).

Shift the graph of f (x) = bx left 1 units and down

3 units.

The domain, (−∞, ∞), the range, (0, ∞), and the
horizontal asymptote, y = 0.

Example 3
( )x
1
Sketch a graph of f (x) = 4 . State the domain, range, and asymptote.
2

Solution :
Before graphing, identify the behavior and create
a table of points for the graph.
Create a table of points as in the table below.
1
Since b = is between zero and one, the left
2 x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
tail of the graph will increase without bound as
f (x) 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5
x decreases, and the right tail will approach the
x−axis as x ( increases.
)x Since a = 4, the graph
1
of f (x) = 4 will be stretched by a factor of 4.
2

Plot the y−intercept, (0, 4), along with two other

points. We can use (−1, 8) and (1, 2).

Draw a smooth curve connecting the points as in

the figure.

The domain, (−∞, ∞), the range, (0, ∞), and the
horizontal asymptote, y = 0.

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 43
x
Reflections of the parent function f (x) = b

The function f (x) = −bx

• reflects the parent function f (x) = bx about the x -axis.

• has a y -intercept of (0, −1).

• has a range of (−∞, 0).

• has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 and domain of (−∞, ∞), which are unchanged from the parent
function.

The function f (x) = b−x

• reflects the parent function f (x) = bx about the y -axis.

• has a y -intercept of (0, 1), a horizontal asymptote at y = 0, a range of (0, ∞), and a domain of (−∞, ∞),
which are unchanged from the parent function.

2.1.2 Properties of Exponential Functions

Let a and b be positives, a ̸= 1, b ̸= 1, and x and y are real numbers:

• ax ay = ax+y
ax
• = ax−y
ay
• (ab)x = ax bx
( a )x ax
• = x
b b
• ax = ay if and only if x = y ; a ̸= 1.

• ax = bx if and only if a = b ; x ̸= 0.

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44

Example 4

Solve the following equations:

2 2
(a) 3x+1 = 9x−1 (b) (3x) = (2x + 5)

Solution :
2 2
(a) 3x+1 = 9x−1 (b) (3x) = (2x + 5)
3x+1 = 32(x−1) 3x = 2x + 5
x + 1 = 2(x − 1) 3x − 2x = 5
x + 1 = 2x − 2 x=5
− x = −3
x=3

Natural Exponential Function

The exponential function is the function f (x) = ex , where the base e = 2.71828... is Euler’s number
and the argument x occurs as an exponent.

The exponential function f (x) = ex is sometimes called the natural exponential function for distin-
guishing it from the other exponential functions.

The graph of the natural exponential function:

Logarithmic Function

For b > 1, b ̸= 0, the inverse of f (x) = bx denoted f −1 (x) = logb x is the logarithmic function with
base b.

y = logb x (logarithmic form) is equivalent to x = by (exponential form)

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 45

How T o :: Convert logarithmic form to exponential form, vice versa

Step 1. Examine the equation y = logb (x) and identify b, y, and x.

Step 2. Rewrite logb (x) = y as by = x. Identify the input values.

How?
Step 3. To convert from exponents to logarithms, we follow the same steps in
reverse. We identify the base b, exponent x, and output y. Then we
write x = logb (y).

Example 5

Write the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.

(√ ) 1
(a) log6 6 =
2
(b) log3 (9) = 2

Solution :
First, identify the values of b, y, and x. Then, write the equation in the form by = x.
1 √
(a) Here, b = 6, y = , and x = 6.
2
(√ ) 1 1 √
Therefore, the equation log6 6 = is equivalent to 6 2 = 6
2
(b) Here, b = 3, y = 2, and x = 9.
Therefore, the equation log3 (9) = 2 is equivalent to 32 = 9.

Example 6

Write the following exponential equations in logarithmic form.

(a) 23 = 8

(b) 52 = 25
1
(c) 10−4 =
10000

Solution :
First, identify the values of b, y, and x. Then, write the equation in the form y = logb x.

(a) Here, b = 2, x = 3, and y = 8.

Therefore, the equation 23 = 8 is equivalent to log2 (8) = 3

(b) Here, b = 5, x = 2, and y = 25.

Therefore, the equation 52 = 25 is equivalent to log5 (25) = 2
1
(c) Here, b = 10, x = −4, and y = .
10, 000 ( )
1 1
Therefore, the equation 10−4 = is equivalent to log10 = −4
10, 000 10000

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46

Characteristics of the graph of the parent function f (x) = logb x

For any real number x and constant b > 0, b ̸= 1, we can see the following characteristics in the graph of
f (x) = logb (x) :

• one-to-one function

• vertical asymptote: y = 0

• domain: (0, ∞)

• range: (−∞, ∞)

• x -intercept: (1, 0) and key point (b, 1)

• y -intercept: none

• increasing if b > 1

• decreasing if 0 < b < 1v

2.1.3 Graphing Logarithmic Functions

How T o :: Graph the Logarithmic function of the form f (x) = logb x

Step 1. Draw and label the vertical asymptote, x = 0.

Step 2. Plot the x -intercept, (1, 0).

Step 3. Plot the key point (b, 1).

How?
Step 4. Draw a smooth curve through the points.

Step 5. State the domain, (0, ∞), the range, (−∞, ∞), and the vertical asymp-
tote, x = 0.

Example 7

Graph f (x) = log5 (x). State the domain, range, and asymptote.

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 47
Solution :
Before graphing, identify the behavior and key points for the graph.
• Since b = 5 is greater than one, we know the
function is increasing. The left tail of the
graph will approach the vertical asymptote
x = 0, and the right tail will increase slowly
without bound.

• The x−intercept is (1, 0).

• The key point (5, 1) is on the graph.

• We draw and label the asymptote, plot and

label the points, and draw a smooth curve
through the points.

The domain is (0, ∞), the range is (−∞, ∞), and

the vertical asymptote is x = 0.

Horizontal shifts of the parent function y = logb (x)

For any constant c, the function f (x) = logb (x + c)

• shifts the parent function y = logb (x) left c units if c > 0.

• shifts the parent function y = logb (x) right c units if c < 0.

• has the vertical asymptote x = −c.

• has domain (−c, ∞).

• has range (−∞, ∞).

Vertical shifts of the parent function y = logb (x)

For any constant d, the function f (x) = logb (x) + d

• shifts the parent function y = logb (x) up d units if d > 0

• shifts the parent function y = logb (x) down d units if d < 0.

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48
• has the vertical asymptote x = 0.

• has domain (0, ∞).

• has range (−∞, ∞).

Example 8

Sketch a graph of f (x) = log3 (x)−2 alongside its parent function. Include the key points and asymp-
tote on the graph. State the domain, range, and asymptote.

Solution :
Since the function is f (x) = log3 (x)−2, we will notice d = −2. Thus d < 0. This means we will shift
the function f (x) = log3 (x) down 2 units.

The vertical asymptote is x = 0.

Consider the three key points from the

(1 )
parent function, 3 , −1 , (1, 0), and
(3, 1). The new coordinates are found
by subtracting 2 from the y coordinates.
( )
1
Label the points , −3 , (1, −2), and
3
(3, −1).

The domain is (0, ∞), the range is

(−∞, ∞), and the vertical asymptote is
x = 0.

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 49
Reflections of the parent function y = logb (x)
The function f (x) = − logb (x)

• reflects the parent function y = logb (x) about the x -axis.

• has domain, (0, ∞), range, (−∞, ∞), and vertical asymptote, x = 0, which are unchanged from the
parent function. The function f (x) = logb (−x)

• reflects the parent function y = logb (x) about the y -axis.

• has domain (−∞, 0).

• has range, (−∞, ∞), and vertical asymptote, x = 0, which are unchanged from the parent function.

Example 9

Sketch a graph of f (x) = log(−x) alongside its parent function. Include the key points and asymptote
on the graph. State the domain, range, and asymptote.

Solution :
Before graphing f (x) = log(−x), identify the behavior and key points for the graph.

Since b = 10 is greater than one, we know that the parent function is increasing. Since the input
value is multiplied by −1, f is a reflection of the parent graph about the y−axis.

Thus, f (x) = log(−x) will be decreasing as x moves from negative infinity to zero, and the right tail
of the graph will approach the vertical asymptote x = 0.

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50

The x−intercept is (−1, 0).

We draw and label the asymptote, plot

and label the points, and draw a smooth
curve through the points.

The domain is (−∞, 0), the range is

(−∞, ∞), and the vertical asymptote is
x = 0.

2.1.4 Properties of Logarithmic Functions

If b, M, N are positive real numbers, b ̸= 0, and p and x are real numbers then:

1. logb 1 = 0 • log3 1 = 0

2. logb b = 1 • log7 7 = 1

3. logb bx = x • log5 5x = x

4. blogb x = x, x > 0 • 4log4 x = x, x > 0

5. logb M = logb N if and only if M = N • log3 2x = log3 x2 ↔ 2x = x2

6. logb M N = logb M + logb N • log6 10 = log6 (2 × 5) = log6 2 + log6 5

M 7
7. logb = logb M − logb N • log2 = log2 7 − log2 2
N 2
8. logb M p = p logb M • log6 63 = 3 log6 6 = 3

Note:
y = log10 x = log x (Common logarithmic function)
y = loge x = ln x (Natural logarithmic fumction)

Example 10

Evaluate the following using calculator

(a) log 2.335 (b) log −3 (c) ln 5.26

Solution :

(a) log 2.335 = 0.3683

(b) log −3 = Undefined because the domain of the logarithmic functions is the (0, ∞).

(c) ln 5.26 = 1.660

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 51

Example 11

Find the values of x :

(a) log5 (x2 + 1) = log5 (−4x − 3) (b) logb (3x − 1) − logb (x + 2) = logb 2

Solution :

(a) Given log5 (x2 + 1) = log5 (−4x − 3) (b) Given logb (3x − 1) − logb (x + 2) = logb 2
( )
(x2 + 1) = (−4x − 3) 3x − 1
logb = logb 2
x+2
x2 + 4x + 4 = 0
3x − 1
(x + 2)2 = 0 ∴ =2
x+2
x = −2, −2 3x − 1 = 2(x + 2)
3x − 1 = 2x + 4
x=5

2.1 EXERCISES

I. Sketch a graph of given exponential function. State the domain, range, and asymptote.
( )x
(1) f (x) = 3 21 (2) g(x) = −2(0.25)x (3) h(x) = 6(1.75)−x
(4) f (x) = 12 (4)x (5) f (x) = 3(0.75)x − 1 (6) f (x) = −4(2)x + 2

II. Sketch the graph of the logarithmic function. State the domain, range, and asymptote.
(1) f (x) = log2 (x + 2) (2) f (x) = 2 log(x) (3) f (x) = ln(−x)
(4) g(x) = log(4x + 16) + 4 (5) g(x) = log(6 − 3x) + 1 (6) h(x) = − 12 ln(x + 1) − 3

III. Solve for x:

√ √
(1) 35x+1 = 27 (2) 23x+1 = 2 (3) 8x+1 = 32 2
2
(4) 4x−3 = 8 (5) 27x+1 = 9 (6) 7x = 72x+3
( 1 )x+4 1 3x−5 ( 1 )2x−1 ( 1 )3−x
(7) 45x−x = 4−6
2
(8) = (9) =
2 2 3 3
( 4 )6x+1 5 ( 1 )5x+1 ( 1 )4x
(10) = (11) = 27 (12) = 16x+3
5 4 9 8
2
(13) 1002x+3 = 1000x+5 (14) 100x = 100010

IV. Rewrite the following in the equivalent exponential form.

(1) log3 81 = 4 (2) log5 125 = 3 (3) log10 0.001 = −3
1 1
(4) log10 1000 = 3 = −2 (5) log6 (6) log2 = −6
36 64
V. Rewrite the following in the equivalent logarithmic form.
1
(1) 8 = 43/2 (2) 9 = 272/3 (3) = 32−1/5
2
( )3 ( )−2
1 2 8 5
(4) = 2−3 (5) = (6) = 0.16
8 3 27 2

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52
VI. Simplify each expression.
(1) log16 1 (2) log25 1 (3) log0.5 0.5
(4) log7 7 (5) loge e4 (6) log10 105
( )
1
(7) log4 256 (8) log1/2 2 (9) log1/5
25
√
(10) eloge 5 (11) eloge 10 3
(12) log5 5
√
(13) log2 8

VII. Evaluate the following to four decimal places.

(1) log 49236 (2) log 691450 (3) ln 54.081
(4) ln 19.722 (5) log7 13 (6) log9 78
(7) log5 120.24 (8) log17 304.66

VIII. Find x, y, or b as indicated.

(1) log2 x = 2 (2) log3 x = 3 (3) log4 16 = y
(4) log8 64 = y (5) logb 16 = 2 (6) logb 10−3 = −3
1
(7) logb 1 = 0 (8) logb b = 1 (9) log4 x =
2
( )
1 1
(10) log8 x = (11) log1/3 9 = y (12) log49 =y
3 7
3 2 4
(13) logb 1000 = (14) logb 4 = (15) log8 x = −
2 3 3
3
(16) log25 x = − (17) log16 8 = y (18) log9 27 = y
2
IX. Rewrite the following expressions in terms of log x and log y.
( )
x ( )
(1) log (2) log(xy) (3) log x4 y 3
y
( 2)
x
(4) log √
y
X. Given that log x = −2 and log y = 3, find
( ) (√ )
x x ( )
(1) log (2) log 3
(3) log x5 y 3
y y
XI. Use the properties of logarithmic functions to write the expressions below as single logarithms.
(1) ln x − ln y (2) log3 x + log3 y (3) 2 ln x + 5 ln y − ln z
1 ( )
(4) logb (x + 1) − 3 logb (x − 1) (5) log5 x2 − 1 − log5 (x − 1) (6) 2 (log3 x + 2 log3 y − 3 log3 z)
2
1 1
(7) 2 logb (x − 1) + logb (x + 1) (8) logb xy − 2 logb (x + y)
2 2
XII. Solve the following equations:
( )
(1) log5 x = 2 (2) log(3x + 5) = 2 (3) log2 x2 − x − 2 = 2
(4) log5 (x + 1) − log5 (x − 1) = 2 (5) log x + log(x − 3) = 1 (6) ln(x − 1) + ln(x + 2) = 1
( ) ( )
(7) log x2 − 2 = 3 (8) log x2 − 2x = 3 (9) log3 x + log3 (x + 2) = 1
(10) log(2x + 4) + log(x − 2) = 1 (11) log(x − 6) + log(x + 3) = 1 (12) log(x + 3) + log x = 1
(13) log(x − 15) = 2 − log x (14) log(x + 1) = 2 log(x − 1) (15) log5 x + log5 (x + 1) = log5 20
(16) 2 log x = log 2 + log(3x − 4)

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 53

2.2 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

• Population Doubling Time Model
t
P = P0 2 d ;

where P = population at time t, P0 = population at time t = 0 and d = doubling time.

• Exponential Growth Model (given the relative growth rate)

A = A0 ekt ;
where A = population at time t, A0 = population at time t = 0 and k = relative growth rate.

The relative growth rate is written as a percentage in decimal form.

• Half - Life Decay Model

A = A0 2− h
t
;

where A = amount at time t, A0 = amount at time t = 0 and h = Half-life.

• Exponential Decay Model

A = Ao e−kt ;

where A = amount of radioactive material at time t, A0 = amount at time t = 0 and k = a positive

constant specific to the type of material.

Example 1

The half-life of radium-226 is 1,590 years. How much of a 100 mg sample will be left in 500 years?

Solution :
If we start with 100 mg at the half-life there will be 50 mg remaining. We will use this information
to find k.

Then we use that value of k to help us find the amount of sample that will be left in 500 years.
Given that : A = 50, A0 = 100, t = 1590 years, k =?
A = A0 ekt
Substitute the values in the formula and solve for k.
50 = 100e1590k
0.5 = e1590k
Take the natural log of each side
ln 0.5 = ln e1590k
ln 0.5 = 1590k ln e
ln 0.5 = 1590k
ln 0.5
=k
1590
We use this rate of growth to predict the amount that will be left in 500 years.
t = 500 years , A =?
ln 0.5
A = A0 ekt then A = 100e( 1590 )500

∴ A ≈ 80.4 mg

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54

In 500 years there would be approximately 80.4 mg remaining.

Example 2

Researchers recorded that a certain bacteria population grew from 100 to 300 in 3 hours. At this rate
of growth, how many bacteria will there be 24 hours from the start of the experiment?

Solution :
We require two steps.

• First we must find the unknown rate, k.

• Use the value of k to find the unknown number of bacteria.

Given that: A = 300, A0 = 100, t = 3 hours, k =?

A = A0 ekt
300 = 100e3k
3 = e3k
Take the natural log of each side
ln 3 = ln e3k
ln 3 = 3k ln e
ln 3 = 3k
ln 3
=k
3
k ≈ 0.366
We use this rate of growth to predict the number of bacteria there will be in 24 hours.
t = 24 hours , A =?
ln 3
A = A0 ekt then A = 100e( 8 )24
∴ A ≈ 656100
At this rate of growth, they can expect 656, 100 bacteria.

Example 3

According to a 2008 estimate, the population of Nicaragua was about 5.7 million, and that population
is growing due to a high birth rate and relatively low mortality rate. If the population continues
to grow at the current rate, it will double in 37 years. If the growth remains steady, what will the
population be in 15 years? Calculate answers to three significant digits.

Solution :
t
We can use the doubling time growth model, P = P0 2 d

Given that: P0 = 5.7 million, d = 37, t = 15 years

15
P = 5.7(2) 37
P ≈ 7.55 million

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 55

Example 4

The radioactive isotope gallium 67 (67Ga), used in the diagnosis of malignant tumors, has a biological
half-life of 46.5 hours. If we start with 100 milligrams of the isotope, how many milligrams will be
left after 24 hours?

Solution :
Given that: A0 = 100, t = 24, h = 46.5
A = A0 2− h
t

A = 100 × 2− 46.5
24

= 69.9 Milligrams

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56

2.2 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Write an exponential equation describing the given population at any time t.
a) Initial population 200; doubling time 5 months
b) Initial population 5,000; doubling time 3 years
c) Initial population 2,000; continuous growth at 2% per year
d) Initial population 500; continuous growth at 3% per week

(2) Write an exponential equation describing the amount of radioactive material present at any time.
a) Initial amount 100 grams; half-life 6 hours
b) Initial amount 5 pounds; half-life 1,300 years
c) Initial amount 4 kilograms ; continuous decay at 12.4% per year
d) Initial amount 50 milligrams ; continuous decay 0.03% per year

(3) According to a 2008 estimate, the population of Nicaragua was about 5.7 million, and that popula-
tion is growing due to high birth rate and relatively low mortality rate. If the population continues
to grow at the current rate, it will double in 37 years. If the growth remains steady, what will the
population be in (A) 15 years ? (B) 40 years ?

(4) The use of insecticide DDT is no longer allowed in many countries because of its long-term adverse
effects.If a farmer uses 25 pounds of active DDT, assuming half-life is 12 years, how much will still
be active after (A) 5 years? (B) 20 years ?

(5) The half-life of Plutonium-241 is 13 years. How much of an initial 2g sample will remain after 5
years?

(6) At the start of an experiment, 2000 bacteria are present in a colony. Two hours later, the population
is 3800.
a) Determine the growth constant k.
b) Determine the population five hours after the start of the experiment.
c) When will the population reach 10, 000?

(7) There are 2 × 104 bacteria present in a colony at the beginning of an experiment. Eight hours
later, the population is 3 × 104
a) Determine the growth constant k.
b) What was the population two hours after the start of the experiment?
c) How long will it take for the population to triple?

(8) The half-life of Sodium-24 is 14.9 hours. Suppose that a hospital buys a 40g sample of Sodium-24.
a) How much of the sample will remain after 48 hours?
b) How long will it be until only one gram remains?

(9) Suppose $2000 is invested in an account which offers 7.125% compounded monthly.
a) Express the amount A in the account as a function of the term of the investment t in years.
b) How much is in the account after 5 years?
c) How long will it take for the initial investment to double?

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 Chapter 3

Trigonometric Functions

Contents
3.1 Angles and their Measures:
3.2 Circular Functions
3.3 Trigonometric Identities
3.4 Sum and Difference Identities

Learning outcomes covered:

(e) Understand the definition of the different types of angles and measure
them in degrees and radians.

(f) Describe analytically the trigonometric and circular functions.

(g) Demonstrate an understanding of trigonometric identities.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
à Understand the different types of angles.
à Measure the angles in degree and radians.
à Understand basic trigonometric functions and their properties.
à Verify the fundamental trigonometric identities.

57
58
Introduction

A golfer swings to hit a ball over a sand trap and onto the green. An airline pilot maneuvers a plane toward a
narrow runway. A dress designer creates the latest fashion. What do they all have in common? They all work
with angles, and so do all of us at one time or another. Sometimes we need to measure angles exactly with
instruments. Other times we estimate them or judge them by eye. Either way, the proper angle can make
the difference between success and failure in many undertakings. In this section, we will examine properties
of angles.

3.1 Angles and their Measures:

On a coordinate plane, an angle may be generated by the rotation
of two rays that share a fixed endpoint at the origin. One ray,
called the initial side of the angle, is fixed along the positive
x-axis. The other ray, called the terminal side of the angle, can
rotate about the center. An angle positioned so that its vertex
is at the origin and its initial side is along the positive x-axis is
said to be in standard position.

The measure of an angle is determined by the amount and direction of rotation from the initial side to the
terminal side. Intuitively, this is how much the angle is “opens". One way to measure an angle is in terms of
degrees.

To measure an angle in degrees, we imagine the circumference of a circle is divided into 360 equal parts (see
figure below), and we call each of those equal parts a “degree" which is denoted by ◦ . When 360◦ is the
measure of a full circle, then 180◦ will be half a circle. 90◦ (one right angle - a quarter of a circle), and 270◦
will be three quarters of a circle.

Another unit used to measure angles is a radian. The definition of a radian is based on the concept of a unit
circle, which is a circle of radius x unit whose center is at the origin of a coordinate system. One radian is
the measure of the central angle of a circle such that the length of the arc between the initial side and the
terminal side is equal to the radius of the circle. A full revolution (360◦ ) equals 2π radians. A half revolution
(180◦ ) is equivalent to π radians.

The radian measure of an angle is the ratio of the length of the arc subtended by the angle to the radius of
the circle. In other words, if s is the length of an arc of a circle, and r is the radius of the circle, then the
s
central angle containing that arc measures radians. In a circle of radius 1 , the radian measure corresponds
r
to the length of the arc.

Considering the most basic case, the unit circle (a circle with radius 1), we know that 1 rotation equals 360
degrees, 360◦ . We can also track one rotation around a circle by finding the circumference, C = 2πr, and
for the unit circle C = 2π. These two different ways to rotate around a circle give us a way to convert from
degrees to radians.
1 rotation = 360◦ = 2π radians
1
rotation = 180◦ = π radians
2
1 π
rotation = 90◦ = radians
4 2

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 59
Types of angles :

Example 1

Draw an approximate diagram to represent and mention its type of angle.

(a) 30 degrees

(b) 145 degrees

Solution :

(a) As 30 degree is less than 90 degree, it is an (b) As 225 degree is greater than 180 degree, it is
acute angle. reflex angle.

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60

Example 2

Find the angle A and B in the diagram.

A
109◦ 45◦

Solution :
In the given diagram, we observe a known type of angles, straight angle and right angle.

109◦ + A = 180◦
A = 180◦ − 109◦
A = 71◦
And to find B

45◦ + B + 90◦ = 180◦

B = 180◦ − 135◦
B = 45◦

Note:

• To rewrite the radian measure of an

angle in degrees, multiply the number
180◦
of radians by
π
• To rewrite the degree measure of an
angle in radians, multiply the number
π
of degrees by
180◦

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 61

Example 3

Convert each radian measure to degrees.

π
(a)
6
(b) 3

Solution :
Because we are given radians and we want degrees, we should set up a proportion and solve it.

(a) We use the proportion, substituting the given information.

θ θR
=
180 π
π
θ 6
=
180 π
180
θ=
6
θ = 30◦

(b) We use the proportion, substituting the given information.

θ θR
=
180 π
θ 3
=
180 π
3(180)
θ=
π
θ ≈ 172◦

Example 4

Convert 15 degrees to radians.

Solution :
In this example, we start with degrees and want radians, so we again set up a proportion and solve
it, but we substitute the given information into a different part of the proportion.
θ θR
=
180 π
15 θR
=
180 π
15π
= θR
180
π
θR =
12

π 1
Another way to think about this problem is by remembering that 30◦ = . Because 15◦ = (30◦ ), we can
6 2
1 (π) π
find that is .
2 6 12

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62

3.1 EXERCISES

I. Classify each type of angle below and draw an approximate diagram to represent them.

(1) 80◦ (2) 20◦ (3) 170◦

(4) 90◦ (5) 180◦ (6) 250◦

II. Find the measures of angles a, b, c and d and identify the type of each angle.

(1) (2)

III. The measure of an angle is 89◦ . What is a measure of its complementary angle?

Conversion from degree to radian and vice versa

IV. Find the radian measure of each angle below:
(1) 30◦ (2) 45◦ (3) 55◦

(4) 135◦ (5) 240◦

V. Find the degree measure of the angles below:

2π 5π 3π
(1) (2) (3)
3 3 4
π 3π
(4) (5)
3 2

3.2 Circular Functions

To define our trigonometric functions, we begin by drawing a unit circle, a circle centered at the origin with
radius 1. The angle (in radians) that t intercepts forms an arc of length s. Using the formula s = rt, and
knowing that r = 1, we see that for a unit circle, s = t

Recall that the x and y axes divide the coordinate plane into four quarters called quadrants. We label these
quadrants to mimic the direction a positive angle would sweep. The four quadrants are labeled I, II, III, and
IV.

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 63
For any angle t, we can label the intersection of the
terminal side and the unit circle as by its coordinates,
(x, y). The coordinates x and y will be the outputs
of the trigonometric functions f (t) = cos t and
f (t) = sin t respectively. This means x = cos t and
y = sin t.

Unit Circle

A unit circle has a center at (0,0) and radius 1. In a

unit circle, the length of the intercepted arc is equal
to the radian measure of the central angle t.

Let (x, y) be the endpoint on the unit circle of an arc

of arc length s. The x and y coordinates of this point
can be described as functions of the angle.

Sine and Cosine Functions

If t is a real number and a point (x, y) on the unit circle corresponds to an angle of t, then
cos t = x
sin t = y

Example 1

3
If sin t = and if t is in the second quadrant, find cos t.
7

Solution :
If we drop a vertical line from the point on the unit circle corresponding to t, we create a right
triangle, from which we can see that the Pythagorean Identity is simply one case of the Pythagorean
Theorem.

Substituting the value of sine into Pythagorean

identity,
cos2 t + sin2 t = 1
cos2 t = 1 − sin2 t
9
=1−
49
40
=
49 √
2 10
cos t = ±
7
Since the angle is in the second quadrant, x-value
is a negative real number and hence cosine is also
negative. √
2 10
∴ cos t = −
7

We have the cosine and sine values for all of the most commonly encountered angles in the first quadrant of

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64
the unit circle are summarized as follows.

π π π π
θ 00 = 0 30◦ = 45◦ = 60◦ = 90◦ =
6 √ 4 √ 3 2
1 2 3
sin θ 0 1
√2 √2 2
3 2 1
cos θ 1 0
2 2 2

Reference Angles

For any given angle in the first quadrant, there is an angle in the second quadrant with the same sine value.
Because the sine value is the y -coordinate on the unit circle, the other angle with the same sine will share
the same y -value, but have the opposite x -value. Therefore, its cosine value will be the opposite of the first
angle’s cosine value.

Likewise, there will be an angle in the fourth quadrant with the same cosine as the original angle. The angle
with the same cosine will share the same x -value but will have the opposite y value. Therefore, its sine value
will be the opposite of the original angle’s sine value.

An angle’s reference angle is the acute angle; t, formed by the terminal side of the angle t and the horizontal
π
axis. A reference angle is always an angle between 0◦ and 90◦ , or 0 and radians. As we can see from
2
Figure for any angle in quadrants II, III or IV, there is a reference angle in quadrant I.

Example 2

7π
Find the coordinates of the point on a unit circle corresponding to an angle of .
6

Solution :
7π
is in the 3rd quadrant.
6
7π π
Find the reference angle −π =
6 6

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 65

(π) √ (π) 1
3
Now cos = and sin =
6 2 6 2

Since the original angle is in the 3 rd quadrant, both x and y are negative.
( ) √ ( )
7π 3 7π 1
∴ cos =− and sin =−
(6 √
2
) 6 2
3 1
∴ The coordinates of the point are − ,− on the unit circle.
2 2

3.2 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

1
(1) If cos t = and t is in the 4th quadrant, find all the other trigonometric ratios.
7
2
(2) If cos t = and t is in the 1 st quadrant, find all the other trigonometric ratios.
9
3
(3) If sin t = and t is in the 2nd quadrant, find all the other trigonometric ratios.
8
1
(4) If sin t = − and t is in the 3rd quadrant, find all the other trigonometric ratios.
4
(5) Find the coordinates of the point on a unit circle corresponding to an angle of 220◦ .

(6) Find the coordinates of the point on a unit circle corresponding to an angle of 120◦ .
7π
(7) Find the coordinates of the point on a unit circle corresponding to an angle of .
4
5π
(8) Find the coordinates of the point on a unit circle corresponding to an angle of .
9

3.3 Trigonometric Identities

Identities enable us to simplify complicated expressions. They are the basic tools of trigonometry used in
solving trigonometric equations, just as factoring, finding common denominators, and using special formulas
are the basic tools of solving algebraic equations. In fact, we use algebraic techniques constantly to simplify
trigonometric expressions. Basic properties and formulas of algebra, such as the difference of squares formula
and the perfect squares formula, will simplify the work involved with trigonometric expressions and equations.
We already know that all of the trigonometric functions are related because they all are defined in terms of
the unit circle. Consequently, any trigonometric identity can be written in many ways.

To verify the trigonometric identities, we usually start with the more complicated side of the equation and
essentially rewrite the expression until it has been transformed into the same expression as the other side
of the equation. Sometimes we have to factor expressions, expand expressions, find common denominators,
or use other algebraic strategies to obtain the desired result. In this first section, we will work with the
fundamental identities: the Pythagorean identities, the even-odd identities, the reciprocal identities, and the

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66
quotient identities.

We will begin with the Pythagorean identities, which are equations involving trigonometric functions based
on the properties of a right triangle. We have already seen and used the first of these identifies, but now we
will also use additional identities.

• Pythagorean Identities
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

The second and third identities can be obtained by manipulating the first. The identity 1 + cot2 θ =
csc2 θ is found by rewriting the left side of the equation in terms of sine and cosine.

Similarly, 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ can be obtained by rewriting the left side of this identity in terms of sine
and cosine.

Example 1

Prove:

(a) 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ (b) 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

Solution :

(a) 1 + cot2 θ = csc

( θ
2
) (b) Given 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
( )2
2 cos2 θ sin θ
1 + cot θ = 1 + 1 + tan2 θ = 1 +
sin2 θ cos θ
( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( )2 ( )2
sin θ cos θ cos θ sin θ
= 2 + = +
sin θ sin2 θ cos θ cos θ
2
sin θ + cos2 θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ
= =
sin2 θ cos2 θ
1 1
= =
sin2 θ cos2 θ
= csc2 θ = sec2 θ

Recall that we determined which trigonometric functions are odd and which are even. The next set of
fundamental identities is the set of even-odd identities. The even-odd identities relate the value of a
trigonometric function at a given angle to the value of the function at the opposite angle.

• Even-Odd Identities
sin(−θ) = − sin θ csc(−θ) = − csc θ
cos(−θ) = cos θ sec(−θ) = sec θ
tan(−θ) = − tan θ cot(−θ) = − cot θ
The next set of fundamental identities is the set of reciprocal identities, which, as their name implies,
relate trigonometric functions that are reciprocals of each other.

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 67
• Reciprocal Identities
1 1
sin θ = csc θ =
csc θ sin θ
1 1
cos θ = sec θ =
sec θ cos θ
1 1
tan θ = cot θ =
cot θ tan θ

The final set of identities is the set of quotient identities, which define relationships among certain
trigonometric functions and can be very helpful in verifying other identities.

• Quotient Identities
sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

How T o :: Verify that trigonometric identity is true

Step 1. Work on one side of the equation. It is usually better to start with the
more complex side, as it is easier to simplify than to build.

Step 2. Look for opportunities to factor expressions, square a binomial, or add

fractions.
How?
Step 3. Noting which functions are in the final expression, look for opportunities
to use the identities and make the proper substitutions.

Step 4. If these steps do not yield the desired result, try converting all terms to
sines and cosines.

Example 2

Verify the identity: tan θ cos θ = sin θ

Solution :
We will start on left side, as it is the more complicated side.
( )
sin θ
tan θ cos θ = cos θ = sin θ
cos θ

Example 3

Verify the following equivalency using the even-odd identities:

(1 + sin x)[1 + sin(−x)] = cos2 x

Solution :

(1 + sin x)[1 + sin(−x)] = (1 + sin x)(1 − sin x)

= 1 − sin2 x
= cos2 x

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68

Example 4

sec2 θ − 1
Verify the identity: = sin2 θ
sec2 θ

Solution :
We will start on left side, as it is the more complicated side.
( 2 )
sec2 θ − 1 tan θ + 1 − 1 ( )
= ∵ sec2 θ = tan2 θ + 1
sec θ
2 sec θ
2

tan2 θ
=
sec2 θ ( )
2 1
= tan θ
sec2 θ
( )
1
2
= tan θ cos θ2
∵ cos θ =
2
sec2 θ
( )
sin θ ( 2 )
2
sin2 θ
= cos θ ∵ tan 2
θ =
cos2 θ cos2 θ
= sin2 θ

There is more than one way to verify an identity. Here is another possibility.

Again, we can start with the left side.

sec2 θ − 1 sec2 θ 1
= −
sec2 θ sec2 θ sec2 θ ( )
1
= 1 − cos θ 2
∵ = cos2 θ
sec2 θ
( )
= sin2 θ ∵ sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

Example 5
( )( )
Verify the identity: 1 − cos2 θ 1 + cot2 θ = 1

Solution :
We will start on left side of the equation.
( )
( )( ) ( ) cos2 θ
1 − cos2 θ 1 + cot2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ 1 +
sin2 θ
( 2 )
( ) sin θ cos2 θ
= 1 − cos2 θ +
sin2 θ sin2 θ
( 2 )
( ) sin θ + cos2 θ
= 1 − cos θ2
sin2 θ
( )
1
= sin2 θ
sin2 θ
=1

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 69

3.3 EXERCISES

I. Verify the following identities:

(1) cot θ sin θ = cos θ (2) csc θ cos θ tan θ = 1
cot x
(3) sec θ sin θ cot θ = 1 (4) = cos x
csc x
tan x
(5) = sin x (6) cos x − cos3 x = cos x sin2 x
sec x
(7) csc2 x − cot2 x = 1 (8) cos2 x − tan2 x = 2 − sin2 x − sec2 x
cos θ 1 − sin θ
(9) (1 + sin θ)(1 + sin(−θ)) = cos2 θ (10) =
1 + sin θ cos θ
2 sin θ 1 − 2 sin2 x
(11) 2 tan θ sec θ = (12) cot x − tan x =
1 − sin2 θ sin x cos x
sin2 (−x) − cos2 (−x) sin2 x − 1 sin x + 1
(13) = cos x − sin x (14) =
sin(−x) − cos(−x) tan x sin x − tan x tan x
1 − sin(−x) cos(−x) 1 + cos x sin x
(15) + = 2 sec x (16) + = 2 csc x
cos x 1 + sin x sin x 1 + cos x

3.4 Sum and Difference Identities

How can the height of a mountain be measured? What about the distance from Earth to the sun? Like many
seemingly impossible problems, we rely on mathematical formulas to find the answers. The trigonometric
identities, commonly used in mathematical proofs, have had real-world applications for centuries, including
their use in calculating long distances.

The trigonometric identities we will examine in this section can be traced to a Persian astronomer who lived
around 950 AD, but the ancient Greeks discovered these same formulas much earlier and stated them in
terms of chords. These are special equations or postulates, true for all values input to the equations, and
with innumerable applications.

In this section, we will learn techniques that will enable us to solve problems such as the ones presented
above. The formulas that follow will simplify many trigonometric expressions and equations. Keep in mind
that, throughout this section, the term formula is used synonymously with the word identity.

Using the Sum and Difference Formulas

Finding the exact value of the sine, cosine, or tangent of an angle is often easier if we can rewrite the given
angle in terms of two angles that have known trigonometric values. We can use the special angles, which we
can review in the unit circle shown

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70

The sum and difference formulas for sine, cosine, and tan so that we can find the sine, cosine, and tan of a
given angle respectively if we can break it up into the sum or difference of two of the special angles.

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β

Example 1

Using the formula for the cosine of the difference of two angles, find the exact value of
( )
5π π
cos −
4 6

Solution :
Begin by writing the formula for the cosine of the difference of two angles. Then substitute the given
values.
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
( ) ( ) (π) ( ) (π)
5π π 5π 5π
cos − = cos cos + sin sin
4 6 4 6 4 6
( √ ) (√ ) (√ ) ( )
2 3 2 1
= − −
2 2 2 2
√ √
6 2
=− −
√4 √4
− 6− 2
=
4

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 71

Example 2

Find the exact value of cos(75◦ ).

Solution :
As 75◦ = 45◦ + 30◦ ,

we can evaluate cos (75◦ ) as cos (45◦ + 30◦ ).

Let’s begin by writing the formula and substitute the given angles.
α = 45◦ and β = 30◦
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
cos (45◦ + 30◦ ) = cos (45◦ ) cos (30◦ ) − sin (45◦ ) sin (30◦ )
√ (√ ) √ ( )
2 3 2 1
= −
2 2 2 2
√ √
6 2
= −
√4 √ 4
6− 2
=
4

Example 3

Use the sum and difference identities to evaluate sin (15◦ )

Solution :
As 15◦ = 45◦ − 30◦ ,

we can evaluate sin (15◦ ) as sin (45◦ − 30◦ )

Let’s begin by writing the formula and substitute the given angles.
α = 45◦ and β = 30◦
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
sin (45◦ − 30◦ ) = sin (45◦ ) cos (30◦ ) − cos (45◦ ) sin (30◦ )
Next, we need to find the values of the trigonometric expressions.
√ √
◦ 2 ◦ 3
sin (45 ) = , cos (30 ) = ,
2 2
√
◦ 2 1
cos (45 ) = , sin (30◦ ) =
2 2
Now we can substitute these values into the equation and simplify.
√ (√ ) √ ( )
◦ 2 ◦ 3 2 1
sin (45 − 30 ) = −
2 2 2 2
√ √
6− 2
=
4

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72

Example 4
(π π)
Find the exact value of tan +
6 4

Solution :
Lets first write the sum formula for tangent and substitute the given angles into the formula.

tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
(π π) ( ) ( )
tan π6 + tan π4
tan + = ( (π) ( ))
6 4 1 − tan 6 tan π4
Next, we determine the individual tangents within the formulas:
(π) 1 (π)
tan =√ , tan =1
6 3 4
So we have
(π π) √1 + 1
tan + = (3 )
6 4 1 − √13 (1)
√
√ 3
1+
3
= √
√3−1
3
√ ( √ )
1+ 3 3
= √ √
3 3−1
√
3+1
=√
3−1

Example 5

Use the sum and difference identities to evaluate tan (15◦ )

Solution :
As 15◦ = 60◦ − 45◦ ,

we can evaluate tan (15◦ ) as tan (60◦ − 45◦ )

Let’s begin by writing the formula and substitute the given angles.

tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β
tan (60◦ ) − tan (45◦ )
tan (60◦ − 45◦ ) =
1 + tan (60◦ ) tan (45◦ )
Next, we need to find the values of the trigonometric expressions.
√
tan (60◦ ) = 3,
tan (45◦ ) = 1

Now we can substitute these values into the equation and simplify.

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 73

√
◦ ◦ 3−1
tan (60 − 45 ) = √
1+ 3
√
3−1
tan (15◦ ) = √
1+ 3×1
√
◦ 3−1
tan (15 ) = √
3+1

Sum and Difference Formulas for Cofunctions

Now that we can find the sine, cosine, and tangent functions
for the sums and differences of angles, we can use them to
do the same for their cofunctions. You may recall from Right
Triangle Trigonometry that, if the sum of two positive angles
π
is , those two angles are complements, and the sum of the
2
π
two acute angles in a right triangle is , so they are also
2
complements. In Figure, notice that if one of the acute(angles )is
π
labeled as θ, then the other acute angle must be labeled −θ .
2
(π )
Notice also that sin θ = cos −θ : opposite over hypotenuse.
2
Thus, when two angles are complimentary, we can say that the
sine of θ equals the cofunction of the complement of θ. Similarly,
tangent and cotangent are cofunctions, and secant and cosecant
are cofunctions.

From these relationships, the cofunction identities are formed. Recall that you first encountered these iden-
tities in the Unit Circle: Sine and Cosine Functions.

The cofunction identities are summarized

( ) ( ) ( )
sin θ = cos π2 − θ cos θ = sin π2 − θ tan θ = cot π2 − θ
(π ) (π ) (π )
sec θ = csc 2 − θ csc θ = sec 2 − θ cot θ = tan 2 − θ

Example 6
(π)
Write tan in terms of its cofunction.
9

Solution :
(π )
The cofunction of tan θ = cot − θ . Thus,
2 (π) (π π)
tan = cot −
9 (2 9 )
9π 2π
= cot −
18 18
( )
9π − 2π
= cot
18
(π) ( )
7π
tan = cot
9 18

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74

3.4 EXERCISES
Answer the following questions:
I. Simplify the expression
( ) (π ) (π )
(1) cos π2 − x (2) sin (π − x) (3) sin 3 +x (4) sin 4 −x
( ) ( ) (π ) (π )
(5) cos 5π4 +x (6) cos 7π6 +x (7) tan 4 −x (8) tan 4 +x

II. Find the exact value algebraically, and then confirm the answer with a calculator to the fourth decimal
point.
(1) sin(75◦ ) (2) sin(195◦ ) (3) sin(−15◦ ) (4) cos(345◦ )

(5) cos(165◦ ) (6) cos(15◦ ) (7) tan(75◦ ) (8) tan(−15◦ )

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 Chapter 4

Trigonometry: Oblique Triangles

Contents
4.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
4.2 Solving Trigonometric Equations
4.3 Non-right Triangles: Law of Sines
4.3.1 Solving Applied Problems using the Law of Sines:
4.4 Non-right Triangles: Law of Cosines
4.4.1 Law of Cosines

Learning outcome covered:

(i) Use the laws of sines and cosines to solve a triangle and real life
problems.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
à find the exact value of expressions involving the inverse sine, cosine and tangent func-
tions.
à use a calculator to evaluate inverse trigonometric functions.
à use the law of sines and cosines to solve oblique triangles.
à solve applied problems using the Law of sines and cosines.

75
76
Introduction

For any right triangle, given one other angle and the length of one side, we can figure out what the other
angles and sides are. But what if we are given only two sides of a right triangle? We need a procedure that
leads us from a ratio of sides to an angle. This is where the notion of an inverse to a trigonometric function
comes into play. In this section, we will explore the inverse trigonometric functions. Furthermore, we will
learn to solve oblique triangle using laws of sines and cosines.

4.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In order to use inverse trigonometric functions, we need to understand that an inverse trigonometric func-
tion “undoes" what the original trigonometric function “does", as is the case with any other function and its
inverse. In other words, the domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function, and vice versa.

For example, if f (x) = sin x, then we would write f −1 (x) = sin−1 x.

1
Be aware that sin−1 x does not mean .
sin x

On the restricted domains, we can define the inverse trigonometric functions.

• The inverse sine function y = sin−1 x means x = sin y. The inverse sine function is sometimes called
the arcsine function, and notated arcsin x
[ π π]
y = sin−1 x has domain[−1, 1] and range − ,
2 2
• The inverse cosine function y = cos−1 x means x = cos y. The inverse cosine function is sometimes
called the arccosine function, and notated arccos x.

y = cos−1 x has domain [−1, 1] and range [0, π]

• The inverse tangent function y = tan−1 x means x = tan y. The inverse tangent function is sometimes
called the arctangent function, and notated arctan x.
( π π)
y = tan−1 x has domain(−∞, ∞) and range − ,
2 2
Relations for inverse sine, cosine and tangent functions
[ π π]
For angles in the interval − , , if sin y = x, then sin−1 x = y.
2 2

For angles in the interval [0, π], if cos y = x, then cos−1 x = y.

( π π)
For angles in the interval − , , if tan y = x, then tan−1 x = y.
2 2

The graphs of the inverse functions are shown in figure given below. Notice that the output of each of these
inverse functions is a number, an angle in radian measure.

To find the domain and range of inverse trigonometric functions, switch the domain and range of the original
functions. Each graph of the inverse trigonometric function is a reflection of the graph of the original function
about the line y = x.

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 77

Finding the Exact Value of Expressions Involving the Inverse Sine, Cosine, and
Tangent Functions
Now that we can identify inverse functions, we will learn to evaluate them. For most values in their domains,
we must evaluate the inverse trigonometric functions by using a calculator, interpolating from a table, or
using some other numerical technique. Just as we did with the original trigonometric functions, we can give
π π
exact values for the inverse functions when we are using the special angles, specifically (30◦ ) , (45◦ ) , and
6 4
π
(60◦ ) , and their reflections into other quadrants.
3

Given a “special" input value, evaluate an inverse trigonometric function.

1. Find angle x for which the original trigonometric function has an output equal to the given input for
the inverse trigonometric function.

2. If x is not in the defined range of the inverse, find another angle y that is in the defined range and has
the same sine, cosine, or tangent as x depending on which corresponds to the given inverse function.

Evaluating Inverse Trigonometric Functions for Special Input Values

Example 1

Evaluate each of the following.

( ) ( √ ) ( √ )
(a) sin−1
1
−1 2 −1 3 (d) tan−1 (1)
2 (b) sin − (c) cos −
2 2

Solution :
( )
1
(a) Evaluating sin−1 is the same as determining the angle that would have a sine value of
2 ( )
1 1
In other words, what angle x would satisfy sin x = ? There are multiple values that
2 2
π 5π
would satisfy this relationship, such as and but we know we need the angle in the interval
[ π π] ( )
6 6
1 π
− , , so the answer will be sin−1 = . Remember that the inverse is a function, so for
2 2 2 6
each input, we will get exactly one output.

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78

( √ ) √
−1 2 5π 7π 2
(b) To evaluate sin − , we know that and both have a sine value of − , but
2 4 4 2
[ π π]
neither is in the interval − , . For that, we need the negative angle coterminal with
( √ ) 2 2
7π 2 π
: sin−1 − =− .
4 2 4
( √ )
3 −1
(c) To evaluate cos − ,we are looking for an angle in the interval [0, π] with a cosine value
2
√ ( √ )
3 −1 3 5π
of − . The angle that satisfies this is cos − = .
2 2 6
( π π)
(d) Evaluating tan−1 (1) we are looking for an angle in the interval − , with a tangent value of
2 2
π
1. The correct angle is tan−1 (1) =
4

Using a Calculator to Evaluate Inverse Trigonometric Functions

To evaluate inverse trigonometric functions that do not involve the special angles discussed previously, we
will need to use a calculator or other type of technology. Most scientific calculators and calculator-emulating
applications have specific keys or buttons for the inverse sine, cosine, and tangent functions.

4.1 EXERCISES

I. Evaluate exact values for each of the following.

( )
1
(1) tan−1 (−1) (2) sin−1 (−1) (3) cos−1 (−1) (4) cos−1
2
II. Evaluate exact values for each of the following.
( ( ))
−1 −1 −1 −1 4
(1) sin (0.97) (2) cos (−0.4) (3) tan (6) (4) sin cos
5
( ( ))
5
(5) cos tan−1
12

4.2 Solving Trigonometric Equations

Trigonometric equations are, as the name implies, equations that involve trigonometric functions. Similar
in many ways to solving polynomial equations or rational equations, only specific values of the variable
will be solutions, if there are solutions at all. Often we will solve a trigonometric equation over a specified
interval. However, just as often, we will be asked to find all possible solutions, and as trigonometric functions
are periodic, solutions are repeated within each period. In other words, trigonometric equations may have
an infinite number of solutions. Additionally, like rational equations, the domain of the function must be
considered before we assume that any solution is valid. The period of both the sine function and the cosine
function is 2π. In other words, every 2π units, the y−values repeat. If we need to find all possible solutions,

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 79
then we must add 2πk, where k is an integer, to the initial solution. Recall the rule that gives the format for
stating all possible solutions for a function where the period is 2π:

sin = sin( ± 2kπ)

There are similar rules for indicating all possible solutions for the other trigonometric functions. Solving
trigonometric equations requires the same techniques as solving algebraic equations. We read the equation
from left to right, horizontally, like a sentence. We look for known patterns, factor, find common denomi-
nators, and substitute certain expressions with a variable to make solving a more straightforward process.
However, with trigonometric equations, we also have the advantage of using the identities we developed in
the previous sections.

Example 1

1
Find all possible exact solutions for the equation cos θ = .
2

Solution :
From the unit circle, we know that
1
cos θ =
2
π 5π
θ= ,
3 3
These are the solutions in the interval [0, 2π].

All possible solutions are given by

π 5π
θ= ± 2kπ and θ = ± 2kπ
3 3
where k is an integer.

Example 2

1
Find all possible exact solutions for the equation sin t = .
2

Solution :
Solving for all possible values of t means that solutions include angles beyond the period of 2π.

π 5π
The solutions are t = and t = .
6 6

But the problem is asking for all possible values that solve the equation.

Therefore, the answer is

π 5π
t= ± 2πk and t= ± 2πk
6 6
where k is an integer.

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80

Example 3

Solve the equation exactly: 2 cos θ − 3 = −5, 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

Solution :
Use algebraic techniques to solve the equation.
2 cos θ − 3 = −5
2 cos θ = −2
cos θ = −1
θ=π

Example 4

Solve the problem exactly: 2 sin2 θ − 1 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

Solution :
As this problem is not easily factored, we will solve using the square root property. First, we use
algebra to isolate sin θ. Then we will find the angles.
2 sin2 θ − 1 = 0
2 sin2 θ = 1
1
sin2 θ =
2√
√ 1
sin2 θ = ±
2
√
1 2
sin θ = ± √ = ±
2 2
π 3π 5π 7π
θ= , , ,
4 4 4 4

Example 5

Solve the following equation exactly: csc θ = −2, 0 ≤ θ < 4π.

Solution :
We want all values of θ for which csc θ = −2 over the interval 0 ≤ θ < 4π.
csc θ = −2
1
= −2
sin θ
1
sin θ = −
2
7π 11π 19π 23π
θ= , , ,
6 6 6 6

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 81

Example 6

Solve the equation quadratic in form exactly: 2 sin2 θ − 3 sin θ + 1 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

Solution :
We can factor using grouping. Solution values of θ can be found on the unit circle:
(2 sin θ − 1)(sin θ − 1) = 0
2 sin θ − 1 = 0
1
sin θ =
2
π 5π
θ= ,
6 6
sin θ = 1
π
θ=
2

Example 7

Solve the equation exactly: cos2 θ + 3 cos θ − 1 = 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

Solution :
We begin by using substitution and replacing cos θ with x. It is not necessary to use substitution, but
it may make the problem easier to solve visually. Let cos θ = x. We have
x2 + 3x − 1 = 0 √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
The equation cannot be factored, so we will use the quadratic formula x = .
2a

Replace x with cos θ, and solve. Thus,

√
(−3)2 − 4(1)(−1) −3 ±
x=
√ 2
−3 ± 13
=
2√
−3 ± 13
cos θ =
2(
√ )
−1 −3 + 13
θ = cos
2
Note that( only the )+ sign is used. This is because we get an error when we solve
√
−3 − 13
θ = cos−1 on calculator, since the domain of the inverse cosine function is [−1, 1].
2

However, there is a second solution:

( √ )
−1 −3 + 13
θ = cos
2
≈ 1.26
This terminal side of the angle lies in quadrant I. Since cosine is also positive in quadrant IV, the

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82

second solution is ( √ )
−1 −3 + 13
θ = 2π − cos
2
≈ 5.02

Example 8

Solve the equation exactly: 2 sin2 θ − 5 sin θ + 3 = 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Solution :
Using grouping, this quadratic can be factored. Either make the real substitution, sin θ = u, or
imagine it, as we factor:
2 sin2 θ − 5 sin θ + 3 = 0
(2 sin θ − 3)(sin θ − 1) = 0
Now set each factor equal to zero.
2 sin θ − 3 = 0
2 sin θ = 3
3
sin θ =
2
sin θ − 1 = 0
sin θ = 1
3
Next solve for θ : sin θ ̸= , as the range of the sine function is [−1, 1]. However, sin θ = 1, giving the
2
π
solution θ = .
2

4.2 EXERCISES
Answer the following questions:
I. Find all solutions exactly on the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
√ √
(1) 2 sin θ = − 2 (2) 2 sin θ = 3 (3) 2 cos θ = 1
√
(4) 2 cos θ = − 2 (5) tan θ = −1 (6) tan x = 1

(7) cot x + 1 = 0 (8) 4 sin2 x − 2 = 0 (9) csc2 x − 4 = 0

II. Solve exactly on the interval [0, 2π). Use the quadratic formula if the equations do not factor.
√
(1) tan2 x − 3 tan x = 0 (2) sin2 x + sin x − 2 = 0 (3) sin2 x − 2 sin x − 4 = 0

(4) 5 cos2 x + 3 cos x − 1 = 0 (5) 3 cos2 x − 2 cos x − 2 = 0 (6) 5 sin2 x + 2 sin x − 1 = 0

(7) tan2 x + 5 tan x − 1 = 0 (8) − tan2 x − tan x − 2 = 0

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 83

4.3 Non-right Triangles: Law of Sines

Any triangle that is not a right triangle is an oblique triangle. Solving an oblique triangle means finding
the measurements of all three angles and all three sides. To do so, we need to start with at least three of
these values, including at least one of the sides. We will investigate three possible oblique triangle problem
situations:

1. ASA (angle-side-angle)

We know the measurements of two angles and the included side.

2. AAS (angle-angle-side)

We know the measurements of two angles and a side that is not between the known angles.

3. SSA (side-side-angle)

We know the measurements of two sides and an angle that is not between the known sides.

Here we get three different possibilities

• No solution, if | sin x| > 1 : no such triangle exists.

• Two solutions, if | sin x| < 1 and obtuse angle exits.

(i.e. sin x and sin(180◦ − x) exits ) : Two different triangles exist.

• One solution, if | sin x| < 1 and obtuse angle does not exit: Exactly one triangle exists.

Knowing how to approach each of these situations enables us to solve oblique triangles without having to drop
a perpendicular to form two right triangles. Instead, we can use the fact that the ratio of the measurement
of one of the angles to the length of its opposite side will be equal to the other two ratios of angle measure
to opposite side. Let’s see how this statement is derived by considering the triangle shown in figure below.

Using the right triangle relationships, we know that

h h
sin α = and sin β =
b a
Solving both equations gives two different expressions for h.
h = b sin α and h = a sin β
We then set the expressions equal to each other.

b sin α = a sin β

( ) ( )
1 1
(b sin α) = (a sin β)
ab ab
1
Multiply both sides by ,
ab
sin α sin β
=
a b

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84

Similarly, we can compare the other ratios.

sin α sin γ sin β sin γ

= and =
a c b c
Collectively, these relationships are called the Law of sines.

sin α sin β sin γ

= =
a b c

Law of Sines

It states that the ratio of the measurement of one angle of a triangle to the length of its opposite side
is equal to the remaining two ratios of angle measure to opposite side; any pair of proportions may be
used to solve for a missing angle or side.

The other forms of the law of sines are

a b c
= =
sin α sin β sin γ
and
a sin α a sin α b sin β
= , = , =
b sin β c sin γ c sin γ

Note the standard way of labeling triangles: angle α (alpha) is opposite side a; angle β (beta) is opposite
side b; and angle γ (gamma) is opposite side c See figure above.

While calculating angles and sides, be sure to carry the exact values through to the final answer. Generally,
final answers are rounded to the nearest tenth, unless otherwise specified.

Points to remember:

• sum of the angles in a triangle is 180◦

• range of sine is [−1, 1]

• sin x = sin(180◦ − x)

Example 1

ASA (angle-side-angle) case:

Given ∠A = 75◦ and ∠C = 42◦ , b = 22 feet. Solve the triangle.

Solution :
Sum of the interior angles,

∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180◦
∠B = 180◦ − ∠A − ∠C
= 180◦ − 75◦ − 42◦
= 63◦

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We know
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c
sin 75◦ sin 63◦ sin 42◦
= =
a 22 c
22 sin 75◦ 22 sin 42◦
a= ◦
≈ 23.85 & c = ≈ 16.52
sin 63 sin 63◦
∴ ∠B = 63◦ , a ≈ 23.85 feet, c ≈ 16.52 feet

Example 2

AAS (angle-angle-side) case:

Given ∠B = 45◦ and ∠C = 30◦ , c = 2. Solve the triangle.

Solution :
Sum of the interior angles,

∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180◦
∠B = 180◦ − ∠A − ∠C
= 180◦ − 30◦ − 45◦
= 105◦
We know
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c
sin 105 sin 45◦ sin 30◦
= =
a b 2
2 sin 105◦ 2 sin 45◦
a= ◦
≈ 3.86 & b = ≈ 2.82
sin 30 sin 30◦
∴ ∠A = 105◦ , a ≈ 3.86, b ≈ 2.82

Example 3

SSA (side-side-angle): Ambiguous Case

Solve the triangle, given c = 5, a = 10 and ∠C = 45◦

Solution :
We know
sin A sin C
=
a c
sin A sin 45
=
10 5
10 sin 45 √
sin A = = 2
5
Which is impossible (i.e. for any angle A, | sin A| ≤ 1 ). No such triangle exits. Thus, there is no
solution.

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Example 4

Example on one solution:

Solve the triangle, given ∠A = 83◦ , a = 7.8, and b = 7

Solution :
we know
sin B sin A
=
b a
sin B sin 83◦
=
7 7.8
7 sin 83◦
sin B =
7.8
= 0.89
∠B = sin−1 0.89 = 62.87◦

Another possible solution for ∠B is 180◦ − 62.87◦ = 117.13◦ (which is impossible as rule for the sum
of the interior angle fails)
If ∠B = 62.87◦ then
∠C = 180◦ − ∠A − ∠B
∠C = 180◦ − 83◦ − 62.87◦ = 34.13◦
sin 34.13 sin 83
=
c 7.8
7.8 sin 34.13◦
c=
sin 83◦
c = 4.4

Example 5

Example on two solutions:

Solve the triangle, given ∠A = 35◦ , a = 6, and b = 8

Solution :
we know
sin B sin A
=
b a
sin B sin 35◦
=
8 6
8 sin 35◦
sin B =
6
= 0.7648
∠B = sin−1 0.7648
= 49.9◦
Another possible solution for ∠B is 180◦ − 49.9◦ = 130.1◦

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 87

Case 1: If ∠B = 49.9◦ then

∠C = 180◦ − ∠A − ∠B
∠C = 180◦ − 35◦ − 49.9◦ = 95.1◦
sin 95.1◦ sin 35◦
=
c 6
6 sin 95.1◦
c=
sin 35◦
c = 10.4
Case 2: If ∠B = 130.1◦ then
∠C = 180◦ − ∠A − ∠B
∠C = 180◦ − 35◦ − 130.1◦ = 14.9◦
sin 14.9◦ sin 35◦
=
c 6
6 sin 14.9◦
c=
sin 35◦
c = 2.69
These are the two possible solutions. Thus, two different triangles exist.

4.3.1 Solving Applied Problems using the Law of Sines:

The more we study trigonometric applications, the more we discover that the applications are countless.
Some are flat, diagram-type situations, but many applications in calculus, engineering, and physics involve
three dimensions and motion.

Finding the altitude:

Example 6

Find the altitude of the aircraft in the problem introduced at the beginning of this section, shown in
figure. Round the altitude to the nearest tenth of a mile.

Solution :
To find the elevation of the aircraft, we first find the distance from one station to the aircraft, such
as the side a, and then use right triangle relationships to find the height of the aircraft, h.

Because the angles in the triangle add up to 180 degrees, the unknown angle must be
180◦ − 15◦ − 35◦ = 130◦ .

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88

This angle is opposite the side of length 20 miles, allowing us to set up a Law of sines relationship.
sin 130◦ sin 35◦
=
20 a
20 sin 35◦
a=
sin 135◦
= 16.22 miles
The distance from one station to the aircraft is about 16.22 miles.

Now that we know a, we can use right triangle relation to solve for h.

opp
sin 15◦ =
hyp
h
=
a
h
=
16.22
h = 16.22 × sin 15◦
h = 4.19
∴ The aircraft is at an altitude of approximately 4.2 miles.

Note:

If given three angles i.e. AAA is known, it is impossible to find the sides of triangle.

4.3 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Given ∠A = 56◦ , ∠C = 20◦ and c = 1.7 m. Find a.

(2) Given ∠A = 98◦ , ∠C = 43◦ and b = 22cm. Find a and c

(3) Solve the triangle. Given ∠A = 80◦ , a = 120cm and b = 121cm. If there is more than one possible
solution, show both.

(4) Solve the triangle if ∠C = 85◦ , c = 12m and b = 9m

(5) Determine the number of triangle possible. Given ∠B = 48◦ , a = 31 feet and b = 26 feet

(6) Find all possible triangles if ∠A = 50◦ , a = 4 cm and b = 10 cm.

(7) Given ∠A = 80◦ , a = 100miles and b = 10miles, find the missing side and angles. If there is more
than one possible solution, show both. Round your answer to the nearest tenth.

(8) Solve the triangle, given ∠A = 63◦ , c = 4.7miles and a = 5.5miles.

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 89
(9) The following diagram represents the height of a blimp flying over a football stadium. Find the
height of the blimp if the angle of elevation at the southern end zone, point A, is 70◦ , the angle of
elevation from the northern end zone, point B, is 62◦ , and the distance between the viewing points
of the two end zones is 145 yards.

4.4 Non-right Triangles: Law of Cosines

Unfortunately, while the Law of sines enables us to address many non-right triangle cases, it does not help us
with triangles where the known angle is between two known sides, a SAS (side-angle-side) triangle, or when
all three sides are known, but no angles are known, a SSS (side-side-side) triangle. In this section, we will
investigate another tool, Law of cosines for solving oblique triangles described by these last two cases.

Understanding how the Law of cosines is derived

will be helpful in using the formulas. The derivation
begins with the Generalized Pythagorean Theorem,
which is an extension of the Pythagorean Theorem
to non-right triangles. Here is how it works: An
arbitrary non-right triangle ABC is placed in the
coordinate plane with vertex A at the origin, sidec
drawn along the x -axis, and vertex C located at
some point (x, y) in the plane, as illustrated in figure.
Generally, triangles exist anywhere in the plane, but
for this explanation we will place the triangle as noted.

We can drop a perpendicular from C to the x -axis (this is the altitude or height). Recalling the basic
trigonometric identities, we know that
x ( adjacent ) y ( opposite )
cos θ = and sin θ =
b ( hypotenuse ) b ( hypotenuse )
In terms of θ, x = b cos θ and y = b sin θ, the point (x, y) located at C has coordinates (b cos θ, b sin θ).

Using the side (x − c) as one leg of a right triangle and y as the second leg, we can find the length of
hypotenuse a using the Pythagorean Theorem.

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90
Thus,
a2 = (x − c)2 + y 2
= (b cos θ − c)2 + (b sin θ)2 (substitute x = b cos θ, y = b sin θ)
( )
= b2 cos2 θ − 2bc cos θ + c2 + b2 sin2 θ
( )
= b2 cos2 θ + sin2 θ + c2 − 2bc cos θ
= b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ
The formula derived is one of the three equations of the Law of cosines. The other equations are found in a
similar fashion.

Keep in mind that it is always helpful to sketch the triangle when solving for angles or sides. In a real-world
scenario, try to draw a diagram of the situation. As more information emerges, the diagram may have to be
altered. Make those alterations to the diagram and, in the end, the problem will be easier to solve.

4.4.1 Law of Cosines

The Law of cosines states that the square of any side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides minus twice the product of the other two sides and the cosine of the included angle. For
triangles with angles A, B and C and opposite corresponding sides a, b and c respectively, the Law of cosines
is given as three equations.
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B and

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
To solve for a missing side measurement, the corresponding opposite angle measure is needed.

When solving for an angle, the corresponding opposite side measure is needed. We can use another version
of the Law of cosines to solve for an angle.

b2 + c 2 − a 2
cos A =
2bc

a 2 + c 2 − b2
cos B = and
2ac

a 2 + b2 − c 2
cos C =
2ab
We have to use Laws of Cosines to investigate the following two possible oblique triangle problem situations:

SAS (side-angle-side)

Given two sides and the angle between them (SAS), find the measures of the remaining side and angles of a
triangle.

Procedure 1:
Step 1: Using Law of cosines, find unknown side.
Step 2: Using Law of sines, find the angle opposite to the smaller side.

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 91
◦
Step 3: Find the unknown angle, using the rule sum of the interior angles in a triangle is 180

Procedure 2:
Step 1: Find any angle, using Law of Cosines.
Step 2: Calculate another angle using again Law of Cosines.
Step 3: Find the unknown angle, using the rule sum of the interior angles in a triangle is.

Note:

• Since the inverse cosine can return any angle between 0 and 180 degrees, there will not occur any
ambiguous cases while using Law of Cosines.

• It is impossible to estimate the sides of a triangle, if AAA is known, i.e. three angles are known.

Example 1

Example on SAS (side-angle-side):

Find the unknown side and angles of the triangle from the known side, angle and side: ∠B = 30◦ , a =
10, c = 12.

Solution :
First find the unknown side b using
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
b2 = 102 + 122 − 2(10)(12) cos 30◦
(√ )
3
= 100 + 144 − 240 = 36.153
2
b = 6.013
Using Law of sines, find the angle opposite to the smaller side i.e. ∠A.

sin A sin B
=
a b
sin A sin 30◦
=
10 6.013
10 sin 30◦
sin A =
6.013
( )
−1 10 sin 30◦
A = sin
6.013
= 56.3
Now find the unknown angle, using the rule sum of the interior angles in a triangle is 180◦ .
∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180◦
∠C = 180◦ − ∠A − ∠B
= 180◦ − 56.3◦ − 30◦
= 93.7◦

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92

Example 2

Example on SSS (side-side-side):

Solve the triangle, given a = 20, b = 25 and c = 18

Solution :
Finding angle A, using Law of Cosines,
= b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
a2
= 252 + 182 − 2(25)(18) cos A
202
= 949 − 900 cos A 400
549
cos A =
900
∠A = cos−1 (0.61) = 52.4◦
Using Law of Sines, find the angle opposite to the smaller side, i.e. ∠C

sin A sin C
=
a c
sin 52.4◦ sin C
=
20 18
18 × sin 52.4◦
sin C =
20
( )
18 × sin 52.4◦
∠C = sin−1
20

∠C = 45.48◦

Now find the unknown angle, using the rule sum of the interior angles in a triangle is 1800 .
∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180◦
∠B = 180◦ − ∠A − ∠C
= 180◦ − 52.4◦ − 45.48◦
= 82.12◦

Applied Problems Using the Law of Cosines

Just as the Law of Sines provided the appropriate equations to solve a number of applications, the Law of
Cosines is applicable to situations in which the given data fits the cosine models. We may see these in the
fields of navigation, surveying, astronomy, and geometry, just to name a few.

Using Law of Cosines to Solve a Communication Problem

On many cell phones with GPS, an approximate location can be given before the GPS signal is received.
This is accomplished through a process called triangulation, which works by using the distances from two
known points.

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 93

Example 3

Suppose there are two cell phone towers within range of a cell phone. The two towers are located 6000
feet apart along a straight highway, running east to west, and the cell phone is north of the highway.
Based on the signal delay, it can be determined that the signal is 5050 feet from the first tower and
2420 feet from the second tower. Determine the position of the cell phone north and east of the first
tower, and determine how far it is from the highway.

Solution :
For simplicity, we start by drawing a diagram and
labeling our given information.

Using the Law of Cosines, we can solve for the

angle θ. Remember that the Law of cosines uses
the square of one side to find the cosine of the
opposite angle.

For this example, let a = 2420 f t, b = 5050 f t, and c = 6000 f t.

Thus, θ corresponds to the opposite side a = 2420

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ
(2420)2 − (5050)2 − (6000)2
cos θ =
−2(5050)(6000)
cos θ = 0.9183
θ = cos−1 (0.9183)
≈ 23.3◦
To answer the questions about the phone’s position north and east of the tower, and the distance to
the highway, drop a perpendicular from the position of the cell phone, as in figure.

This forms two right triangles, although we only need the right triangle that includes the first tower
for this problem.

Using the angle θ = 23.3◦ and the basic trigono-

metric identities, we can find the solutions.
Thus,
x
cos (23.3◦ ) =
5050
x = 5050 × cos (23.3◦ )
= 4638.15 feet
y
Similarly sin (23.3◦ ) =
5050
y = 5050 × sin(23.3◦ )
= 1997.5 feet
Therefore, the cell phone is approximately 4638 feet east and 1998 feet north of the first tower, and
1998 feet from the highway.

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94

4.4 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Solve the triangle, given α = 30◦ , b = 12 cm and c = 24 cm

(2) Given a = 5 miles, b = 7 miles and c = 10 miles, find the missing angles.

(3) Solve the triangle: Given a = 34.6 feet, b = 22 feet and c = 23.8 feet

(4) Solve the triangle: Given a = 4 km, b = 2 km and c = 3 km

(5) Solve the triangle: Given a = 6.2 m, c = 7.8 m and ∠B = 62◦

(6) Suppose a boat leaves port, travels 10 miles, turns 20 degrees, and travels another 8 miles. How
far from port is the boat? The diagram is here.

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 Chapter 5

Statistics

Contents
5.1 Measures of Central Tendency
5.2 Summarizing Data into Tables and Graphs
5.2.1 Representing Data Using Graphs and Charts

Learning outcome covered:

(j) Understand basic concepts of descriptive statistics, mean, median,

mode and summarize data into tables and simple graphs (bar charts,
histogram, and pie chart).

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
à understand the basic concepts of descriptive statistics.
à compute the basic measures of central tendancy.
à summarize a given data in to tables and graphs.

95
96
Introduction

The science of statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. We see
and use data in our everyday lives. In this session, you will learn how to organize and summarize data. Or-
ganizing and summarizing data is called descriptive statistics. Two ways to summarize data are by graphing
and by using numbers (for example, finding an average). After you have studied probability and probability
distributions, you will use formal methods for drawing conclusions from “good" data. The formal methods
are called inferential statistics. Statistical inference uses probability to determine how confident we can be
that our conclusions are correct.

In statistics, we generally want to study a population. You can think of a population as a collection of per-
sons, things, or objects under study. To study the population, we select a sample. The idea of sampling is to
select a portion (or subset) of the larger population and study that portion (the sample) to gain information
about the population. Data are the result of sampling from a population.

Because it takes a lot of time and money to examine an entire population, sampling is a very practical
technique. If you wished to compute the overall grade point average at your school, it would make sense to
select a sample of students who attend the school. The data collected from the sample would be the stu-
dents’ grade point averages. In presidential elections, opinion poll samples of 1,000-2,000 people are taken.
The opinion poll is supposed to represent the views of the people in the entire country. Manufacturers of
canned carbonated drinks take samples to determine if a 16 ounce can contains 16 ounces of carbonated drink.

From the sample data, we can calculate a statistic. A statistic is a number that represents a property of the
sample. For example, if we consider one math class to be a sample of the population of all math classes,
then the average number of points earned by students in that one math class at the end of the term is an
example of a statistic. The statistic is an estimate of a population parameter. A parameter is a numerical
characteristic of the whole population that can be estimated by a statistic. Since we considered all math
classes to be the population, then the average number of points earned per student over all the math classes
is an example of a parameter.

One of the main concerns in the field of statistics is how accurately a statistic estimates a parameter. The
accuracy really depends on how well the sample represents the population. The sample must contain the
characteristics of the population in order to be a representative sample. We are interested in both the sample
statistic and the population parameter in inferential statistics. In a later chapter, we will use the sample
statistic to test the validity of the established population parameter.

A variable, usually notated by capital letters such as X and Y, is a characteristic or measurement that can be
determined for each member of a population. Variables may be numerical or categorical. Numerical variables
take on values with equal units such as weight in pounds and time in hours. Categorical variables place the
person or thing into a category. If we let X equal the number of points earned by one math student at the
end of a term, then X is a numerical variable. If we let Y be a person’s party affiliation, then some examples
of Y include Republican, Democrat, and Independent. Y is a categorical variable. We could do some math
with values of X (calculate the average number of points earned, for example), but it makes no sense to do
math with values of Y (calculating an average party affiliation makes no sense).

Data are the actual values of the variable. They may be numbers or they may be words. Datum is a single
value.

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5.1 Measures of Central Tendency

The “center" of a data set is also a way of describing location. The two most widely used measures of the
“center" of the data are the mean (average) and the median. To calculate the mean weight of 50 people,
add the 50 weights together and divide by 50. To find the median weight of the 50 people, order the data and
find the number that splits the data into two equal parts. The median is generally a better measure of the
center when there are extreme values or outliers because it is not affected by the precise numerical values of
the outliers. The mean is the most common measure of the center. Another measure of the center is mode.
It is the most frequently occurring data in a data set.

Mean

Mean is obtained by dividing the sum of all observations in a data set by the total number of observations.

When the data is given with frequencies, the mean can be calculated by multiplying each distinct value by
its frequency and then dividing the sum by the total number of data values. The letter used to represent the
mean is an x with a bar over it (pronounced “x bar"): x̄

We use the following formula for finding the mean

sum of obserations
x̄ =
total number of observations
For a grouped data, ∑
fm
x̄ = ∑
f
where f = the frequency of the interval and m = the midpoint of the interval.

lower boundary + upper boundary

Midpoint =
2

Example 1

AIDS data indicating the number of months a patient with AIDS lives after taking a new antibody
drug are as follows (smallest to largest): 8, 10, 11, 11, 16, 17, 17, 24, 33, 33, 34, 44, and 47, then
calculate the mean.

Solution :
The mean is
8 + 10 + 11(2) + 16 + 17(2) + 24 + 33(2) + 34 + 44 + 47
x̄ = = 23.46
13

When each value in the data set is not unique, the mean can be calculated by multiplying each distinct value
by its frequency and then dividing the sum by the total number of data values.

Example 2

In a small town of 50 people, one person earns $5, 000 per month and the other 49 each earn $3, 000.
Find the mean?

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98
Solution :
The mean is
5000 + 49 × 3000
x̄ = = 3040
50

Example 3

A frequency table displaying professor Blount’s last statistic test is shown. Find the best estimate of
the class mean.
Grade interval 50.5 − 56.5 56.5 − 62.5 62.5 − 68.5 68.5 − 74.5 74.5 − 80.5
Number of students 1 0 4 4 2

Solution :

Grade interval Number of students (f ) Mid point value (m) fm

50.5 − 56.5 1 53.5 53.5
56.5 − 62.5 0 59.5 0
62.5 − 68.5 4 65.5 262
68.5 − 74.5 4 71.5 286
74.5 − 80.5 2 77.5 155

The mean is ∑
fm 53.5 + 0 + 262 + 286 + 155
x̄ = ∑ = = 68.77
f 11

Median
n+1
You can quickly find the location of the median by using the expression . The letter n is the total
2
number of data values in the sample.

If n is an odd number, the median is the middle value of the ordered data (ordered smallest to largest).

If n is an even number, the median is equal to the two middle values added together and divided by two after
the data has been ordered. Remember that location of the median and the value of the median are not the
same.

Example 4

Find the Median form the following data.

1, 11.5, 6, 7.2, 4, 8, 9, 10, 6.8, 8.3, 2, 2, 10, 1, 10

Solution :
Ordered from smallest to largest: 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 6, 6.8, 7.2, 8, 8.3, 9, 10, 10, 11.5

Since there are 14 observations, the median is between the seventh value, 6.8, and the eighth value,
7.2. To find the median, add the two values together and divide by two.
6.8 + 7.2
=7
2

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 99

So the median is 7.

Example 5

Find the Median for the data 2, 7, 4, 1, 3, 5, 8, 2, 4, 9, 1

Solution :
Order from smaller to larger: 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9
11 + 1
Since there are 11 observations, the median is = 6 th term. So the median is 4.
2

Mode
The mode is the most frequent value. Number of times repeated and occurs in a given data.

• Unimodal means only 1 mode

• Bimodal means 2 modes

• Multimodal means more than 2 modes.

Example 6

Statistics exam scores for 20 students are as follows:

50, 53, 59, 59, 63, 63, 72, 72, 72, 72, 72, 76, 78, 81, 83, 84, 84, 84, 90, 93
Find the mode.

Solution :
The most frequent score is 72, which occurs five times. Mode = 72. [Unimodal]

Example 7

IELTS exam bandwidth score for 10 students are as follows: 8, 3.5, 7, 6, 7, 6.5, 7.5, 4, 8, 7.2
Find mode.

Solution :
The most frequent scores are 8 and 7, which occur 2 times [Bimodal]

5.1 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) The data represent the number of days off per year for a sample of individuals selected from nine
different countries. Find the mean.
20, 26, 40, 36, 23, 42, 35, 24, 30

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(2) The number of guest-rooms of ten hotels in Muscat is 71, 30, 61, 59, 31, 41, 47, 64, 23 and 22. Find
the median.
(3) Find the median: 684, 764, 656, 702, 856, 1133, 1132
(4) The number of rainy days for the top 10 rainy cities in last 3 years is shown. Find the median.
223, 211, 209, 227, 213, 240, 210, 228, 212, 240
(5) Find the mode for the following data.
110, 731, 1031, 84, 20, 118, 1162, 1977, 103, 752
(6) The following data are the distances between 10 retail stores and a large distribution center. The
distances are in miles. Find the mode and type of mode?
(a) 86, 87, 150, 87, 40, 48, 50, 87, 58, 40
(b) 68, 69, 66, 96, 96, 99, 40, 68, 40, 57
(c) 29, 40, 58, 67, 95, 29, 11, 21, 45, 15
(7) Twelve major earthquakes had Richter magnitudes shown here.
7.0, 6.2, 7.7, 8.0, 6.4, 6.2, 7.2, 5.4, 6.4, 6.5, 7.2, 5.4
Find (a) the mean, (b) the median, and (c) the mode.
(8) Thirty automobiles were tested for fuel efficiency, in miles per gallon (mpg). The following fre-
quency distribution was obtained. Find the mean for the data.
Class Boundaries Frequency

7.5 − 12.5 3
12.5 − 17.5 5
17.5 − 22.5 15
22.5 − 27.5 5
27.5 − 32.5 2
(9) Find the arithmetic mean for the following distribution

Marks Frequency
45 4
30 1
85 3
90 5
75 3

(10) Find the arithmetic mean for the following distribution

Class Intervals Frequency

5 − 10 3
10 − 15 1
15 − 20 5
20 − 25 3
25 − 30 8

(11) Find the value of P if the mean of the following distribution is 7.5.
x: 3 5 7 9 11 13
f : 6 8 15 P 8 4

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5.2 Summarizing Data into Tables and Graphs

In statistics we use various tables and diagrams to represent data which will facilitate easy interpretation
and analysis of data.

Frequency Distributions
In our discussion we discuss mainly two types of frequency distributions to represent data in tabular form.

Categorical Frequency Distribution Grouped Frequency Distribution

This distribution is used when the data can be This distribution is used to represent numerical
categorized into different groups or categories. data in classes and intervals. See the following
Here the data may be numeric or non-numeric. example:

Classification Frequency Share Price Number of Share holders

Bank 5 1 − 20 1000
Utilities 4 21 − 40 850
Properties 8 41 − 60 450
IT 5 61 − 80 300
Commerce 12 81 − 100 250
Industries 6 101 − 120 150
Total 40 Total 3000

How T o :: Constructing a grouped frequency distribution

Step 1. Form the classes/class intervals. Pick out the highest and the lowest
values and find the range of the data. Determine the class intervals.
Number of intervals should be between 5 and 12 and they usually have
equal widths. Ensure that each item of the data will be included in a
How?
unique class.

Step 2. Tally the values in the data set into the classes formed.

Step 3. Find the frequency of each class by totalling the tallies.

Example 1

Seventeen students were asked how many hours they studied per day. Their responses, in hours, are
as follows:
5, 6, 3, 3, 4, 7, 5, 3, 5, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, 5, 5, 3

Construct the frequency distribution table.

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Solution :

Table value Frequency

3 5
4 3
5 6
6 2
7 1

A relative frequency is the ratio (fraction or proportion) of the number of times a value of the data occurs
in the set of all outcomes to the total number of outcomes. To find the relative frequencies, divide each
frequency by the total number of students in the sample in this case, 20 . Relative frequencies can be written
as fractions, percent’s, or decimals.

f f
Relative frequency = × 100 or Relative frequency =
n n

where f is a frequency, n is total number of frequency

Note: We can express relative error in 100% or decimal to 1

Cumulative relative frequency is the accumulation of the previous relative frequencies. To find the cumulative
relative frequencies, add all the previous relative frequencies to the relative frequency for the current row.

Example 2

Twenty students were asked how many hours they worked per day. Their responses, in hours, are as
follows.
5, 6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 7, 5, 2, 3, 5, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, 5, 2, 5, 3

Construct frequency distribution

Solution :

Data value Tally Frequency Relative frequency in % Cumulative relative frequency

2 3 15 15
3 5 25 15 + 25 = 40
4 3 15 40 + 15 = 55
5 6 30 55 + 30 = 85
6 2 10 85 + 10 = 95
7 1 5 95 + 5 = 100
f
Relative frequency = × 100. The last entry of the cumulative relative frequency column is hundred,
n
indicating that one hundred percent of the data has been accumulated.

Because of rounding, the relative frequency column may not always sum to hundred, and the last entry
in the cumulative relative frequency column may not be hundred one. However, they each should be
close to hundred.

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Example 3

Grouped data: The table Represents the heights, in inches, of a sample of 100 males semiprofessional
soccer players. Find relative frequency and cumulative relative frequency for the frequency distribution

Heights
59.95 − 61.95 61.95 − 63.95 63.95 − 65.95 65.95 − 67.95
(Inches)
Frequency 5 3 15 40
Heights
67.95 − 69.95 69.95 − 71.95 71.95 − 73.95 73.95 − 75.95
(Inches)
Frequency 17 12 7 1

Solution :

Heights f Cumulative
Tally Frequency RF =
(Inches) n RF
59.95 − 61.95 5 0.05 0.05
61.95 − 63.95 3 0.03 0.05 + 0.03 = 0.08
63.95 − 65.95 15 0.15 0.08 + 0.15 = 0.23
65.95 − 67.95 40 0.4 0.23 + 0.40 = 0.63
67.95 − 69.95 17 0.17 0.63 + 0.17 = 0.80
69.95 − 71.95 12 0.12 0.80 + 0.12 = 0.92
71.95 − 73.95 7 0.07 0.92 + 0.07 = 0.99
73.95 − 75.95 1 0.01 0.99 + 0.01 = 1
Total 100
The last entry of the cumulative relative frequency column is one, indicating that one hundred
percent of the data has been accumulated.

Because of rounding, the relative frequency column may not always sum to one, and the last entry in
the cumulative relative frequency column may not be one. However, they each should be close to one.

5.2.1 Representing Data Using Graphs and Charts

• Bar Charts
Bar charts (Bar Graphs/ Bar Diagrams) are used to represent categorical data. Bar graphs consist of
bars that are separated from each other. The bars can be rectangles or they can be rectangular boxes
(used in three-dimensional plots), and they can be vertical or horizontal.

• Pie Charts
Pie charts are also used to represent the categorical data. This representation gives emphasis to the
relative weightage of each category. In a pie chart, a circle is drawn and it is divided into sectors.
Number of sectors will be the number of categories. The area of each sector is proportional to the
frequency of the categorical variable it represents.

• Histogram
A histogram consists of contiguous (adjoining) boxes. It has both a horizontal axis and a vertical axis.
The horizontal axis is labeled with what the data represents (for instance, distance from your home
to school). The vertical axis is labeled either frequency or relative frequency (or percent frequency or

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probability). The graph will have the same shape with either label. The histogram (like the stemplot)
can give you the shape of the data, the center, and the spread of the data.

Example 4

The following table shows the number of admissions at a training institute for the months January to
June. Construct a bar chart for the data.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
No. of admissions 100 150 300 250 200 150

Solution :

Example 5

In a college there are 400 students in the Foundation Program, 450 in the First Year Diploma, 350 in
the Second Year Diploma and 250 in the Higher Diploma. Construct a pie chart for the data.

Solution :
Total number of students = 400 + 450 + 350 + 250 = 1450

400
Angle corresponding to Foundation Program = × 360◦ = 99.31◦
1450
400
Percentage = × 100 = 27.6%
1450
450
Angle corresponding to First Year Diploma = × 360◦ = 111.72◦
1450
450
Percentage = × 100 = 31%
1450
350
Angle corresponding to Second Year Diploma = × 360◦ = 86.90◦
1450

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350
Percentage = × 100 = 24.1%
1450
250
Angle corresponding to Higher Diploma = × 360◦ = 62.07◦
1450
250
Percentage = × 100 = 17.2%
1450

Example 6

The following distribution shows the marks of 15 students of a class in the midterm examination.
Construct a histogram for the data.

Marks 0-4 4-8 8-12 12-16 16-20

No. of students 1 3 5 4 2

Solution :

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5.2 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Thirty-five army cadets were given a blood test to determine their blood type. The data set is
A O B B B AB O
O A O B O AB B
B O B O A A O
A O O O O O AB
AB A AB O B A A
Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

(2) A sample of 25 coloring pens is observed and their colors are recorded.
Green Blue Red Red Yellow Orange Red Blue Brown Yellow Red
Red Green Orange Yellow Blue Red Green Red Brown Brown Yellow
Blue Red Orange
Construct a frequency distribution

(3) The heights in inches of commonly grown herbs are given below. Organize the data into a frequency
distribution with six classes.
15 36 18 20 18 18 20 18 18 24 20 10 24 16 16 20 7
(4) The average quantitative GRE scores for the top 30 graduate schools of engineering are listed.
Construct a grouped frequency distribution with 5 classes.
767 770 761 760 771 768 776 771 756 770
763 760 747 766 754 771 771 778 766 762
780 750 746 764 769 759 757 753 758 746

(5) The ages of the signers of the Declaration of Independence are shown. (Age is approximate since
only the birth year appeared in the source, and one has been omitted since his birth year is
unknown). Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using 7 classes.
41 54 47 40 39 35 50 37 49 42 70 32
44 52 39 50 40 30 34 69 39 45 33 42
44 63 60 27 42 34 50 42 52 38 36 45
35 43 48 46 31 27 55 63 46 33 60 62
35 46 45 34 53 50 50

(6) The table shows the performance of students in a class for the midterm exam

Grade A B C D
No. of Students 6 12 11 3

Represent the data using a (i) bar graph and (ii) a pie graph
(7) There are 216 employees in a factory as per list given below:

Section Electrician Plumber Fitter Supervisor Clerk

No. of Workers 72 62 37 28 17

Represent the data using a (i) bar graph and (ii) a pie graph

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(8) Construct a histogram to represent the data shown for the Blood Sugar levels of 60 inmates of an
old age home.
Class Boundaries Frequency

99.5 − 104.5 2
104.5 − 109.5 9
109.5 − 114.5 20
114.5 − 119.5 15
119.5 − 124.5 8
124.5 − 129.5 4
129.5 − 134.5 2

(9) Thirty automobiles were tested for fuel efficiency, in miles per gallon (mpg). The following fre-
quency distribution was obtained. Construct a histogram for the data.
Class Boundaries Frequency

7.5 − 12.5 3
12.5 − 17.5 5
17.5 − 22.5 15
22.5 − 27.5 5
27.5 − 32.5 2

(10) For 108 randomly selected college applicants, the following frequency distribution for entrance
exam scores was obtained. Construct a histogram for the data.
Class limits Frequency

90 − 98 6
99 − 107 22
108 − 116 43
117 − 125 28
126 − 134 9

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 Chapter 6

Probability

Contents
6.1 Basic Concepts of Probability
6.2 Probability Using Tree Diagrams
6.2.1 Tree Diagrams using Frequencies
6.2.2 Tree Diagrams using Probabilities
6.3 Permutations and Combinations
6.4 Probability Using Permutations and Combinations

Learning outcome covered:

(k) Understand basic probability concepts and compute the probability of

simple events using tree diagrams and formulas for permutations and
combinations.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
à Understand the basic concepts of mathematical probability.
à Compute the probability of simple events.
à Compute probability using tree diagrams and permutations and combinations.
Introduction:
Probability is a measure that is associated with how certain we are of outcomes of a particular experiment
or activity. An experiment is a planned operation carried out under controlled conditions. If the result is not
predetermined, then the experiment is said to be a chance experiment. Flipping one fair coin twice is an
example of an experiment.

A result of an experiment is called an outcome. The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible
outcomes. Three ways to represent a sample space are: to list the possible outcomes, to create a tree diagram,
or to create a Venn diagram. The uppercase letter S is used to denote the sample space. For example, if you
flip one fair coin, S = {H, T } where H = heads and T = tails are the outcomes.

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An event is any combination of outcomes. Upper case letters like A and B represent events. For example,
if the experiment is to flip one fair coin, event A might be getting at most one head. The probability of an
event A is written P (A).

6.1 Basic Concepts of Probability

The probability of any outcome is the long-term relative frequency of that outcome. Probabilities are be-
tween zero and one, inclusive (that is, zero and one and all numbers between these values). P (A) = 0 means
the event A can never happen. P (A) = 1 means the event A always happens. P (A) = 0.5 means the event
A is equally likely to occur or not to occur.

The empty set ϕ and the sample space S describe events. In fact ϕ is called an impossible event i.e. under
no outcome of the experiment can this event be realized. A null event is an event that is impossible. Events
that are impossible have zero probability, but the converse is not necessarily true. Clearly an empty set has
zero probability. But, a zero probability event does not always mean an impossible event. For example,
getting a number 9 while tossing a die is an impossible event as the only possible outcomes is between 1 to
6. The whole sample space S is called a sure event which is the one that is defined to happen for sure. For
example, getting a head (H) or tail (T) while tossing a coin once is a sure event as the outcome will definitely
be either head or tail

Equally likely means that each outcome of an experiment occurs with equal probability. For example, if
you toss a fair, six-sided die, each face (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) is as likely to occur as any other face. If you
toss a fair coin, a Head (H) and a Tail (T) are equally likely to occur. If you randomly guess the answer to
a true/false question on an exam, you are equally likely to select a correct answer or an incorrect answer.

To calculate the probability of an event A when all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely, count
the number of outcomes for event A and divide by the total number of outcomes in the sample space. For
example, if you toss a fair dime and a fair nickel, the sample space is {HH,TH,HT,TT} where T = tails and
H = heads. The sample space has four outcomes. A = getting one head. There are two outcomes that meet
2
this condition {HT,TH}, so P (A) = = 0.5.
4

Suppose you roll one fair six-sided die, with the numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} on its faces. Let event E = rolling a
2 1
number that is at least five. There are two outcomes {5, 6}. P (E) = = . If you were to roll the die only
6 3
a few times, you would not be surprised if your observed results did not match the probability. If you were
2
to roll the die a very large number of times, you would expect that, overall, of the rolls would result in an
6
2
outcome of “at least five". You would not expect exactly . The long-term relative frequency of obtaining
6
2
this result would approach the theoretical probability of as the number of repetitions grows larger and
6
larger.

“OR" Event: An outcome is in the event A OR B if the outcome is in A or is in B or is in both A and B.

For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. A OR B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Notice that 4 and
5 are NOT listed twice.

“AND" Event: An outcome is in the event A AND B if the outcome is in both A and B at the same time.
For example let A and B be {1,2,3,4,5} and {4,5,6,7,8} , respectively. Then A AND B = {4, 5}.

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The complement of event A is denoted A′ (read as ‘‘A prime"). A′ consists of all outcomes that are NOT
in A. Notice that P (A) + P (A′ ) = 1.

For example, let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

2 4
Then, A′ = {5, 6}. P (A) = , P (A′ ) = , and
6 6
2 4
+ =1 P (A) + P (A′ ) =
6 6
The conditional probability of A given B is written P (A/B). P (A/B) is the probability that event A will
occur given that the event B has already occurred. A conditional reduces the sample space. We calculate
the probability of A from the reduced sample space B. The formula to calculate P (A/B) is
P (A and B)
P (A/B) =
P (B)
where P (B) is greater than zero.

For example, suppose we toss one fair, six-sided die. The sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let A = face is
2 or 3 and B = face is even (2, 4, 6). To calculate P (A/B), we count the number of outcomes 2 or 3 in the
sample space B = {2, 4, 6}. Then we divide that by the number of outcomes B (rather than S).

We get the same result by using the formula. Remember that S has six outcomes.
{ }
the number of outcomes that are 2 or 3 and even in S
P (A and B) 6
P (A/B) = = { }
P (B) the number of outcomes that are even in S
6

Mutually Exclusive Events: A and B are mutually exclusive events if they cannot occur at the same
time. This means that A and B do not share any outcomes and P (A AND B) = 0

For example, suppose the sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8},
2
and C = {7, 9}. A AND B = {4, 5}. P (A AND B) = and is not equal to zero. Therefore, A and B are
10
not mutually exclusive. A and C do not have any numbers in common so P (A AND C) = 0. Therefore, A
and C are mutually exclusive.

For example: Flip two fair coins (This is an experiment).

The sample space is {HH, HT, TH, TT} where T = tails and H = heads. The outcomes are HH, HT, TH, and
TT. The outcomes HT and TH are different. The HT means that the first coin showed heads and the second
coin showed tails. The TH means that the first coin showed tails and the second coin showed heads.

Let A = the event of getting at most one tail. At most one tail means zero or one tail. Then A can be
written as {HH, HT, TH}. The outcome HH shows zero tails. HT and TH each show one tail.

Let B = the event of getting all tails. B can be written as {TT}. B is the complement of A, so B = A′ . Also,
P(A) + P(B) = P(A) + P (A′ ) = 1.

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3 1
The probabilities for A and for B are P(A) = and P(B) =
4 4

Let C = the event of getting all heads. C = {HH}. since B = {TT}, P(B AND C) = 0. Thus B and C are
mutually exclusive. B and C have no members in common because you cannot have all tails and all heads
at the same time.

1
Let D = event of getting more than one tail. D = {TT}. P(D) =
4

Let E = event of getting a head on the first roll. This implies you can get either a head or tail on the second
2
roll. E = {HT, HH} and P(E) = .
4
3
Let F = event of getting at least one (one or two) tail in two flips. F = {TT, HT, TH} and P(F ) = .
4

Complement Rule to Compute Probabilities

We have discussed how to calculate the probability that an event will happen. Sometimes, we are interested
in finding the probability that an event will not happen. The complement of an event E, denoted E′ , is the
set of outcomes in the sample space that are not in E.

For example, suppose we are interested in the probability that a horse will lose a race. If event W is the
horse winning the race, then the complement of event W′ is the horse losing the race.

To find the probability that the horse loses the race, we need to use the fact that the sum of all probabilities
in a probability model must be 1.
P (W′ ) = 1 − P(W)

The probability of the horse winning added to the probability of the horse losing must be equal to 1. Therefore,
1
if the probability of the horse winning the race is , the probability of the horse losing the race is simply
9
1 8
1− =
9 9

Example 1

If the probability of getting rain tomorrow is 0.35, find the probability that it will not rain tomorrow.

Solution :
If the event E is getting rain tomorrow, then the probability of getting rain tomorrow is P(E)= 0.35,
To find the probability that it will not rain tomorrow is
P (E′ ) = 1 − P(E)
P (E′ ) = 1 − 0.35 = 0.65

Example 2

What is the probability that when two dice are thrown, the number on each die will not be the same?

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Solution :
This is the same as saying that doubles will not occur. Since the probability of doubles occurring is
6 1
= , then the probability that doubles will NOT occur is:
36 6
1 6 1 5
1− = − =
6 6 6 6

Two Basic Rules of Probability

The Multiplication Rule

If A and B are two events defined on a sample space, then: P (A AND B) = P (B)P (A/B)

This rule may also be written as:

P (A AND B)
P (A/B) =
P (B)
If A and B are independent, then P(A/B) = P(A).

Then P (A AND B) = P(A/B)P(B) becomes P (A AND B) = P(A)P(B)

The Addition Rule

If A and B are defined on a sample space, then:

P (A OR B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A AND B)
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P (A AND B) = 0

Then P (A OR B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A AND B) becomes P (A OR B) = P(A) + P(B).

Example 3

If a die is rolled,

(a) what is the probability of obtaining an even number or a number greater than four?

(b) what is the probability of obtaining an even number and a number greater than four?

Solution :
Let E be the event that the number shown on the die is an even number, and let F be the event that
the number shown is greater than four. The sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} The event E = {2, 4, 6},
and the event F = {5, 6}
(a) Even number or Greater than 4
E ∪ F = {2, 4, 5, 6}
4
Therefore, P (E ∪ F ) =
6
(b) Even number and Greater than 4
E ∩ F = {6}
1
Therefore, P (E ∩ F ) =
6

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Example 4

Two dice are rolled, and the events F and T are as follows:
F = { The sum of the dice is 4} and T = { At least one die shows a three } Find P (F ∪ T ).

Solution :
We list F and T, and F ∩ T as follows:
F = {(1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1)}
T = {(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (1, 3), (2, 3), (4, 3), (5, 3), (6, 3)}
F ∩ T = {(1, 3), (3, 1)}

Since P (F ∪ T ) = P (F ) + P (T ) − P (F ∩ T )

3 11 2 12
We have, P (F ∪ T ) = + − =
36 36 36 36

Example 5

Klaus is trying to choose where to go on vacation. His two choices are: A = New Zealand and B =
Alaska. Klaus can only afford one vacation. The probability that he chooses A is P(A) = 0.6 and
the probability that he chooses B is P(B) = 0.35. Find the probability that he does not choose to go
anywhere on vacation.

Solution :
P(A AND B) = 0 because Klaus can only afford to take one vacation.

Therefore, the probability that he chooses either New Zealand or Alaska is

P (A OR B) = P (A) + P (B) = 0.6 + 0.35 = 0.95
Note that the probability that he does not choose to go anywhere on vacation must be 0.05.

Example 6

Carlos plays college soccer. He makes a goal 65 % of the time he shoots. Carlos is going to attempt two
goals in a row in the next game. A = the event Carlos is successful on his first attempt. P (A) = 0.65.
B = the event Carlos is successful on his second attempt. P (B) = 0.65. Carlos tends to shoot in
streaks. The probability that he makes the second goal given that he made the first goal is 0.90.

(a) What is the probability that he makes both goals?

(b) What is the probability that Carlos makes either the first goal or the second goal?

(c) Are A and B independent?

(d) Are A and B mutually exclusive?

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Solution :

(a) The problem is asking you to find P (A AND B) = P (B AND A).

Since P (B/A) = 0.90, P (B AND A) = P (B/A)P (A) = 0.90 × 0.65 = 0.585
∴ Carlos makes the first and second goals with probability 0.585

(b) The problem is asking you to find P (A OR B)

P (A OR B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A AND B) = 0.65 + 0.65 − 0.585 = 0.715
∴ Carlos makes either the first goal or the second goal with probability 0.715

(c) No, they are not, because P (B AND A) = 0.585

P (B)P (A) = 0.65 × 0.65 = 0.423
P (B AND A) ̸= P (B) × P (A)

(d) No, they are not because P (A AND B) = 0.585

To be mutually exclusive, P (A AND B) must equal zero.

Example 7

A single die is rolled. Find the conditional probability of obtaining an even number given that a
number greater than three has shown.

Solution :
Let E be the event that an even number shows and F be the event that a number greater than three
shows. We want P (E | F ).
E = {2, 4, 6} and F = {4, 5, 6}

Which implies, E ∩ F = {4, 6}

3 2
Therefore, P (F ) = , and P (E ∩ F ) = . So
6 6
P (E ∩ F ) 2/6 2
P (F ) = = =
P (F ) 3/6 3

Example 8

Given P (E) = 0.5, P (F ) = 0.7, and P (E ∩ F ) = 0.3. Find

(a) P (E | F )

(b) P (F | E)

Solution :
P (E∩F )
We use the conditional probability formula P (F ) = P (F )

0.3 3
(a) P (E | F ) = =
0.7 7
0.3 3
(b) P (F | E) = =
0.5 5

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6.1 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Find the sample space for rolling two dice.

(2) Find the sample space for drawing one card from an ordinary deck of cards.

(3) Find the sample space for the gender of the children if a family has three children. Use B for boy
and G for girl.
(4) A die is rolled, find the probability that an even number is obtained.

(5) Two coins are tossed, find the probability that two heads are obtained.

(6) Two dice are rolled, find the probability that the sum is

(a) equal to 1 (b) equal to 4 (c) less than 13

(7) A die is rolled and a coin is tossed, find the probability that the die shows an odd number and the
coin shows a head.
(8) A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting the 3 of diamonds.

(9) A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting a queen.

(10) A jar contains 3 red marbles, 7 green marbles and 10 white marbles. If a marble is drawn from
the jar at random, what is the probability that this marble is white?
(11) A die is rolled, find the probability that the number obtained is greater than 4.

(12) Two coins are tossed, find the probability that exactly one head is obtained.

(13) Two dice are rolled, find the probability that the sum is equal to 5.

(14) A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting the King of hearts.

(15) Compute the probability of randomly drawing five cards from a deck and getting exactly one Ace.

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6.2 Probability Using Tree Diagrams

Tree Diagrams

A tree diagram is a special type of graph used to determine the outcomes of an experiment. It consists
of “branches" that are labeled with either frequencies or probabilities. Tree diagrams can make some
probability problems easier to visualize and solve. The following example illustrates how to use a tree
diagram.

6.2.1 Tree Diagrams using Frequencies

Example 1

In an urn, there are 11 balls. Three balls are red (R) and eight balls are blue (B). Draw two balls,
one at a time, with replacement, from the urn. Find the probability to draw both R.

Solution :
“With replacement" means that you put the first ball back before you select the second ball.

The tree diagram using frequencies that show all

the possible outcomes follows.

Total = 64 + 24 + 24 + 9 = 121

The first set of branches represents the first draw.

The second set of branches represents the second
draw. Each of the outcomes is distinct.

In fact, we can list each red ball as R1, R2, and

R3 and each blue ball as B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6,
B7, and B8.

Then the nine RR outcomes can be written as: R1R1; R1R2; R1R3; R2R1; R2R2; R2R3; R3R1;
R3R2; R3R3

The other outcomes are similar. There are a total of 11 balls in the urn.

Draw two balls, one at a time, with replacement. There are 11 × 11 = 121 outcomes, the size of the
sample space.

6.2.2 Tree Diagrams using Probabilities

Example 2

An urn has three red marbles and eight blue marbles in it. Draw two marbles, one at a time, this
time without replacement, from the urn. Find the probability to draw both R.

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Solution :
“Without replacement" means that you do not
put the first ball back before you select the second
marble.

Following is a tree diagram for this situation. The

branches are labeled with probabilities instead
of frequencies. The numbers at the ends of the
branches are calculated by multiplying the num-
bers on the two corresponding ( branches,
) ( ) so the
3 2 6
probability to draw both R is = .
11 10 110

56 + 24 + 24 + 6 110
Total = = =1
110 110

6.2 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Two coins are tossed together. Find the following probabilities using a tree diagram.
(a) Probability of getting two heads
(b) Probability of getting at least one head
(c) Probability of getting at most one head
(d) Probability of getting exactly one head

(2) Bag A contains three red beads and four blue beads. Bag B contains five red beads and three
blue beads. A beads is taken from each bag in turn. Answer the following questions using a tree
diagram.
(a) What is the probability of getting a blue bead followed by a red?
(b) What is the probability of getting a bead of each colour?

(3) Suppose there are five red balls and four yellow balls in a box. Two balls are drawn from the box
without replacement one after the other. Using a tree diagram find the probability that one ball
of each color is selected?
(4) A coin is biased so that the chance of getting a head is 60%. If it is tossed three times, compute
the probability of getting the following events using a tree diagram.
(a) three tails
(b) exactly 2 heads
(c) at least one tail

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(5) Nasser has a bag with six red pencils and four blue pencils in it. He picks up a pencil from the
bag at random, and then picks another at random after replacing the first pencil. With the help
of a tree diagram calculate the probabilities that he picks:
(a) two blue pencils
(b) one pencil of each color
(c) no blue pencils
(d) at least one red pencil

(6) Nasser has a bag with eight red pencils and four blue pencils in it. He picks up a pencil from the
bag at random, and then picks another at random without replacing the first pencil. With the
help of a tree diagram calculate the probabilities that he picks:
(a) two blue pencils
(b) one pencil of each color
(c) no blue pencils
(d) at least one red pencil

6.3 Permutations and Combinations

Permutations

The Multiplication Principle can be used to solve a variety of problem types. One type of problem
involves placing objects in order. We arrange letters into words and digits into numbers, line up for
photographs, decorate rooms, and more. An ordering of objects is called a permutation.

Finding the Number of Permutations of n Distinct Objects Using the Multipli-

cation Principle
To solve permutation problems, it is often helpful to draw line segments for each option. That enables us to
determine the number of each option so we can multiply.
For instance, suppose we have four paintings, and we want to find the number of ways we can hang three of
the paintings in order on the wall. We can draw three lines to represent the three places on the wall.
__ × __ × __
There are four options for the first place, so we write a 4 on the first line.
4 × __ × __
After the first place has been filled, there are three options for the second place so we write a 3 on the second
line.
4 × 3 × __

After the second place has been filled, there are two options for the third place so we write a 2 on the third
line. Finally, we find the product.
4×3×2

There are 24 possible permutations of the paintings.

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Example 1

At a swimming competition, nine swimmers compete in a race. How many ways can they place first,
second, and third?

Solution :

9 × 8 × 7 = 504

Finding the Number of Permutations of n Distinct Objects Using Formula:

Given n distinct objects, the number of ways to select r objects from the set in order is
n!
P (n, r) =
(n − r)!

Example 2

A professor is creating an exam of 9 questions from a test bank of 12 questions. How many ways can
she select and arrange the questions?

Solution :
12!
P (12, 9) = = 79, 833, 600
(12 − 9)!

Example 3

A play has a cast of 7 actors preparing to make their curtain call. Use the permutation formula to
find how many ways 5 of the 7 actors can be chosen to line up.

Solution :
7!
P (7, 5) = = 2520
2!

Finding the Number of Permutations of n Non-Distinct Objects

We have studied permutations where all of the objects involved were distinct. What happens if some of the
objects are indistinguishable? For example, suppose there is a sheet of 12 stickers. If all of the stickers were
distinct, there would be 12! ways to order the stickers. However, 4 of the stickers are identical stars, and 3
are identical moons. Because all of the objects are not distinct, many of the 12! permutations we counted
are duplicates. The general formula for this situation is as follows.

n!
r1 !r2 ! . . . rk !
In this example, we need to divide by the number of ways to order the 4 stars and the ways to order the 3
moons to find the number of unique permutations of the stickers. There are 4! ways to order the stars and
3! ways to order the moon.
12!
= 3, 326, 400
4!3!

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There are 3,326,400 ways to order the sheet of stickers.

Formula for finding the number of permutations of n non-distinct objects

If there are n elements in a set and r1 are alike, r2 are alike, r3 are alike, and so on through rk , the number
of permutations can be found by
n!
r1 !r2 ! . . . rk !

Example 4

Finding the Number of Permutations of n Non-Distinct Objects Find the number of rearrangements
of the letters in the word "DISTINCT".

Solution :
There are 8 letters. Both I and T are repeated 2 times. Substitute n = 8, r1 = 2, and r2 = 2 into the
formula.
8!
= 10, 080
2!2!
There are 10, 080 arrangements.

Combinations

So far, we have looked at problems asking us to put objects in order. There are many problems in
which we want to select a few objects from a group of objects, but we do not care about the order.
When we are selecting objects and the order does not matter, we are dealing with combinations.
A selection of r objects from a set of n objects where the order does not matter can be written as
C(n, r).

Find the Number of Combinations Using the Formula:

Given n distinct objects, the number of ways to select r objects from the set is
n!
C(n, r) =
r!(n − r)!

Example 5

A fast food restaurant offers five side dish options. Your meal comes with two side dishes.

(a) How many ways can you select your side dishes?

(b) How many ways can you select 3 side dishes?

Solution :

(a)
5!
C(5, 2) = = 10
2!(5 − 2)!

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122

(b)
5!
C(5, 3) = = 10
3!(5 − 3)!

Example 6

How many line segments can be drawn by connecting any two of the six points that lie on the
circumference of a circle?

Solution :

C(6, 2) = 15

Example 7

There are ten people at a party. If they all shake hands, how many hand-shakes are possible?

Solution :

C(10, 2) = 45

6.3 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Find the number of words, with or without meaning, that can be formed with the letters of the
word

(a) OMAN (c) SWIMMING

(b) CHAIR (d) BUTTER

(2) How many 4 digit numbers that are divisible by 10 can be formed from the numbers 3,5 7,8,9,0
such that no number repeats?
(3) We need to form a 5 a side team in a class of 12 students. How many different teams can be
formed?
(4) How many 4 digit numbers can we make using the digits 3,6,7 and 8 without repetitions?
(5) How many 3 digit numbers can we make using the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 without repetitions?
(6) How many 6 letter words can we make using the letters in the word ‘LIBERTY’ without repetitions?
(7) In how many ways can you arrange 5 different books on a shelf?
(8) In how many ways can you select a committee of 3 students out of 10 students?
(9) A family of five is having portraits taken. Use the Multiplication Principle to find how many ways
the photographer can line up 3 of the family members.
(10) A restaurant offers a breakfast special that includes a breakfast sandwich, a side dish, and a
beverage. There are 3 types of breakfast sandwiches, 4 side dish options, and 5 beverage choices.
Find the total number of possible breakfast specials.

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(11) How many ways are there to construct a string of 3 digits if numbers cannot be repeated?

(12) How many ways are there to construct a string of 3 digits if numbers can be repeated?

(13) How many ways are there to pick a red ace or a club from a standard card playing deck?

(14) How many ways are there to pick a paint color from 5 shades of green, 4 shades of blue, or 7 shades
of yellow?
(15) A family consisting of 2 parents and 3 children is to pose for a picture with 2 family members in
the front and 3 in the back.
(a) How many arrangements are possible with no restrictions?
(b) How many arrangements are possible if the parents must sit in the front?
(c) How many arrangements are possible if the parents must be next to each other?

(16) How many ways can a baseball coach arrange the order of 9 batters if there are 15 players on the
team?
(17) How many ways can a committee of 3 freshmen and 4 juniors be formed from a group of 8 freshmen
and 11 juniors?
(18) A skateboard shop stocks 10 types of board decks, 3 types of trucks, and 4 types of wheels. How
many different skateboards can be constructed?
(19) Fatima bought 20 plants to arrange along the border of her garden. How many distinct arrange-
ments can she make if the plants are comprised of 6 tulips, 6 roses, and 8 daisies?
(20) A wholesale T-shirt company offers sizes small, medium, large, and extra-large in organic or non-
organic cotton and colors white, black, gray, blue, and red. How many different T-shirts are there
to choose from?
(21) Salim wants to place billboard advertisements throughout the municipality for his new business.
How many ways can he choose 15 neighborhoods to advertise in if there are 30 neighborhoods in
the municipality?
(22) An art store has 4 brands of paint pens in 12 different colors and 3 types of ink. How many paint
pens are there to choose from?

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6.4 Probability Using Permutations and Combinations

Many interesting probability problems involve counting principles, permutations, and combinations. In these
problems, we will use permutations and combinations to find the number of elements in events and sample
spaces. These problems can be complicated, but they can be made easier by breaking them down into smaller
counting problems.

Example 1

A 3−digit PIN is selected. What is the probability that there are no repeated digits?

Solution :
The digits of PIN can have any three numbers from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 with the condition that no
repeated selection. Here order of selection also taken into account. So we use permutation.
Permutation of selecting 3-digit PIN without repeated digits
Probablity =
Permutation of all possibilities
The numerator in the equation is permutations without repetition and the denominator in the equation
is permutations with repetition.
P (10, 3) 720
= 3
= = 0.72
10 1000
The probability of selecting 3 digit pin with no repeated digits is 0.72

Example 2

In a dance competition, the order of each performance is selected randomly. The dancers Ahmed,
Anwar, Ziyah, Safa, and Abdullah are participating in it. What is the probability of Safa will go
second?

Solution :
There are five performance in the competition with five dancers. Here order of selection also taken
into account. So we use permutation.
Permutation of keeping Safa second
Probablity =
Permutation of all possibilities
The numerator in the equation is permutations keeping Safa as second participant (if Safa is assigned
for second, then rest of the 4 places will be randomly selected for four dancers) and the denominator
in the equation is permutations of all possibilities with five place and five dancers.
P (4, 4) 4! 24
= = = = 0.2
P (5, 5) 5! 120
The probability of Safa will go as second participant in a dance competition is 0.2

Example 3

A store has 8 cellular phones and that 3 of those are defective. Find the probability that a couple
purchasing 2 phones receives 2 phones that are not defective.

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Solution :
To solve this problem, we need to calculate all of the ways to select 2 phones that are not defective
as well as all of the ways to select 2 phones.

There are 5 phones that are not defective, so there are C(5,2) ways to select 2 phones that are not
defective.

There are 8 phones, so there are C(8,2) ways to select 2 phones. Thus the probability of selecting 2
phones that are not defective is:

ways to select 2 phones that are not defective C (5, 2)

=
ways to select 2 phones C (8, 2)
x
10 5
= =
28 14

Example 4

A child randomly selects 5 toys from a bin containing 3 bunnies, 5 dogs, and 6 bears. Find the
probability that only bears are chosen.

Solution :
We need to count the number of ways to choose only bears and the total number of possible ways to
select 5 toys.

There are 6 bears, so there are C(6, 5) ways to choose 5 bears. There are 14 toys, so there are C(14,
5) ways to choose any 5 toys.

C (6, 5) 6 3
= =
C (14, 5) 2002 1001

Example 5

A child randomly selects 5 toys from a bin containing 3 bunnies, 5 dogs, and 6 bears. Find the
probability that 2 bears and 3 dogs are chosen.

Solution :
We need to count the number of ways to choose 2 bears and 3 dogs and the total number of possible
ways to select 5 toys.

There are 6 bears, so there are C(6, 2) ways to choose 2 bears. There are 5 dogs, so there are C(5, 3)
ways to choose 3 dogs.

Since we are choosing both bears and dogs at the same time, we will use the Multiplication Principle.
There are C(6, 2) . C(5, 3) ways to choose 2 bears and 3 dogs.

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126

We can use this result to find the probability.

C (6, 2) C (5, 3) 15.10 75

= =
C (14, 5) 2002 1001

Example 6

A child randomly selects 5 toys from a bin containing 3 bunnies, 5 dogs, and 6 bears. Find the
probability that at least 2 dogs are chosen.

Solution :
It is often easiest to solve “at least" problems using the Complement Rule. We will begin by finding
the probability that fewer than 2 dogs are chosen. If less than 2 dogs are chosen, then either no dogs
could be chosen, or 1 dog could be chosen.

Case 1 : When no dogs are chosen (Event A), all 5 toys come from the 9 toys that are not dogs.

There are C(9, 5) ways to choose toys from the 9 toys that are not dogs.

Since there are 14 toys, there are C(14, 5) ways to choose the 5 toys from all of the toys.

C (9, 5) 63
P (A) = =
C (14, 5) 1001
Case 2 : When there is 1 dog chosen (Event B), then 4 toys must come from the 9 toys that are
not dogs, and 1 must come from the 5 dogs. Since we are choosing both dogs and other toys at the
same time, we will use the Multiplication Principle.

There are C(5, 1). C(9, 4) ways to choose 1 dog and 1 other toy.

C (5, 1) C (9, 4)
P (B) =
C (14, 5)
5 × 126
=
2002
315
=
1001
Because these events would not occur together and are therefore mutually exclusive, we add the
probabilities to find the probability that fewer than 2 dogs are chosen.

P (A OR B) = P (A) + P (B)
63 315
= +
1001 1001
378
=
1001
We then subtract that probability from 1 to find the probability that at least 2 dogs are chosen.

378 623
1 − P (A OR B) = 1 − =
1001 1001

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6.4 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) A 4-digit PIN is selected. What is the probability that there are no repeated digits?

(2) The books namely Math, English, Arabic, Physics, and Chemistry are arranged in the rack by the
librarian. What is the probability of Math book will be kept in first place?
(3) Ahmed belongs to a class of 20 students. In his class, 7 students are randomly selected to give the
presentation. What is the probability of Ahmed got selected for the presentation?
(4) A bag contains 3 red and 5 black balls. Two balls are drawn at random from the bag. What is the
probability that the balls drawn are both red?
(5) A bag contains 4 blue and 5 green balls. Two balls are drawn at random from the bag. What is
the probability that the balls drawn are both green?
(6) Suppose you have a bag of 20 blue marbles and 40 red marbles. What is the probability that if 5
are drawn without replacement, 2 are blue and 3 are red?
(7) A child randomly selects 3 gumballs from a container holding 4 purple gumballs, 8 yellow gumballs,
and 2 green gumballs.
(a) Find the probability that all 3 gumballs selected are purple.
(b) Find the probability that no yellow gumballs are selected.
(c) Find the probability that at least 1 yellow gumball is selected.

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128

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 Chapter 7

Introduction of GeoGebra

Contents
7.1 GeoGebra
7.1.1 GeoGebra Installers
7.1.2 Opening GeoGebra Files
7.1.3 Exploring Polynomials
7.1.4 Visualizing a System of Linear Equations
7.1.5 Challenge

Learning outcome covered:

(i) Use appropriate softwares to interpret equations and graphs.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
à Sketch and interpret graphs of basic functions.
à Interpret equations and inequalities graphically.

Introduction:
In this chapter, we will learn to sketch and interpret polynomials, linear and quadratic equations using dy-
namic software. GeoGebra is a dynamic mathematics software and an interactive geometry, algebra, statistics
and calculus application, intended for learning and teaching mathematics and science from primary school to
university level. It is available on multiple platforms with its desktop applications for Windows, macOS and
Linux, with its tablet apps for Android, iPad and Windows, and with its web application based on HTML5
technology.

You can do constructions with points, vectors, segments, lines, polygons and conic sections as well as functions
while changing them dynamically afterwards. On the other hand, equations and coordinates can be entered
directly. Thus, GeoGebra has the ability to deal with variables for numbers, vectors and points. It finds
derivatives and integrals of functions and offers commands like Root or Vertex.

129
130

7.1 GeoGebra

7.1.1 GeoGebra Installers

Download the installer file from http://www.geogebra.org/download

Make sure you have the correct version for your operating system.

Double-click the GeoGebra installer file and follow the instructions of the installer assistant.

Reach GeoGebra (without installation):

• Step-1 : Use any browser and reach GeoGebra offical website : http://www.geogebra.org

• Step-2 : Click "START CALCULATOR"

• Step-3 : In the input bar, type the required function to generate its graph

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GeoGebra’s User Interface

After starting GeoGebra, Using the provided geometry tools in the Toolbar you can create geometric con-
structions on the Graphics View with your mouse. At the same time the corresponding coordinates and
equations are displayed in the Algebra View. On the other hand, you can directly enter algebraic input,
commands, and functions into the Input Bar by using the keyboard. While the graphical representation of
all objects is displayed in the Graphics View, their algebraic numeric representation is shown in the Algebra
View. In GeoGebra, geometry and algebra work side by side.

How to Operate GeoGebra’s Geometry Tools

• Activate a tool by clicking on the button showing the corresponding icon.

• Open a toolbox by clicking on the lower part of a button and select another tool from this toolbox.
Hint: You don’t have to open the toolbox every time you want to select a tool. If the icon of the desired
tool is already shown on the button it can be activated directly. Hint: Toolboxes contain similar tools
or tools that generate the same type of new object.

• Click on the icon at the right of the Toolbar to get help on the currently active tool.

How to Save and Open GeoGebra Files

Saving GeoGebra Files

• Open the File menu and select Save.

• Select the folder GeoGebra Introduction in the appearing dialog window.

• Type in a name for your GeoGebra file. Click Save in order to finish this process.

A file with the extension .ggb is created. This extension identifies GeoGebra files and indicates that they can
only be opened with GeoGebra.

Name your files properly: Avoid using spaces or special symbols in a file name since they can cause unnecessary
problems when transferred to other computers. Instead, you can use underscores or upper case letters within
the file name (e.g. First_Drawing.ggb).

7.1.2 Opening GeoGebra Files

• Open a new GeoGebra window (menu File - New window).

• Open a blank GeoGebra interface within the same window (menu File - New).

• Open an already existing GeoGebra file (menu File - Open).

(i) Navigate through the folder structure in the appearing window.

(ii) Select a GeoGebra file (extension.ggb) and click Open.

If you did not save the existing construction, yet GeoGebra will ask you to do so before the blank screen /
new file is opened.

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7.1.3 Exploring Polynomials

Preparations

• Open a new GeoGebra window

• Switch to Perspectives - Algebra & Graphics

Construction Steps

1 Enter the cubic polynomial f (x) = 0.5x3 + 2x2 + 0.2x − 1.

2 Create the roots of polynomial f : R = Root[f ]
Hint: If there are more than one root GeoGebra will produce indices for their names
if you type in R = (e.g. R1, R2, R3).
3 Create the extrema of polynomial f : E = Extremum[f ].
4 Create the turning points of polynomial f : E = Turning Point[f ].
5 Create tangents to f in E1 and E2.
6 Create the inflection point of polynomial f : I = Inflection Point[f ].

You might want to change properties of objects (e.g. color of points, style of the tangents, show name and
value of the function).

7.1.4 Visualizing a System of Linear Equations

Preparations

• Open a new GeoGebra window

• Switch to Perspectives - Algebra & Graphics and show the Grid.

Construction Steps

1 Create slider m_1 with the default settings for sliders.

Hint: m_1 gives you m1.
2 Create slider b_1 with the default settings for sliders.
3 Create the linear equation line_1: y = m_1 x + b_1.
4 Create slider m_2 using the default settings for sliders.
5 Create slider b_2 using the default settings for sliders.
6 Create linear equation line_2: y = m_2 x + b_2.
7 Create the dynamic text1: Line 1: and select line_1 from Objects.
8 Create the dynamic text2: Line 2: and select line_2 from Objects.
9 Construct the intersection point A of both lines line1 and line2.
Hint: You could use command Intersect [line_1, line_2] instead.
10 Define x coordinate = x(A).
Hint: x(A) gives you the x-coordinate of point A.
11 Define y coordinate = y(A).
Hint: y(A) gives you the y-coordinate of point A.
12 Create the dynamic text3: Solution: x = and select x coordinate from Objects.
13 Create the dynamic text4: y = and select y coordinate from Objects.
14 Fix the text and sliders so they cant be moved accidentally.

Access for free at https://www.geogebra.org

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7.1.5 Challenge
Create a similar construction that allows for visualizing the graphical solution of a system of quadratic poly-
nomials.

Hint: Functions need to be entered using the syntax f (x) = ...

Note: Such a dynamic figure can also be used to visualize an equation in one variable by entering each side
of the equation as one of the two functions.

Interactive Worksheets

The Linear Function f (x) = mx + c - https://www.geogebra.org/m/s3jEhYHw

The Quadratic Function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c - https://www.geogebra.org/m/ZBYUrerX
The Exponential Function f (x) = c · akx + d - https://www.geogebra.org/m/s3jEhYHw
The Logarithmic Function f (x) = c · loga (x − k) + d - https://www.geogebra.org/m/EUZVy9Br
The Sine Function f (x) = a sin(bx + c) - https://www.geogebra.org/m/sw4J5W8D
The Sine Function f (x) = a sin(bx + c) + d - https://www.geogebra.org/m/rY3Vycsa
The Cosine Function f (x) = a cos(bx + c) - https://www.geogebra.org/m/azs63teb
The Cosine Function f (x) = a cos(bx + c) + d - https://www.geogebra.org/m/hxsqX7DF

7.1 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

(1) Using GeoGebra or any appropriate software, sketch the graph of the following linear equations
and write the intercepts.
(a) 2x − 6y = 18
(b) 3x − 2y = 12
(c) −5x + 2y = 10

(2) Using GeoGebra or any appropriate software, sketch the graph of the following quadratic functions
and write its vertex, axis of symmetry and minimum value.
(a) x2 + 2x + 8
(b) −2x2 − 7x + 4
(c) 3x2 − 10x − 8

(3) Using GeoGebra or any appropriate software, sketch the graph of the following system of equation
and find the solution if exist.
(a) 2x + y = 9; 3x − y = 16
(b) x–2y = –9; x + 3y = 16
(c) 2x–y = 9; 3x + 4y = –14

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