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Ind 7044.1

tharvard College Library

VELIRI
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FROM THE BEQUEST OF

HENRY WARE WALES, M.D.
Class of 1838

FOR BOOKS OF INTEREST TO THE

SANSKRIT DEPARTMENT
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H. H. The present Maharajah. Sir Rama Varma ( Mulam Tirunal ), G.C. 8.I. , G.C. I. E. ,
aseended the Musnud 19th August, 1885 .
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Photo by Z. D'Cruz . M. E. PRESS.

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with the Author's best resand
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March 1908
THE

TRAVANCORE

STATE MANUAL .
 ව

THE

TRAVANCORE STATE MANUAL

BY

V. NAGAM AIYA, B. A., F. R. Hist. S.,

Dewan Peishcar, Travancore.

IN THREE VOLUMES - VOL . I.

Trivandrum

PRINTED AT THE TRAVANCORE GOVERNMENT PRESS

1906 .
Ind 7044.1 HARVA
RD COLLEG
E
JUL 11 1916
LIBRARY

wales fund
( I - IU )
 PREFACE .

Under command of His Highness the Maha Rajah, the

preparation of the State Manual of Travancore was decided upon
some time ago, and I was appointed to it with the simple in
struction that the book was to be after the model of the District
Manuals of Madras . This instruction I have faithfully carried
out and I am happy to report now that the book is completed
and issued in three large volumes. Although I have allowed
myself some latitude in forming my own conception of the design
and scope of the work and devoted my best attention and energies
to their exposition and elucidation, I still feel I might have done
better if I had been left to myself, to work at it leisurely , spending
“ a laborious day upon each page,” undisturbed by limitations
of time and space .
The difficulty of compiling a work of this nature will readily
enlist the sympathies of those who have laboured in similar
fields, for as Sir Frederick A. Nicholson points out in his Report
on Agricultural Banks, at which he worked for about 3 years :
“ The delay in submitting the report is due to many causes, principally to
the immensity and complexity of the subject, to the difficulty of ascertaining and
then of obtaining sources of information, to the discontinuity thereby imposed
when a half finished study had to be broken off till the receipt of further infor
mation, to the extreme difficulty arising from the incessant demands of a
Collector's work notwithstanding two periods of special duty. ... For the
Madras Presidency statistics and information did not exist, and it is only
through much enquiry and by the courtesy of numerous correspondents that
information has been obtained .”

Mr. H. H. Risley's portion of the Indian Census Report of

1901 covers, according to Mr. Gait,* 136 pages of that volume
* In the Introduction to the Report on the Census of India (1903) Vol. I. pp. xvi and
xvii, Mr. E. A. Gait, 1. C. S., writes :- " The Office of Census Commissioner for India was held
by Mr. H. H. Risley, c. I. E., from its creation in October 1899 until September 1902 when,
unfortunately for the Census, his services were required for a higher appointment and his
immediate connection with the operations came to an end. At that time the reports for a
number of Provinces and States still remained to be received, and it had thus been impossible
to make much progress with the General Report for the whole of India. Mr. W. F. Meyer,
C. I. E., took charge of the office temporarily, in addition to his duties as Editor of the Imperial
Gazetteer, and I succeeded him as Census Commissioner on the 23rd January 1903. In spite
of the pressure of other work , Mr. Risley bas himself completed the Chapter on Caste , and the
portions of four other Chapters, as noted in the margin , are also from his pen.”
V. N.
 iv PREFACE .

a circumstance which can hardly represent the magnitude of his

labours or research during the 3 years he was in charge of the
last Imperial Census. The Report of Sir James Thomson's
Excise Committee, which was ordered by the Government of
India to be submitted in 8 months i. e. by the end of April 1906,
evidently took more time than was anticipated. It is not yet
available to the public. More instances could be cited to prove that
neither the quantity of matter written nor the time taken can
serve as a correct gauge of the labour or research involved in
an undertaking of this sort. This is the invariable experience
of all past workers.
Now that the work is finished, no word of explanation or
justification is needed save to remove misapprehension in certain
quarters. The idea of writing a State Manual was first broached
to me by Dewan T. Rama Row, C. I. E. , one fine morning 14 years
ago, i. e. even before I had begun to compile the Census Report
of 1891. He said I must do the Census Report first and
then take up the Manual. All this was , of course, to be done
along with my heavy legitimate duties as Dewan Peishcar and
District Magistrate of Quilon , which I then was. I agreed without
a moment's hesitation though fully alive to the responsibility I
thus took upon myself, for it was impossible for me to decline
an offer so kindly made and with such flattering compliments by
so estimable a chief as Dewan Rama Row. He immediately
obtained His Highness' sanction and sent me official orders
in the last quarter of 1891. He retired a few months later and
with his retirement the matter was dropped, for nothing came of
it during the six years of Mr. Shungrasoobyer's Dewanship, as
he did not seem to care for it at all . Dewan Bahadur Srinivasa
Raghavaiyangar, c . 1. E. , complains of a parallel circumstance
in the writing of his book, * for he says in his Preface :
“ The departure of Lord Connemara to England and pressure of other official
work led to the preparation of this Memorandum being laid aside for some time,
and I was able to resume the work only in the latter half of 1891. Since then

* ' Forty years' Progress of Madras ' ( 1893) .

 PREFACE .

I have been more or less engaged on it, but as the work has had to be carried on
in addition to my other official duties, it has not been possible to finish it earlier. ”
The matter was however revived by Dewan Mr. K. Krishna
swamy Row, C. I, E. , in 1901 , and during his time I devoted to
it, off and on, such leisure as the pressing duties of the
Settlement Department perunitted . It was only in December
1904 that I took it up as a full-time officer and it may be safely
said that the best part of these three closely printed volumes is
the result of assiduous and sustained labours carried on since .
In reporting completion of the manuscript of the book, I
wrote to the Dewan in my letter, No. 387 dated 1st October 1905,
thus :
“ In contingation of my letter No. 371 dated 26th August 1905, I have the
honour to inform you that I have finished the State Manual of Travancore in
which I have been engaged continuously for the past nine months and my ser
vices are available for any other work which His Highness' Government may be
pleased to entrust me with.”
I added :
“ I take this opportunity of expressing my grateful acknowledgments to His
Highness' Government for entrusting this important work to me without any
solicitation on my part - a work in which I have spent much thought and study
during several years past though owing to more pressing duties I could not
devote to it that attention which it deserved, except at distant intervals of busi
pess . It is due to us also to add that my extremely limited staff and myself
have worked at it with energy and diligence."
To this letter the Dewan made no reply. · The additional
time thereby gained has however proved of much advantage to
the work ; not only were the proofs read carefully and well , but
the old data, already collected, were verified , new data added
where possible , some chapters were either revised or wholly
re -written, additional matter put in , the manuscript throughout
was touched up and the whole book itself satisfactorily finished
and passed through the Press, with a full table of contents, a
glossary of vernacular terms and an exhaustive index. In the letter
referred to above, viz. , No. 371 dated 26th August 1905, I had
observed : -

" I estimated the work to be completed in 6 months at the most, but that
was as I explained to you in my letter noted in the margin ( No. 313 dated 23rd
May 1905) under the belief that I was tobe allowed aa staff of 10 clerks applied for
 PREFACE .

by me, the choice of clerks from the permanent Departments who would not run
a way as 7 or 8 temporary clerks did during the last 7 months, and that I was
to be allowed also to expend the money saved every month by shortage of hands.
You disagreed to every one of these 3 proposals . So it became impossible for
me to finish the work in 6 months as originally estimated in my letter of the
11th November 1904 . ... I believe I have been very moderate in applying
only for 3 months' time from the 30th June last. Under the circumstances
explained above, there was ample justification for my asking for 6 months' more
time . But as I have already reported, I am most anxious to be done with this
work as early as possible.”
Mr. Srinivasa Raghavaiyangar, the talented compiler of the
Forty Years' Progress of Madras, took 27 months to write his
book-a volume of 340 pages, speaking of quantity alone, the
subject-matter of which is admittedly one of a more homo
geneous and less complex nature than that of a State Manual.
And yet in his forwarding letter to Government, Srinivasa
Raghavaiyangar wrote of the delay in the issue of his book thus:
“ The collection and reduction of the necessary statistics and the preparation
of the second part of the memorandum took up more time than I had anticipated
and I was able to complete the work only last May notwithstanding that I took
privilege leave for three months in the beginning of this year for the purpose.”
His achievement is a safe criterion to judge of the work of
other labourers in similar fields, for to my mind the late Srini
vasa Raghavaiyangar was a perfect embodiment of indefatigable
industry, deep thought, wide reading, unostentatious independence
and high literary, skill. In these circumstances, no. special justi
fication seems needed for the unavoidable delay in the issue of
the Travancore Manual , a work of an encyclopædic nature spread
over a space of more than 1820 pages of letter-press — to say
nothing of the continued strain , the anxious and unremitting at
tention or the huge preliminary studies it cost .
As for the plan of the book, it is enough to say that the mass
of information collected has been thrown into 21 chapters and
placed in 3 volumes for convenience of handling. Under these 21
chapter-headings almost every subject of importance and interest
concerning the State has been brought in. For these chapter
headings several District Manuals of Madras have been consulted ,
particularly the revised ones of Bellary and Anantapur by
 PREFACE . vii

Mr. W. Francis, 1. C. S. , and it is enough to observe that the Travan

core State Manual is fuller and more comprehensive than the
Manuals of Madras. In order to do justice to the amplitude of
information collected and the labour spent upon it, the size of
the book has been enlarged into three volumes from what was
originally intended to be one moderate -sized volume. It would
be false economy, I thought, to throw away the results of great
labour and research in order to save some printing space. Tedious
ness were, in my view , a much lighter fault under such circum
stances, especially in a book of this nature ; but terseness has
been my ambition , though after the most conscientious en
deavours to clip and prune I could not do more, on the present
occasion , without keeping out matter which I really wished to
retain . Even as it is, I feel the chapters on “ History ' and
6
* Castes ' are capable of further amplification , particularly the
latter chapter, of which only the outer fringe , so to speak , has
been touched in these pages. It is a never ending theme of value
and interest , and the stores of information still available on it
remain unutilised . A whole volume ought to be devoted to
* Castes ' alone. The chapter on the ' Gazetteer ' may well
be amplified in a future edition .
In the writing of this book, my aim has been to present to
an utter stranger to Travancore such a picture of the land and its
people, its natural peculiarities, its origin , history and administra
tion, its forests and animals, its conveniences for residence or travel ,
its agricultural, commercial, industrial, educational and economic
activities, its ethnological, social and rcligious features as he may
not himself be able to form by a 30 years' study or residence in it .
If this is a correct view of the object of aa Manual, I trust I may be per
mitted to entertain the hope that a fairly successful debut has been
made, notwithstanding defects or shortcomings that may exist ,
especially as this is only a pioneer attempt in a novel direction.
It is not necessary to prejudge here what a revision might give
opportunities for, in the way of condensing in some directions or
amplifying in others. If I get the chance myself at a not distant
viii PREFACE .

date, I should probably do both and thus try to reach the ideally
perfect Manual, perhaps a vain Utopian desire, which standard of
excellence however, I know , is far from having been attained in
the present performance.
In the History ' chapter in which I have spent much
thought and sturiy, I have endeavoured to give faithful pictures of
Parasurama's carly colonists and their autonomous governments,
their landed aristocracy, their peculiar tenures and permanent
tenantry , of the later kings and ministers, of wars and conquests,
of the dissensions of the Ettuvittil Pillamars, the Tampis and
the Yogakkars, their mutual jealousies and intrigues, of the fortunes
of the minor principalities which make up the Travancore of to
day and the events which led to their final absorption , of the chief
forces that were at work during successive epochs which enabled
a petty village near Eraniel to reach its present dimensions of a
compact block of territory 7,000 sq. miles in area , of the European
powers that successively bid for supremacy of trade on this coast
and the ultimate success of the English East India Company, our
early friendships with them and the staunch support which they
in return uniformly gave us through all vicissitudes of fortune,
ultimately resulting in a strong bond of political alliance and reci
procal trust and confidence, which assured to us internal security
and immunity from external aggression , thus enabling us to
achieve the triumphs of peace and good government, until step
by step we reached the enviable height of being known as the
• Model Native State of India - a title which we have maintained
by wise rule and sound financial policy during successive reigns
up to this day. And this has been no easy task as the narrative
had to be woven out of a tangled web of falsehoods and mis -state
ments,of exaggerated versions and contradictory chronicles, in
separable from oral tradition, fragmentary record and a disorga
nised debris of scattered and confused materials. The difficulty
of writing a history of events which took place long ago is great
indeed, for as pointed out by John Morley, in his “ Life of
Gladstone ', “ Interest grows less vivid ; truth becomes harder to
 PREFACE . ix

find out ; memories pale and colour fades ” . It is much more so

in the case of a nation -- the events of whose life and progress
cover a space of many centuries and comprise multitudinous
interests and concerns. The History chapter is dealt with in
three sections, viz., Ancient history, Early history, and Modern
history — the last comprising àa period of 10 reigns or 175
years, bringing the narrative down to the end of the year
1079 m . E. ( 15th August 1901), that being the last year for
which full information was available on this and other headings
when the book was written .

The labour involved in the task was truly gigantic, for it often
entailed a wading through a mass of records of all sorts in order
to get at a grain of information . The nature of the research may
be judged from the following extract of my letter to the Dewan ,
dated 25th June 1903 :
“ As suggested in your D. ( ) . of 1st Inst., I beg to submit herewith a
revised list of records to be obtained from Fort St. George. I have cut down 79
numbers from the list of 336 papers originally selected , which itself was a selec
tion from a total of about 600 papers relating to Travancore. In a matter like
this where the granting of the application for records is entirely a question of
pleasure with Government, there can be no argument; all that I can say is that
an indulgent view should be taken of the application and that I should be given
some latitude in the choice of records. It is possible that a good many of the
papers that one has to read through in the preparation of a book or report may
not be ultimately utilized . In the opinion of Milman , one of the biographers of
Lord Macaulay, The historian, the true historian must not confine himself to
the chronicles and annals, the public recorils , the state papers, the political
correspondence of statesmen and ambassadors; he must search into; he must
make himself familiar with the lowest, the most ephemeral, the most contempt
ible of the writings of the day. There is no trash which he must not digest ;
nothing so dull and wearisome that lie must not wade through '. In the instance
which the Resident refers to, viz., ' note of the firing of the usual salute on the
departure of the king of Travancore to the north ', I should just like to know
6

what the actual “ salute ' fired was, if such information is available from that
record. It is not of course absolutely essential for my book. It may even be
put down as* aa* mere *antiquarian curiosity ; but if so, it is a curiosity which is
justifiable, 91
I shall content myself with the papers that are placed
at my disposal.

· Archæology', ' Fauna ’, ‘ Census and Population ', Language

and Literature ' , ' Economic Condition ', and ' Legislation and
Statute -book ' are new chapters in this Manual, not found in the
revised MadrasGazetteers. “ Local Self-Government'is a heading
X PREFACE .

which I have not utilised as we have nothing corresponding to

it here just yet . The information under my other chapters viz.,
6 6
Religion ', ' Castes ' , ' Trade and Commerce ', ' Arts and Industries',
' Land Tenures and Land Taxes ' , and ' Administration ' deals with
the matter comprised in Mr. Francis' chapters on the People,
Occupation and Trade, Land Revenue Administration , Salt, Ab
kari and miscellaneous revenue and Administration of Justice .
The other chapters are the same in both the books.
I have been much exercised in the matter of arranging the
order of the chapters in the Manual. What I have ultimately de
cided upon, though slightly different from that adopted in the
Madras Gazetteers, appears to me to be the most natural order. It
is thus . The first 4 chapters deal with the lie of the land , its cli
matic conditions and its exuberant vegetable and animal life. The
next 2 chapters deal with History and its chief basis for facts, viz. ,
Archæology. The whole of the second volume (chapters VII to
XII) deals with the people as a whole in all their many -sidedness,
i.e. their growth of numbers, their faiths, ethnography, language,
education and health . The first 5 chapters of the third volume deal
with the economic condition of the people such as agriculture and
irrigation, trade and industries and the conveniences that exist for
the same . Then come 3 chapters dealing with " administration '
more or less ; and the book concludes with an alphabetical descrip.
tion of places of interest, so necessary for aa stranger to understand
a country aright. This arrangement I believe is the most natural
one to adopt and has been finally resolved upon.
One encouraging circumstance in the course of writing the
book has been the fact that some of the chapters were perused in
manuscript by Messrs. G. T. Mackenzie, 1. C. S. , and J. Andrew,
1. C. S. , our former British Residents. Both of them expressed
approbation of the work done . Mr. Mackenzie who took a warm
interest in the progress of the Manual from the very beginning
wrote to me on the 9th October 1903 :
“ 1 have perused the Mss . of the first portion of the Manual and it seems to
me to be excellent.
 PREFACE. xi

Again, he wrote on the 8th February 1904 :

9
" I return these draft chapters with many thanks ; they are really very good ”
Again on the 19th November 1904 ( the day he resigned the
Civil Service and left Travancore), he was good enough to write of
the ‘History' chapter thus :
“ I have now perused it and find it deeply interesting. I have corrected
one or two clerical errors but otherwise there is nothing to alter.

Since then , one whole chapter and a portion of another have

been submitted for His Highness the Maharajah's perusal.
Mr. R. C. C. Carr, I. C. . , Bar - at - Law , the present British
>

Resident, has now perused several chapters of the Manual. He

wrote on the 8th April 1906 :
“ I am much obliged to you for your kindness in sending me the advance
copy of the second portion of the State Manual. It contains a great deal of
interesting matter and I hope to stady it shortly. I have already received the
bound copy of Vol. I and am very glad to have it ."
To my numerous helpers in this work I offer my grateful
acknowledgments. No work of this magnitude can be satisfactori
ly performed except with the aid of a host of coadjutors ; and I
have had that aid from all sides --officers of Government, retired
public servants, vakils, journalists, private individuals, land-lords,
planters, bankers, merchants, agriculturists, Vydians, Man
travadis, Christian metrans, bishops and missionaries and numero
ous other correspondents of divers sorts. As was justly remarked
by Sir J. A. Baines, K. C. S. I. , I. C. S., in his preface to the Im
perial Census Report of 1891 ,
“ The Census deals with so many subjects each of which, in the present day
falls within the province of a specialist that no single individnal can safely trust
to his own mnaided capacity in reviewing them , but is forced like Moliere, a
prendre son bien on ill be trouve, and I have done my best to acknowledge such
depredations at the time I have found it convenient to make them . ”
The same may be said of my State Manual , for which if I
have been compelled to make depredations, it will be noted that
I have ungrudgingly acknowledged them in the body of the book
itself, for such acknowledgment not only lessens the burden of my
responsibility but also confirms my own opinions, thereby enhan
cing the value of the work achieved.
xij PREFACE.

I must next express my obligations to Mr. C. V. Raman Pillai,

B. A. , the energetic Superintendent of the Government Press, for the
help and co-operation he has willingly rendered in passing this
huge work through the press, in spite of repeated calls on him for
urgent work from other departments of the State. He has also
prepared the index to the Manual which I entrusted him with ,
under orders of Government, on account of his special experience
in it as the late Indexer to the Travancore High Court . I have
to commend his work to the notice of Government.

A map of Travancore specially designed for this book by Mr.

G.N. Krishna Rao, Superintendent of Survey is placed in the pocket
at the end of the third volume. A few photographs are also insert
ed to illustrate the book ; more should have been put in but for the
cost. If time had permitted, I should have added a volume of
appendix of papers made in this connection, containing mono
graphs on several special subjects, Sthalapuranoms of temples and
places of pilgrimage, accounts of noble families and the chiefs of petty
principalities, extracts made from books, newspapers and maga
zines and documents examined in the course of these studies and
other evidence relied on in the writing of the Manual, all of which
will form a mass of valuable data, upon which to base more ex
tended researches in the same direction in the future.

In conclusion , I beg to tender my respectful thanks to His

Highness the Maharajah's Government for having vouchsafed
to me the opportunity of performing so herculean aa task - notwith
standing the many difficulties and obstacles I had at the outset.
At one time it appeared to me, judging from the correspondence
that took place, that I was engaged in a thankless work amidst
inhospitable surroundings, and that though I had undertaken it
years ago under favourable auspices, a change had come and I
was evidently exhausting myself in an uphill work, which would
give no satisfaction.. The following extract of my letter to the
Dewan , dated the 20th June 1905 , will explain the circumstance .
I wrote :
 PREFACE . xiii

" I do not wish to refer to the observation which you have more than once
6
made in your letters about entrusting the work to other agency '. This is a
matter entirely left to the pieasure of Government. I was appointed to the
writing of the State Manual by His Highness' Government without any solicita
tion on my part ; and three of your immediate predecessors who knew me and
the public service thoroughly well for long years, concurred in thinking that the
work should be done by me,as if they could not think of any other officer equally
competent to do it, though for my part I did not show the least unwillingness
to give it up, especially as I was so fully occupied otherwise. They evidently
meant it to be done by me during intervals of business, as they all knew the
quality of similar work I had done before, which repeatedly received the appro
bation of His Highness ' Governinent.
This however was only a passing cloud and the situation soon
improved. Now that the difficulties have all been surmounted and
the work itself done and done to my own satisfaction more or less,
there is but one feeling uppermost in my mind, and that is one
of deep thankfulness and gratitude to Government for the
opportunity afforded me to associate my name with a book of this
nature, in which I trust Government will see ample evidence
of earnest, assiduous and sustained labours on my part, for
more than a year past.

It is hardly necessary to add that the views expressed and

the suggestions made in these volumes, the result of years of
patient study and observation, are wholly conceived in the
interests of the State and the people ; and as such I have no
doubt they will receive careful consideration at the hands of
Government in due time, for when carried out they will, I am
satisfied , not only add to the credit of His Highness' enlightened
rule but, in the wise words of Bacon , “ make the estate of his
people still more and more happy, after the manner of the legis
lators in ancient and heroical times .'

Trivandrum , V. NAGAM AIYA.

16th August 1906 .
 PLAN OF CONTENTS .

VOL. I.
PAGES .
CHAPTER I. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION .
SEC . A. PHYSICAL FEATURES 1432
SEC . B. GEOLOGY 32-54
CHAPTER II. CLIMATE , RAINFALL , AND METEOROLOGY ... 55-75
CHAPTER III. FLORA 76–117
CHAPTER IV . FAUNA 118–163
CHAPTER V. ARCHÆOLOGY
...

164-208
CHAPTER VI . HISTORY .

SEC . A. ANCIENT HISTORY

...

209-236
SEC. B. EARLY HISTORY
...

237-332
...

SEC. C. MODERN HISTORY.

MARTANDA VARMA 333–368
RAMA VARMA
...

569—416
...

...

BALA RAMA VARMA 417-454

...

LAKSHMI BAYI 455-470

PARVATHI BAYI 471-481
RAMA VARMA (Swati Tirunal) ... 482—503
MARTANDA VARMA (Uttram Tirunal) ... 504-537
RAMA VARMA (Ayilliam Tirunal) 538-586
RAMA VARMA (Visakham Tirunal) 587-603
HIS HIGHNESS SIR RAMA VARMA (Mulam
Tirunal - Present Maharajah ) ... 604-648
 TABLE OF CONTENTS ,

CHAPTER I.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION.
SECTION A. PHYSICAL FEATURES .
NAME OF THE COUNTRY, page 1 . GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION , 3.
BOUNDARIES, 3. SHAPE AND AREA, 3. GENERAL FEATURES, 4. Moun
TAINS, 11–Chief Plateaux :-Gudaramala, 13 ; Devicolam , 13 ; Anay
cudoo , 13 ; Eravimala, 13 ; Perumalmala, 13 ; Anchanad, 13 ; Vattavada, 13 ;
Kundala, 13. PASSES , -- Bodinaickanur, 14 - Tevaram , 14 - Kambam ,
14 – Gudalur, 15-Shivagiri Ghaut, 15-Achankovil, 15 — Aryankavu, 15—
Shanar Ghaut, 15 — Aryanad, 15—Mottacchimala, 15 — Tirukkurangudy,
16 - Aramboly, 16–Yedamala, 16. RIVERS , 16—The Periyar, 17 — The
Minachil River, 18 — The Muvattupuzha River, 18 — The Ranni or Pamba
River, 18 — The Kallada River, 19— The Manimala River, 19– The Achan
kovil or Kulakkada River, 20 — The Attungal or Vamanapuram River, 20
The Itthikkara River, 20—The Killiyar, 20—The Karamana River, 20 ---
The Neyyar, 21 — The Paralayar or Kuzhitturayar, 21 -- The Kothayar, 21
The Pazhayar or the Vatasseri River,21. CANALS AND BACKWATERS, 22.
COAST LINE, 26. PORTS AND SHIPPING FACILITIES, 27 -- Alleppey, 27
Poracad, 28 — Quilon, 28 - Tangasseri, 29—Anjengo, 29 - Puntora, 30—
Vizhinjam , 30 — Colachel, 30 — Cadiapatnam point, 30 — Manakudi, 31–
Cape Comorin, 31 . pp. 1–32 .
SECTION B. GEOLOGY .
GEOLOGY PROPER, page 32. THE GNEISSIC SERIES, 33. THE VAR
KALA OR CUDDALORE SANDSTONE SERIES, 37 . MARINE BEDS, 42.
BLOWN SANDS, 44. CORAL REEFS, 45 . SOILS , 46 . SMOOTH -WATER
ANCHORAGES, 46. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, 51 – Plumbago, 51–Iron , 52–
Limestone, 53 — Granite, 53—Mica, 53. pp. 32–54 .

CHAPTER II .
CLIMATE , RAINFALL, AND METEOROLOGY.
CLIMATE, page 55. SEASONS, 56. TEMPERATURE, 59 — Diurnal vari
ation, 59 - Annual variation, 60. RAINFALL , 65 — Annual variation, 66
Periods of deficient rainfall, 66. WIND, 69 — Variation of wind velocity,
69. STORMS, 71. EARTHQUAKES, 73, pp. 55—75 .
xvi
TABLE OF CONTENTS. ( VOL. I.
CHAPTER III .
FLORA .

INTRODUCTORY, page 76. VALUABLE TIMBER TREES, 80 — Teak,

80_Malabar Blackwood, 81 -Ebony, 81 -- Sandalwood, 82 - Anjili,
82 - Thambagam , 82--Venga, 83—Thembavu, 83-White Cedar,
84–Red Cedar, 84 — Ventekku, 84- Jack, 84 – Irul, 85-Mayila, 85–
Manjakadambu, 86 -- Ceylon Oak, 86 -- Manimaruthu , 86 — Mango, 86
Malampunna, 86 -- Cheeni, 87-Pathiri, 87--Cotton Tree, 87 - Karunta
gara or Vaga, 88—Malakanjiram, 88—Iron-wood, 88 — Nedunar, 88–
Shurali, 88—Indian Copal, 88 — Malavuram , 89—Kalasan, 89 – Kollamavu,
89 - Arayanjili, 89-Aval , 89 – Venkotta, 89 – Mukkampala, 89 – Palaga
payani, 89 – Maruthu or Pumaruthu, 89-Kanakaitha, 89 --Kar Anjili,
89–Mulluvenga, 89 – Pambarakumbil, 90-Kattu Iluppa, 90 — Puthan
kalli, 90 — Karuva, 90 -- Kalpayin, 90—Shenchandanam, 90—Kattu Puvan,
90-Wynaad Shingle-tree, 90—— Vellakasavu, 90. TREES'YIELDING GUMS,
RESINS AND DYES, 91. AVENUE TREES, 92. CYCADS AND PALMS, 94 .
BAMBOOS AND REEDS, 95. FIBROUS PLANTS, 97. MEDICINAL TREES AND
PLANTS, 99—Vettila Kasturi, 100—Peruntutti, 100 -- Kuppameni, 100
Nayuri, 100—Vasamboo, 100—Adatoda, 101–Bilva, 101--Chittaratta,
101_Lemon grass, 101 – Vilamicham , 101–Karuntumba, 101 — Samudra
chedi, 101 - Perumarundoo, 101—Nirmulli, 101 —Kattu Atthi, 102 — Alpam ,
102—Erukkalai , 102–Modakattan, 102–- Seema Agathi , 102 — Karuva ,
102 — Elumichai, 102 – Sankhapushpam , 103 -— Nervalam , 103— Mavilan
gam , 103—Kuvamanjal , 103 — Kasturimanjal, 103— Veliparuthi,103— Karu
salankanni, 103 — Mullumurunga, 104 - Devadaram , 104 — Kammatti, 104–
Karunochi , 104-Choratti , 104 — Kazhanchi, 104—Narunindi, 104 – Koda
gapala, 105 -Modirakanni, 105 - Maravetti, 105 —- Vallarai, 105 – Orelata
mara, 105—Indian Jalap, Shevatai , 105 — Kattumallika, 106 — Kattama
nakku , 106 — Vembu, 106 - Champaka, 106 — Thottavadi, 106 — Karuvep
pila, 106 - Wild nutmeg, Jatikkai, 106—Sweet Basil, 107 – Tulasi, 107–
Nelli, 107 – Kilanelli, 107–Pevetti , 107-Black Pepper, 107 – Kodiveli, 108
-Pomegranate, 108—Nagamalli, 108 — Karinghota, 108—Sandalwood, 108
-Belamodagam , 108 —- Ealettadi-maravara, 109– Senkottai , 109— Agathi ,
109–Kandankathri, 109—Tooduvala, 109– Tanikai, 109—Indian Almond,
109—Kadukai, 109– Sirukanjori, 110–Nerunji , 110 — Peppodal, 110—
Narumpanel , 110 —- Chembara valli, 110 --Ginger, 110 — Jujube, 111 .
FLOWERING AND ORNAMENTAL PLANTS, 111 - Allamanda Cathartica, 111
Samstravadi, 111-Mandarai, 111-Porasu , 111- Saralkonnai, 111 - Chiru
-

tekku , 112 — Sankhapushpam , 112—Kasturimanjal, 112 — Murunga, 112—

VOL. I. ] TABLE OF CONTENTS . xvii

Gloriosa superba, 112-- Chemparuthi, 112-Adakodien, 112 — Thetti, 112—

Kattumallika, 112 — Kattujirakamulla, 112 — Manimaruthu, 113– Nedum
chetti , 113 — Champaka, 113—Indian Cork tree, 113 — Vellila or Velli
madantai, 113 – Lotus, 113 – Sweet- scented Oleander, 113 – Parijatakam
or Pavazhamalli, 113—Alli, 113—- Kaitha, 114 — Venga, 114 – Nandiya
vatta, 114. CONCLUDING REMARKS, 114. pp. 76—117.

CHAPTER IV.

FAUNA .

PREFATORY NOTE, page 118. GENERAL, 119. MAMMALS, 120. BIRDS,

125. REPTILES, 134. Fish ,, 136. HYMENOPTERA, 138. DIPTERA, 143,.
LEPIDOPTERA, 143-Series I. Rhopalocera, 143—Series II. Heterocera
Moths, 147. COLEOPTERA, 150. NEUROPTERA , 153. ORTHOPTERA, 154.
RHYNCHOTA, 157 THYSANOPTERA AND THYSANURA , 158. MYRIAPODA, 159 .
ARACHNIDA, 159, CRUSTACEA, 161 , pp. 118–163.

CHAPTER V.

ARCHÆOLOGY .

INTRODUCTORY , page 164. ARCHITECTURE , 165 — Dravidian, 165

Jaina and Buddhistic , 165—Indigenous or Malabar, 165—Description of
Sri Padmanabhaswami's temple at Trivandrum , 166. SCULPTURE, 169
Indigenous, 169 - Buddhistic, 169 - Jaina, 169 - Brahminical, 170. COINS,
170 — A . Indigenous, 170 :-Gold Coins, 170 ; Silver Coins, 172 ; Copper
Coins, 173 ; Zinc Coins, 173—B . Foreign Coins, 174 :-Early Bud
dhistic, 174 ; European, 174 ; South Indian , 174 ; Ceylon, 175. INSCRIP
TIONS, 175—Tables showing the inscriptions arranged according to their
age, 176—to the Taluqs in which they occur, 176—to their character, 177—
to their language, 177—to the materials on which they are inscribed, 178–
to their subjectmatter, 178 — to their donors, 179—to their donees, 179
Vattezhuttu, 180 -- Kolezhuttu, 181 – Old Tamil, 181–Copies of inscrip
tions and translations :-Plate A. , 182–Plate B. , 183–Plate C. , 1854
Plate D., 185—Plate E. , 187 — The language of the inscriptions, 194—
Their date, 194—Locality, 194 –Value, 195 — Subject matter, 195. FORTS
AND MILITARY WORKS, 200—The Udayagiri Fort, 201 — The Padmanabha
puram Fort, 202 — Vattakotta Fort, 203—List of Forts in Travancore, 204.
TOMBS AND MONUMENTS, 207 , pp. 164–208 .
xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS . [ VOL. I.

CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY .

GENERAL REMARKS, 209. MATERIALS FOR HISTORY, 209.

SECTION A. ANCIENT HISTORY.

TRADITIONAL, page 210—Parasurama, 210 – His vow of vengeance ,

212 — The destruction of the Kshatriyas, 212 – His repentance and penance,
212 — Erection of Keralam, 213 — Scientific explanation of this tradition ,
213 — Designation and extent of this new land, 213—His Yagam , 213 —— The
Aryan colonisation of Keralam, 214 - Introduction of trees and plants in
Keralam , 214 - His innovations in the customs of the colonists, 214 — The
Nagas and serpent worship, 215–His gift of land to the Brahmins, 215—The
Brahmins' inability to rule the land, 216 – Parasurama crowns Bhanu
9

vikrama as king of Kerala, 216–The land of Parasurama, 216–Aditya

Varma crowned king of Kerala, 216-Inauguration of the military system ,
216 — Founding of temples and shrines, 216 – Laying down the Acharams
to the new colonists,216-Institution of schools of medicine, 216 - Inaugura
tion of the ceremonies Mahamagham , Hiranyagarbham and Tulapurusha
danam , 216–Founding of more temples and places of pilgrimage, 217–
Creation of a military order from among the Brahmins, 217—His quasi
religious military organisations, 217-- Temples and worship, 218–His de
parture and curse , 219. THE PERUMALS, 219-Systems of Government fol
lowed after Parasurama's departure, 219 :--An oligarchy in ancient Kerala,
219 — How it is described in Keralolpatti , 219 —An elective protectorate,
220—Its failure, 220_Keya Perumal chosen king of Keralam for twelve
years, 221 -- His limited powers, 221-The Chola and Pandya Perumals,
221—Bhuta Raya Pandy Perumal, 221–Enmity between the Brahmins
and the latter, 221 — The story of his murder, 221—The rise of a new caste
the Nambidis, 221–Other versions of this story, 221—Mr. Logan's expla
nation, 221 -- King's powers limited in ancient Keralam , 222—The separa
tion of the northern Gramams from the southern, 222 — Rearrangement of
the southern Gramams, 222— Bana Perumal a new king, 222 — The Maho
medan missionaries, 222 - Conversion of Bana Perumal into the Islam,
222 — The people perplexed at this, 222—Their absolving of this sin, 222—
Bana Perumal set aside and another Perumal installed , 222 -- Criticism upon
Bana Perumal's conversion , 222—Kulasekhara Perumal, 223—Accredited
to be the same as the King of Keralam of the same name , who lived in the
Eraniel palace in South Travancore, 223~Reorganisation of the Brah
mins into a military guild, 223-A Kshatriya from Vijayanagar appointed
king again, 223—The Kolattiri families, 223 — Invasion of Kerala by a
Vou . 1. ) TABLE OF CONTENTS. xix

foreign king, 224 - The last of the Perumals, 224 — General remarks on
the Perumals and the Viceroys from the Chera,, Pandya and Chola
kingdoms, 224 - Their identification and dates, 224-Mr. Logan dates the
Perumal period down to 825 A. D. , 225–His account of Cheraman Perumal's
conversion , 225 — Remarks on the distribution of Kerala by the last
of the Perumals among his relatives and friends, 225 —- General inference
from all the traditional and other accounts about the Perumals, 225.
THE ANTIQUITY OF KERALAM , 229 - Mention of the Cholas, Cheras and
Pandyas and Mahendragiri in the Ramayana, 230 — Of Cape Comorin,
Janardanam and the Cholas and Keralas in the Mahabharata, 230 - Of
the Keralas and the Pandyas in the Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa, 230 — Kera
lam mentioned in the Puranas, 230 ---Mention of the produce of the
Malabar Coast in the Old Testament (1000 B. c .) , 230—Of Kerala in
Katyayana’s and Patanjali's works, 230—Of an embassy to Emperor
Augustus from the Pandyan Ruler in Strabo's works, 231 -Account of
Roman coins preserved in the palace of Travancore kings from of old,
231 – Names such as Calabothros, Purali, &c ., standing for the Ruler of
Kerala and Kerala, as mentioned by the Greek writers Pliny, Ptolemy
and others, 231-A Gupta inscription, Varahamihira's works, inscriptions,
copper-plate documents and other Sanskrit works mentioning about
Kerala, 232 — Early European and Mahomedan travellers, 232 - Native
chronology according to tradition, 233—Taylor's date of the reclamation of
Kerala, 233-The probable date, 234. CONCLUDING REMARKS, 234.
>

pp. 210—236 .
SECTION B. EARLY HISTORY.
PART I. (UP TO 1100 A. D.)
INTRODUCTORY, page 237. EARLY DRAVIDIAN MERCHANTS, 237. THE
EARLIEST TRADERS (B. C. 1000-300) , 237—The Phænicians, 237. EARLY
GREEK ACCOUNTS (300 B. C.-150 A. D.), 238. SOUTH INDIA AND ROME
( 30 B.C.- 540 A.D.), 241. THE EARLY MISSIONARIES, (345 A. D. — 825 A.D.),
243. TRADE WITH CHINA, 244. THE EARLY MAHOMEDANS, 244. TER
RITORIAL EXTENT , 246 . NEIGHBOURING KINGDOMS , 247. POLITICAL
ORGANISATION IN MALABAR, 249. THE PEOPLE, 250. SANKARACHARYA,
250. pp. 237-250 .

PART II. ( 1100-1400 A. D. )

RELATIONS BETWEEN TRAVANCORE AND MADURA IN THE 12TH CENTURY
A. D. , 251–Conquest of Vizhinjam by Rajendra Chola Deva, 251.
THE BELLALAS DRIVEN OUT FROM KERALA, 251. TERRITORIAL EXTENT
XX TABLE OF CONTENTS. [ Vol. 1.
OF TRAVANCORE IN THE BEGINNING OF THE 12TH CENTURY A. D. , 251. SRI
VIRA KERALA VARMA I. OF VENAD (1125) , 252. SRI KODAI ' KERALA
VARMA ( 1145-1150) , 252. Ski VIRA RAVI VARMA ( 1161-1164) , 252.
SRI VIRA KERALA VARMA II. (1164-67), 253—A Travancore Princess
married to the Pandian King Sri Vallabha Pandya, 253. SRI VIRA
UDAYA MARTANDA VARMA (1173) , 254. SRI DEVADARAM KERALA VARMA
(1192) , 254. JATAVARMAN KULASEKHARA KING OF NORTH TRAVANCORE ,
254 . SRI VIRA RAMA VARMA TIRUVADI OF VENAD (1196) , 255—The
Six Hundred , 255. SRI VIRA RAMAN KERALA VARMA (1209-1214), 255.
SRI VIRA RAVI KERALA VARMA (1235) , 256 — The Manalikara Pro
clamation , 256. SRI VIRA PADMANABHA MARTANDA VARMA TIRUVADI
(1252), 258. UMA DEVI, 258. JAYASIMHADEVA OF KERALA (1266-67 A. D.) ,
258. RAVI VARMA KULASEKHARA PERUMAL OF KERALA ( 1299 ), 259. SRI
VIRA UDAYA MARTANDA VARMA TIRUVADIYAR (1316), 259. ADOPTION OF
TWO FEMALES FROM THE KOLATHUNAD FAMILY (1305) BY ADITYA VARMA,
260. THEIR INSTALLATION AS THE ATTUNGAL MUTHA TAMPURAN AND THE
ATTUNGAL ELAYA TAMPURAN, 260. EXTENT OF TRAVANCORE ( c. 1300 A. D.) ,
260. NANJANAD, 260—Its ancient history, 260 — The Korava chiefs, 261–
The extermination of this family, 263— The Mudaliyar rulers, 263.
ADITYA VARMA TIRUVADI ( 1333), 263. SRI VIRA RAMA UDAYA MARTANDA
VARMA OF VENAD ( 1336-1342) , 263. SRI VIRA KERALA VARMA TIRUVADI
(1344) , 264. SRI VIRA MARTANDA VARMA III. (1362-65 ), 264. THE RULE
OF PARAKRAMA PANDYA IN NANJANAD (1373-1386), 265. SARVANGANATHA
ADITYA VARMA II. PERHAPS A SUB-KING OF MARTANDA VARMA, 265 .
SRI VIRA RAVI VARMA THE SENIOR TIRUVADI OF TIRUPPAPUR ( 1383) , 9

265 — The Subjugation of Nanjanad, 266. SRI VIRA KERALA MARTANDA

VARMA OF KILAPPERUR AND MARTANDA VARMA THE SENIOR TIRUVADI
OF TIRUPPAPUR (1412) , 266. CHERA UDAYA MARTANDA VARMA (d . 1444) ,
267—Criticism upon Shungoony Menon's account of this king, 267. AC
COUNTS OF TRAVELLERS, 267-Al Idrisi , 267-Al Kazwini ( 1263-1275),
268—Marco Polo (1293) , 268 :—His account of Quilon , 269 ; Of Comorin,
269 ; Of Melibar, 270 - Friar Jordanus of Severac (1324) , 270 - Friar
Odoric, 270—Ibn Batuta (1324-25), 271 :—His description of Quilon, 271 ;
Relations between Quilon and China at the time, 271 ; His description
of Malabar, 272—- Marignolli of Florence (1347) , 273.
pp. 251–273 .
PART III (1400—1600 A. D. )
STATE OF SOUTH INDIA , page 273. INTERNAL HISTORY, 275 -- Sri Vira
Ravi Ravi Varma the Senior Tiruvadi of Tiruppapur (1416-1417 ), 276–
Sri Vira Rama Martanda Varma Kulasekhara (c. 1450), 276 –- Chempaka
 TABLE OF CONTENTS . xxi
VOL . I. ]

Aditya Varma, (c. 1450) 276 — Kulasekhara Nambirattivar ( c. 1468 ),

277 - Sri Vira Rama Varma of Jayasimhanad ( c. 1168 ), 277- Sri Vira
Kodai Aditya Varma of Kilapperur (c. 1478) , 277 - Sri Vira Ravi Ravi
Varma (1479-1512) , 278 - Aditya Varma and Udaya Martanda Varma
(c. 1500 ), 278— Their Co -regents Jayasimha Deva II. (1186 ) and Sakala
Kala Martanda Varma (1495) , 278 - Jayasimhadeva's tour to South Tra
vancore and his giving concessions to the inhabitants of Parasurama
Perunteru, 279 . ACCOUNTS OF TRAVELLERS FOR THE PERIOD), 280
Mahuan's account of the Port of Cochin , 280 - Nicolo Conti, 280-
Abd-er-Razzak (1442) , 281. THE PORTUGUESE IN MALABAR AND TRAVAN
CORE, 281 - First Portuguese Expedition to India under Vasco da Gama,
282-- Second Expedition under Cabral, 282 — Third Expedition under
Vasco da Gama, 283 ---Gama's departure to Portugal, 283 —-Da Gama
succeeded by Albuquerque (1503 ), 281- Albuquerque lands at Quilon, 281
Eupoli's account of the Portuguese at Quilon, 284 — Albuquerque esta
blishes a commercial depot and factory at Quilon, 285 - Jealousy of the
Moors, 285 — King of Quilon's constancy against the machinations of the
Zamorin , 286 -- Albuquerque recalled , 286 -- Almeyda and Quilon, 286
Factory and fort at Quilon , 288-Siege of the Quilon Fort, 289. STATE
OF THE COUNTRY AND THE CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE, 290 - Lucovica
di Varthema's account of Malabar (1505), 290 — Duarte Barbosa's account
of Malabar and Travancore ( 1514), 291. HISTORIC NARRATIVE RESUMET),
294-Aditya Varma succeeded by his brother Bhutala Vira Sri Vira
Udaya Martanda Varma ( 1535 ), 295 — Bhutala Vira Sri Vira Ravi Varma,
296 — Sri Vira Rama Martanda Varma of Tiruppapur and Siraivoy, a
Co-regent of Bhutala Vira Udaya Martanda Varma, 296_Bhutala Vira
Kerala Varma, the Senior Tiruvadi of Jayasimhanad ( c. 1511 ), 297
Advent of Francis Xavier (1543 ), 297 — The invasion of Travancore by
the Badagas, 297—The Badagas identified with the officers and soldiers of
Vittala, a Prince of Vijayanagar King of Madura ( 1547-1558) , 297–
Travancore saved from the invasion by Xavier's intervention , 298– The
Portuguese depredations in Travancore, 298 - A compromise effected
between Rama Varma the King of Travancore and Vittala, 299
Tala or Tovala , 299 - Internal dissensions between the Senior Tiruvadis
of Siraivoy and Jayasimhanad, 299 — Sri Vira Unni Kerala Varma of Java
simhanad King of Venad ( 1559-1561), 300 -- His Co -regent Sri Vira
Aditya Varma (1559-1565 ), 300—- Sri Vira Udaya Martanda Varma of Jaya
simhanad King of Travancore ( 1567-1587) , 300 - A war between the Portu
guese and the Queen of Malabar (1571 ), 300—King Ravi Varma ( 1578) a
xxii TABLE OF CONTENTS. | Vol. I.
regent of Sri Vira Udaya Martanda Varma, 300 — Sri Vira Ravi Ravi
Varma of Jayasinhanad ( 1595-1607 ), 301 , pp. 273-301.

PART IV (1607-1729) .

SRI VIRA UNNI KERALA VARMA, (1612-1623) page, 301. SRI VIRA
RAVI VARMA ( 1620-1623 ) PROBABLY A CO -REGENT OF UNNI KERALA
VARMA , 302. GIFT OF LAND MADE BY MUTHU VIRAPPA NAYAK TO THE
BHAGAVATI TEMPLE AT CAPE COMORIN , 302 . SRI VIRA RAVI VARMA OF
TIRUPPAPUR KING OF VENAD ( 1628-47 ), 302 . UNXI KERALA VARMA
(1632-50) , 302. VIZHINJAM GIVEN AWAY TO THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA
COMPANY (1644) , 302. ADVENT OF TIRUMALA NAYAK, 302. THE YOGAK
KARS AND PILLAMARS, 303. THE DUTCH, 306. DIVISIONS OF TRAVAN
CORE (1664 A. D.) , 308. UMAYAMMA RANI ( 1678-1684) , 310.—The Ettu
vittil Pillamars, 311 -A Mahomedan invasion , 312 - Kerala Varma of
Kottayam , 313–The Dutch , 314 — The English, 314. RAVI VARMA (1684
1728) , 314 - Relations between Madura and Travancore -- Nanjanad,
316—Raids in Nanjanad by the Nayak forces, 316—Extent of Nanja
nad about 1694, 316 — Document giving evidence to the political and
social condition of Nanjanad at the time, 317-Travancore King pays
tribute to the Madura Nayak, 318 — Annihilation of a Madura army, 318—
Another invasion of Travancore, 318 — Nanjanad bearing the brunt of the
attacks, 319—Revolt of the Nanjanadians (1702), 319–Their meetings, 319
-Resolutions passed at these meetings, 319 — General remarks on the
Nanjanad raids, 323. UNNI KERALA VARMA ( 1718-1724) , 324–Murder
of the English factors, 324. RAMA VARMA ( 1724-28) , 327. FORM OF
GOVERNMENT, 329. STATE OF THE COUNTRY AND CHIEF EVENTS, 330.
THE NEIGHBOURING KINGDOMS, 331. THE FOREIGN POWERS, 331 .
pp . 301-332 .

Genealogical Tree of the Travancore Royal House, page 332,

SECTION C. MODERN HISTORY .

MARTANDA VARMA ( 1729-1758 ), page 333-Accession to the throne,

333 — Reorganisation of the Financial Department, 334 — The Tampi In
surrection , 334-The Ettuvittil Pillamars, 336 - Ministerial changes, 338–
Amalgamation of Travancore with Attungal, 338 – Extension of territ
ory :–First conquest of Quilon, 338 — War with Kayangulam , 339 — Ela
yadathu Swarupam , 340 — Kayangulam war continued—Dutch inter.
ference, 340 — Annexation of Elayadathu Swarupam , 341 —The Dutch War,
342 — Battle of Quilon , 313 – Treaty of Mannar, 344 — Annexation of Quilon,
 VOL. I. ] TABLE OF CONTENTS. xxiii

344 - Annexation of Kayangulam , 344 - Conquest of Ampalapuzha, 345-

The Dutch Peace Conferences, 347 – Treaty of Mavelikara, 348—The
French, 350 — Conquest of Minor States, 350—Final overthrow of the tri
umvirate and the Battle of Poracad, 351 - Annexation of Karappuram, 352—
The Northern insurrection, 352 — The attack of the Zamorin , 353—Peace
of Mavelikara, 353 - Disturbances in the eastern parts of Travancore, 354
Battle of Calacaud, 354 — The interference of the English , 355 — Consolida
tion and Reform , 358 :— Military, 358; Revenue administration , 359 ; State
expenditure, 360; Public works, 360 — State ceremonies, 361-A local
knighthood, 361 - Dedication of Travancore to Sri Padmanabhaswamy,
362—Adoption , 363 — Death of Rama Iyen Dalawa, 363 — Rama Iyen's pri
vate life and anecdotes, 363 — Demise of the Maharajah, 366 – Foreign
policy, 367 . pp . 333–368 .

RAMA VARMA ( 1758-1798 ), page 369 - His personal character, 369—

Martanda Pillai Dalawa, 370 — Treaty with Cochin, 370—The Travancore
Lines—The Zamorin repulsed , 371 – Reforms, 373 — Shencottah, 373—
Relations with the Nawab of Arcot and the English, 373— The dispute
about the Districts of Calacaud , 375 — The English, 379–First invasion of
Hyder Ali , 380—The new ministry, 382 - Second Invasion of Hyder Ali ,
382—Death of De Lannoy, 384 — The Maharajah's pilgrimage to Rames
waram , 381 – Domestic Events, 385 ---Kesava Das, 385 — The Pope's
message, 387 – Tippu's schemes against Travancore,388—The new English
alliance, 389 – Purchase of Ayacotta and Cranganore from the Dutch, 390—
Tippu's demands, 393 — Tippu's attack on the lines - His defeat, 394
The attitude of the Madras Government, 396 — Tippu enters Travancore ,
397—The English declare war against Tippu, 398 — Tippu retreats, 398–
Treaty of Seringa patam , 399 – Settlement of Malabar, 400 — The expenses
of the war, 400—The treaty of 1795, 101 - Internal reforms, 404 – Rajah
Kesava Das, 407—Demise of the Maharajah, 107—Character and anec
dotes, 408 — Sir Madava Row's review of the reign , 410 — Summary, 413.
pp . 369—416 .

BALA RAMA VARMA (1798-1810) -- Accession , page 417 – Maharajah's

favourites, 417–Kesava Das's retirement and death , 417 -- Sankaran Nam
buri appointed Dewan, 418—The end of the ministry, 419–Velu Tampi be
comes Dalawa, 420-His methods of Government, 421 -- Intrigues against
Velu Tampi, 422 — Major Macaulay and the Maharajah, 423—The mutiny of
the Nayar troops, 423–-Modification of the subsidiary arrangements, 424
Treaty of 1805, 425 --- Financial Crisis, 125 - Velu Tampi's positio
xxiv TABLE OF CONTENTS . [ VOL. I.

Cochin affairs at the period, 432 — Velu Tampi’s insurrection, 433 — Velu
Tampi's Proclamation, 134 Effects of the Proclamation , 436 — Attack on
the Subsidiary force at Quilon , 438 - Attack on Cochin - Wholesale murder
of Europeans, 438 - The rebellion quelled, 440 - Anecdote of Velu Tampi's
flight , 111 - His personal character, 412 – His tragical end, 445—Lord
Minto's minute, 116– A word of appreciation about Velu Tampi, 447–
Wilson's opinion, 1-17 - Oommini Tampi Dewan , 418 - Domestic events,
449_Colonel Munro Resident, 419 – Demise of the Maharajah, 450-Con
clusion , 451. Pp. 417–454 .

GOURI LAKSHMI BAYI ( 1811-1815 ) , page 455 – Accession, 455---Colonel

Munro Dewan , 458 — Reforms, 160 :-Judicial, 461 ; Revenue and Finance,
462 ; Devaswams, 161; Public Works, 464 ; Military, 165 ; Trade and in
dustries, 365 ; Social, 465 - Birth of the Princes, 166 - Colonel Munro
resigns his Dewanship, 466 - Demise of the Rani, 469.
pp. 455-470 .

GOURI PARVATHI BAYI ( 1815-1829 ), page 471 --Accession , 471

Ministerial changes, 471 – Reddy Row Dewan, 472_Colonel Munro's
retirement, 472 – Reddy Row and Vencata Row , 474-Marriage
of Princess Rugmini Bayi , 474 - Reddy Row resigns, 474–Vencata
Row becomes Dewan, 471 - Missionary enterprise, 475 --Education of the
Princes, 176 — The Nayar Brigade, 477 – Vencata Row's administration ,
478 – Other events of the reign , 479 - Regency closed and Rama Varma
crowned , 480 . pp. 171-481 .

RAMA VARMA (Swati Tirunal, 1829-1847), page 482 - Accession ,

482 - Birth , character and education, 482 — The new Dewan , 483– Subba
Row's Administration , 181 - Reduction of the subsidiary force, 484
The first Gubernatorial visit to Travancore, 485 — Reforms, 486 :-Military
and Judicial,186 ; The First Code of Regulations, 487 ; Abolition of minor
Duties, 488 ; Census of 1836, 488 ; The opening of an English School,
488 ; The Trivandrum Observatory, 188 ; Charity Hospital, 489 ; The
Engineering Department, 189 ; Other reforms, 489 — Resignation of
Dewan Subba Row , 190 — Ex-Dewan Vancata Row , 190 — Ex -Dewan
Subba Row again , 190 — The Maharajah and General Cullen , 491–
Reddy Row Dewan again, 493 – The Maharajah leads a religious life, 497–
Reddy Row resigns, 1984--Krishna Row re-appointed, 499— Domestic
events, 499 - Europeans and Eurasians, 499 - Demise of the Maharajah,
500 - Character, 500 . pp. 182—503 .
VOL. 1. ] TABLE OF CONTENTS . XXV

MARTANDA VARMA (Uttram Tirunal, 1847-1860), page 504 – Acces

sion , 504 - Early education and attainments, 504 — Srinivasa Row's ad
ministration , 505 — The new Dewan , 506 — Madava Row appointed tutor,
508 - Amelioration of slaves, 508 — The London Exhibition of 1851,
509_Tinnevelly - Travancore boundary, 510 — Financial strain-Demise
of Parvathi Bayi, 511-Administrative divisions, 511 -A ttacks on
the Administration, 512 — Miscellaneous items, 516 — Tribute to the Nawab ,
517—The Pepper monopoly, 518—Adoption, 520—Death of Dewan
Krishna Row, 521 - Madava Row appointed Dewan, 523 — Visit of Lord
Harris, 524 — Shanar converts and Hindus, -Disturbances in South
Travancore, 525—Retirement and death of General Cullen , 531-Mr.
Maltby, Resident, 534 – Other events, 535 - Demise of the Maharajah, 535
- Personal traits, 536. pp. 504–537 .

RAMA VARMA (Ayilliam Tirunal, 1860-1880) , page 538 - Accession,

538 — Education and character, 538 — The famine of 1036 M. E.
Financial state of the country , 539–Fiscal reforms — Abolition of the
monopolies, 540 — Freedom of interportal trade, 541—Judicial reforms, 543
-Other reforms, 544 — Subsequent progress, 548—Important political
events, 550 :-Sunnud of Adoption, 550 ; Visit of the Governor of Madras,
550 ; The Maharajah's first visit to Madras, 553 ; Visit of the Cochin
Rajah, 553 ; Title of Maharajah, 553; The Seringapatam medal, 554 ; His
Highness' appointment as G. C. S. I. and visit to Madras, 554 ; Visit of
Lord and Lady Napier, 555 ; Palliport, 556 ; His Highness' third visit to
Madras, 556—Retirement of Sir Madava Row , 556—Career of Sir Madava
Row , K.C. S. I.1., 559 —- Sashiah Sastri - Dewan , 568-Reforms,
- 569
-Criminal jurisdiction over European British subjects, 572–
Important political events, 576—The Imperial Durbar and the presenta
tion of the Imperial Banner (1877) , 577-Sashiah Sastri retires, 578—
Career of Sir A. Sashiah Sastri , K. C. S. I. , 578_Nanoo Pillai, Dewan, 585
Domestic events, 585—Demise of the Maharajah, 585.
pp . 538-586 .
RAMA VARMA (Visakham Tirunal, 1880-1885), page 587-Accession ,
587, Attainments and early career, 588 - Dewan Nanoo Pillai retired,
590 — Career of N. Nanoo Pillai, 590 — The new Dewan, 594 - Reforms,
594 — Travancore-Cochin boundary, 597 ---Chief political events, 598—
The Maharajah's personal traits, 599-The Maharajah's demise, 600.
pp. 587–603 .
SIR RAMA VARMA (Mulam Tirunal), page 604-Accession , 604—Early
Xxvi TABLE OF CONTENTS . [ VOL . I.
studies, 604 — Retirement of Dewan Ramiengar, 608–Career of V.
Ramiengar, C. S. 1. , 609 – T . Rama Row , Dewan, 613 -- Chief events, 613
Chief reforms, 616—Career of T. Rama Row, C. I. E., 623 – S . Shungra
soobyer Dewan, 628 – Chief events, 628 — Chief reforms, 631-Career of
Shungrasoobyer, C. I. E. , 633— Mr. K. Krishnaswamy Rao, Dewan, 636—
Chief events, 636--Progress, 640 — Retirement of Mr. K. Krishnaswamy
Rao, 642— Career of Mr. K. Krishnaswamy Rao, c. I. E., 643 — Mr. V. P.
Madhava Rao, Dewan , 644 - Summary of results, 644.
pp. 604-648 .
 LIST OF TABULAR STATEMENTS .

CHAPTER I.
Page.
Table showing the approximate distribution of surface drawn
up by Lieuts. Ward and Conner 4

CHAPTER II .

Table I, showing the mean data of the meteorological ele

ments for the twelve months of the year ... 57

Table II , giving means for the four seasons corresponding to

the data of Table I ... 58

Table III, giving the diurnal oscillation of temperature at

Trivandrum during the four seasons and for the whole
year 60

Table IV, giving data of chief maximum and minimum epochs

of the variation of temperature during the year 61

Table V, giving the mean diurnal range of temperature for the

12 months and for the year 61

Table VI, giving the mean actual daily and monthly tem
peratures at Trivandrum derived from the series of
observations taken during the period 1856-1864 62

Table VII , giving the mean hourly temperatures for each

month and for the whole year 63

Table VIII, giving the data for the diurnal variation of the
amount of vapour present in the air and also for the
diurnal variation of humidity for each of the four
seasons of the year and the average for the year in
Trivandrum 64

Table IX, giving the mean monthly and annual rainfall at

36 stations in Travancore 68
xxviii TABULAR STATEMENTS . [ VOL. I.

CHAPTER V.
Page.
1. Statement showing the Travancore inscriptions arranged
according to their age 176
2. Statement showing the inscriptions arranged according to
the taluqs in which they occur 176

3. Statement showing the inscriptions arranged according

to their character 177

4. Statement showing the inscriptions arranged according

to their language 177
5, Statement showing the inscriptions arranged according to
the materials on which they are inscribed 178

6. Statement showing the inscriptions arranged according to

their subject-matter 178

7. Statement showing the inscriptions arranged according to

the donors 179

8. Statement showing the inscriptions arranged according to

the donees 179
LIST OF DIAGRAMS, PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS .

VOL. I.

Page .
H. H. The Present Maharajah, Sir Rama Varma (Mulum
Tirual ), G. C ' . S. I. , G. C. I. E. Ascended the Musnud
19th August 1885 A. D. Frontispiece.
Thavally Palace , Quilon 7
The Minachil River view
...

18

Triparappu Falls

...
21

...
Entrance into the Kadinangulam Lake from the Canal 22

Sea and Temple view at Cape Comorin 31

Forest view at Pallode 76

Elephant at bath in the Karamana River 124

Plate A. Test ( in Vatteluttu )

...

... 182
Do. (in current Tamil)
...

182
...

Do. (English translation ) 182

Plate B. Text (in Vatteluttu ) 183

:

Do. (in current Tamil) 183

:
:

(English translation )
...

Do. 184
Plate C. Test ( in Koleluttu or Malaiyamai) 185

Do. (in current Tamil) ... 185

...

Do. (English translation ) 185

Plate D. Text (in Koleluttu ) 185
(in current Tamil)
...

Do. 185
...

Do. (English translation ) 185

... ...

Plate E. Text (in old Tamil) 187

Do. (in current Tamil) 187

Do. ( English translation ) 191

201
Plan of the Udayagiri Fort
Do. Padmanabhapuram Fort 202
...

Do. Vattakotta Fort 203

XSX LIST OF DIAGRAMS, PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. ( VOL. 11 .

Sri Padmanabhaswamy's Temple, Trivandrum ... 105

Five Maharajahs of Modern History -- in one group 482

Golden Car Procession , Trivandrum 501

Lakshmi Bayi, c . I. , Late Senior Rani, and Parvathi

Bayi, Late Junior Rani 5:20

Statue of Rajah Sir T. Madava Row , K. C. S. I.

...
556

...
Napier Museum, Trivandrum 571

Residency Garden - party Group, Trivandrum 610

 THE

TRAVANCORE STATE MANUAL .

CHAPTER I.
Physical Description .
SECTION A. PHYSICAL FEATURES,

“ Were there, below , a spot of holy ground

Where from distress a refuge might be found ,
And solitude prepare the soul for hearen ;
Sure, nature's Ged that spot to man had given,
Where falls the purple morning far and wide
In flakes of light upon the mountain side ;
Where with loud voice the power of water shakes
The leafy wood , or sleeps in quiet lakes,"
Wordsworth

Name of the Country. This ancient kingdom of Travancore

forms the southern-most portion of the west coast of India. The
country from Gokarnam to Cape Comorin has been known by different
names at different times, such as, Malayalam , Parasurama-kshetram ,
Karma-bhumi, Cheram , Keralam , Malanad, Malavaram and Malabar,
This tract of land, according to the Bhoogola Purana - a Sanskrit work
on the ancient geography of the Hindus - was 100 yojanas * long and 10
yojanas broad.
The word "Malayalam ' is its Tamil name and signifies 'mala ' (hill)
and 'azham' (depth) i . e. , the hill and dale country, or the land at the foot
of the mountains.
The word 6. Parasurama-kshetram ’ is derived from the tradition that
Parasurama, the great Brahmin saget of the race of Bhrigu, reclaimed
this land from the sea.

The name ' Karma -bhumi’ signifies that the spiritual salvation of the
inhabitants of this land depends entirely on good actions, as contrasted
with the East Coast , or ' Gnana - bhumi’ otherwise “ Punnya -bhumi',
*
1 yojana is equal to ten miles.
+ See Ancient History, infra.
&
2 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
where a man obtains salvation by mere birth irrespective of his actions,
as the land itself is said to be consecrated ground. So far is this believed
in, that an orthodox Brahmin of the East Coast would not wish to die in
Keralam , lest he be born an ass in the next birth.
6
' Keralam ’ is the name by which the country wasknown from the earli
est times and one by which the native of the soil always loves to designate
it . The word is supposed to have been derived from .Keram'a contrac
tion of Nalikeram ’, the Sanskrit name for cocoanut, as this part of India
abounds with cocoanut palms. Another theory is that the country takes
its name froin Cheraman Keralan ' , a sovereign among the Perumals,
who, raised to sway by the people's will , distinguished his government by
a course of wisdom , moderation and benevolence . Both the derivations
are however improbable as the country had its name long before the ad
vent of this legendary Perumal, or the introduction of the cocoanut palm
on this coast.
6

Alberuni seems to have been the first to call the country “Mala
bar,' which is an Arabic corruption from Mala ( Vernacular) mountain
and Vara (Sanskrit) slope. Dr. Robertson , in his ' Historical disquisi
6

tion concerning Ancient India ’ , derives it from the word “ Mall ' , the
name of a port (mentioned by Kosmos Indikopleustes) , and says that
6
the word means ' country of pepper ' .
Fra Bartolomeo, who resided for a long time in Travancore, says
that the country was called “ Malai-nadu ' — the land of hills, which was
6 6
subsequently corrupted into ' Mala -varom ' or Malabar '. Other forms
of the word are : Melibar, Manibar, Molibar, Malibar, Minibar, Mina
bar, Melibaria.
6

* Travancore ' is the abbreviated English form of Tiru-Vithan-Kodu',

once the capital of the kingdom and the residence of the court, but now
a petty village 30 miles to the south -east of Trivandrum . Tiru --Vithan
Kodu is said to be a corruption of Sri- Vazhum -Kodu ', i . e . , a place
where the Goddess of Prosperity dwells .
Travancore is also known by the names of Venad ', Vanchi-De
6
sam ' and Tir -Adi- Desam '. Venad is a corruption of Vanavanad '
$

(the land of the celestials) . Vanchi-Desam 'means either the land of

treasure or the land of bamboos. Tiru -Adi-Desam is probably derived
6
from Tiru Adikal ', one of the titles of Chera kings. " Tiru Adi '
means "holy feet ' or ' the Royal feet ' and represents the usual form
in which the kings of the land were addressed. Even now the verna
I. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES. 3

6
cular form of addressing the king is ` Adiyen Trippadom sevikkunnu '
meaning ' I, a humble slave, serve thy royal feet '.
Malankarai' is another name used exclusively by the Syrian Chris
tians ; the Syrian Metropolitan still calls himself “ The Malankarai
Metran . '

Geographical position . — The Travancore State is situated at the

south -western extremity of India, between 8° 4 ' and 10° 22' North Lati
tude and 76 ° 14 ' and 77° 38' East Longitude. It is a long narrow
strip of territory, measuring 174 miles in length and from 30 to 75 miles
in breadth , lying between the Malabar Coast and the Western Ghauts
which run almost parallel with the Western Coast of India and which
divide Travancore from the British Districts of Tinnevelly and Madura.
Boundaries.- Travancore is bounded on the north by the Cochin
State and the Coimbatore District, on the cast by the range of Ghauts
which forms a natural barrier between it and the districts of Tinnevelly,
Madura and Coimbatore, on the south by the Indian Ocea ', and on the
west by the Arabian Sea and by portions of Cochin running down in a
narrow strip between Travancore and the sea .
Shape and area.-Its shape is triangular with the apex towards
the south, its two sides running in a north -westerly direction . It is of
an unequal breadth gradually diminishing from the north and converging
to a point at its southern extremity. The irregularity of its breadth offers
an average width of about 40 miles inland. A narrow strip of land be
longing to the State of Cochin makes a deep indentation on the north
west angle and destroys the contiguity and compactness of its shape.
The total area of Travancore is 7091 square miles. Compared with the
adjoining British Districts, it is about four - fifths of Madura, nine -tenths of
Coimbatore, one and one-fourth of Malabar and one and one -third
of Tinnevelly. Compared with other Native States, Travancore is about
one-twelfth the size of Hyderabad, one-fourth of Mysore, seven -eighths
of Baroda , two -sevenths of Gwalior, more than 5 times the size of Cochin ,
and 6 times that of Pudukotta. It is smaller than the Principality of
Wales by 279 square miles and bears to England and Wales together,
the proportion of 1 to 8.
Lieuts. Ward and Conner estimated the area to be 6731 square miles.
But they did not include the Anchanad valley together with a large portion
of the High Ranges aggregating about 230 square miles, the Iliyara valley
and a portion of the forest near the Alvarkurichi gap,
6 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
a blood red ball, into its distant waters. What mountain drive equals the
Coonoor ghaut, now gashed and scarred somewhat by a none the less useful
railway, upon whose forest -clad slopes white fleecy clouds gently lie, while the
gigantic green feathers of the bamboos lightly wave, and the most beautiful of
all butterflies flit around the traveller as he passes through tree ferns and
plantains, looking up at the towering masses of rugged rocks, and the purple
outline of the mountains.

" Below in Malabar, Travancore and Cochin, the beauties of the country defy
description, and the forests are , of all places in this world, surely the most
fascinating in which to dwell. You pass through shady aisles, which admit the
sunshine by infrequent shafts, but breathe everywhere its warmth and joy, and
are ever reminded of the late Laureate's happy alcaic experiment,
De rather all that bowery loneliness,
The brooks of Eden mazilymurmuring ,
And bloom profuse and cedar arches,
Charm .

* Tall pillar trees, with green Corinthian capitals,support the roof, festooned
with vines and creeping plants, and often blooming with red, white, and purple
flowers, the floor is covered with an undergrowth of tree ferns and flowering
shrubs, above monkeys and squirrels leap from tree to tree, wood -pigeons coo,
wood - peckers tap the tree trunks, and cicadaże whirr and whistle , while now and
again à startled spotted deer jumps up and disappears, or the loud crack of
branches betokens the proximity of an elephant taking his meal, the picture of
lazy and lordly ease.
• This spirit pervades the atmosphere. Nature, in her most bounteous and
reproductive aspects, scatters her treasures around with such a lavish hand, that
it speaks well for an industrious and estimable population , that, in its case, the
worship of the beautiful has never ended, as some say it always does, in orgies.
None the less in the forests the life of those least sensitive to the influence of
the beautiful can be nothing less than one long botanical debauch in ‘valleys
low, where the mild whispers use of shades, and wanton winds, and gushing
brooks', tempered by occasional encounters, wherein all the sterner attributes of
humanity are suddenly brought into play, and the man may have to fight with
the beast , for the life, which, a few minutes before, ran ' in soft luxurious flow '.
The contingency; ever present for the sportsman , of this sharp and sudden
contrast, adds a thousandfold to the fascination of what surely is the happiest
possible life ".
I may be permitted to quote here, from one of my earlier Census
Reports *, the following description of one of the highest Peaks on the
Ghauts :
" What strikes a stranger most in Travancore is the eminently picturesque
character of its natural features. The view of the cou
ountry from one of our
hill-tops on the Western Ghauts is worth getting at even at the cost of a
hundred miles journey . Nature is then seen at its best. Going up an elevation
of four or five thousand feet above the sea to one of those bold and isolated
heights open on all sides, the traveller is treated to an intellectual repast exceed
ing in grandeur all that poets or novelists have discovered in the revelry of
nature itself. It is one continuous feast to the eye. On one side lie a series of
mountains, rising in successive tiers till the highest peaks disappear in happy
confusion with the white clouds of the East. On the other side is a vast rich
* Report on the Census vf Travancore, taken in 1881 A, D,
 w
im
.
Ps3
lor
.que
los
sily

D'Cruz
.B.
J.
by
Photo
I. ) PHYSICAL FEATURES , 7

undulating plain spread out in velvet green and covered with dense jungle not
penetrated even by a Kawni's hut, the picturesque view extending over many
square miles of territory and presenting scenes of indescribable beauty as far
as the eye can reach ; there is something like a glut produced on the human eye
sight by the quantity and variety of beauty simultaneously presented to it. For
a while, the traveller's eye rests on regions of magnificent primeval forest as
old as Parasurama himself. Here the view is relieved by neat plots of coffee
land upon which is seen the industrious hand of the mighty British adventurer ,
a scene full of life and calling to mind associations of lacs of plants and lacs of
rupees, at one time the land of dreams, but now often the grave of fortunes,
Then anon is seen towering pre-eminently over all, the Agastiar Peak or the
Mount Everest of our Ghauts, supposed to be the abode of pious Rishis or at
any rate now of guileless birds and beasts and of untainted perennial waters.
In one word , 'every corner and every turning point opens out a panorama of
.

inexpressible grandeur ',"

To which may be added another description of a sixty miles' journey
across country from Quilon to Shencottah, from my Census Report of
1891 :

“ A rich picturesqueness of scenery diversified by hills and dales is the chief

characteristic of Travancore. To the admiring student of nature it presents
peculiar fascinations, on account of the variety and wealth of its natural
beauty. If the untravelled reader will go along with me, across country,
say from the western ocean to the ghauts on the eastern frontier and thence
descend into one of those trans-alpine villages which abound in the flat country
of Pandi, he will have seen Travancore at its best. Say we start from one
of the coast towns, a place of historic importance known at once as a port,
a cantonment, a centre of trade and the head-quarters of a chief revenue officer,
The stranger will be taken up with its broad-backed gardens into which the
town is laid out, the soil of which is half sand, half laterite, the former thickly
planted with the valuable cocoanut palm for which every available space is
used up, thus showing an ancient agricultural occupancy; while the remaining
space is filled with wooded trees of all kinds, such as the mango, the jack, the
anjili and the tamarind with the highly priced pepper vine parasitically clinging
tothem . This pretty town I am speaking of has a reef of rocks for its beach,
which prevents its corrosion by the sea, thus helping the ryot to plant his
cocoanut trees so near the water's edge that the shadows fall on the beating surf,
a phenomenon not met with in any other point of this coast. On the south is
the beautiful bay known to the earliest mariners of Europe as affording a perfect
natural protection to ships in the worst weather; and which, it is believed,might,
under favourable conditions, be turned into one of the finest harbours in India .
A little to the interior you have the beautiful lake scenery, so much admired by
travellers from all parts of the world , affording umrivalled conveniences for travel
ling and traffic and adding beauty to its general appearance. There are many
turns and bends to this lake, which specially attract the eve of the traveller. On
one of those turns you have a magnificent mansion standing out boldly into the
lake , the waters of which reflect so well its lofty column, its halls and rooms, its
high balconies and well designed circular roof that the shadows on the water
seem more charming than the reality. This mansion known as the Thavally
Palace is very happily situated . The ground is an elevated table -land jut.
ting out into the lake, which bounds it on three sides. The soil is of later
ite formation and the water is excellent both for drinking and bathing purposes.
There are two tanks in the garden and several wells, one of them
 TRAVANCORE MANUAL, [ CHAP.
6
particularly large one within the nalukettoo ' itself. The place was an
abandoned jungle years ago, and the credit of discovering and reclaiming it
belongs to the present Dewan (Mr. T. Rama Row ). The late Maharajah
and his Royal brother visited Thavally often . So also did the present
Maharajah as a Prince and several other members of the Royal family. So
Thavally became a favourite resort with the Royal family, and during His late
Highness 'reign , the ground and property of Mr.Rama Row were purchased by
the Sircar, and a magnificent mansion erected on it. The view from the
palace tower or column is most magnificent. The peculiar combination of wood
and water, of groves of tall palms and forests, of well-shaded jack and mango
trees, with the blue line of distant mountains on the eastern horizon, give a
charm to Thavally which can only be felt, not described . Another point of
vantage in this lake scenery is the Residency, the oldest and the finest of the
Residencies in the country. I have heard no end of praises being heaped
on this lovely spot. On occasions of State dinners the house is decorated
and the gardens are tastefully illuminated, when it may well claim the 6
encomium passed on it by one of our late Governors that it was · Fairy Land ' .
The enterprising European has not been slow to avail himself of such natural
facilities ; so he has with his usually keen commercial instinct established mills
and manufactories which , with their noisy machinery and smoky chimneys, remind
you of the veneering of a superior civilization over this otherwise quiet spot.
A mile to the east is the Europeanquarter of the town and the British canton
ment with their indispensable parade ground, church, mess-house and a club, and
>

an open sea beach for their evenings to be enjoyed . Between , is the native part
of the town with its thatched huts and busy bazaars containing a mixed popu .
lation of Pandi Sudras, Nairs, Mahomedans, Jews, East Indians and fishermen .
The town is dotted with numerous tanks and wells, an indispensable auxiliary
to the comfort of the true Travancorean. It is also well supplied with flat
metalled roads, the very best, I think, of all the roads we have in the country.
Travelling eastwards we pass the pretty grove of Elampalloorkavoo, the only
cluster of huge trees in a large expanse of open country. This ‘ kavoo'or grove
is an interesting oasis in the open maidan ,and I counted in it 129 trees of 17
different kinds such as the belleri myrabolam , the momordicus charantia, the
cinnamon, the cassia, the callicarpa lanata, the anjili, (the artocarpus hirsuta) , the
echites scholaris, the strychnos nux vomica , the jack tree, the mango tree, the
alangium decapitatum , the Kilimaram , the Vattathamara, the Vetti , the Edana
and the Mottalu . They were the growth of ages and were an object of worship
to the neighbouring population, who consider it sacrilegious to touch such trees
with any knife or other piece of iron. Leaving this, we come upon a fine jungly
station with a number of new clearings all round, and a wild mountain torrent
running by its side the force of which , however, has been arrested by the recent
bund -works of an enterprising company. The whole road is lined on both sides
with fine avenue trees planted by an enthusiastic former administrator of the
district and bearing testimony to his goodness and forethought. Proceeding
further east, we reach Ottakkal, another distance of 10miles. The whole region
is one continuous forest, and is an abundant source of inexhaustible wealth, the
potentiality of which exceeds our most sanguine calculations. On both sides
the road is barricaded by a tall tree fence. This is a phenomenon quite un.
known in most parts of India , and but for our personal knowledge we should
have found it hard to believe it. The noonday sun scarcely penetrates the thick
crust of green leaves, so rich is the vegetation. From Punalur to Camp Gorge
the river runs nearly parallel to the road for most part of it, and I believe the
natural stream serve as a guide to the original engineer in laying it out. It is
impossible to describe the beauties of the road or the river in this region ; they
should be seen to be appreciated. The best description must beggar the reality,
1. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES.

or as Mr. J. D. Rees writes: - 'Words fail me to describe the lovely scenery.

Tall, upright standards of huge timber trees, palms of every kind, including the
exquisitely graceful areca , tree ferns, creepers, ferns and flowers, all spring from
a tangled undergrowth of iral reed. The pepper vine clings to the large timber
trees, and ropes of rattan and giant branches hidden in creepers, combine to
construct an ever varying but unending bower.. As you travel in the
chequered shade, you would say that every reach of the road had been designed
by nature, to show what wealth of vegetation can be presented at once to
the astonished and delighted eye.' After a night's halt in the wooden house at
this lonely place ( Ottakkal), you rise and see nothing but a dim daylight and a
white haze all round. The tall trees and the mountains are all buried under
this haze , so thåt one would suspect it was raining hard when it was only the
morning dew . As the sun rises in the horizon, the mist disappears, and the
outlines of the glorious hills and the surrounding jungle become more and more
visible. Altogether this Ottakkal is a lovely station, in the heart of the forest ,
It composes one to fine thoughts. There is not a single human habitation with
in a radious of five miles. There is nothing to disturb one here except the
loneliness of the spot. At night you may be awakened by a wild elephant, who
pays his customary visit to the neighbouring jack tree ( five yards
wooden building ) when the jack fructifying season sets in .
from the
Eleven miles
further to the east is the Arienkavu pagoda. This is a small temple , with its
usual accompaniments of a copper-plate -roofed quadrangle , and a cupola-shaped
shrine in the centre, dedicated to the god of the woods, à place of great sanctity
and renown , approached with dread reverence by the superstitious traveller.
The road still lies by the side of deep and fearful ravines, thickly overgrown
with moss and shrub, and through a continuous belt of tall and stately forest
of the kind already described, and tenanted by the majestic elephant and the
royal tiger and all the minor denizens that
“ Roam the jungle free,
Graze the turf untilled ,
And drink the stream uubrewed .'

Midway between Ottakkal and this pagoda is a two -roomed terrestrial paradise,
used
side ofasa aprecipitous
rest-houseand
by the much -travelled
magnificent gorge , Briton, and which
from which is situated
it takes on the
its name. It
is the most favoured of all the fair spots on which the eye of Heaven rests, and
when fitted up with theequipments of modern civilization,it might well raise the
envy of even an English prince. A mile to the east ofthis venerable pagoda,
is the famous pass through the ghauts, known as the • Arienkavoo Pass '. This
beautiful glade on the ghauts is fifty miles away from where we started, and
forms a sort of natural gateway through the chain of mountains which would
otherwise be an impassable barrier to Travancore. The road , already described,
cuts the mountain saddle at its lowest point, and connects it to British India .
This road , upon which the business-bound traveller of to- day does not pause to
spend a moment's thought, bears at once willing testimony to the financial
genius and engineering skill of former times. It would be ingratitude in us to
forget our old benefactors, though the world is so much occupied with its present
self that it has no time to look back or cherish memories of the past. The road
struggles up inch by inch, for several hundred feet above the sea -level, before it
reaches the top of this gap, and any but the stoutest heart must have been
baffled in the attempt to make it, so great are the natural obstacles of wood, rock
and ravine. The topmost part is presently reached, and you stand still and take
breath for a while. Then, as you slowly wind down the tortuous path, looking
at all the points of the compass, new beauties rise on every side before you . Au
every turn , you get exhilarating views of the enchanting landscape, which for
b
10 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ Char.
the nonce relieves the prosaic mind of the dull monotony of daily life and fills it
with sweet thoughts of fancy. On the west is seen nothing but a dense jungle
of the tall teak and the stout anjili , the valuable kongu and the oily vengai,
and an impervious underwood, full of animal and vegetable life, resonant with
the hum of the shrill Seevudu bee *, and the gentle murmur of the forest leaves,
with the perpetual rain dripping from them , and the deafening roar of the wild
torrent below dashing its headlong course—altogether a scene which, by its
richness and hugeness, produces something like a glut on the vision and obscures
it. The eye then fondly turns to the open east, the varied beauties of which
furnish still ampler food to an imaginative mind. The view on that side, as laid out
by nature, is simply grand. The ground gently falls eastward, step by step, for 6
many miles, till at a great distance you see the ruins of a magnificent ' gopuram '
(tower) , which reminds you that the level country of the Tamils has been reached.
The zigzag line of rich avenues, with banyan trees 30 feet in circumference and
perhaps as old as Queen Mangamma herself, indicate which way the cart road
lies. On yonder right, flow the magnificent waters of a mighty cataractt used
by millions of pilgrims from a remote past, and which, though perhaps of not
equal sanctity to those of the Vedic Ganges, are yet as pure. The smoothness
of the rocks, over which the water flows, reminds one of the immensity of the
time that has elapsed , and the hundred little streams and channels into which
the waterfall has been diverted, show how the hand of man in later ages has
utilized it for religious and secular purposes. The green valley between, with
their rice fields and groves of cocoanut palms in their midst, add their share of
beauty to the surrounding scene. To the left, your eye falls on clusters of Hindu
villages with houses closely packed to one another - an economy peculiar to this
region, but unknown on the Western Coast. The houses, though small and
humble, are neat and well -built ones , made of brick and chunam , and afford the
inmates effective shelter from the biting winds of the monsoon, which blow here
with unstinted fierceness. Further left, you catch a glimpse of an 'isolated rock,
with a Hindu temple on its top founded according to popular tradition about the
beginning of this " yuga ', but, at any rate, showing that the Hindu worshipper of
old had a touch of the romantic in him . On both sides of the road the tilled red
soil bespeaks the quiet and patient industry of the ryot who, though the butt
of fickle fortune, has through several generations and amidst all change of
circumstances yet remained a contented and loyal subject. Overhead fly troops
of water-laden clouds, precipitated through a hundred gaps by the winds on which
they ride as if in a hurry to convey to the anxiously awaiting villagers of Pandi
the glad tidings of rain and plenty in the land of Parasurama with which their
own prosperity is so indissolubly bound. In short, on every side, you are greet
ed with a rich and interminable prospect of Nature's beauties, sown broadcast in
riotous profusion before you, such as is only possible in a Travancore landscape."
In spite of repeated tours over this pretty tract of country, my fasci
nation remains undiminished for wood and water, for hill and gorge, for
high peaks and deep chasms, for the cry of the jungle bird and the roar of
the wild torrent. I am not sure if this charm will not disappear with the
introduction of the Railway. This scene of never ending beauties of the
Aryankavu Pass might become an old-world dream . Speedy locomotion is
inconsistent with the full enjoyment of natural beauties or diversified
*
A kind of bee that makes a shrill sound often met with in our jungles.
Dr. Caldwell says, “ It may be asserted without risk of exaggeration that Courtallam is
the finest freshwater bathing place in the world .”
 1. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES. 11

landscape . One relishes them better for the dull country -cart journeys.
The steam engine dashing across this 60 miles of rich scenery in a couple
of hours, the natural beauty of the country will thus quickly pass the eye
and escape enjoyment, like a flash of lightning. It would be as if one swal
lowed a whole meal in a single gulp. So sudden a change in the life of
the quiet and simple Travancorean may be a matter for regret, but a vain
regret after all. It is impossible to stand still in this age. Such is the
current of modern civilisation . We must move on whether we will
or no * .

Mountains. The hilly region of Travancore is very extensive and

is a marked of feature of the State . What the Himalaya mountains are
to the Indian Continent, that the Western Ghauts are to Travancore.
Without these Ghauts Travancore would be a poor tract of land, treeless
and arid and inhospitable, without rivers and rains, exposed to droughts
and famine even more than the worst part of the East Coast, which itself
would be the much poorer but for these Ghauts. They affect all the con
ditions of life now peculiar to Travancore, and it is no wonder therefore
that the Travancorean worships the Ghauts, particularly one of the high
est peaks in them where sage Agastya is said to dwell, and has deified
their maker Parasurama who created Malayalam from the sea , the up
heaved surface of which became the Ghauts . Reference is made in another
part of this book to the 5 presiding deities (Sasthas) who guard the
Western Ghauts.

The eastern boundary of Travancore with three small exceptions ( the

Anchanad valley, the Shencottah Taluk and the eastern slopes of the Ma
hendragiri hills) is the lofty mountain range, the chain of Ghauts that
forms the backbone of Southern India. The hills are of every variety of ele
vation, climate and vegetation. Some of the loftier mountains are entire
ly detached, except near their bases, from the neighbouring heights; they
often have a precipitous descent towards the west and are connected
with a sucession of low hills diminishing in altitude near the coast. To
the north , the mountains rise to an elevation of 8,000 feet with plateaus
over 7,000 feet ; the more important of these is part of the group krown as
the Anamalays (between lat. 10° 13' 45" to 10° 31' 30" N ; and long. 76 °52
30 " to 77 ° 23' E. )
At the head of these hills stands Anamudy 8,810 feet high, round which
are clustered several others, among the more important of which may be
Since this portion of the Manual was written the Railway has been completed and the
live opcued for truflic between Quilon and Tinnerelly.
12 TRAVANCORE MANCAL. [ CHAP :
mentioned, Eravimala or Hamilton's plateau 7,880 feet ( 6 miles long by 3
wide containing about 10,000 acres of tea and coffee land) , Kattumala
7,800 feet, Chenthavara 7,664 feet, Kumarikal 7,540 feet, Karinkulam 7,500
feet, and Devimala 7,200 feet. All these run in a horse-shoe shape with
the opening facing towards the north - east. These hills, together with the
lower ground connecting them , form the elevated plateau known to
Europeans as the High Range. The broken nature of the hills here
causes the scenery to be far more varied and beautiful than that
generally met with either in the Pulneys or Nilgiris. The general trend
of the highlands is north -north -east and south -south -west, the highest
elevation being to the north -east and to the south , gradually decreasing in
sloping undulating hills towards the west excepting the Anamudy moun
tain and its plateau, which is situated at the extreme south -south -west
end of the range. Strictly speaking, the tract known as High Ranges can
hardly be said to be a plateau ; it is rather a succession of high hills with
deep valleys between , running down to a depth of 2,000 to 3,000 feet
below them . Mr. Munro, the first Superintendent and Magistrate of the
Cardamom Hills , has described it thus : --
“ The High Ranges of Travancore rise suddenly from the lower plateau of the
Cardamom Hills and form a complete range of their own . On the south -east
corner, the High Ranges begin with Sholeamalla or Currincollum (8,480 ft.)
and run in a south -west direction to Gennewurra, thence still south-west to
Corechy and thence to Puddikut (6,000 ft .) near Davycollum . From Puddikut, the
line of walls runs in the same direction to Coorkacomboo (7,000 ft.) ; then running
slightly more west, the Hills rise to Chokenamuddy (7,300 ft.) from which the
course is north -west to the gap where the Moonaur disappears. From the gap the
Hills run slightly south -west and then north -west to Worrayparathundoo; thence
north to Perumputty Kullo (6,500 ft.) from which again the direction is north
east as far as Aunymuddy. From Aunymuddy the course is much broken and
runs irregularly to Erevimalla where there is a deep dip into the valley of the
Erevimalla Aur which separates the Erevimalla plateau (also known as Hamil.
ton's plateau) from Perumalmalla plateau . From this valley there is a steep rise
to the north -west to Katoomalla ( 8,100 ft.). To the west of Katoomalla, the
High Ranges comprise the plateaux within Chemmun Peak ( 7,100 ft.), Payrat
malla (7,400 ft . ) and thence eastward to Coomarikul (8,050 ft.) . To the east
of Coomarikul and Katoomalla lies the low Unjenaad Valley which separates
this part of the High Ranges from the Highlands on the slopes of Tertamalla,
on which are situated the hill villages of Kelandoor, Kandel, Pootoor, and Peru
malla at an average elevation of 5,000 feet . In its upper part the Unjenaad ,
Valley is also called the Thallayar Valley where the elevation is above 4,000 feet ;
sloping gradually to the northeast, it opens out into the Unjenaad Valley proper
which is a levelterrace 2 or 3 miles wide and 5 miles long lying at an elevation
of 3,000 feet. Below and to the east of Unjenaad the land slopes down rapidly
to the British frontier probably at about 1,500 or 2,000 feet, a very feverish tract
containing no resident population.
" To the south -cast of Tertamalla runs a ridge separating the water -shed
between Unjenaad and Moonaur and joining the high peaks bordering the Pulnies
1. ] PHYSIC FEATU . 13
AL RES
at a peak called Allear Kunnoo (6,900 ft .) . From Allear Kunnoo the course is
bounded by a curve north north -east to Pambadyshola (8,000 ft.) and then runs
north to Kuduvurratukul (6,600 ft .), where there is a deep dip into the Wutta
wudda river, and here the high land may be said to cease. From Allear Kunnoo
southward , the line to Sholeamalla is marked by clear -cut cliffs averaging
about 8,000 feet. Exclusive of the low Unjenaad Valley which is not above 3,100
feet, the area within these boundaries may be roughly estimated at 400 square
miles with an elevation of one of the peaks reaching as high as 8,837 feet ”.
The following are the chief plateaux in the High Ranges :
GUDARAMALA . Between Karinkulam in the south -east corner and
Devimala . Average elevation 6,000 feet,area 4 sq. miles ; well wooded and
watered .
DEVICOLAM . Lies to the west of the above and has an area of 3
sq. miles. Average elevation 6,000 feet ; beautifully wooded and well
watered .

AXAYCU DOO.. Lies west of the Devicolam plateau and is separated

from it by the Kazhuthaparathundoo. This beautiful valley is sheltered
by the Chokkanmudy peaks. Elevation 5,120 feet.. Between Vagavara
and Anamudy there is a very pretty glen with an elevation of 7,000 feet.
ERAVIMALA. Lies north of Anamudy and is separated from it by a
deep valley. Elevation 7,300 feet. Bare of wood on its summit but well
wooded in the slopes. Has aa cold bracing climate. Length 6 miles and
breadth 3 miles.

PERUMALMALA. Length 2 miles, breadth 1 } miles. Elevation 7,000 feet.

To the north of this lies a plateau shelterd between Kattumala ,
Kumarikal and Payratmala. Length 4 miles, breadth 3 miles and
elevation 7,000 feet. There is another plateau to the north of Kattumala
terminating at Pudikutmala. Area 3 sq . miles. Elevation 6,600 feet.
ANCHANAD . Area 30 to 40 sq. miles. Elevation 3,100 feet. This
is a level terrace, two or three miles wide and five miles long.
VATTAVADA. Length 6 miles, elevation 6,000 feet . Greater portion
bare of wood but the upper portion towards the top of the pass into Bodi
naickanur heavily wooded and well watered.
KUNDALA. South -west of Vattavada plateau at an elevation of 5,500
feet; length 6 miles and breadth 2 miles. A great deal of swamp land .
From the High Ranges the land slopes steeply down in three directions ;
north-east to the Anchanad valley, to the west into the valleys of the
Kanda npara, Parishakkuthu and Idiyara rivers, and southwards to the
Cardamom Hills and Peermade. These last form an extensive hill plateau ,
14 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.

60 miles long and 20 miles broad, lying at an elevation of from 3,000 to

3,500 feet with peaks and hills running up to 4,000 or even 5,000 feet.
This is the centre of planting industry and is largely resorted to by Euro
peans, who have also taken up for the purpose Camp Gorge, Ponmudi,
Ashamboo &c . From the main range and from the western water-shed of
the Peermade plateau and the High Range, rocky spurs run out to the
west and north -west extending at times to within a short distance of the
sea and forming a series of parallel valleys drained by numerous rivers .
South of Peermade, the lofty mountain range is of no breadth until
we come to the beautiful sanitarium of Muthukuzhi Vayal or “ The field
of precious stones " , 4 , 100 feet above sea level . For the remaining part
of its length the great range becomes a mere ridge sloping down on
either side and running north -north -west and south - south -east at an ele
vation of about 4,000 feet with isolated peaks rising here and there, the
most important of which are the Agastyar peak (6,200 ft. ) and the
Mahendragiri peak ( 5,500 ft.). The Agastyar peak was once the seat
of an Observatory. It is also famous as having been the abode of sage
Agastya, “ a savant, physician, philologist and theologian ” . The
Mahendragiri peak stands on the area drained by the Hanuman River in
the Tovala Taluk . This is the southernmost peak of the Travancore
Ghauts and is supposed to be the hill from which Hanuman or the
monkey God is supposed to have jumped to Lanka or modern Ceylon
in quest of Sita .
Besides the peaks referred to above,may also be mentioned, Kallanad,
Nedumpara, Papanasam , Amritamala, Kodiyattur, Chengamanad, Peria
mala, Therathandu , and Marutwamala.
Passes. BODINAICKANUR . This is the most northern of the passes
of Travancore. It is ascended with great difficulty from the valley below.
It connects Kothamangalam with Bodinaickanur.
TEVARAM . This connects Todupuzha on the Travancore side of the
Ghauts with Kambam on the Madura side. This pass reaches the top of
the Ghaut after a very steep ascent; for 2 miles from there it proceeds
to Perrinjincooty 12 miles, continuing its course to the eastern Periyar 14
miles further and reaching Idumpanur, the first village in Travancore
13 miles beyond that river. This is now little frequented as it tra
verses a very wild and mountainous region.
KAMBAM . This pass though rugged for 1.1 miles, is one of the
best across the hilly tract separating the countries of Travancore and
Madura. Merchants frequently pass this route.
I. ] PITSICAL FEATURES , 15

GUDALUR. This connects Kanjirapalli with Kambam and Utta

mapoliem , a distance of 44 miles. A more northern road strikes
off from this at Copachetty Tavalam , 3 miles west of the Munjamulla
Periyar, and proceeds by the Codamurutty Ghaut, a steep and difficult
acclivity, to Erattupetta . This route runs over a rugged surface and
is tolerable except near the pass which is now closed for traffic on ac
count of the facilities it offered to smuggling.
South of Gudalur another path ascends the hills and leads to Sabari.
mala, but it is of no consequence being only frequented by cattle.
SHIVAGIRI GHAUT. This route is also prohibited. A road leads
up to it from Rajapoliem , while another from Srivilliputtur ascends from
the Satur Ghaut ; but both these are difficult.

ACHANKOVIL ( 1,500 ft . ) . This lies north of the Puliyara pass and joins
Achankovil to Pumblypatam and Shencottah. This has a difficult ascent
for a mile from the plains stretching along its eastern foot. The road,
after leaving the summit, descends partly through the bed of a stream to
the pagoda , a distance of 6 } miles ; thence passing over swelling ground
and following the right bank of the Kulakkada river, it reaches Konni,
a distance of 29 miles having crossed 9 powerful streams, the passage of
which during the rains constitutes the chief difficulties of the route.
This route passes from Shencottah over Konni , Pantalain and Mavelikara
to Kartikapalli measuring on the whole a distance of more than 60 miles.
ARYANKAVU (1,200 ft.) . This connects Quilon with Shencottah and is
one of the principal passes of Travancore. It has an easy ascent from the
open country on the east and passes through Mampazhatora and Pattana
puram , pursuing its course over waving ground through thick woods.
SHANAR GHAUT (1,700 ft .) . This lies south of the above pass and
is very difficult and little frequented . It ascends 4 miles and descends
11 miles to Kulattupuzha, from which it passes through a thick forest.
ARYANAD . The route to British territory by this pass is now
closed up. The road rising from the plains on the east to the top of
this pass and thence descending through a thick forest to the village
of Aryanad near Nedumangad is spoken of as having been at one time a
very good one.

MOTTACCHIMALA ( 4,500 ft .) . In the Eridge estate. This is the chief

pass by which cardamoms are smuggled from Balamore to Agastyar. The
16 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
road was once rideable to Papanasam ; the Kanikkars even now go down
this path for tobacco which they buy about Papanasam ,
From Calacaud to Muthukuzhivayal there is a path used by canemen
and cardamom smugglers.
Pass from Kadukkara to Shoravalli Madam . Much used by villagers
from Alagiapandyapuram and other parts going to Panagudy. Daily the
Panagudy cattle come down to the Kadukkara edge of the jungle to
graze. It is also used largely by estate coolies
TIRUKKURANGUDY, About 2,000 feet ; bridle-path cut on both sides,
Much used by estate coolies.
Pass through Miranjimea Estate . Formerly a good path uscending
the mountains from Panagudy leading to a large coffee estate ; now a very
bad track overgrown and not much used.
ARAMBOLY. The trunk road from Tinnevelly to Trivandrum passes
through this pass. This forms the best entrance into Travancore.
YEDAMALA . A small and easy pass across the group of hills forming a
ridge about 2 miles to the north-east of Marutwamala near Cape Comorin .
Rivers.—Travancore is especially fortunate in its river system . Few
countries of similar extent are supplied with so many fine streams. Owing
to this circumstance and to the heavy rainfall, every part of Travancore
is abundantly supplied with water and that of an excellent quality. Of
the numerous rivers taking their rise in the Travancore hills very few
escape to the other coast. The rivers have generally a capricious course
and are of varying lengths and depths. The bed over which they flow is
frequently rocky in the interior, but as they leave the elevated parts, it
is in most cases sandy, succeeded by a muddy sediment as they empty
themselves into the lake or the sea. During the wet weather, which com
mences about the beginning of June and lasts till November, these rivers
are filled from bank to bank with a large volume of water rolling ina
strong current to the sea. The large rivers flow with turbulent and
impetuous force frequently rising 12 to 14 feet above their ordinary level .
The flood diminishes as the monsoon draws to a close, the rivers slowly
subsiding into shallow and languid streams. In the larger rivers—the
Periyar, the Ranni and the Kallada—there is always a considerable
amount of water , due no doubt to the fact that the heavy forest at their
sources does not allow the rains falling in the wet weather to run off too
rapidly .
I. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES, 17

THE PERIYAR. The Periyar is the finest , the largest and the most
important of the rivers of Travancore. It takes its rise in the Shivagiri
forests. As it first emerges from the dense forest the volume of water
it contains is 30 yards wide and 2 feet deep even in the driest weather,
After a course of 10 miles northward it is joined by the Mullayar at an
elevation of 2,800 feet. The Periyar then turns due west and con
tinues so for about 10 miles over sandy bed . About seven miles
below Mullayar Tavalam there is formed a sort of gorge by the
hills rising to a considerable height on either side of the river and
approaching each other very closely. It is here that a dam is thrown
by the Madras Government to a height of 160 feet and a width of
1,200 feet to form a lake which greatly helps the irrigation of the
land in the Vaigai valley. By the construction of the dam the river
is caused to back up for a considerable distance as far as the
Vazhukkappara Tavalam , and all the low lying land on the north bank
of the river is submerged, the water extending up all the side valleys and
reaching to within a mile of Kumili. From here a channel is tunnelled
through the hill side over a mile long, by which the water is conveyed to
one of the streams that go to feed the Vaigai river.
After a winding course of 8 miles from the dam , the river reaches Peer
made and then passes through a narrow gorge, below which it is joined by
the Perinthura river. Lower down , passing the Todupuzha -Periyar cross
ing, the Kattapanayar joins it and still lower the Cheruthoni or Chittar.
Lower down it is joined by the Pirinyankuta Ar and a mile later by the
Muthirappuzha Ar, where the elevation is about 800 feet and there is a
great fall of 800 feet in 4 } miles. There is also another fall called Kok
karanippara, where the river is said to tumble over a cliff 100 feet high ,
close to the above. The Periyar after receiving the Muthirappuzha river
flows west-north -west for about 8 miles when it pours under a large rock
which probably has fallen from the hill side on account of landslip. In
dry weather when the volume of water is small, the whole of it flows
under the rock . This has been exaggerated into a sudden disappearance
of the river underground. The water is considered to pass into a chasm
and emerge again only after a very long distance.
Ten miles below the junction of the Muthirappuzha river with the
Periyar, at Karimanal, the river becomes navigable or suitable for the
floating of timber. It is then joined by the Deviär and passes the once
populous village of Neryamangalam. From this place it flows for about
8 miles when it unites with the Idiyara or Idamala river . From here as
far as Malayattur, the river, now a grand one upwards of 400 yards
c
18 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
broad , is fed by numerous streams. Passing Malayattur and after a
winding course of 14 miles it reaches Alwaye, where it divides itself into
two branches, which again subdivide themselves into several small ones be
fore reaching the sea. The principal branch flows north-west and
expands itself into a broad sheet of water. Another branch takes a south
erly direction and is broken up into a number of small channels leading
into the lake near Verapoly, while a third one flows to the south and
discharges itself in the lake south of Tripunatora.
THE Periyar flows through the Taluqs of Changanachery, To
dupuzha, Muvattupuzha, Kunnatnad , Alangad and Parur. The chief
places on its banks are :-Peermade, Neryamangalam, Malayattur,
Cheranallur, Vazhakulam , Alwaye, Ullinad and Verapoly.
The total length of the river is 142 miles of which for the last 35 miles
only it passes through inhabited tracts. It is navigable for boats for 60
miles above its mouth .
THE MINACHIL RIVER . This rises on the Peermade plateau a little
above Nallatannippara at an elevation of 3,500 feet. It runs first north -west
and then west and after 7 or 8 miles joins the Kavana Ar which rises on
the slopes of Melakavu . The combined stream after a course of 2 miles
due south is joined by the Codamurutty river and passes by Punjar. After
leaving the forest boundary at Erattupetta, its course is south-east and
leaving Kondur and Lalam , it passes through Kitangur and Kottayam
after which its waters, dispersed in minor channels, unite with the Vemba
nad lake by several embouchures. The length of the river is 35 miles and
it is navigable for boats 26 miles.
THE MUVATTUPUZHA RIVER . This is formed by the union of three
smaller rivers, the Todupuzha, the Vadakkan and the Kothamangalam,
which take their rise on the western slopes of the Peermade plateau
and running in a westerly and north -westerly direction through a wild
country unite at Muvattupuzha, thus getting the name. The combined
river flows for about 8 miles in a westerly direction and then turns south
and passes Ramamangalam , Piravam and Vettikkattumukku, at which
point it forks, one branch running in the direction of Cochin and the other
flowing into the Vembanad lake at Tannirmukkam . Total length 62
miles; navigable for boats 42 miles inland .
THE RANNI OR PAMBA RIVER . This is one of the finest rivers of Travan
core and is formed by the junction of three rivers, the Kallar, the Kakkada Ar
and the Valiya Ar, which last is made up of two other small ones—the Pamba
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 1. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES. 19

and the Arutha. The original stream Pamba from which the river takes its
name rises on the hills to the north of Pulicchimala and after running for
a long distance is joined by the Arutha which rises on the Peer
made plateau, and the two together form the Valiya Ar which after a course
of 6 miles westward falls over Perunthèn aruvi (height 90 ft.) and is
then joined by the Kakkada river. The Kallar which rises in the valley
north of Chempazhakkara joins the main river aa little above Ranni and the
combined river now called the Ranni leaves the forest area as a powerful
stream 200 yards broad. It then runs west for about 30 miles when
it is joined by the Manimala river and 6 or 8 miles lower down the Ku.
lakkada river joins it and after a course of about 20 miles the whole flows
into the Vembanad lake .

The total length of the river is 90 miles . The chief places on its banks
are :-Konni, Aiyrur, Aranmula, Chengannur, Mannar and Pulikunnu.
The river is navigable for boats for 45 miles, and is specially useful for
irrigation.
THE KALLADA RIVER. This is the third largest river in Travancore,
The union of five large streams issuing from the mountainous valleys of the
Ghauts forms the Kallada river which flows through the Taluqs of
Pattanapuram , Kunnattur, Kottarakara and Quilon . The main branch
rises in the most southerly of these valleys and is formed by numerous streamg
that rise on the elevated plateau stretching from the Alvarkurichi peak to
Chemmunji. Flowing west it is joined by several small streams and after
leaving the Kulattupuzha valley proper and running 5 miles passes the
Kulattupuzha village situated on its left bank. Here the river is about 80
yards wide and never gets dry even in hot weather. Three miles lower
down it is precipitated over the Minmutti cataract, the water rushing withi
immense velocity. It is then joined by the Chenthroni and Kalduritty
rivers. Passing Ottakkal where it pours over another cataract, the river
then runs for about 10 miles in a west-north -westerly direction and leaves the
forest area 3 miles above the town of Punalur. Turning north and bend
ing a little north -west, it passes Pattanapuram and 2 miles below Punalur
it is joined by the Chalakkara Ar. It then flows in a westerly direction
and then south -west until it falls into the Ashtamudi lake, a little north of
Quilon, by several mouths. Its length is 70 miles of which 25 miles are
navigable for boats. The chief places on its banks are : -Punalur, Pattana
puram, Pattazhidesam , Kulakkada, Kunnattur and Kallada (East and West) .
THE MANIMALA RIVER . The main branch of this river rises under the
Mothavara hill and drains the valley to the west of Amritamala. After
20 TRAT INCORË MANTAL . [ CHAY .
COXL
flowing for about 6 miles it is joined at Kuttukal by the Nyarampullar and
then by several small streams before it joins the Ranni about 25 miles
above its mouth . The length of the river is 62 miles. The villages of
Peruvantanam , Mundakayam , Yerumakuzhi, Manimala , Kaviyur, Kal
luppara, Tiruvalla, Talavadi, Kozhimukku and Chambakkulam lie
on its course .
THE ACHANKOVIL OR KULAKKADA RIVER . This rises on the western
slope of the Thuval mala (Coonumcal square rock) and Ramakkal peaks.
It passes Achankovil village and, after receiving numerous accessions from
small rivers and streams, leaves the forest area 4 miles above Konniyur.
This river runs a course of 70 miles first north -west and then west and
joins the Pamba river near Viyapuram . Konniyur, Omallur, Pantalam ,
Mavelikara and Kandiyur are situated on its banks. It flows through the
Talups of Chengannur, Kunnattur, Mavelikara, Tiruvalla and Kartikapalli.
Navigable for boats 10 miles and specially useful for cultivation purposes.
THE ATTUNGAL OR VAMANAPURAM River. This rises on the peak of
Cherumunji north -east of Trivandrum and on the spur running out from the
main range as far as the cliffs of Ponmudi. It then descends rapidly and
ruins at first in a northwesterly direction , then west for 23 miles bet
ween high banks and over a sandy bed when it passes the village of
Vamanapuram . From here it l'uns south -west and empties itself
into the Anjengo estuary after a course of 35 miles. Nelnad , Vamanapu
ram , Attungal, Kuntallur and Chirayinkil are the chief places on its banks.
THE ITTHIKKARA RIVER takes its rise in the low hills situated near
Madatturakani and those to the south -west of Kulattupuzha. After small
accessions it leaves the forest area near Manarkoda and proceeding in a
north -westerly direction is joined by a large stream . From here it flows
south -west and west and falls into the Paravur backwater. Length 30
miles . Chadayamangalam , Pallikal, Kummallur and Nedungolum lie on
its banks.
THE KILLIYAR . This petty river rises in the Nedumangad hills.
Its course is generally towards the south and after flowing for 15 miles it
joins the Karamana river near Tiruvallam . This river irrigates a small
tract of rice land by means of anicuts and channels taken off from it and
supplies water to all the principal tanks of the Capital.
THE KARAMANA RIVER. This rises on the ridge to the north of the
Agastyar Peak and an outlying spur terminating in the Sasthankotta
rock . It flows over a partially narrow rocky bed confined by high banks
through a comparatively wild, woody and uneven country. Its direction
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1.] PHYSICAL FEATURES. 21

is first west, then south and finally south-west and it flows into the sea
3 miles near Puntora, at the foot of the head -land termed Covalam , after
a course of 41 miles.
THE NEYYAR. This rises on the slopes of the Agastyar peak at an
elevation of 600 feet and descends with great rapidity until it reaches the
foot of the hills. It then runs in a southerly direction and passes down .
ward over a cataract 300 feet high, visible from Trivandrum . From here it
flows over a partially rocky bed confined by bold banks and discharges
itself into the sea near Puvar where a small lagoon is formed . Its length
is 35 miles .

THE PARALAYAR OR KUZHITTURA. This rises on the mountains north

of Mahendragiri hills. Passing through a wild tract, it enters the plains
at Tiruvattar and flows in a south-westerly direction. After a course of 23
miles from its source it is joined by the Kothayar. It flows through the
two Taluqs of Kalkulam and Vilavankod and reaches the sea at Tenga
patnam . The total length of the river is 37 miles. Tiruvattar, Munchira,
Kuzhittura, and Arudesapattu lie on its banks. It is intercepted by dams
at Poninana.

THE KOTHAYAR. This rises on the southern extremity of the Muthu .

kuzhi Vayal plateau and to the east of Valiyamala peak at an elevation of
4,500 feet. It descends slowly at first and then more rapidly. After flowing
for 14 miles it reaches the Mottacchi valley (1,800 ft) . It continues to
descend with rapidity tumbling over falls 30 feet high and eddying among
huge boulders, until at last it reaches the elevation of 250 feet. From here
it flows leisurely and is joined by two streams rising on the Motavan Potha
and the Thacchamala hills. Proceeding south we find the remains of the
Aryanad dam now in ruins. This dam was built with the intention of divert
ing the water into the Paralayar above the Pandyan dam and eventually
into the Pazhayar whose stream is so largely used for irrigating the paddy
lands of Nanjanad. After passing the Aryanad dam and about 4 miles
lower down it is precipitated over the Triparappu fall (50 ft. high ), a very
sacred place where there is a large pagoda. From here it proceeds south
and is joined above Kuzhittura by the Paralayar. Length 20 miles.
Project works on a large scale are now going on to divert the waters
of the Kothayar to supplement the existing irrigation system of Nanjanad.
A detailed description of the Project is given under 'Irrigation in the
Chapter on ' Agriculture and Irrigation .'
THE VATASSERI RIVER. Also called the Pazhayar. This is the most
southerly river in Travancore. Many small streams combine to form
 22 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
this river, one of which rises south of the Mahendragiri peak and passing
down a steep gorge reaches the low country a little to the west of
Anantapuram , another in the Kunimuthu Chola Estate and another
drains Black Rock (Mr. Cox's Estate) . All these pass out of the forest
before they unite to form the main river. This flows through the Taluqs
of Tovala and Agastisvaram in a south -easterly direction and flows into the
Manakudi estuary after a course of 23 miles passing the towns of Bhuta
pandi, Kottar, Nagercoil, Tazhakudi and Suchindram . This is a very
useful river for irrigation.
These are the chief rivers of Travancore . The number of smaller streams
is very large but as they are otherwise insignificant any detailed description
of them is unnecessary here.
Canals and Backwaters . Among the many natural advantages
possessed by Travancore, one of the most important and one which adds
materially to its wealth and prosperity, on account of its affording great
facilities for water communication from one end of the country to the
other, is its extensive backwater system . The backwaters or kayals, as
they are locally called, are inlets from the sea which run in a direction
parallel to the coast . From Trivandrum as far as Ponnani in the
District of Malabar, a distance of over 200 miles, there is a SUC
cession of these backwaters or estuaries, connected together by navi
gable channels constructed from time to time. The total area occupied
by the surface of the lakes amounts to 2274 sq . miles of which 157 are
within Travancore. Their breadth is very unequal, in some places
spreading into a wide expanse , at others diminishing to a small stream ,
presenting on the whole a very irregular and broken figure .
Formerly there was uninterrupted navigation only as far as Quilon . It
was in 999 M. E. that Her Highness Parvathi Bayi sanctioned the construct
ion of 2 canals, one from Trivandrum to the backwater of Kadinangulam
and the other to connect Quilon and the Paravur backwater, both of which
projects were contemplated by Col. Munro ; but the work was commenced
only in 1000 M. E. ( 1825 A. D.) and completed in 3 years under the super
vision of Dewan Vencata Row . The 2 canals measure in length upwards
of 17 miles, which including 4 bridges cost about 4 lacs of Rupees. These
canals bear the name of Her Highness Parvathi Bayi whose beneficent reign
is still gratefully remembered by the people.
There were still the Varkala cliffs, standing as a barrrier against direct
and free communication from Trivandrum to Quilon. This was removed
by the construction of two tunnels at an enormous cost in the reign
TY
1. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES . 23

of His Highness Rama Varma (Ayilliam Tirunal- 1860 to 1880 A. D).

The length of one tunnel is 924 feet and of the other 2,364 feet . The first
tunnel was opened to traffic on the 15th January 1877 ; the second tunnel
and the whole of the Barrier works were completed and opened to traffic
in 1880. They cost upwards of 17 lacs of rupees.
Many of these backwaters are not very deep, yet they are all navigable
for boats of any size. Their bed consists generally of a thin layer of
soft black mud, incumbent on a fine dark sand, often with som
mixture of soil . On account of the large volume of water these back
waters receive during the monsoon time, their water, except in the
immediate vicinity of their mouths, is quite fresh ; in some places
they are always so in the interval of the tides, while in others, they con
tinue to be so from July to October. The places where these backwaters
meet the sea are called Azhis or Pozhis, according as the opening is per
manent or temporary. The chief Azhis are those at Quilon, Kayan
gulam and the mouth of the Periyar ; and the Pozhis are those of the
Veli , the Paravur and the Edawa. The flood during the monsoons leaves
behind a slimy deposit which effuses an abundance of fertility over the
lands exposed to it. The backwaters also foster the growth of many
weeds and aquatic plants. The shores of the lakes are filled with houses
and plantations of cocoanut trees and present the appearance of a per
petual garden.
Starting from Trivandrum there is first , at a distance of 3 miles, the
Veli Kayal which looks like an expanded canal. On one side the shore
is overhung by a high cliff and the other side is skirted on by an extensive
range of cocoanut plantations. Passing the Veli backwater, by the
Parvathi Puthenar canal above referred to, we come to the Kadinan
gulam Kayal. Here again both the banks are lined with the cocoa
nut palm and a low brushwood. This backwater is a little larger than
the Veli . The water is not deep. Going by the canal, we next pass
Anjengo, formerly a place of note on account of the English factory and
the early commercial relations between the British Government and
Travancore, but now a small port and fishing village. Here is the
Anjengo Kayal. The length of this Kayal is 12 miles, breadth of
a mile, and area 8 sq. miles. This receives the Attungal or Vamana
puram river and is formed chiefly by its waters. It is connected with
the sea by a narrow bar.
A few miles beyond Anjengo, the Varkala cliffs are reached . Before the
construction of the tunnels, travellers used to land at a place called Kozhi
24 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
thottam (the main line of communication ran by Kozhithottam to Edawa,
a distance of 12 miles) , from where they walked to Edawa until the back
water is reached, the road used being by the sea-beach, at times climbing
over the summit of the cliffs that stretched into the sea. The view from
these cliffs is extremely beautiful and the whole landscape charming,
Here stands the village of Varkala famous for its ancient temple dedicated
to Janardanaswamy, to which Hindus from all parts of India resort .
Passing the tunnels, about 6 miles northwards there is the Nadayara
Kayal. This again is of minor importance. Passing the Nadayara
backwater a canal runs in a northwesterly direction for some 3 miles
whence the Paravur canal and backwater lead to Quilon . The Paravur
Kayal, though only a small one, is very deep and dangerous on account of
its being very close to the sea and in the wet weather the bar opens
of itself, sometimes suddenly. The Paravur and Quilon canals aggregating
about 11 miles in length , were cut between 1826 and 1829, at a total
cost of Rs. 90,929 . Passing the Paravur backwater we reach Quilon
by the Eravipuram and Quilon canals, a distance of about 5 miles.
On leaving Quilon the traveller enters the romantic and enchanting
Ashtamudi Kayal . The name ' Ashtamudi ' is derived from the fact that
the lake branches off into 8 creeks, called by different names. One
portion near the Quilon Residency is called the Asramom lake and the
other close to the Cutchery is called Kureepuzha or Loch Lomond. On
either side we see a laterite bank 50 or 60 feet high enclosing little bays
with deep blue waters. The broken side and the fragments of rocks are
filled with various kinds of small shrubs while on the summits there are
thickly planted gardens. About 2 miles north of Quilon the water opens
out into a very spacious bay into which the Kallada river empties itself.
There is an outlet to the sea at the western end which is locally known
as the Neendakara bar. It is of sufficient depth for small vessels and the
barges built at Tuet in Quilon are safely launched into the sea at this
point. It covers an area of 20 sq. miles, its extreme length and breadth
being 10 and 9 miles respectively. The banks are covered with many
kinds of plants. Five miles beyond Quilon the backwater ends and the
Chavara canal begins and the scenery becomes monotonous.
We next come to a very small inlet called the Panmana Kayal.
This is followed by the Ayiramtengu Kayal which again leads us to
the extensive Kayangulam Kayal. The Kayangulam lake has an

outlet bar of the same name which admits of small coasters from the
Arabian sea. This made Kayangulam a place of considerable commercial
1. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES 25

importance in former days. This lake borders the two Talugs of Karu
nagapalli and Kartikapalli . Its extreme length is 19 miles and extreme
breadth 4 miles ; area 23 sq. miles.
Passing the Kayangulam Kayal we reach Karumadi near Ampalapuzha
by a natural stream through Trikkunnapuzha and Thottapalli chera.
Proceeding along on our way, we see extensive rice fields on either side,
the country here being flat and almost submerged in water. From
Ampalapuzha, Alleppey is 12 miles distant. There are no backwaters to
be passed but only canals, which at these places are very broad and join
the Pallathurithy river flowing into the Vembanad lake near Alleppey,
Alleppey town is reached by a canal , before entering which there is
a deep basin 40 to 50 feet in depth infested by alligators of enormous size .
Alleppey is now the first commercial port of Travancore, its greatest
advantage as an emporium arising from its singularly natural breakwater
formed in the open roadstead and the long and wide mud bank which helps
large vessels to anchor safely even in the stormiest weather.
Beyond Alleppey we come to the very large and spacious bay, the
Vembanad Kayal . This stretches across to the east for a distance of
over 10 miles. The waters of the Pamba, Muvattupuzha and Minachil
rivers are emptied into it. It borders the Taluks of Ampalapuzha
Shertallay, Vaikam, Yettumanur, Kottayam and Changanachery. Its
extreme length is 52 miles and breadth 9 miles and the arca covered by
it is 79 sq. miles. It has a small beautiful island in the centre known as
6
Patiramanal, or ' the mysterious sand of mid - night', filled with cocoanut
plantations and luxuriant vegetation . According to tradition, it was
brought into existence by the piety of a Nambudiri Brahmin, who, while
travelling in a canoe, jumped into the lake to perform his evening
ablutions. The waters, it is said , gave way and land arose from below
forming a small island. Pallippuram and Perumpallam are two other
islands in the lake .

There are many pretty places along the borders of this lake, perpetually
clothed with beautiful groves of cocoanut and other trees and with an
endless succession of houses, churches and pagodas. Midway between
Alleppey and Cochin stands on its eastern bank the sacred village of
Vaikam where there is a large Siva temple to which thousands of pilgrims
resort in the months of Vrichigam and Kumbham for the Ashtami festival.
From here to Cochin the backwater is of varying breadths and depths
containing small patches of land here and there always adorned with
cocoanut trees .
d
26 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
From Cochin the water communication is hy backwater to the north
of Cranganore whence it is continued by creek , channel and backwater
via Chowghat to Ponnani, and across the Ponnani river to Tirur
Railway station. Thus the system is complete for a distance of 213 miles
from Trivandrum to Tirur .

Among other backwaters may be mentioned :

The Kodungalur Kayal in the Taluk of Parur. Extreme length
9 miles and extreme breadth 5 miles ; area 10 sq. miles. Has an outlet
in the Cranganore bar which is always open.
The Sasthankotta Kayal in the Kunnattur Taluq.
The Vellani Kayal in the Neyyattinkara Taluq.
And lastly the Manakudi Kayal in the Taluq of Agastisvaram. This is
& small lagoon formed by the course of the Pazhayar before it dis
charges itself by a narrow mouth.
As carly as 1860 the great Victoria Ananta Martandan canal was
projected for connecting Trivandrum with Cape Comorin ; but it had to
be abandoned owing to several obstacles, though considerable sums of
money had been spent on it.
Coast Line. The Travancore coast has been surveyed by the
Marine Department in connection with the Coast Survey of the Madras
Presidency and the following is extracted from their report :
" The Travancore coast, from Alleppey to Comorin , is generally low and sandy,
frin zed with cocoanut trees. Patches of red cliffs of slight elevation here and
thera break the otherwise continuous line of sand . The Travancore mountains,
thongh generally spoken of by navigators as a part of the Western Ghauts, are
in le d separated from the latter by a low neck of land, the Palghaut valley, which
has proved a most useful feature in the railway communication between east and
west coasts. The length of this southern mountain chain , extending from a few
m les north of Cape Comorin to the valley of Palghaut, is nearly 200 miles.
The western brow , overlooking the coast of Travancore, is, with little exception ,
abrut. On the eastern side of the culminating range the declivity is in general
grad ial , the surface in many places forming extensive table-land, sloping gently
and nearly imperceptibly to the eastward. In the last half of the year many
casca les of great height are visible from seaward, pouring down the steep decli
vity of these western ghauts, which present so vast and lofty a front to the viol.
ence of the south -west monsoon . The principal peaks of the Travancore Ghauts
are : Vahendragherry between 3,000 and 4,000 feet , about 20 miles north of
Conorin, and Cootcbimulla, nearly 5,000 feet, the same distance north -east of Tri
vandrum . Between these peaks the culminating range has a north -westerly
dir ction, but afterwards trends a little east of north , more away from the coast.
Its h ghest mountains, though loftier, are not so often visible at sea. They form
the boundary between the State of Travancore on the west, and the British pro.
vince of Tinnevelly on the east . To the east of Quilon there are broad, high
1. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES. 27

peaks, estimated at 5,000 feet above, and more than 30 miles from the sea . Tho
southern portion of the Western Ghauts, from Comorin to Palghat, run
like a spine from south to north , thus forming the water-parting between
the east and west coasts rivers. They are exposed to all winds from east,
round by the south -west, and there is scarcely a day when rain -clouds may
not be seen hiding for a time the summits of the high land . Towards the
vernal equinox ( after which the air gets saturated with moisture and is hazy ) the
ghauts north of Quilon up to Calicut can seldom be seen . Midway between the
ghauts and the low sea-coast, the country has several hills of moderate elevation,
useful as landmarks. Beginning from the south, mention may be made of the
isolated conical mount, in lat. 8 ° 8' N. , and long. 73 ° 30' E. , near Cape Com
orin, which is taken for the cape by seamen when approaching the coast from
the west. The next conspicuous peak is Maravattoor, nearly midway between
Mahendragherry and the Crocodile Rock, and 10 miles north -west of ihe conical
mount. On the south -east of Trivandrum , and again to the north of that capital,
hills, averaging about 400 feet, lie parallel to the shore, some 4 or 5 miles off.
Near Anjengo there are a few low hills. Above this place extensive back
waters become the peculiar feature, overspreading great portions of the low tract
of country. Vessels bound for any port on the west coast of Hindostan, and to
the Persian Gulf during the north-east monsoon , from China, Australia, and the
Bay of Bengal, or from Europe, should sight Ceylon, and make the coast of
India somewhere near Cape Comorin, and thence hug the coast to profit by the
land and sea breezes. The coast from Cape Comorin takes a general north
westerly direction for nearly 300 miles to Mount Delly ;" :
Ports and shipping facilities. -ALLEPPEY (lat. 29 ° 48 '
46 " E.) is the principal seaport town of Travan
N., and long. 76° 18' “
core and the seat of the Commercial Agent. It is the chief depot of the
Travancore Government for the sale of forest produce, chiefly cardamoms,
and is a place of considerable foreign trade in teak, cocoanut, betel-nut,
ginger, coffee, pepper and fish . Many European and American Firms have
their representatives here and extensive industries are carried on . It is a
safe roadstead all the year round being protected by a soft mud bank on
which a vessel might ride at less risk than at any other part of the coast .
A shoal bank of from 6 to 9 feet extends about 1.} miles off shore. During
the south -west monsoon , although the surf breaks on the shore to the north
and the sea is white with foam outside, there is at Alleppey a large extent
of smooth water , on the outer part of which a vessel might conveniently
anchor in 4} fathoms and keep up a communication with the shore . In
the fine season , a vessel not drawing more than 18 feet water may anchor
in 4 fathoms or a trifle less , the bottom being soft mud . The anchorage in
the roads during the south -west monsoon is with the lighthouse from N. E.
to E. N. , in 5 or 6 fathoms water . In the fair season from October to
)

May, vessels may anchor in 3 or 4 fathoms with the lighthouse bearing

* The Madras Manual of Administration Vol. ii .

† The information uuder this head is chiefly based on the results of the Jarine Surrey
above referred to.
28 TRAVANCORE MANLAL. [ CHAP .
E. by N. , the soundings being very regular . During the south-west mon .
soon trade cannot sometimes be carried on with Cochin, but the port of
Alleppey is always available . Alleppey has a flag -staff and near it
is a lighthouse with a revolving white light attaining its greatest
brilliancy every minute. The light is of the second order of the
holophotal description elevated 100 feet above mean sea-level and is
visible in ordinary weather 20 miles. It was first exhibited on the
night of the 28th March 1862. Between Cochin and Alleppey the coast is
very low , covered with trees, and may be approached to 6 fathoms in a
large ship, the bank being very even to 5 fathons, about 1 or 11 miles from
the shore.

. 76° 23' E. ). This is a village of

Por.C.D. (lat. 9° 91' 25" X. , long.
considerable extent, coir, plank and timber for ship -building and pepper
being exported from here and the adjacent places. The port has declined
since the opening of Alleppey port. There is an extensive mud bank
here. Steamers call in the worst part of the monsoon weather,
when Alleppey is closed . A portion of the village was formerly
submerged in the sea and the eastern gate of the pagoda which
escaped destruction at the time is still seen standing. The coast here
continues low and uneven and is safe to approach to 5 or 6 fathoms. The
anchorage is opposite the village in 5 or 6 fathoms, 11 or 2 miles distant.
QuiLON . (lat. 8 ° 53 ' N. , long. 76° 34' E. ) . The coast between
Alleppey and Quilon except near Tangasseri, is sandy and nearly straight,
but 10 miles north of Quilon there is a slight indent which does not how
ever amount to 1 mile from a straight line drawn between the two places.
The shore is safe to approach into the depth of 5 fathoms mud.
During the early centuries of the Christian era Quilon was a very
important port trading with China and Arabia . Throughout the middle
ages it was one of the chief seats of the Saint Thomas Christians. In
1503, the Portuguese established a factory and fort which was captured by
the Dutch 150 years later. A considerable British garrison was stationed
here until 1832, when it was reduced to one regiment. Till 1829 it
was the principal town and head - quarters of the Travancore Govern
ment. It has still considerable inland and foreign trade. As a port it
is next in importance to Alleppey. Steamers and ships call here. It is
the chief entrepot of ginger and pepper on the Malabar Coast .
The beach near Quilon is steep and sandy as far north as Tangasseri
cove, where rocky coast begins and continues to the northwaid for 2 to
3 miles. Two buoys had been laid at Quilon to mark the safe passage
1. ] PHYSICAL FEATURES. 29

to the anchorage. Vessels for Quilon should keep well out until the
large factory chimney ( of the Scottish Indian Company ) bears N. E. ,
and steer direct for the chimney keeping between the buoys. The coast
between them is low , covered with trees, and may be approached to 6
fathoms till near the entrance of Ivica river . ( Azhimukam ). Quilon bank
of hard ground extends from the bay round Quilon point, a projecting
part of the coast, where it becomes uneven and dangerous to approach
under 12 or 13 fathoms .

TANGASSERI. ( lat . 8 ° 54' X. , long. 76 ° 38'15“ E. ). Originally

there was a fort built on a head-land of laterite jutting into the sea,
portions of the old wall of which are still visible , as also the ruins
of an old Portuguese town. The Tangasseri reef, a bank of hard
ground , extends 111} miles to the south -west and 3 miles to the west
of the Quilon point , and 6 miles along the coast to the northward. The
bank should not be approached under 13 fathoms water by day, or 17
fathoms at night .
To the south-east of the reef the coast forms a bight, where ships may
anchor off the town and military station of Quilon in 5 or 6 fathoms sand
with Tangasseri flag -staff bearing N. W., 1 mile distant. From November
to April shipping vessels can lie close inshore with safety. When appro
aching Quilon from the northward , vessels should not shoal to less than
13 fathoms, as, off Tangasseri point, the foul ground extends westward to
within less a mile of this depth. The most convenient anchorage and
where a vessel will be close to the Port Office, is with the chimney of the
Coffee Company's factory bearing about N. E. at the extreme of Tangasseri
point west -north -west in from 41 to 5 fathoms sandy bottom . Off
Quilon point, there are 20 fathoms at 5 miles offshore ; but further to
the north , that depth will be found farther from the coast. A lighthouse
has recently been constructed here for the guidance of mariners.
ANJENGO. (lat. 8° 40' N. , long. 76 ° 45' E.). Three miles to the
southward of Quilon, the coast may be approached to 10 fathoms, which
will be 1.} miles from the shore. Anjengo flag-staff is between 4 or 5
leagues to the west-north-west of Trivandrum Observatory. Anjengo
was once a place of considerable importance and the earliest settlement
of the late East India Company on the Malabar Coast, but now it
has a forsaken appearance .

Four miles to the north of Anjengo there is aa red table -land , which
denotes the approach to it, in coming from the north . The anchorage off
Anjengo, under 10 fathoms, is foul rocky ground ; but outside of that
30 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
depth, the bottom is sand and shells. A convenient berth is with the flag
staff about N. E by E. and Brinjaul hill (Mukkunnimala ) about S. E by E. ,
in 11 or 12 fathoms mud, off shore 1 mile. A considerable surf, generally
prevailing on the coast, particularly to the southward, renders it fre
quently unsafe for boats to land.
PUXTOR .. Vessels communicating with Trivandrum should anchor
off the coast here. There is a flag -staff on the sandy beach. It is 2 miles
south -west of Trivandrum Fort. No boats should attempt communication
with the shore when there is a heavy surf in the north -east monsoon . The
coast is sandy with cocoanut and other palms. Vessels should anchor in
12 fathoms sand, } a mile from the flag- staff bearing N. E. and nearly
in line with the Trivandrum Observatory which is distinctly made out in
passing by its three domes. .

Passing Puntora we come to l'ovalam (Ruttera point ), a piece of

low level land, terminating in a bluff cape higher than the contiguous
coast.. The coast here is low abounding with trees. It is bold to ap
proach , having 12 or 13 fathoms at a mile's distance, 25 or 26 fathoms about
2 or 2. leagues' distance.
VIZHINJAM . This is a small fishing village 7 miles to the east of
Covalam , and is “ formed of steep bold land , or reddish cliffs, considerably
elevated , having on the northern side a small river and village ( Puvar) at
а

the northern extremity of the high land, that form the point.” The coast
hereabouts is all sandy and fronted with cocoanut trees. From this point
the coast takes a direction about S. E. by E. to Cadiapatnam point
distant 6 leagues.
COLACHEL. ( lat. 8° 10' N. , and long. 77 ° 11' E.). This is a very ancient
seaport. The Danes once had a factory here with a Commercial Resident.
Its safe harbour was well known to ancients . It has trade with the coast
and Ceylon. The coffee produced in South Travancore is exported from
here. The outlying rocks form a partial breakwater, within which land
ing is comparatively easy. Ships of good size can sail between some of
the outlying rocks and ride at anchor to leeward of them in smooth water.
It has a flag -staff, and aa buoy which is used during the shipping season to
mark the vicinity of a dangerous rock .
CADIAPATNAM POINT. lat. 8° 7 ' N. , and long. 77 ° 18' E. ) . This is 14
miles from Cape Comorin . A first order dioptric fixed whitelight,
intended to mark the vicinity of the Crocodile rock, is cxhibited
here. It is visible 20 miles in clear weather. The column is 80 feet
|
 .
PRESS
E.
M.
at
View
Temple
and
.Sea
Comorin
Cape
.
1
1
I l
.
tinit
peoi
make
het
1] PHYSICAL FEATURES. 31

high and is built of granite and its focal plane is 135 fcet above sea level ,
A heavy surf prevails all along the part of the coast, between Comorin
and Cadiapatnam. Only catamarans are used by the natives and no
ships' boats attempt landing. To the south-west of this point
there are two rocky islets, about 1 } miles from each other and distant 1
and 27 miles from the point, surrounded by rocks under water and foul
ground.
The Crocodile Rock lies south-west at a distance of about 3 miles.
A part of this appears above water sometimes ; but it does not break at all
times nor is it visible at high water when the sea is smooth . At night it
should not be approached under 25 fathoms water. In passing between
these rocks and Covalam from 22 to 26 fathoms, is a good track with the
land wind . The coast may be approached to 18 or 20 fathoms occasional
ly. The coast from here as far as Cape Comorin is low and sandy close to
the sea, rising in a gentle acclivity to the base of the mountains situated a
few miles inland.

MANAKUDI . ( lat . 8° 5' N. , and long. 77° 32' E. ). This is a village port
about 4 miles to the west of the Care and stands on the edge of the lake of
the same name .

CAPE COMORIN . (lat. 8° 5' N. , long. 77° 36' E. ) . This, the southern
extremity of Hindustan, is a low Cape with two bare rocks beyond the
point. On the mainland at the water's edge is a Hindu Pagoda, a low
square white -washed building, and beside the temple is the village
of Kanyakumari. West of the temple stands the Residency. The
shore to the west of it is bare of vegetation but to the east
it is wooded. About a mile from the Cape and beyond the fish
ing village, a sandy spit ending in a line of rocks runs out into
the sea, and beyond this point is an anchorage with sandy bottom
to which native crafts run for shelter when the weather hinders them
from rounding the Cape. As the south -west monsoon at this locality
blows from the north -west, this anchorage is sheltered. Ships
anchor bearing N. E. of the locks that are off Cape Comorin
and S. W. of the Vattakotta Fort, a conspicuous stone fort on
the beach . The Government of India have been moved to make a Hydro
graphic Survey of this anchorage and the Travancore Government have
located a customshouse on the shore and have constructed a road to
the spot. A port has recently been opened under the name of the Sri
Mulapuram Port .
Among other ports may be mentioned , Rajakamangalam , Vuttam
32 TRAVAXCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
(where there is a lighthouse built on a head -land at an elevation of
105 feet above sea-level), Tengapatnam , Puvar, Paravur, Munampam
and Kottur,

SECTION B .--GEOLOGY.

Geology proper .-- Travancore owes its shape to the erosion of the
old crystalline rocks which has taken place on a most gigantic scale.
Dr. King points out the quasi-terraced arrangement the country shows,
descending by steps, as it were, from the mountains to the coast. This
terrace arrangement is much less well-marked in South Travancore than
further to the north-west. The several terrace steps are marked by the
existence of some ridges near the coast higher than the general surface of
the country further inland .. The most conspicùous of these is & consider
able mountain pass lying north and north-east of the old Fort of Udaya
giri .
In the northern part of the country, the mountain mass is very broad ,
but just south of Peermade, the hilly backbone narrows considerably and
becomes a lengthened series of more or less parallel ridges with lower and
lower intermediate valleys. The real southern termination of the Ghauts
occurs in latitude 8° 15' N. , where the high mountains sink down
into the Aramboly Pass . Southward of the pass rises the perfectly de
tached Kattadimala , a fine rocky mass 2,000 to 3,000 feet high , which
sends off a rocky spur extending southwards with two breaks, for a dis.
tance of 7 or 8 miles and terminating in the bold Marutwa hill, 4 miles
north -west of Cape Comorin . The cape itself consists of low gneiss rocks,
backed up by a palm -grown sand hill, about 100 feet high. A pair of
very small rocky islands rise out of the sea a few hundred yards east
of the Cape, and various other rocks occur off the coast opposite Muttam ,
Colachel and Melmadalatora which are the culminating points of reefs
formed by ridges of gneiss running parallel with the coast . These rocks,
especially one called the Crocodile Rock, were sources of great danger to
the coasting ships but the danger has now been removed by the erection of
a lighthouse on the Muttam headland. At Colachel, the seaport of South
NOTE : -A regular and systematic Geological Survey of Travancore has yet to be under.
taken . But in connection with the operations of the Geological Survey of India, Dr. W. King
and Mr. R. Bruce Foote have closely examined the country and their observations have been
largely utilised in the writing of this Section ,
I. ] GEOLOGY. 33

Travancore, the lie of the rocks is such that it would be easy to connect
them by short rubble breakwaters and thus to form a very useful little
harbour in which coasting craft could easily lie up during the south -west
monsoon .

A broken band of younger rocks occupies a very great part of the tract
lying between the coast and the Trivandrum -Tinnevelly high road. There
can be no doubt that these rocks, not very long since geologically
speaking, formed an unbroken belt which extended considerably further
inland than at present. The denudation they have undergone has been
very great, both vertically and laterally, and the remnants left of them
are in various places of such trifling thickness that all traces of their
former existence will soon be effaced. They show most in the western
part of South Travancore where they form small plateaus, which are well
marked except to the north , on which side they lap on to the rising
surface of the gneiss and thin out or are lost sight of in the kabuk or
pseudo -laterite formation--a rock resulting from the decomposition of
ferruginous beds of gneiss. The surface oï the plateaus, where not
greatly eroded , is gently undulating and often supports a very dense and
varied vegetation . The less compact portions of plateau surfaces are
often cut into small, but very deep, rain gullies which lender many places
impassable for any but foot passengers.
The various geological formations to be found in Travancore may, for
convenience of reference, be arranged in a tabular scheme as below : --
Blown sands : the red (teris) and the white ( coast dunes ).
Recent . Soils : Kankar deposits : ferruginous breccias ( lateritic).
Marine and estuarine beds.
Sands and clays: the Quilon beds which are supposed to
be of cocene age; overlapping these lie the Varkala beds
Tertiary .
which perhaps belong to the upper tertiary age (Cuddalore
sandstone) .
Azoic . Gneissic Series.
The Gneissic Series. “ The gneisses are generally of the massive grey
section of the series, that is, they are nearest to the rocks of the Nilgiris, though they
differ from them in being coarse-grained or more largely crystallized , and in being
generally quartzose rocks. So quartzose are they, that there are, locally, frequent
thinbeds of nearly pure quartz rock which are at times very like reefs of vein -quartz.
Often these beds are strongly felspathic, the felspar occurring among the quartz in
distinguishable grains or larger crystalline masses, giving the rock rather a granitic
appearance. The only other region where I know of somewhat similar beds of
quartz rock occurring with other gneisses is in the schistose region of the
Nellore District. There, however ,the quartz rock becomes often a fine compact
quartzite ; here in Travancore, there are no approaches to such compact forms,
34 TRAVANCORE MANUAL [ CHAP .
" The common gneisses are felspathic quartzose varieties of white or grey
colours, very largely charged with garnets. A particular form of them is an
exceedingly tough, but largely crystallized, dark-grey or greenish felspathic rock .
Massive horn -blendic gneisses are not common. Indeed horn-blende may be said
to be a comparatively rare constituent of the Travancore gneisses.
“ All the gneisses are more or less charged with titaniferous iron in minute
grains ; they are likewise - only more visibly -- as a rule, highly garnetiferous. In
fact, one might say that Travancore is essentially a country of garnetiferous
gneisses. The garnets themselves are only locally obtainable, it being impossi
ble to break them from the living rock while they are generally decomposed or
weathered . They are generally of small size, but are very rich in colour, the
precious garnet being very common. Other minerals such as red , blue and yel
low sapphire and jacinth ,are found among the garnet sands so common on the
seashore at certain places. The sea -sands are also full of titaniferous iron grain .
I may instance the beautiful and long known constitution of the shore sands at
Cape Comorin where , on the beach, may be seen the strongest coloured streaks
or ribbons, of good width, of bright, scarlet, black, purple, yellow ană white sands
of all these minerals and the ordinary silica.
" The general lie of the gneisses is in two or three parallel folds striking west
north -west to east-south -east. There is, perhaps, rather a tendency of the strike
more to the northward in the broad part of the hills about Peermad, and on
towards the Cochin territory. Thus between Trivandrum and Tinnevelly on
the west coast or for some twelve to twenty miles inland, the dip is high to the
south - south -west inland of the terraced or plateau country, or ainong the first
parallel ridges there is a north -north -east dip ; then, on the mountain zone, there
is again a high dip generally to the south -south -west. Thus the inclination of
the beds is generally high , right across the strike with a crushed -up condition
of the folds ; but they are often at a low angle, and the anticlinal on the western ,
the synclinal on the eastern , side are plainly distinguishable. About Kurtallam
(Courtallum ), on the Tinnevelly side, the rise up from the synclinal is very well
displayed , and in their strike west-north -westward into aa broad mountain land,
the beds of this place clearly take part in a further great anticlinal which is
displayed in a great flat arch of the Peermad strata. With this widening out
of the mountain mass there is rather an easier lie of the strata. Southwards
from the Ariankow traverse there is much crushing up of the beds; but they
roll out flaiter again towards the southern extremity, and there are good indi
cations of a further synclinal to the south -south -west in the northerly low
dipping beds of Cape Comorin .
“ Foliation is very strongly developed :: indeed it is here, practically, bedding
and lamination, of which there are some wonderful exhibitions. At Cape
Comorin , indeed , some of the gueiss in its weathered condition (not lateritized )
is scarcely to be distinguished, at first, from good thick -bedded and laminated
sandstones and flaggy sandstones.
" There is no special development of igneous rocks either in the way of
granites or greenstones, though small veins and dykes are common , generally
running nearly with the strike of the gneiss. In South Travancore, or north of
the parallel of Trivandrum , there are stronger occurrences of granite in which
mica is abundant and in largish masses .
“ The great feature about the gneisses in Travancore and indeed also in Cochin
and Malabar, is their extraordinary tendency to weather or decompose, generally
1. ] GEOLOGY , 35

into white, yellow, or reddish felspathic clayey rocks, which , in many places and
often very extensively, ultimately become what is here always called lutorite .
.......Very soon after one begins to leave the higher ribs of the mountains
and to enter on the first long slopes leading down to the low country, the gneiss
begins to be weathered for some depth into a clayey rock, generally of pale
colours, streaked and veined with ferruginous matter, and having always an
appreciable upper surface of scabrous or pisolitic brown iron clay, which is, of
course, probably largely the result of ferruginous wash, and less so, of ferruginous
infiltration . Also the ferruginous and lateritoid character is devolved to a certain
extent according to the composition of the gneisses ; but, on the whole, there is no
doubt that the upper surface generally over large areas is lateritized to a certain
depth irrespective of the varying constitution of the strata . Then as the rocky
are followed or crossed westward the alteration becomes more frequent, decided,
and deeper-seated ; though still , all over the field, ridges, humps, and bosses of
the living rock rise up from the surrounding more or less decomposed low -lying
rock areas .

" This generally irregular and fitfully altered condition of the gneisses begins at
an elevation ofabout fourhundred feet above the sea, and thus it extends as it sort
of fringe of varying width along the low slopes of the mountains. It a yet lower
level , say from two hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, and so nearer the sea
coast, there is a better defined belt of more decidedly lateritized form of weathered
gneiss, in which the unaltered rock occurs less frequently, and then always in
more or less flatly rounded humps and masses, which never rise above aa general
dead level . This belt is, in fact, a country of undulating downs oi tolerably
uniform level stretches of forest land. Occasionally, it also shows a plateau surface
or it is broken into small and low Hat -topped hills. Always it is very deeply in
dented by river or stream valleys, or even by some of the backwaters which
have high and steep shores.
“ It is remarkable of this coastal belt of country that its laterite (au altered
or ferruginously infiltrated condition of weathered or decomposed gneiss) is not
to be distinguished from any other laterite, except that which is made up of
obviously detrital material. Whatever the laterite of Travancore or Malabar 11 v
have been originally , it is a useless form of the rock, being crumbly and soft ins in
general rule, and oftener of a red colour than brown . The character of the
climate does, in fact, appear to militate against the changing of the red peroxido
of iron in the rock to the brown peroxide, during which change the proper
cementing and hardening of the sound rock, such as that on the cast coast or in
the Deccan is evidently brought about. " *
Regarding South Travancore, Mr. Bruce Foote writes:
“ In no part of the peninsula, is there a greater and finer display of the
Ancient crystalline rocks than in the southern Ghauts in their southern hall,
and in the great spurs and outlying masses on their western or southern side.
The disposition of the beds in South Travancore shows the existence of a great
synclinal curve, probably an ellipse, the major axis of which passes through or
very near to the great mass of Mahendragiri ; while the north -western focus ( if
the ellipse be a complete one) will be found somewhere to the north -eastward of
Allepy. I had inferred the existence of this great synclinal ellipse from study
ing the course of the great gneiss beds on the eastern foot and flanks of the
mountains southward of Courtallum , and Mr. King's examination of the uneiss
General Sketch of the Geology of Travancore, W. King B d ., 1. sc. Records of
the Geological Survey of Lucia , lol !!.
38 TRAVAXCORE MANUAL. [CHAP.
country acios3 the Shencotta pass and southward to Travancore independently
demonstrated the existence of the central part of this huge synclinal fold . The
topographical shape of the ground points strongly to the fold being a true ellipse ,
the extreme north -wester extremity of which is probably hidden under the
alluvial bed north of Allepy , while the extreme south -eastern apex lies most
likely in the sea to the E. N. E. of Cape Comorin . The curve of the coast from
Cape Comorin north -westward to close up to Trivandrum coincides with the
south side of the great synclinal, and the different ridges inland also coincide
absolutely with the strike of the harder beds of the series. Several southerly
dips were noted in the rocks on the coast westward of Kolachel which looks as
if the axis of an antielinalhad there been exposed, but they may possibly only
represent trifling vandyke -shaped bends or crumples, in the side of the great
synclinal. To the north of the area under consideration the rocks roll over
northward into a great anticlinal fold .
" The true bedding of the gneiss on a large scale is extremely well displayed
in the great outlying mass known as the Udagiri or “Muroovattoor ’ mountain .
Both strike and dip are admirably seen from the Travellers' bangalow at Nagar
koil . One of the finest examples of aa sheer naked wall of rock to be seen in
Southern India is shown in the treniendous cliff forming the south - east front of
the Thiruvana Malai, the great eastern spur of Mahendragiri. This bare precipice
must be fully 2,000 feet or more in height, many hundred feet in the central part
being absolutely vertical, or even overhanging a little. As might be expected,
this great mass has attracted much notice ; it forms the Cape Comorin of some
sailors, and of Daniel's famous view of that Cape, though in reality some 16
miles from the nearest point on the coast and 28 miles from the Cape itself.
Even the Hindu mind has connected this noble mountain with the name of
Hanuman , the famous monkey God, who is said to have planted one foot on each
of the two peaks and to have jumped across the Gulf of Mannar and alighted
on Adam's Peak, a standing jump of 220 miles and odd being a trifle for the
long -tailed divinity: Another grand precipice occurs on the south -east face
of the Taduga Malai at the western end of the Arambuli Pass. The cliff-faces
in both these splendid scarps coincide with the great planes of jointing.
" The predominant character of the gneiss rocks in this quarter is that of
well-bedded, massive, quartzo -felspathic granite gneiss, with a very variable
quantity of (generally black ) mica and very numerous small red or pinkish
garnets. This is the characteristic rock at Cape Comorin and very generally
throughout South Travancore, and Tinnevelly District as well.
“ Scattered grains of magnetic iron are commonly met with in the weathered
locks: No beds of magnetic iron were noted by me, but some may very likely
occur, and would go far to account for the numerous quantity of black magnetite
sand cast up on the beach at frequent intervals along the coast and of which
the source is at present unknown, unless it has been brought by the south
westerly current prevailing during the south -west monsoon. The source of the
garnets which form the crimson sand which is of nearly equally common
occurrence, is not far to seek, for it is hardly possible to find a bed of rock which
does notabound in garnets. The so called 'fossil-rice' found at the extreme point
of land close to the Cape is merely a local variation of the quartz grains set free by
degradation of the rock. They assume the “rice' shape after undergoing partial
trituration in the heavy surf which beats incessantly on the southern coast.
"• The sub -aerial decomposition of the felspatho -ferruginous varieties
of the gneiss produces in the presence of much iron a pseudo - laterite
I] GEOLOGY . 37

rock very largely developed over the gneissic area described by Dr. King
in his Sketch of the Geology of Travancore under the name of lateri
tised gneiss, a rock which is popularly called laterite in Travancore and
Kabuk in Ceylon . In numberless places this peculiar decomposition of the
gneiss, which is preeminently characteristic of very moist climates,has altered
the rock in situ to variable but often considerable depths, and the original
quartz laminae of the gneiss remain in their pristine position , and often to all
appearance unaltered, enclosed in a ferruginous argillacious mass formed by the
alteration of the original felspar, mica, garnets and magnetic iron. The colour of
this generally soft mass varies exceedingly from pale whitish pink to purple, red
and many shades of reddish brown and brown , according to the percentage of
iron and the degree of oxidation the iron has undergone. The bright colours
are seen in the freshly exposed Kabuk or pseudo -laterite, but the mass becomes
darker and mostly much harder as the hæmatite is converted into limonite by
hydration, and more ferruginous matter is deposited, as very frequently happens,
by infiltration . The pseudo -laterite formed by accumulation of decomposing
argillo - ferruginous materials derived from distant points is to be distinguished
generally by the absence of the quartz laminae as such. The quartz grains are
generally much smaller, and are scattered generally through the whole mass of
new -formed rock. One excellent example of the pseudo-laterite formed by the
decomposition in situ is to be seen in a steep bank in the Zoological gardens in
Trivandrum , close to the Tapir's den. Equally good examples are very common
in many of the cuttings along the high road east of Trivandrum .
“ The washed - down form of pseudo-laterite often forms аa rock intermediate in
character between a true sub-aerial deposit and a true sedimentary one, and con
sequently by no means easy to classify properly. In fact, in a country subject
to such a tremendous rainfall, the sub -aerial rocks must, here and there,
graduate into sedimentary ones through a form which may be called Pluvio
detrital.' Such pluvio-detrital forms occur very largely in South Travancore,
but it is impossible in most cases to separate them from the true sedimentary for
mations they are in contact with . ” *

The Varkala or Cuddalore Sandstone Series.- To quote Dr.

King again :
“ The next succeeding rock formations, namely, the Quilon and Warkilli beds,
occur as a very small patch on the coast between the Quilon and Anjengo back
waters. The Quilon beds are only known through the researchesof the late General
Cullen who found them cropping out at the base of the low laterite clifts edging
the backwater of that place, and again in wells which he had dug or deepened
for the purpose. I was myself not able to find a trace of them .
They are said to be argillaceous limestones, or a kind of dolomite in which a
marine fauna of univalve shells having a cocene facies was found ; and they
occur at about forty feet below the laterite of Quilon, which is really the upper
part of the next group.
" The Warkilli beds, on the other hand, are clearly seen in the cliffs edging the
seashore some twelve miles south of Quilon , where they attain a thickness
of about one hundred and eighty feet, and have the following succession in
descending order :
* Records of the Geological Survey of India , Vol . XVI .
+ Mr. Logan says that these have since been satisfactorily identified as occurring at a placo
called Parappakkara on the Quilon backwater about 69 miles north -east of the
Residency :
38 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
Laterite ( with sandstone masses ).
Sandy clays ( lithomarge ) .
Sandy clays ( with sandstone bands ) .
Alum clays.
Lignite beds with logs of wood &c. ) .
“ The bottom lignite beds rest on loose white sand, and nothing is known
of any lower strata .
It will be seen how this set of strata has an upper portion , or capping of
laterite, which is however clearly detrital . On the landward edge of the field
of those Warkilli beds, there is in places only a thin skin, representative of these
upper beds, of lateritic grits and sandstones lying directly on the gneiss, which is
itself also lateritized ; and it is very hard as may be supposed to distinguish
the boundary between the two unless the detrital character of the former deposits
is well displayed. Thus the upper part of the formation has overlapped the
gneiss. It is also this upper portion which overlies the Quilon beds, which are
also apparently overlapped.
“ These Warkilli beds constitute, for so much of the coast, the seaward edge
of the plateau or terraced country above described, and they present similar
features. The Warkilli downs are a feature of the country- bare , grass- grown ,
long, flat undulations of laterite, with , about Warkilli itself, small plateau hills
forming the higher ground --one hundred and eighty to two hundred feet above the
sea . These downs, too, and the small plateaus or flat-topped bills, are partly of
the Warkilli laterite and partly of the lateritoid gneiss.
Whatever form of denudation may have produced the now much -worn ter
race of the gneissic portion of the country, the same also had determined the
general surface of the Warkilli beds. Indeed, it gradually dawned on ine while
surveying this country, having the remembrance of what I had seen of the
plateaus and terraced low lands in Malabar in previous years, that here, clearly ,
on this western side of India is an old marine terrace which must be of later
date than the Warkilli beds. These are , as I have endeavoured to show in
another paper ,* of probably upper tertiary age and equivalent of the
Cuddalore sandstones of the Coromandel. Hence this terrace must be late
tertiary or post-pliocene, and it marks, like the long stretches of laterite and sand
stones on the eastern side of the country, the last great or decided elevation of
Southern India , prior to which , as is very probable, the Indian land rose almost
directly from the sea by its Western Ghauts and had an eastern shore line which
is now indicated very well by the inner edge of the Tanjore, South Arcot, Madras,
Nellore and Godaveri belts of laterite and sandstone.
" Mr. Foote has already generalised in this way for the eastern side of
Southern India in particular ; but I think he makes the elevation too great, in
cluding, as he does in his laterite deposits, patches of the laterite gravels and
rock masses ranging up to a height of live hundred feet at least which are not
so definitely part and parcel of the proper coastal developments."
The following account of the Cuddalore Sandstone series, marine beds,
blown sands, coral reefs and soils is extracted from the very exhaustive
paper on The Geology of South Travancore by Mr. Bruce Foote from
which we have already quoted :
* The Warkilli beds and reported associated deposits at Quilon - Records of the Geological
Survey of lucia, Vol. XV .
1. ] GEOLOGI 99

" A very careful examination of the beds near Quilon by Dr. King who had
the advantage of seeing the fresh cuttings made through plateaus of these rocks
in connection with the new tunnel at Warkilli has unfortunately thrown no
positive light on their true geological position. The vegetable remains associated
with lignite beds at base of the series proved insufficient to allow of determi
nation of their own character and consequently most unsuitable to assist in
settling the homotaxy of the strata they occurred in . The sedimentary beds
forming the belt of small plateau fringing the coast of South Travancore must, on
petrological grounds, be unhesitatingly regarded as extensions of the Quilon beds,
or Warkilli beds of Dr. King. None of these formations which I traced from
Villinjam , nine miles south-east of Trivandrum , down to Cape Comorin afforded
the faintest trace of an organic body ; thus no light was thrown on the question
of the geological age or homotaxy, but somewhat similar sandstones and grits are
found on the Tinnevelly side of the extreme south end of the Ghauts range, and
in aa coarse gritty sandstone, much resembling some of the beds in Travancore, a
bed of clay is intercalated, in which occur numerous specimens of Arca -rugosa and
Cytherea of a living species. The locality where these fossils of recent species
were found occurs on the right bank of the Nambi-ar, about two miles above its
mouth and a few hundred yards from the bank of the main stream . All the sub
fossil shells I found here are of living species ; hence the deposits enclosing them
cannot be regarded as tertiary ; and if the agreement of these Nambi-ar beds with
the Warkilli and South Travancore beds, on the one hand, and the Cuddalore,
Madras, and Rajamundry beds be assumed, as they must be on petrological
grounds, the Cuddalore sandstones and their equivalents elsewhere must be
accepted as of post-tertiary age. As far as it goes the evidence is clear and
distinct ; but more evidence is required as to the age of some of the intermediate
connecting beds, such as those south and east of Kudankulam .
“ The typical section of the Warkilli Rocks near Quilon, given by Dr. King
shows the following series :
Laterite 30 to 40 feet.
Sands and sandy clays or lithomarge 58
Alum clays 25 9

Lignite beds 7 to 15
Sands ...
Total ... 120 138

with which we may compare the series seen in the fine section formed by the
beautiful clifts in Karruchel bay, 11 miles south-east of Trivandrum .
" The section here exposed shows the following series of formations :
4. Soil - dark red, sandy loam , lateritic at base — 8 to 10 feet.
3. Sandstone - hard, gritty, purplish or blackish- ?
2. Sandstone-gritty, rather soft, false -bedded , often clayey in parts (litho
margic), variegated; in colour red, reddish brown purplish white
yellow - 40 to 50 feet .
1. Sandstone--gritty, rather soft, false-bedded, red , purple, pink, white,
variegated ; shows many white clay galls producing conglomeratic
appearance in section - 40 feet .
Base not seen , hidden by sandy beach .
“ The total thickness of these beds I estimated at about 100 feet ; the upper
40 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP .
part is obscure , from pluvial action washing down the red soil over the dark
grits. The middle and lower parts of the section are extremely distinct, and the
colouring of the beds very vivid and beautiful ; but the beds are by no means
sharply defined
“ Thebeds dip north -easterly(inland ), and from the slope of the ground on
the top of the cliff the angle of dip may be inferred to be from 250 to 30.,
Further inland, near Pinnacolum , thedark gritty sandstones lie horizontally; at
a considerably lower level than at the top of the Karruchel cliffs, but rise again
to the eastward. The middle gritty series is exposed along thewestern side of
the Karruchellagoon, but is highly lateritisedby weather action. Three miles or so
to the north of the lagoon , purplish gritty beds show strongly and form a small
well-marked plateauoverlooking the valley in which lies the village of Cottukal.
That the gritty beds are sometimes replaced by clays is shown by the materials
turned out of two deep wells sunk into the plateau at two points several miles
apart ; one of these wells lies rather more than half a mile to the northward of
Mullur. Here the section, which is from 80 to 100 feet deep passes through
mottled gritty sandstone and into blue and white mottled clay. The other sec
tion revealing clays below the gritty beds is a well sunk close to the new road
from Valrampur to Puvar.
“ A section in the low cliff forming the small bay immediately east of
Villinjam shows a mottled vermiculated clayey rock showing mostly no bedding
at all. Traces of bedding are, however, revealed as the cliff is followed south
ward by the appearance of thin bands of grit near the base of the section which
rests on the underlined quartzo-felspathic garnetiferous gneiss. This mottled clayey
rock I believe to represent the bluish white mottled clay turned out of the lower
parts of the well section near Mullur before referred to. It is locally consider
ably discoloured and stained by the percolation of water through the overlying
pseudo-lateritic dark-red sand . As will be seen by any one who follows the coast
Iine these Warkilli sandstones rest upon a very rugged and broken gneiss
surface. Many great tors and knolls of granite gneiss protrude through the
sandstone plateau or tower over them from adjacent higher ridges, which
have been completely denuded of the younger rocks.
“ The greater part of the surface of the tract occupied by these Warkilli beds
west of the Neyar is thickly covered by sandy loam , generally of dark red colour,
which conceals the sub-rock very effectually, exceptingwhere the loam is deeply
eroded. A well marked patch of purplish grit forms aa knoll, about aa mile south
west of Valrampur. Traces of the former more easterly extension of these beds
are to be seen at intervals along and to the north of the Trivandrum -Tinnevelly
road between Valrampur and Neyatankarai.
" In the tract lying east of the Neyar few sections exhibiting the grits & c .,
were met with, and allwere small and unsatisfactory. The surface of the country
is either largely covered with the deep red soil or else the extremely broken
surface of the gritty beds is extensively lateritised . The appearance of the
country, when seen from elevated points is, however, characteristically very
different from the gneiss and Kabuk tract lying to the northward. This may be
well seen from Colatoor Trigonometrical station hill, as also from the high ground
close to Cauracode, but yet more striking from the Kodalam Pothai , a hill 2 miles
west-north -west of Paurashalay. Sections in which the fine character of the rock
is to be seen occur on the high ground close to the junction of the new roads
leading from Puvar and Martanda Putentorai respectively to Paurashalay, also
to the southward near Shoolaul, where a large rain gully cuts deeply into the
grits and underlying clayey beds ; also along the ridge of high ground north and
I.] GEOLOGY 41

north -east of Yeldasaput. Traces of the former eastward extension of the grits
were noted on the eastern flank of the Kodalam Pothai and on high ground half
& mile or so to the northward of the Cutcherry at Paurasha !ay. The beds com.
posing this patch of Warkilli rocks have undergone greater superficial denudation
than those in the Karruchel patch to the north-west.
“ In the small patch lying east of the Kulitorai river some instructive
sections of hard rock grits and underlying clayey grits of the usual, reddish,
bluish, and white mottled colour are to be seen south of Killiur. Some of the
sections show regular miniature canons ' 15' to 20' deep, with vertical sides
and numerous well-formed pot-holes. Hard purplish grits show on the surface
between Killiur and Pudukaddi and soft mottled grits in a well section
close east of the D. P. W. bangalow at Tengapatnam . At the southernmost
point of Killiur patch, the grits become coarsely conglomeratic over a small
area. A little to the north of this the grits, when resting on the basset edgeof a bed
of granular quartz rock, present the characters of a perfect arkose, made up of
the angular gneiss debris . In places this arkose might be most easily mistaken
for a granitic rock .
“ A distinctly conglomeratic character is shown by the grit beds close to
Madalam. This Madalam patch of Warkilli sandstones is onits southern side deeply
cut into by a gully which exposes regular cliffs with from 35 to 40 feet of coarse
or conglomeratic mottled grits, capped by thick red soil. The grits contain many
large clay galls and lumps of blueor mottled colour.
" In the Kolachel patch the grits are extremely well exposed in deep cut
tings ( miniature canons ) made by the stream rising just west of Neyur. They
are of the usual mottled description . Where seen at the eastern side of the patch
near the Eranil Cutcherry they are quite conglomeratic. They are exposed also
in & gu'ly crossing the road which runs north from Kolachel to join the main
road, andin a well section on the high ground a mile north -eastward of the
little town . The south-eastern part of the patch is entirely obscured by a great
thickness of dark red soil. They peep out, however, below the red soil at the
western end of the great tank miles south of Eranil.

" A very thin bed of conglomeratic grit underlies the teri , or red sand- hill,
capping the high ground north of the Muttum headland. Further east a few
poor sections only of whitish or mottled grit prove the extension of the Warkilli
beds in that direction, nor are they well seen again till close into Kotar, where
they show in various wells and tanks, but are still better seen in a deep rain
gully south of the Travellers’ bangalow at Nagarkoil and in a broad cutting imme
diately to the east of the bangalow. The variegated gritty sandstones here seen
are very characteristic, and strongly resemble some of the typical varieties in
South Arcot and Madras districts .

“ To the south of Kotar the grits are to be seen in stream beds opening to
the Purrakay tank, and in a series of deep raia gullies on the eastern slope of a
large red soil plateau to the south-west of Purra kay .
“ A small patch of gritty sandstones of similiar character to the above occurs
immediately north and north -west of Cape Comorin. As a rule, they are badly
exposed, being much masked by the red blown sand of aa small teri. The most
accessible section is a small one seen in the bottom of a good sized bowrie, a
little south of the junction of the roads co.ning from Trevandrum and Palam
cotta. This section can only be seen when the water in the bowrie is low.
A considerable spread of similar greyish or slightly mottled grits is
exposed about half a mile to the north -east of Covacolum and 11 miles
north -west of the Cape. Lying between the two exposures just mentioned,
f
42 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP .
but separated from either by spreads of blown sand, is a different looking
vermiculated mottled grit of much softer character. This is extensively
exposed in the banks of a nullah and head water gullies falling into the
Agusteshwar. The colour of this soft grit ranges from red, through buff to
whitish. The beds roll to the northward. This grit is full of vermicular
cavities filled with white or reddish Kankar (impure carbonate of lime). The
grit seems to graduate upward into a thick red gritty soil full of small
whitish red , impure (gritty) calcareous concretions. There is good reason, how.
ever, for thinking that this graduation is merely apparent, and that the red gritty
soil is only the base of a red sand -hill, or teri, undergoing change by percolation
of calciferous water. A hard brown grit is exposed for a few square yards just
north of the junction of the two roads above referred to. This rock has, except
in colours, considerable resemblance to the red -white grit just described, and both
probably overlie the pale mottled grits near Covacolum .
“ The last patch of grits to be mentioned forms almost the extreme easterly
angle of the Travancore territory and lies to the eastward of the southernmost
group of hills and along its base. Not many sections of the grit are here ex:
posed owing to a thick red soil formation which laps round the base of the hills,
and is only cut through here and there by a deep rain gully or a well. The grits
here seen are like those exposed near the Travellers' bangalow at Nagarkoil;
but show much more bedding and are almost shaly in parts. The colour of the
grit is white, pale drab or grey mottled with red and brown in various shades.
They lie in depressions in the gneiss, and were either always of much less im
portance and thickness than the beds to the west, or else have been denuded to
a far greater extent. They are best seen in gullies to the south -west and west
of Russhun Kristapur, 7 iniles north of Cape Comorin , and in the beds of the
small nullahs west and north -west of Comaravarum opposite the mouth of the
Arambuli pass. None of these Warkilli grit beds occurring between Trevan
drum and Cape Comorin have yielded any organic remains as far as my research
has gone, and I fear none will be obtained by subsequent explorers. The alum
shales occurring in Dr. King's Warkilli section have not been traced in South
Travancore, and I had not the good fortune to come across any lignite. It is
said to occur not unfrequently to the south of Kolachel, and to be turned up by
the people when ploughing their fields. I have no reason to doubt this , for it
is extremely probable that some of the clayey beds should contain lignite.
From the configuration of the ground, too, the paddy fiat along the southern
boundary of the Kolachel grit patch would coincide in position with someof the
clayey beds near the base of the series which are lignitiferous at Warkilli ; and
why not at Kolachel ?
“ The recent discovery of lignite in the Cuddalore sandstones at Pondicherry
adds greatly to the probability of the correctness of Dr. King's and my conclu
sion (arrived at by us separtely and independently beforewehad an opportunity
of comparing notes) that this gritty bed in Tinnevelly and Travancore should be
regarded on the grounds of petrological resemblance and identity of geographical
position as equivalents of the Cuddalore sandstones of the Coromandel Coast.
Marine Beds.-- " At Cape Comorin and two other places along the
coast to the northward are formations of small extent but very considerable
interest, which , by their mineral constitution and by the abundance of fossil
marine shells they enclose, show themselves to be of marine origin , and thus
prove that the coast line of the Peninsula has undergone some little upheaval
since they were deposited. These beds are to be seen close to the Cape at the
base of a small cliff which occurs immediately south of the Residency bangalow
and only about two hundred yards west of the Cape itself. The rocks seen in
 1.] GEOLOGY . 43
the surf and immediately behind it on the beach are all gneiss. The base of the
small cliff is composed of friable gritty calcareous sandstone, full of comminuted
shells. The base was not exposed at the time I examined the section , some
heavy gale having piled up the beach sand against the foot of the cliff, and for
this reason it was impossible to trace the probable connection of the sandstone
with another exposed at a slightly lower level at a few yards distance to the
west. This lower bed is similar in mineral character, but very hard and tough ,
and offers great resistance to the surf but has nevertheless been deeply
honeycombed and in places quite undermined. The roofs of the miniature
caves thus formed have in some cases fallen in , but have been partly re
cemented by deposition of the calcareous matter in the lines of fracture.
To return to the cliff section , the basement sandstone is overlaid by a similar
but slightly harder yellowish friable bed, which contains many unbroken
shells ( all of living species ) , in addition to a great quantity of comminuted
ones. The base of the lower bed is hidden by sands, but from the proximity
of the gneiss it cannot exceed 5 or 6 feet in thickness, while the overlying
shelly bed measures about the same. It is overlaid in its turn by a massive
bed , 6 to 10 feet thick locally, of a kind of travertine formed of altered blown
sand, composed mainly of fully comminuted shells. This travertine contains
immense numbers of shells and casts of Helix vittata, the commonest land shell
in the south. Owing to the soft character of the marine sandstones, the cliff
has been much undermined by the tremendous surf which breaks on this coast
in bad weather, and great masses of the hard travertine of the Helix bed have
fallen on to the beach, forming a partial breakwater against the inroads of
the sea .

" The shells contained in the upper Sandstone bed were all found
to be of living species, where sufficiently well preserved for specific
identification ; the majority of the specimens aro too ill preserved for
specific identification . Four miles north -north - east from the Cape, stands the
little stone-built fort of Wattakotai , which is built upon a small patch of cal
careous sandstone, full of marine sheils, exposed in the most along the
north face of the long curtain wall which joins Wattakotai fort with the exten
sive series of fortifications known as · Travancore lines ': The marine limo.
stone may be traced for nearly half a mile inland in the bottom of the moat.
This marine bed is overlaid by a very thin bed of travertine limestone full of
Heliz cittata ; it has been cut through in the formation of the moat. The thick
ness of the shelly marine bed is unknown, but the Helix bel is not seen to ex
ceed 10 " or l ' in thickness. As far as seen in the very small exposure, both
formations lie nearly horizontally: Another small exposure of the marine bed
occurs at the western end of a little backwater to the north of the fort. The
sandstone here contains many well-preserved marine shells, all of living species ;
but further west, where the bed is exposed below the Helix bed in the moat, the
enclosed shells are all broken and comminuted. The surface of sandstone, as
seen at the end of the little backwater, is raised but a very little distance above
the sea-level , probably not more than 4 or 5 feet at the outside. The rise of the
ground along the moat is extremely small, and even at the furthest point from
the sea at which the sandstones are exposed the elevation is probably not more
than 10 or 12 feet at most, which would correspond with the top of the sand
stones as seen in the little cliff at Cape Comorin .
" About two miles north -east-by-north of Wattakotai fort a small patch of
white shelly limestone occurs peeping out of the low belt of blown sand which
fringes the coast at that spot. The village of Kannakapur which lies immediately
to the north is the last within the Travancore boundary: Thic limestone only
44 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.

stands out a few inches above the surface of the surrounding sands, and no sec
tion could be found to show its thickness, bui in point of elevation above the sea
level it agrees perfectly with the Waitalotai and Cape Comorin beds. The lime
stone which is fairiy bard is quarried for economic purposes, and unless a good
deal more of the bed iran now meets the eye remains hidden under the sands, it
will , before many years are over, have been removed by human agency.
“ The shell remains occur as impressions and casts of great beauty and per
fectness , but the shelly matter has disappeared entirely, being probably slightly
more soluble than the enclosing limestone. The limestone contains a large num,
ber of specimens of Felix Litcłu which were evidently carried out to sea and
there entombed in a shallow water formation . To any one who has noticed the
enorinous numbers of this Helix living in this neighbourhood, and in the southern
districts generally , the large numbers of it occurring fossil in this marine bed
will be a matter of no surpise.
Blown Sands.--- Two very marked varieties of Æolian rocks occur
along or near the coast of South Travancore, as well as along that of Tinnevelly.
They are the red sands, forming the well-known teris of Tinnevelly, where they
are developed on a far larger scale, and the white sands forming the coast dunes.
In South Travancore, as far as my observation went, the red sand hills are no
longer forming ; all are undergoing the process of degradation by atmospheric
agencies at various rates of speed. The red sands havein many places ceased to
yield to the influence of the winds and have arrived at a condition of fixity and
compaction caused by the action of rain falling upon the loose sands percolating
through them and during heavy showers flowing over their surfaces and washing
the lighter clayey and smaller, though heavier, ferruginous particles down the
slopes of the hills or into hollows on the surface, where, on drying, a fairly hard ,
often slightly glazed, surface of dark red loam has been formed. This loam is
very fairly fertile and soon becomes covered with vegetation , which further tends
to bind the mass together and render the surface secure from wind action. The
loose sand, deprived of the clayey and finer ferruginous particles, would, unless
unusually coarse in grain , be carried off by high winds elsewhere or remain in
barren patches on the surface. I believe this process has gone on extensively
over many parts of South Travancore, and explains the existence, on the surface
of the country and resting indiscriminately on the gneiss and the younger rocks
as the Warkilli sandstone, of the great thick sheets of pure red loam which have
not been brought there by ordinary aqueous deposition nor formed in situ by the
decomposition of the underlying rocks. The percolation of the rain water through
the mass has in many places given rise to the formation of concretionary ferrugi.
nous masses, which are often strongly lateritoid in their aspect. The quantitiy of
clayey matter and of iron ore in the form of magnetic iron is very great in the
sand of many of the teris. The greater quantity of the water falling on the teris,
as on their blown sand surfaces, escapes by percolation, and it is a common phe
nomenon to find springs issuing around the foot of the sand mass during the
rainy season and becoming dry in the hot or rainless season .
“ The teris in South Travancore which still retain their character as accu
mulations of moving red sands are four in number and all very small, the largest
not measuring one sq . mile in area . They are all close to the coast and with one
exception stand high and conspicuous to ships passing along at a fair distance.
The largest and most conspicuous is that at Muttum which caps the high ground
with a new lighthouse. The process of fixation has gone on here largely and
the moving sands cover a much smaller space than does the fixed portion. The
same may be said of the teri resting on the south -castern extremity of the
Kolachel sandstone plateau. To the north -west of Kolachel are two much smaller
I. ) GEOLOGY 45

teris at the distance of 3 and 54 miles respectively. In both of these also

the area of the fixed sand far exceeds that of the loose. Especially is this the
case in the more northerly teri near Melmadalathorai. Here the fixed part
has undergone tremendous erosion andis traversed by long and deep rain gullies,
with vertical sides up to 20 or 25 feet high . Gullies on à yet larger
scale are to be seen at the south -east corner ofthe Kolachel sandstone patch and
at the eastern side of the Muttum patch. Very large but shallower gullies are
to be seen at the south-east corner of the Nagarkoil patch, where there is a very
large fixed teri.
“ The small teri immediately behind the Cape Comorin is a very poor
specimen of its kind , and, in fact, hardly deserves to rank as one owing to its
pale colour and poverty in iron sand, but it will not do to class it as a coast
dune, as it consists mainly of silicious sand, while the true dune at the Cape
consists mainly of calcareous sand composed of comminuted shells, corallines,
nullipores &c.
“ The sand of the typical teris is silicious or ferruginous (magnetic iron ), the
former being well rounded and coated with a film of red-oxide of iron, which is
removable by boiling in Nitric acid for a few seconds. Common as garnet sand
is on the beaches of South Travancore, I never yet found a grain of it in the teri
sand, where the latter was pure and had not been mixed with beach sand.
“ The coast dunes of South Travancore are , except close to the Cape, in no
way remarkable. A large patch of small hillocks to the north -west of the mouth
of the Kulitorai river was caused by the wind shifting a great mass of sand
turned out when the new canal was dug and heaped up on the north bank
of the canal .
“Some tolerably high ridges occur three miles south -west of Kolachel. The
sand here contains so much fine magnetic iron that it looks in parts of a dark
grey colour, shading here and there almost into absolute black.
“ A considerable quantity of blown sand fringes the coast from the Muttum
headland eastward to Cape Comorin , and between Pullum and Culladevella
forms some considerable hills. At Covacolum the highly calcareous beach sand
which forms many low hillocks has been solidified in several places into coarse
shelly limestone. The Helix bed at Cape Comorin already referred to, when
treating of the Marine beds, is really an altered sand dune, the calcareous matter
of which has, by percolation of acidulated water, been dissolved and re -deposited,
on evaporation of the water, as a sub -aerial travertine. Countless thousands of
Helix vittata and a considerable number of shells of Nanina tranqucburica, the
two commonest land shells in this part of India , have been enclosed and fossil
ised in the formation of this travertine, which is evidently in constant progress.
The immense wealth of shell fish of all kinds, added to large quantities of corallines
and nullipores, incessantly thrown up by the surf, furnishes an abundant supply
of calcareous sand for the formation of this travertine, which forms a bank more
than a mile long and rising some 80 feet or more above the sea at its highest
point. Its inland extent cannot be ascertained, as it is covered by loose sands.
It probably only extends 300 to 400 yards inland and abuts against a low ridge
of gneiss.
Coral Reefs.- "A few tiny fringing reefs are to be seen half to three -fourths
of a mile west of the Cape, half in the surf at low tide, and wholly in it at high
tide. They are now to be considered as dead reefs, abandoned by the polypes
that built them . I examined most of them carefully, without finding any live
coral, and was inclined to doubt the correctness of my inference, drawn from
their tabular shape and many shallow basin - like cavities; but later on , when
 46 TRAVAXCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP .
examining some identical fringing reefs off the Tinnevelly coast to the south of
Kudankulam Trigonometrical station (the south point of the Cape Comorin base
line) , I found a considerable quantity of live coral lining the sides of the little
basins and equally large quantities of coral quite recently dead in adjoining
basins.

“ A great deal of shell debris, sand and broken stone, is included in the mass
of the reefs which in several places lave formed around masses of rock standing
in rather shallow water, and joined up many loose blocks of stone tossed on to
them by the surf into tremendously coarse conglomerates. Some similar reefs
but of rather larger size, occur along the coast to the north -east of Cape Comorin ;
in these the tabular mass extends from 10 to 40 and 50 feet in width, from the shore
to the constantly surf-beaten outer edge . In one or two places parts of the reef
had evidently been founded on sand, which had been washed away, leaving an
unsupported surface of many square yards in extent which the surf of the next
high tide or first gale of wind would either break up or else again support with
sand washed under it . These little reefs are worthy of much closer examination
than I was able to bestow upon them .

“ The coral fauna of the Cape Comorin sea is on the whole a remarkably
poor one, as far as one may judge by what is to be found thrown up on the beach.
Dredging might reveal much more, but unfortunately no boats are found there,
only Kattumarams (Catamarans) which would not be the most convenient form
of craft from which to carry on scientific observations. The sea here is, however,
so very rich in animal life in many forms, that it could assuredly afford a rich
reward to any one having a suitable vessel at command. I obtained in a very
short time, a far larger number of species of shells here than at any other place
on the Indian Coast.

Soils. -." The prevalent soils of South Travancore) are red ones varying in
the quantity of their ferruginous element. The red soils seen inland near the
main trunk road are cliefly formed of gneissic debris by sub -aerial decomposition .
The origin of the deep red sandy or clayey loams has already been discussed.
They occupy no inconsiderable area. True alluvial soils occur very rarely , if at
all , now -a -days; those which fill the bottoms of the many valleys and creeks in
which paddy is cultivated being greatly altered from their original condition by
centuries of cultivation, and the addition of various mineral , vegetable and animal
manures . Estuarine beds full of sub-fossil shells, Cytheren, Pottamides, Melania
&c., of living species are exposed in the salt pans at the mouth of the Kolachel
nullah .
“ The Alluvium in the valley of the Paleyar, which flows south from the
west flank of Alahendragiri past Nagarkoil is, where pure , a coarse gritty silt.”
Smooth Water Anchorages. There are two anchorages on the
Malabar Coast , known to mariners from early times. The bottom of
these anchorages consists of a very fine , soft, unctuous mud which has
over and over been supposed to act as a barrier against the force of the
waves of the sea . Ships can not only ride safely in these roads, but
they can also sometimes take in fresh water alongside, the sea beneath
them being so diluted with fresh water from inland sources. At times
the smooth surface on one of the banks may be broken by huge bubble
“ cones as they have been called, of water or mud from the sea-bed, and
even roots and trunks are reported to have floated up with these ebullitions ,
1. ] GEOLOGY 47

Again the banks of mud are not fixed in position but move along the
coast within ranges of some miles in extent ; or one of them remains
comparatively stationary while the other moves, and these movements
do not take place year by year with the monsoons but continue over many
years . Similar, though insignificant, patches of sinooth water banks are
found in various points along the Malabar Coast. But the best -marked
and most generally known are those near Cochin and Alleppey. That
near Cochin or the Narakal bank may be said to lie between Cochin and
the Cranganore river 11f miles to the north. For many years its position
has been about the middle of the range. The Alleppey bank ranges from
& mile or two north of Alleppey to Poracad , a distance of 12 to 15 miles,
It is now at the southern end of this range and indeed is often called the
Poracad mud -bank . The mud -banks lie close along the beach but extend
some miles seaward presenting a more or less semicircular or flat cres
centic edge to the long rollers and tumbling waves of the monsoon weather.
Ordinarily the sea is tolerably smooth only rolling on the shore
with more or less of a surf, and these patches are only to be disting
uished by the soundings of mud below them . It is only a few days
after the bursting of the monsoon , when the whole line is affected and
the mud in these particular places stirred up, that the patches are disting
uishable. Then the muddy waters calm down and remain so for the
rest of the monsoon .

The mud itself is essentially characteristic and unique. It is of a de

cided dark green colour slightly tinged with brown, very fine in texture,
very soft and oily feeling, altogether just like a very fine soft ointment or
pomatum . After a time it dries and hardens, loses its oily feel and be
comes harsh like ordinary mud . Its oily consistency has been
proved beyond doubt; the specimens analysed have been found to give
off, when subject to distillation. some brownish yellow oily matter
lighter than water and looking not unlike petroleum . The muds also
contain a considerable quantity of foraminiferal and infusorial remains.
Capt. Drury thus wrote on the origin of these banks:
" The origin of this deposition of so large a quantity of mud in the open sea
about two or three miles from the shore and so many miles from any bar or
outlet from the backwater has never been satisfactorily accounted for. From the
circumstance of there being no natural outlet for the vast accumulation of
waters which are poured down from the various mountain streams into the basin
of the backwater nearer than thirty -six miles on either side, it is not impro.
bable that there exists a subterraneous channel communication with the sea
from the backwater through which the large quantity of mud is carried off and
tbrown up again by the sea in the form of a bank ”.
a
48 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP
Mr. Crawford, for a long time Commercial Agent at Alleppey, was of
opinion that the perfect smoothness ofthe waterin the roads and at the Allep
pey beach was attributable nct so much to the scftness of the mud at the
bottom as to “ the existence of a subterranean passage or stream or a succes
sion of them which, communicating with some of the rivers inland and the
backwater, became more active after heavy raios particularly at the com
mencement of the monsoon than in the dry season, in carrying cff the
accumulating water and with it vast quantities of soft mud .” . He
found that at the periods of deficient rain the mud - hanks were less
effective as anchorages. He also observed that after or during heavy
rains the beach suddenly subsided, slightly at first but gradually as
much as five feet, when a core of mud suddenly appeared above the
watsr, bursting and throwing up immense quantities of soft soapy
mud ard blue mud of considerable corsistence in the form of boulders
with fresh water, debris of vegetable matter decayed and in some cases
fresh and green .
Mr. Rhodes, the successor of Mr. Crawford, confirms the above observation
and states that he has seen mud volcanoes bursting up in the sea during
the rainy season , which appeared “ as if aa barrel of oil had suddenly been
started below the surface " . He thinks that the mud thus formed is
gradually fl zated away to the southward by the littoral current and fresh
banks are formed whenever the hydraulic pressure of the inland back
water increases sufficiently to overcome the subterranean resistance of the
stratum of fluid mud which is formed at certain places ; and as a further
proof, he adduces the fact that the extent of the mud -bank at
Alleppey increases and diminishes as the level of the inland water rises
and falls, as was most observable in 1882. *

The range of the coast exhibiting the phenomena is about 92 miles long,
tolerably straight, without any indentation giving the form of a bay except
at the extreme ends, viz., at Quilon and Cranganore. There is no indication of
a bay near Alleppey, the name ' bay ' having perhaps been adopted from an
imaginary bay of smooth water enclosed within the semicircle of breakers
outside. The shore line is straight, low lying or only a few feet above sea level
and made up of alluvial deposits and sand. Between Alleppey backwater

* In regard to the formation of the bank, Mr. Philip Lake of the Geological Survey in his
Note on the Mud - banks says : — “ The chief point then in which I differ from previous observers
is in considering that the Alleppey bank is formed not from the backwater mud but from an
older river deposit found only at particular points along the coas This would explain its
non -appearance at other points where the conditions seem equally favourable . With regard
to the existence of subterranean channels, it may well be doubted whether any could exist in
such unstable deposits as are found here. "
I. ] GEOLOGY 49

and the sea there is no visible communication, the principal rivers

that enter it flowing northwards behind the range of the mud -bank. To all
appearance the flat lands of the coast are entirely recent alluvial deposits
consisting of layers of sand and mud overgrown with vegetation. The
lumps of blue clay described by Mr. Crawford as turned up in the cones
of Alleppey, answer to the lumps of clay of the lower part of the Varkala
cliffs already described . Mr. Crawford also mentions his having passed
through a crust of chocolate-coloured sandstone or a conglomerate mixture
of the sandstone and lignite corresponding to certain rocks at Varkala .
It is clear that both the Alleppey and Narakal banks have practically the
same constitution, behave similarly and have the same accompaniments
with the exception of the violent discharges of mud or oil which are confined
to the Alleppey bank .
It has already been remarked that the mud of these banks is full of
organic matter and that it contains aa sensible amount of oil probably partly
derived from the decomposition of organisms. The mud is easily stirred
up on all seasons and never settles down into a uniformly compact deposit
but the upper stratum is in a greater state of liquidity than its lower
depths. It occupies particular areas and within these well defined limits
its movement is froin north to south .

Regarding the water over the mud, Dr. King says* :

“ It is only known to calm down during the S. W. Monsoon. The calming
of the anchorages does not take place until after the monsoon has commenced and
there has been a stirring up of the sea and mud. The quieting of the waters
is intensified according to the amount of rainfall during the monsoon ; but even
if no rainfall, there is a certain amount of quiescence. The calmness
continues throughout the monsoon , apparently without any fresh stirring up of
the mud. In one locality at least, the water is subject at times to
violent agitation through the bursting up of gigantic bubbles of water, mud or
gas, it is not quite clear which ; and these features also appear to be intensified
during heavy rainy weather in the monsoon periods. The water over the banks
becomes considerably freshened even to the extent as I was told by
Mr. Crawford - of being drinkable ; also according as the monsoon rains are
light or heavy. At such times, also, the water gives off fetid odours, and the
fish inhabiting it are killed off in large numbers ; but whether owing to the fresh
ening of the sea -water, or the exhibition of poisonous matter and vapour in the
water, is not clear ; perhaps this destruction of life may be due to both causes.
The soothing of the troubled waters of the sea must surely be due
to the oily constitution of the mud. An experiment performed
sometime ago in the harbour of Peterhead, when a stream of oil

Considerations on the smooth -water anchorages, or mud -hanks of Narakal and

Alleppey on the Travancore Coast --Records of the Geological Survey of India , Vo !. XVII .
8
bo TRAVAXCORE MANUAL [ CHAP .

was cast upon the heavy seas at the harbour's mouth with such
success that vessels were enabled to run in with comparative case,
clearly proves this. Thus the action of oil on troubled waters is confirmed
not only by tradition and anecdote but by actual fact ; but the long con
tinuance of the quiescence without any fresh stirring up is not easily ac
counted for. The amount of oil derived from the decomposition of the
animal and vegetable matter of the organisms in the mud would be hardly
sufficient to account for the features exhibited ; hence we must look to
other sources for the oil and even for the continued supply of mud itself
which is evidently carried away and distributed by littoral currents.
The consensus of opinion certainly leads to the conclusion that there
is an underground discharge of water at any rate into the sea from the
lagoon and river system behind the Alleppey-Poracad Coast during flood
time, the inland waters being at a higher level than the sea. This passage
of underground waters must, more particularly during heavy rains, force
cut large quantities of the mud on which the Alleppey Poracad land rests
like a floating bog, as it were, elastic and capable of yielding to pressure
or exerting pressure by its own weight, while a continuous stream of the
same oil and mud may be kept up under the lower pressure of the ordinary
backwater level. In the monsoon time the heavy floods, which however
occur only at long intervals, cause great discharges of mud, oil and gases
and at such times new banks might be formed, the old ones being
distributed down the coast by littoral currents and finally dissipated into
the open sea.
The presence of petroleum has to be accounted for by the fact that
besides the alluvial deposits large lumps of clay or compact mud, more
or less decayed , and vegetable remains are brought to the surface during
the prevalence of the violent ebullitions.. Such clays are met with in
the Varkala deposits associated with lignite beds, in which occur trunks
and roots of trees in every stage of decay. It is probable that the Varkala
deposits may extend north under the Alleppey Poracad alluvium and
even again at Narakal, where also fragments of similar clays are
thrown up by the sea ; and that it is in these deposits as being deeper
seated, older and lignitiferous that the earth -oil is generated .
Thus according to Dr. King, the mud banks, their smoothening influence,
and their position within certain ranges of the coast, may be entirely due
to the following causes :
“ 1. The discharge of mud from under the lands of Alleppy, Poracaud and
Narrakal, being effected by the percolation or underground passage of lagoon
water into the sea ,
 1. ) GEOLOGY . 5]
2. The presence in this mud of oily matter, derived perhaps in part from the
decomposition of organisms, but principally from the distillation of oil in sub
jacent lignitiferous deposits belonging presumably to the Warkilli strata.
3. The action of littoral currents which, slowly and through long periods of
years, carry the mud down the coast to certain points whence it is dissipated
seawards, —by the Quilon river at Narrakal, and at Poracaud because it is there
beyond the range of replacement.
Economic Geology. According to Mr. Bruce Foote, valuable
minerals and metals are conspicuous by their absence in South Tra
vancore and this remark may be truly applied to the whole of Travancore.
The development of the gold industry in Southern India having raised
hopes of gold likely to be found among the quartz out-crops of Peermade
and the adjacent country, Dr. King was requested to examine those
parts and report on the same . His report is conclusive. He says :
“ These out-crops are not reefs as usually understood but are true beds of
quartz rock lying between and running with other beds of the country rock
which is of the crystalline or gneiss series . Reefs or veins of quartz generally
run across the country rock as in Wainad or in the Kolar region of Mysore.
Secondly the size of these out-crops is small, only one of them being sufficiently
large to allow any expectation of what might be called a good tonnage of
stone. Thirdly, and most important of all, the quartz of the out -crops, though
it shows on a close assay traces of gold, is certainly not rich enough to be
called auriferous quartz in the usual acceptance of the term .”
He found on examination that the ordinary crop of the Peermade Hills
consists of a thin bed of quartz rock, largely made up also of felspar,
He says that in all of the main outcrops of Peermade,
" the rock is more or less of the same constitution, that is , a quartz rock with
very often a good deal of felspar distributed through it in small crystalline
masses sometimes as large as peas, generally coarsely crystallised dull white
and glassy quartz ; and less often a more compact rock like that of vein or
reef. It is generally of a white colour, but at times it is stained red or even
a golden yellow from ferruginous matter and scattered through it, there is often
a small quantity of iron pyrites or frequent small particles of magnetic iron
ore .

PLUMBAGO . - General Cullen was the first to discover graphite in 1845.

In 1855 Dr. Royle discovered some specimens which were lamellar and soft
but brilliant .Some samples were forwarded from a place south of
Trivandrum for examination but were considered too soft and scaly for
the manufacture of pencils. The matrix appeared to be a pseudo-laterite
formed of decomposed gneiss in situ . Deposits were also found near
Vellanad, the veins in which plumbago occurs being said to cross the
strike of the gneiss. The plumbago found here is much purer than
others. Mining work is carried on in three mines viz, Vellanad and
52 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAT .
Cullen mines in Ooozhamalakal Proverty, Nedumangad Taluq, and the
Venganur mine in the Kottukal Proverty, Neyyattinkara Taluq.
The total output of plumbago during the last four years was
as followe:
1901 1902 1903 1904

Vellanad Tons 1526 24013 18281 15711

Cullen 906 } 21731 14211 1431 )
Venganur 57 144 248

Total 2190 45751 33933 32511

Messrs. Parry and Co. and The Morgan Crucible Company who work
these mines pay a nominal Royalty to the Government of 4 or 6 Rs.
per ton according to the quality of the plumbago mined.
IRON - Iron ore is found throughout Travancore in large quantities but
as imported iron is much cheaper than the locally manufactured iron, the
industry is given up. In the Shencottah Taluk iron is obtained as black
sand in the brooks in Pulangudiyiruppu and Achanputhur villages. It
is said that two persons working daily can take up 73 Kottas or 126 Parahs
of the sand in a month , and that 4 Parahs of this sand smelted with 40
Parahs of charcoal and ashes yield about 80 pounds of iron . The selling
price of this iron is 4 Rs . while the cost of manufacture comes to about
5 Rs. Hence the industry has been given up. It is also found at
Pralakat in Cheranallur Proverty, Kunnattur Taluk, where an unlimited
quantity of the ore is obtainable. Here the out-turn is said to be 10 lbs.
for every 100 pounds of the ore . Iron ore is reported to be found at
Aramboly in large quantities at a depth of 15 or 16 feet. This place
was once noted for its iron smelting industry. As large quantities of
foreign iron began to be imported the industry had to be given up here
also .

At Myladi till about thirty years ago the people earned their livelihood
by gathering iron ore at the foot of the Poranathumala after heavy showers
when the ore is washed down from the top of the hill. This they used
to remove in baskets to the nearest rock and holding up the baskets at
sufficient height , allow the contents to drop down by degrees against
the smart and steady breeze which carried away the sand and rubbish
leaving the ore behind. They used to take the ore thus sifted to their
houses where they smelt it into lumps of varying size and sell the same
1. ] GEOLOGI. 58

to the blacksmiths, who tumed them into agricultural implements &c .

It is reported that tools made of this iron would last considerably longer
than those made of imported material.
LIMESTONE-This is found in considerable quantities near Layam
in the Tovala Taluq, Tirupurathur in Neyyattinkara and Kazha
kuttam in Trivandrum . It is dug out from pits varying from about
5 to 8 feet and it is reported that limestone of a superior quality is obtain
able at greater depths. The lime made here is chiefly sold to the Public
Works Department. It is used for paving sides of wells and tanks and
for making tubs.

GRANITE - The gneiss near Cape Comorin is generally like those of

the Nilgiris but more quartzose. The Cape Comorin type of rock
abounding in South Travancore is a well-bedded massive quartzo -felspathic
granite gneiss abounding in small rich -coloured garnets. The rock also
contains mica in glistening scales. Granite is used chiefly for metalling
roads and erecting buildings, bridges &c . In the Chengannur Taluq
which is noted for its excellent workmanship in granite, some good speci
mens of images, flutes, rose-water sprinklers &c. are made out of it .
The supply of beautiful building stones is practically unlimited in
South Travancore but not much use is made of them except for temples and
fort walls. The extensive Travancore lines are mostly built of gneiss, the
Vattakotta Fort being a very fine sample of excellent well-cut masonry. To
the extreme south end of the lines, blocks of marine sandstone have been
employed in the walls to some extent but have been much affected by
weathering
MICA -- This occurs chiefly in the Eraniel Taluk. It is worked by
regular mining operations . The out-put for 1899 was 12,706 lbs. The follow
ing is an extract from a letter from Messrs. Henry Grail and Co. , London ,
dated 11th May 1900 regarding the quality and quotation of Travancore
mica :

“ Several parcels of Travancore mica have been offered and sold here lately
and to-day's values are as follows with a good demand and good prospects for the
future .

Travancore amber plates free from specks &c.

21 " by 31 " 6d
60 per lb.!
-1/6 d per Ib . ) in good demand.
2 } " by 41
3 " by 8 " --2/ 6 d per lb. --not in great demand .
Travancore amber mice would come into severe competition with Canadian ,
hence the necessity of careful preparation ."
54 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP. I.

But the mineral has already become very scarce, the income to the
Sirkar in 1903—1904 being only about 30 Rs.
Before concluding this part of the subject, it may be well to state
14th June 1881
that according to the Royal Proclamation issued on the 2nd Mithunam 1056 '
Government have reserved to themselves the right to all the metals and
minerals discovered on private properties. It has also been notified on
the 30th July 1898 that prospecting for or mining of metals and minerals,
whether in Sirkar or private lands, is strictly prohibited except under a
license obtained from the Government in accordance with the rules in
force for the purpose.
 CHAPTER II .

Climate, Rainfall, and Meteorology.

66
Sing a hymn, pleasing to Varuna the king. He sent cool breezes
through the woods, put mettle in the steed (the sun) milk in the kine (clouds) ,
wisdom in the heart, fire in the waters, lightning in the clouds), placed the sun
in the heavens, the Soma on the mountains.-- He upset the cloud -barrel and
let its waters flow on Heaven , Air, and Earth , wetting the ground and the
crops. - He wetsboth Earth and Heaven , and soon as he wishes for those kine's
milk, the mountains are wrapt in thunder-clouds and the strongest walkers are
tired." (Rig Veda)

Climate. A warm humidity is one of the special features of the

climate of Travancore. Small as the country is, its high mountain ranges ,
its valleys and plains and its coast-line greatly influence the atmospheric
condition. The temperature varies according to the height of the locality
But the most noticeable variations are common
above the level of the sea.
only in the mountains. The climate of the plains is much more constant
and is subject to comparatively few irregularities. The thermometer rarely
shows a higher reading than 90° and even in the coldest season it never
falls below 70°. This uniformity of temperature is explained to be due to
(1) the superheated condition of the surface soil, (2) the cool sea-breezes
9

and the abundance of rain throughout more than half of the year and
( 3) the process of evaporation .
In the whole of Malabar and Travancore, there is no thick layer of
cool earth on the surface capable of quickly absorbing the sun's rays, as in
the Temperate Zone. Hence the surface soil becomes very heated and is
constantly radiating its heat day and night, and consequently a uniform
high temperature is maintained.
The cool sea-breezes, always saturated with moisture, blow steadily
and regularly every day during the hot weather. These, combined with
the abundance of rain that falls in the country, moderate the intensity of
the heat and maintain a uniform temperature.
In the process of evaporation a large amount of heat becomes
latent. This goes on in the hours of the hottest sunshine. As the country
is well equipped with back-waters and rivers and as it is on the sea-board,
56 TRAVANCORE MANUAL [ CHAP .
evaporation plays an important part in moderating the heat and reducing
the temperature.

The hills present every degree of temperature from the fever

heat at their base to near the freezing point upon the summit. At the foot
of the hills and in places beyond the influence of the sea-breeze, the thermo
meter rises 5 ° or 6 ° higher. the hills, the temperature varies
with the elevation . In the Periyar valley near Peermade, the country
being completely shut up by high land, the extreme range of temperature
0
is very great, varying from little more than 45 ° to over 90°. As we go
higher, the air is naturally much cooler. The Kanni Elam hills, one of
the divisions of the Cardamom Hills, are about 3,000 to 3,500 feet
high and are within the influence of the sea-breeze and consequently
pretty free from bad fevers. But the Makaram Elam hills, though higher,
are during some months very unhealthy. From July to January they
are healthy and the temperature is low ; but from the end of February or
early in March, fevers of the worst type prevail and continue till June.
On the High Ranges the thermometer ranges from 45° to 60° in March
and April and between 29° to 60° in November, December and January.
The meteorological effects of the whole of India , if not of the whole world,
are thus presented to us in Travancore in a small compass. On some of
the peaks we have the pinching cold of the northern regions of Europe.
Lower down on an elevation of between three and four thousand feet (the
Ashamboo or Peermade Range for instance) , one meets with the bracing
temperature of England . The genial warmth of an Italiar. sun with its clear
and cloudless sky is experienced all over the country for a few weeks
after the cessation of the monsoons. From January to May there is
intense heat which in some Taluqs present the aspect of a true equatorial
region and epidemics rage with virulence. The three months after the par
tial cessation of the rains are the most agreeable and salubrious, " the
air being cool and refreshing and the face of the country clothed with a
luxuriant verdure ” . The dewy season is not agreeable to the working
classes. On the whole, the climate of Travancore is enervating, depres
sing the nervous system and retarding the recovery of strength when it
has been prostrated by illness.
Seasons. Our ancient Sanskrit writers have divided the year
into six seasons or Rithus, each comprising a period of two months.
Of these the first, Vasanta Rithu or Spring, is the season of mirth and
gaiety and begins in March . “ The mango is then covered with fragrant
blossoms of which Manmatha the Indian Cupid makes his shafts
II ] METEOROLOGY . 57

and the landscape is gay with the beautiful and the sweet-scented flowers
of the kakke or Indian laburnum . The southerly breezes that blow
during the night are the voluptuous zephyrs of this vernal season .'
The next two months are designated Grishma Rithu or the Summer
season . Varsha Rithu or the rainy season comes next. The South -west
monsoon blows steadily during this period. During the next season,
Sarad Rithu or Autumn, the fruits of the earth ripen. This season closes
with the change of the monsoon . The Hemanta Rithu or Winter next
sets in with chilly mornings and bright sunny days. The Sisira Rithu
or cold season closes the circle of the year.
The year in Travancore may, however, be divided into four seasons,
viz., the Dry or dewy season, the Hot weather, the South-west monsoon
proper or wet season and the Retreating South-west monsoon period,
based on the mean data of the meteorological elements given in the
temperature

following tables, I and II, obtained from the Trivandrum Observatory.

ourre

TABLE I.
ty
vapssu

amount
Mean
ssure

eous

rainfall

thunder
number
Mean
humidi

cloud
.pre
. an

- torms
aquan

Mean

Total

Mean
.

which
pre
Me

Me

days
.

of
.

on
s
Months.

occur
.

Inches . Degree . Inch . Per cent. Inches.

‫܀‬

January 29726 76.5 -666 73.9 34 • 702

February • 706 78:0 .685 72.4 3.6 577 3

...

March -889 80-3 774 75.9 4.1 1.620 9

...

April •642 807 .828 79 8 0.9 4:686 14

May -632 800 .843 83:0 6.9 9 877 13

...

June *835 77.5 .810 86.2 7.7 12:469 3

...

July .643 78: 7 .795 87.0 7.9 6.894 1

...

August -667 76:7 • 785 860 7.40 4.241 2

...

September •678 | 7700 •781 8457 67 3748 2

..

October 685 78:9 •786 85.4 7.0 10.126 9

8

November .698 77.0 • 781 84: 7 6: 1 6.224

December •711 76.4 703 784

8 2
4:8 2.093

Year. 129-876 77.8 • 770 81 : 5 6.0 63.207 5.7

58 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
The following table gives means for the four seasons corresponding to
the data of Table I.

ture

thunder
Mean us
TABLE II .

-storms
number
r

which
amount
vapou
aqueo

Nean
tempera

days
Mean
cloud

on
of
Alcan

humidity
sure

pressure

rainfall
.
n

Total
Mean
.
pres

occur
Mea

.
.

.
Season .

inch's . Degree . inch . Per cent . Inches .

Dec. to Feb. 29714 770 686 74.9 3 :9 3372 7

March to May 654 80-3 915 79:6 5.6 16 133 36

June to Sep. 636 77.0 -793 S60 27-352 8.

Oct. to Nov. 092 770 781 85-1 66 16 350 17

The dry season lasts from December to February, and is characterised

by moderate humidity and cloud, and by very light rain and absence of
thunder-storms. This is the dewy season or the cold weather, but refer
red to here as the dry season on account of the fact that the air contains
the least aqueous vapour in this season .
The hot weather lasts from March to May, its most prominent features
being moderately high temperature, occasional rain (increasing in
quantity with the advance of the season ) and frequent thunder-storms.
Throughout this season , there is an intense and oppressive heat which is
very intolerable in March and April . No doubt the season is slightly
relieved by a few showers ; but still the continued heat is insufferable and
some of the places present the aspect of a true cquatorial region from
which it is not far distant. The country of Nanjanad though fully ex
posed to the severity of the sun's heat, is relieved of niuch of its intensity
by the strong sea -breczes which sweep across the plains. During these
months, in the lower hills, the violence of the heat is extreme. As we
recede from the coast, the country becomes less healthy. During this and
the previous season, fever, generally in the hills and in the valleys, and
some of the epidemics, especially small- pox and cholera, break out
occasionally with very great virulence. The borders of the lakes, however,
always afford an agreeable climate.
The South -west monsoon proper or wet season continues from June
to September, and i characterised by clouded skies, high humidity, copious
II. ) METEOROLOGI. 59

rain and absence of thunder -storms. Sometimes the mor: -002 com.
mences towards the end of May and the regular rains are ushered in
by thunder and lightning. Till the end of August the rains are very
heavy and by September the rainfall becomes much lighter.
The retreating South -west monsoon period includes the months of
October and November. Its chief feature is rain diminishing in amount
with the advance of the season . The rains are, as a rule, preceded
by thunder-storms of greater or less intensity. But the greater part of the
rain registered in Travancore is brought by the S. W. monsoon . The
amount varies considerably, being least in South Travancore, but gra
dually increasing along the sea -board to its northern limit. Towards the
end of October, the N. E. monsoon begins and all through the month
of November, a heavy shower is experienced in the afternoons though
the mornings are generally fine.
By the beginning of December, the rains become less frequent and
the country begins to dry up ; by the end of December, the dry weather
is fairly begun . Dewfall begins at nights in November and lasts till
February. The sudden changes in the temperature of this season, from
intense heat in the day to excessive cold in the night, often generate and
foster the development of the epidemics, especially cholera . The land
winds that prevail in the months of November, December and January pro
duce many unpleasant ailments such as rheumatism , coughs, disordered
stomach and pains all over the body. Jungle fever prevails near the foot
of the hills ; the moist heat at this part of the year is very depressing and
is the cause of the above mentioned disorders.

Temperature * —DIURNAL VARIATION.. In Trivandrum , the mean

epoch of minimum temperature occurs at 4-51 A. N. on the average
of the whole year. Thence the temperature goes on increasing till it
agrees exactly with the mean temperature of the day at 8-16 A. M. and
attains its maximum at 1-31 P. M. Thenceforward the temperature
goes on decreasing till it is once more identical with the mean of day
at 6-58 P. M. and finally reaches its minimum again at 4-51 A. J.
The following table exhibits the diurnal oscillation of temperature at
Trivandrum during the four seasons and for the whole year : --
* For the account of temperature, rainfall, winds, storms and earthquake, lam indebted to
Mr. Velu Pillai , Head Issistant of the Trivandrun Observatory.
80 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP ,

. erature
TABLE III .

rnal
Mean
temp
Variation Mean epoch

. ge
Epoch of zero
from mean

Diu
ran
of variation from

um
mean of day.

Maximum
of day of

um
Minimum

Maxim
Minim
Season .

.
P. M.

.
A. M.

,
.

A. M. P. M.
h. m. h . m. b. m. b. m.
...

Dry ... 77.0 13.9 -6:8 +7.2 5-5 2-12 8-34 7-33

Warm 80 : 3 11.2 -53 +5.9 4-47 1-27 8-11 6-54

South -west 77.0 8. 6

8 : 3 -3: 8 +4: 5 4.47 1-26 6-39
monsoon }
Retreating
south-west 77.0 10-24
:7 +5.5 4-40 0.46 8. 3 6.41
monsoon

Year ... 77.8 107 -5:1 +5:6 4-51 1-34 8.16 6.58

ANNUAL VARIATION. Temperature increases (with fair regularity

from the middle of December to the beginning of April. It then falls,
at first very slowly in April and May and then slightly more rapidly in
June and the first half of July, to a secondary minimum in July (76.39)
on the 13th, differing only by 0.08° from the absolute minimum on the
26th and 17th of December .

During the remainder of the year, the mean daily temperature

ranges irregularly within narrow limits (between 76.2º and 77:59),
indicating that the normal seasonal changes of temperature of this period
are very small compared with the variations due to local and occasional
actions or causes, such as rainfall &c. The chief feature of the progression
of temperature during this period, however, appears to be that it increases
slightly and somewhat irregularly from the 13th of July (76:39) to the
28th of September (77.5 %) and thence decreases with approximate re
gularity to the 15th of December. The following table gives, in brief,
data of the chief maximum and minimum epochs of the variation of
temperature during the year.
II . ] METEOROLOGY. 61

TABLE IV .

Normal daily temper.

Epoch . Character of phase. ature on date.

16th and 17th of December Absolute minimum 76-21

2nd and 3rd of April ...
Absolute maximum 81.01

13th of July Secondary minimum 76.29

37th and 28th of September... Secondary maximum 77.46

It may be observed that the average or normal daily temperature is

above themean of the year for only 115 days, i.e. , from the 15th of February
to the 9th of June and is below it during the remainder of the year. The
mean diurnal range of temperature for the 12 months and for the year is
given below :
TABLE V.

Months. Range . Months . Range.

January 15.2 July 9:0

February 15 : 4 August 9:6
March 14.2 September 9:8
April 12 :4 October 10 : 4
May 10 :4 November 11 : 8
June 9.5 December 13 : 5
Year 11 : 8

Table VI gives the mean actual daily and monthly temperatures at

Trivandrum derived from the series of observations taken during the
period 1856-1864, and Table VII gives the mean hourly temperatures for
each month and for the whole year.

1
 .VI
TABLE
62

May.

Date .
March .
April .
December.

January
February
0 0 0 O 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 77:15
75
76
7649
78:11 77.26 77.55
77.04
76
99
77:20 :34
S0
79
73
80:18
77.74 76: 71
15
77.79
76. 77.64 76:56
76:85
77.67
75.98 81.14
81:36
51
79
767
78:
77: 6
38
63 76.80 7807 76.88 44
76
76.98
76-18 -0
SO1 09
80-
80: 31
7036
77:22
77.29 77:32 76:33
76
50
77.15
73
75 8131
80:20 7810
80
80
94
76
77:15
79:02
SL
SO 76:67 77:14 76:53
76.51
77.08
75.88 80-62
8001
76.60
76-54
7671
78:25
80'09 77'01 76:91
09
76
7738
76-07 3
S0
:0
S0
: 27
76-89
76-70
76.71
77.32 77:16 7611
76-80
77
.5
:175
93 30
SO 80:65 8033
76-85
76:53
76:21
77.57
81:34 77.21 75-60
77.38
7000
77.30 SO'65
:1
8001
76:21
77.14
76:03
78:09
80-75 77.64 76.37
7779
69
76
77:44 81:41
80:13
76.68
77:10
75-95
78:10
80'61 77.31 7602
77.78
8057
79.75

OVO 7010
10 76:87
77.50 75-76
76-97
76:31
75:17
76-97
80-97 77.66 77.65
11 77.22
7712 80-69
79.94
7616
77:54
75:13
8058
81.10 7701 77.66 77.99
7631
12 77.13
77:19 80:53
76:90 77:23
76:19
71.75 77.31 76:31
77.88
13 77.51
76.96 79-9
°30-78
.8808
76:34
77.69
77.29
76-74
76:52
77.75
8101
80-97
80:15 77:11
11 7777
76-21 77.07 77.28 19
76
76:37
76-30
77.61
+76.92
80-9
80-73
80'08
15 77.68
70-45 76:16 77:14 70-55
77.54
7739
7673
78:10
*7
80 0
80-91
79.61
16 78-28
77.04 76.36
76-24
TRAVANCORE MANUAL .

76:28
77:37
12
81
7671 76-81 76.96
17 78:11
7701 80:70
79.98
76-33
7 6-31
77:18
76 76-42 75.65
76-05
18 7809
76.65 8101
+180'23
7998
77'02
76:18
77.54
76-78
45
79
95
80 76:04 76-29
75.93
19 7777
76:47 7918
77.41
76.24
17:49
77.54
80:07
78:39 75.54 76-86
76-26
20 78:37
04
76 79-82
76:06
77:43
7935
7691
77.40 7605 76:33
76:39
21 76-18 78.96 63
79 80-67
7676
75
76
78:55
77.81 7775 76-08 75.75
77.24
22 78. 6
75.974 80-63
80:15
77.5
76:1
76.8 5
2 75.59 75.96
77.62
23 79: 21
76:47 792
80-9
77:8+
80-2 8059
77:4
76.9
77.5
96
79 75.81 75-97
76-89
24 95 0
78
767 80:5
81:72 55
980
76.9
78-7 76.99 77:42 76.71 7698
76.40
25 785
76:04 4 79-2
80:14328
77.67
76-86
77.19
71
79.26
75 76:39 76.70
76.95
26 78: 34
76:11 80:19
80-90
77.56
77.26 76-86 47
76 77-27
27 99
78.66
76. 76-82
77:13
79:36
79:46
81:41
76:81
77.07
76.93
77:45
79:31 77.28 93
76.93
76
28 76' 93
79.45 80:19
81.12
77:47
76.95
77.34
53
77 77:12 76.95
77.65
29 76.53 78.76
79.84
81:52
7678
80
76.41
76
78.77 77-57 77.03 76.60
77:17
30 76.88 80:56
81.81
76:37
76-70 77.60 76-77
31 77.65 81:13 79:47
[ CHAP .

77 670
6-66
7.55 76-94 1 6:41
777.03
Mean 6:50
|71 8:02 0:00
0:69
|1| 7.03
880-32
 .
VII
TABLE

II.)

Year.

July.

Hours.
June .
August.
October.

January
December.

September.
November.

year in Trivandrum :
.
Mid 0 0 O O 0 O O O
night 7257 71.28 76
74 77.50 77:27 75'03 74.22 7.4.06 74.28 74:05 74:13 72:61 74.73
71.83 73:19 76:17 77:19 77'04 7487 7404 84
73 74-04 7379 7378 72:10 7435
71.22 78
72 75.67 76-89 76-79 74.70 73.86 67
73 73.83 73
55 73:11 71.70 74:01
70-60 72
02 06
75 7617 76-43 74:13 73:57 7341 73.52 73:22 72:91 71:19 73:57
92
69 71:23 33
74 76-01 76-05 74:10 73-24 08
73 73:13 72-87 72-39 70:58 73'07
69:30 70-74 73.89 75.90 76:03 74:02 73:12 72:93 73:00 72
79 72.2-1 70'21 72:87
91
69 71.16 74.40 7601 76-75 74.53 73.58 36
73 34
73 73:41 72.97 70-80 42
7 7167 91
72 76.22 7831 78:30 75.78 7477 71:56 74.95 74:90 74:72 72:56 74:98
71.51 75-81 7911 80.81 8032 77.52 76:47 76:35 76.98 17:01 77.16 75.26 77.28
77.79 79:13 82.21 83:33 24
82 79.25 7821 78.25 79:06 79:16 79:60 7811 79'69
80:53 S1.95 8.1
:6 8 85-27 83:62 56
80 79:53 79.76 80:64 80
82 814-1 8033 81:39
!

Couco er bem co 15
METEOROLOGY.

11 82:30 8379 86:14 86:39 S1

:12 81.28 29
80 :09
S0 8151 81:74 82:51 81:64 82:73
Soon 21
83 84.72 86.80 S6 8187 8165 80-66 8117 8190 82:06 83:00 30
82 83-27
13 83-705 8517 87.09 86.98 85-13 81:87 80.81 81.37 81.99 82-02 83:17 68
82 83:51
11 81.00 37
85 87:17 85.82 85:17 81.93 80-88 8132 81.86 81.73 83:06 88
82 83032
15 83.96 85:18 :8
86.5 86:25 84:76 81:64 80.60 80-90 81:36 81:11 52
82 82.61 83:15
16 83:12 30
84 85
83 85:13 83.80 80:31 79.87 99
79 8040 80:11 81:42 8167 82-20
17 81:19 82-69 8420 56
83 82:45 79:02 7873 78:71 79:07 83
78 91
79 02
80 80.77
18 7944 70
80 33
82 81.89 8109 78:30 77:47 77.40 77.72 77.55 78:37 78:15 79:20
19 77.53 86
78 73
80 80:50 01
80 77:19 40
76 7636 7665 76:53 77.14 76
58 77.88
20 :1.
76 77.53 79:64 56
79 79:25 7645 75-68 75-68 75.96 75.84 7631 75:51 76.96
21 75-18 76.65 78.90 78.92 78.68 75-98 20
73 22
75 75:50 3,1
75 75-71 74:77 76:34
22 74:35 92
75 78.21 78:40 78:13 75.60 74.83 74.81 7508 74.88 75:15 74:06 75.78
23 73:46 75:13 77.45 77.91 77.6
-b 75:28 74:50 74.40 74-61 74.13 74:60 73:30 75022

The following table gives the data for the diunal variation of the
63

humidity for each of the four seasons of the year and the average for the
amount of vapour present in the air and also for the diurnal variation of
 .
VIII
TABLE
64
.Cocomber
Hour
-D
weather
old -March
weather
Hot Monsoon
Retreating
W.
S.
to
-June Year
.
Februar
to y May
.to September
. .
November
and
October

Vapour pressure.

Vapour pressure.
Vapour pressure.
cubic foot of air,

cubic foot of air.

Vapour pressure.

cubic foot of air.

Vapour pressure.
cubic foot of air.
Relative humidity.

Grains of vapour in
Relative humidity.

Grains of vapour in
Grains of vapour

Relative humidity.
Relative humidity.
Relative humidity .

Grains of vapour in
•701 7054 :1
86 825 8.80 88.9 -799 8:58 940 -786 8:44 940 •779 9005
695 7.48 87.1 .8 878 89
:7 *796 8:54 943 781 8:39 944 -776 91.2
2 6685 738 87.5 * 17
8 873 90-1 .792 851 94.5 773 8:31 94.5 •769 91.5
3 .668 7:22 87.5 .810 8:67 90-8 -787 8:46 :794 764 9:28 94
8 •759 91.8
4 *652 7:05 874 803 8:59 91.6 781 8:40 95.1 756 8:14 :1
95 •751 922
5 .641 6.94 87'0 .801 8.88 91.8 779 8:38 :1
95 753 8:11 :9
94 746 :1
92
6 6
* 40 6.92 85
:2 .804 8.60 :1
90 •780 8:38 93
:7 756 8:13 93-2 *747 4
90
7 .646 6.96 :1
81 8'60 85-7 • 84
7 8:40 904 762 8:18 89'2 • 52
7 86-5
8 *653 7:00 74.9 806 8:55 792 •787 8:40 85'5 -769 8:22 83.6 •756 80.8

OVO OTWO
9 .657 6.99 680 * 02
8 8:48 :6
72 788 8:39 6
80 775 8:24 789 •757 74.9
TRAVANCORE MANUAL.

10 657 6.96 4
62 798 8:40 67.8 788 8:37 76.9 -778 8:25 739 -757 70-4
11 *657 6:94 2
59 -798 8:38 6
65 *789 8:37 75-0 -781 8:27 71.9 -758 68
12 662 6.98 582 .802 8:42 :1
65 7
• 90 8:37 74.2 -783 8:28 713 761 673
13 672 7:08 :3
58 810 8:50 65
3 791 8:38 73.9 -786 8:31 7104 •765 67.3
14 -681 7:21 588 .814 8:54 65-6 .790 8:37 738 787 8:32 71.9 769 5
67
16 694 7:31 599 *817 8:58 65.6 .788 8:35 74-5 -788 8:34 734 •772 68.5
16 -702 7.42 624 819 8.62 0
69 -789 8:38 6
76 791 8:39 :1
76 •776 70.9
17 711 754 66-7 .824 870 729 793 8:34 802 796 8:46 803 -781 :8
74
18 •720 7.66 720 830 879 774 .800 8:53 84-5 803 8:56 :7
84 -789 79
:5
19 728 777 769 836 8.87 81.2 * 07
8 8.61 :1
88 808 8.63 :3
88 •795 835
20 -730 7.81 :3
80 838 8:91 83.7 810 8.67 5
90 .808 8.64 904 •797 :1
86
21 -726 777 82
2 835 8.88 853 .809 8.66 91.8 .803 8:59 91.6 794 87.6
22 -717 7070 835 .830 8.84 86.5 .805 8-62 :6
92 •797 8:55 4
92 •788 886
23 •708 7.61 84-8 827 8:81 8
87 .801 8:59 933 791 8:49 933 783 89.6
[ CHAP.
II. ] METEOROLOGY. 66
Rainfall. The territorial distribution of rainfall in Travancore ex
hibits two well -defined characteristics. One is the gradual diminution of
rainfall from Parur to Cape Comorin, and the other the gradual increase
of the fall proceeding from the coast towards the mountains. Besides, it is
also true that up to a certain height the rainfall over the mountains grad
ually increases in amount. Considering the variation of the mean annual
rainfall, Travancore may be divided into three narrow belts, namely,
(1) the littoral or the lowland , (2) the submontane or the central and
(3) the mountainous or the upland belt. The littoral belt has an average
annual rainfall of 67.6 inches, the submontane 92.9 inches and the
mountainous or the upland 110.1 inches. Thus it is seen that the
amount of the precipitation of vapour increases from the coast towards
the ghauts, the weight of the fall over the mountains being a little less
than twice the weight of the fall near the coast .

The S. W. monsoon winds blowing over the Arabian sea take a

north -westerly bend before they come into contact with the coast lands of
Malabar and are felt as north -north -westerly to west-north -westerly winds in
Travancore. The direction of the wind partly depends upon the trend of the
coast-line, and the rainfall will depend on the angle which the monsoon
currents make with the ghauts. It is not improbable that the maximum
of precipitation occurs at the place of incidence of the monsoon current
on the Malabar coast, which may vary in position from year to year. The
law of the variation of rainfall along the coast is one of gradual decrease
from this point, as the current reaches nearer and nearer to the Cape . A
slight variation from this rule resulting in aa dininution of the amount of
rainfall at Shertallay, Kartikapalli and Karunagapalli is also perceptible,
but it is difficult to offer an explanation for this diminution. The mean
annual rainfall at some important stations on the coast is given below :

Inches. Inches .

Parur 117.2
...

Chirayinkil 66.9
Shertallay ... 93.2 Trivandrum 64.7
59.4
...

Alleppey 114.2 Neyyattinkara

...

Ampalapuzha 91.2 Rajakamangalam 44 : 1

...

Kartikapalli 83 : 7 Tamarakulam 39 : 1
77.8
...

Karunagapalli Variyur 32.6

91.1
...

Quilon
i
66 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
The mean falls of the four Administrative Divisions are as follow :
Inches.
115 : 1
Kottayam
90.3
Quilon
Trivandrum 69.8
Padmanabhapuram ... 38.4

The Kottayam Division receives three times as much rain as the

Padınanabhapuram Division, while Trivandrum has nearly 77% of what
Quilon receives. Though the most favoured locality in Travancore as
regards rainfall is apparently the Cardamom Hills, data are wanting to cor
roborate the belief. Of individual stations, Peermade has the greatest
rainfall averaging to 1984 inches annually. Todupuzha has the next
greatest amount, viz ., 145.2 inches. The least recorded fall is seen at
Aramboly where it averages to 29.1 inches.
Annual variation .-The annual variation of rainfall in Travan
core follows aa regular curve that has two maxima and two minima. The
absolute maximum and minimum occur in June and January respectively ,
while the secondary maximum and minimum fall respectively in October
and September . The least amount of rainfall is received in the month
of January . Precipitation then goes on moderately increasing till the
commencement of the S. W. monsoon , which takes place generally about
the last week of May. June is preeminently the month of maximum
rainfall throughout Travancore . Then a slight diminution takes place
in the amount of the rainfall received in the several stations during the
months of July and August , and the secondary minimum is arrived
at in the month of September. There is a sudden increase in the amount
of rainfall in the month of October . This rain is locally known as
Thulavarshamn . The fall then decreases slowly in the month of
November and rapidly through December and January, which last is the
driest month of the year. More than 87% of the annual rainfall is received
during the prevalence of the S. W. monsoon , viz. , from May to November ,
Periods of deficient rainfall. — As for periods of deficient
rainfall, it is on record that the year 1860 was a year of famine in South
Travancore. The rainfalls in Trivandrum for 1855 and 1870 also indi
cate years of scarcity. Beyond this, it is impossible to accurately deter
mine the years of deficient rainfall before 1885, as it was only from that
year that an extensive system of rainfall observations was begun. During
the year 1881, however, rainfall l'ecords were received from 13 stations,
II .] METEORO 67
LOGY.
and the amount of rainfall in all of them was far below the normal, the
actual amount in one of them being 64% less than the normal. In 1889
and 1890 the fall was below the normal at 27 and 30 stations respectively
out of the 36 stations at which rainfall was gauged. At the stations
at which the rainfall was below the normal, the deficiency was 28% of
the normal in 1886 and 23 % of the normal in 1990. In 1894 and 1895
the rainfall was below the normal by 518.25 and 565 37 inches respect
ively i. e. , by 17.0 % and 18 6 % of the normal. Out of the 36 stations,
30 stations in 1894 and 31 stations in 1895 had rain below the normal,
In the years 1892 and 1893, a considerable deficiency in the amount of
rainfall seems to have taken place in the Padmanabhapuram Division
alone. The actual amounts received were 65.6 % of the normal in 1892
and 53.3 % in 1893. Thus it may be inferred with a fair degree of accu
racy that the years 1886 and 1890 were years of deficient rainfall
throughout Travancore. The biennial period of 1894 and 1895 must
also have been more than usually dry throughout Travancore. The
years 1892 and 1893 seem to be years of drought in South Travancore
though the intensity of the drought may have been feeble.
A table giving the mean monthly and annual rainfall at 36 stations
in Travancore is given below :
 .
IX
TABLE

.
Stations
68

May.
July
Total .

June.

April .
August.

March .
October
December .

Junuary.
February
September.
November.
inci Inchcs
.Inches Inches
. I
.Inches
. nches .
Inches .
Inches Inche
. s .
Inches Inches
. 'Ir.ches
.Inches

Parur 0:04 0:37 1.55 4:27 9:37 31.88 24:71 14:19 8.82 12:77 4.81 1:16 117.24
Alangad 0:02 037 070 1.94 4:54 23:08 ]
20:41 9:19 3-26 7:17 2:83 0:49 74.30
kuuatu
. 010 061 087 2.97 391 1873 20:52 9-96 5.26 662 5:12 0.98 75.615
Muvattupuzha 032 0:19 1.71 6-79 7.61 28-06 27:31 16:11 9:18 1571 7:59 1.85 :03
123
Todupuzha 0:18 1:35 2-63 10:06 10:33 3100 30-75 82
19 12:31 18:03 7.23 1:53 145
:2 2
Vaikam 0:25 0:54 1.27 3:33 8:09 24.98 17:28 8:53 6:07 9.87 3:73 1:37 85:31
Shertal
y':? 025 0.73 1:27 361 8:97 38
25 20:39 9:37 550 10.65 5:28 1.83 93:23

------
Ettunaour 0-27 041 1.60 7.13 8.98 31.91 23
82 12:09 5:54 10:50 5:83 1.74 :12
110
Minachil * 0:60 115 4:31 10:53 11.83 1
28:34 28
26 17:21 9.93 17:69 8:54 2:98 13969
Kottavim 3
03 0:39 277 5
85 9:16 26:97 9.5
20 12:86 7.90 14:12 6:21 2:52 11033
Peermado I 0:39 1.18 20
6 7:37 11:06 16:02 17:20 3370 17:18 22:23 7:55 1.66 1981-4
Changanachory0:26 067 2.68 6:79 9:67 25.98 19
38 10:51 7:09 16:30 6.83 3:17 109
:3 3
Alle
;pey 0-09 1:08 2:30 6:03 11:09 26:60 19:85 10-61 7:53 16:26 9:32 2-86 :22
114
Ampalapuzha 037 071 2:32 5.60 7.85 19.84 1543 867 8:18 14:57 5.81 1.84 9122
Tiruvalla 0:17 076 1:61 477 8:43 24.53 18:30 8:76 6:66 10:18 5:20 1.80 91:17
Chengannur 0:11 0-98 3:33 7.17 8.93 23.94 53
16 9.81 7-78 13:35 6.97 2:37 101.60
Kartikapalli 0-02 0-6-1 J:17 3.66 7.75 21:30 14:52 7:56 5:39 13:22 6:05 2:09 83:67
Mavelikara 0:16 074 1:16 5:13 7:57 23:61 18:31 10:56 7.27 15:38 7:42 2:33 99.67
Karunagapalli 0:19 1:11 1:30 +32 6:88 18:43 12:63 6:31 6.69 13:16 5.10 1.67 77-79
Kunnattur 1:33 1:33 02
2 7.27 7.78 21.06 15.65 883 6.60 13:27 5.88 2:15 92:17
Shencottah 0:28 1.61 2:29 3:18 1:35 5.99 4:78 2:18 1:49 6:29 7:31 338 41-13
TRAVANCORE MANU'IL .

Pattanapuram 0:56 1.99 3:22 8:13 811 20:39 15.85 9.88 7:33 15.15 7.86 2:14 :12
101
Kottarakara 0:23 1:57 2:92 8.86 7.70 23:17 14:04 8:35 6.68 14.88 7:31 187 97:58
Quilon 0:34 0.90 19+ 5.61 9.91 19:27 12:97 8:19 6.55 16:33 7.12 1.69 91.15
!
Chirayinki 0:19 83
0 1:08 1:00 5.78 18:24 9.95 4:24 3:73 11.81 5.39 1:39 66.93
Nedumangad 0-68 1.62 2:14 8:50 8:30 18:43 9:51 5:26 5:58 15:06 9.91 3:43 8842
1
Trivandruin 0:50 0:72 1:37 4-65 6.99 13:28 6-73 4:29 3:38 12:20 6:02 271 84
62
Neyyattinkara 062 0-62 1:52 5:10 6:34 12:70 6:04 2:76 2:42 11:38 7.06 2.88 59:44
Vilavankod 022 0:57 1:14 3:05 2.81 7:49 3:05 1.29 1:47 8:07 5:23 1.65 36-01
Padmanabhapuram
0.86 1:11 1.88 574 4:02 8.85 361 1.88 1.94 10:78 8.57 2:73 51.97
Eraniel 0:27 0:50 0.98 3:38 2:40 7:14 2:11 0.94 129 6:57 5:71 1.62 32:91
0.93
Rajakamangalam 013 1.71 3.91 2.88 8:53 2-88 2:03 1.60 9:55 6.98 2
63 44:06
Agastisvaram 0:32 0:70 1:37 3:56 1.70 6:20 2:31 1:12 0.94 8:57 7:16 2
86 37.61
Tamarakulam 0:72 0:37 1.78 3:04 1:37 6:15 2:09 1:45 1.22 9.89 6-76 3:27 38:11
Variyur 0.95 0:37 1:56 3:06 0.94 5:12 1.60 0.94 0:59 7.15 7.56 2:74 32:58
Aramboly 0.83 0:55 1.27 3:11 0-87 3:72 1.65 078 0.93 6:90 6:33 2:21 29:15
[ CHAP .

N.
1B. oThe is883-1902
').(1bservations
years
20
from
derived
stations
these
of
mean
Do. Do. Do. 19
Do. 1 884-1902
).(Do.
years
18
from
is
rest
the
of
mean
The 883-1902
'o).(1bservations
derived
 METEOROLOGT. 89
II. ]
Wind. About the general character of the air movement at Trivan
drum , Mr. J. Elliot writes* :
" During the period from November to April when north -east winds generally
obtain in the south and centre of the Bay (of Bengal) and the air movement is
continued across the Deccan , Mysore and South Madras as north -easterly to
easterly winds, Trevandrum is sheltered by the high Travancore hills from these
winds. The air motion at Trevandrum during this period consists of an alter
nating movement between land and sea (i. e ., land and sea- breezes) and of a
feeble general movement from directions between north and west common to
the Konkan and Malabar coasts at this period. The direction of the movement
is apparently determined in part at least by the trend of the coast. During the
remainder of the year, from about the middle of May to November, South-west
monsoon winds of greater or less intensity prevail in the Arabian sea . They
usually set in on the Travancore coast in the last week of May. They have
their greatest extension and also the greatest intensity in the months of July
and August. They begin to fall off in strength in September and continue to
decrease in intensity in the south of the Arabian Sea in October and November,
but withdraw gradually during these months from the north and centre of the
sea area, being replaced by light variable winds. During the period of the full
extension of the South -west monsoon over the north of the Arabian sea into
upper India in July and August, the current in the south -east between the
Laccadives and Maladives and the Malabar coast not only falls off to some ex
tent, but in the lower strata instead of rising directly and surmounting the
Travancore hills it tends to be defiected towards the south by these bills and to
pass south -eastwards along the coast and join that part of the current which
passes to the south of Ceylon and enters the Bay. There is hence a slight
northerly shift of the winds on the Malabar coast from the beginning to the
middle of the South -West monsoon .'
Variation of wind velocity. The annual variation in the
strength of the winds in the south and centre of the Arabian sea is
reflected in the winds at Trivandrum . The air movement is least at Tri
vandrum in December, or at the end of the S. W. monsoon . It in

creases slightly during the next three months and rapidly from April to
July and is absolutely greatest in August . It falls off very rapidly in
October and November attaining the minimum in December.
The diurnal variation of velocity differs considerably in character
at different seasons of the year . From November to April it
is determined by the alternating movement of the sea and land
breezes. There are hence during this period two maxima and
two minima, the former corresponding with the greatest intensity of
the land and sea breezes, and the latter with the average of the shift
from one to the other which , of course , varies considerably from day
to day. The day maximum of the sea-breeze is very strongly exhibited as
is also the evening minimum . The morning maximum and minimum of
the land -breeze are, as might be expected, less marked than the corres
ponding phases of the sea -breeze, but are clearly shown. They are most
* Indian Meteorological Memoirs ; Part I., Vol. X.
70 TRAVANCOR MANUAL . L CHAP
E
pronounced in December, January and February ; and it is hence in these
months that the land and sea breezes are probably most prominent and
form the chief feature of the air movement. The land winds are strongest
at about a little after sunrise and the sea-breeze at 2 P. M. or at nearly
the same instant as the maximum of temperature. The morning mini.
mum is accelerated as the season advances, whilst the evening minimum is
retarded. The effect of the increasing temperature from January to April
is hence to lengthen the period of the sea -breezes and diminish that of
the land -breezes (by a total amount of 5 hours) between January and
April. The diurnal variation during the remainder of the year, May to
October, consists of a single oscillation, the maximum velocity occurring
from about 2 P. M. and the minimum shortly after midnight. The ratio
of the maximum to the minimum velocity in the diurnal variation is fairly
constant throughout the period .
The following is a picturesque description of the setting in of the
monsoon in Travancore by Mr. J. A. Broun F. R. S. , a late Director of
the Trivandrum Observatory :
" There is no place in India where the magnificent phenomena which
precedes the bursting of the monsoon can be seen and studied with
more ease than on the Agustia Peak. For a month or more before
the final crash of the tempest, the whole operations of the great
atmospheric laboratory are developed at our feet, while the summit of
the mountain itself is rarely visited by the storms which rage over its
western flanks . In the morning, chains of finely formed cumuli seem
to rest over the sea horizons of Malabar and Coromandel. Frequently it is
evident that what appears a serried file of cloud masses is only cumuli irregu
larly distributed over the country; their shadows, projected near noon , spot
and chequer the plains and the undulating country below from sea to mountain.
Early in the morning the vapours begin to rise near the western precipices;
the cloud accumulates and seeks to pass by the lowest cols into the eastern
valleys; it seems opposed by a repulsive influence, for no breath of air is felt;
it ascends at last, after noon, inmighty masses crowned with cirrous clouds which
spread eastwards like an immense parasol over our heads. Then the lightning
begins to play, darting in varied and ramiform circuits from cloud to cloud ;
the thunder rolls, at first in sharp separate crashes, and at last continuously;
the rain is heard drenching the forests below . After an hour, or several hours,
according to the distance from the monsoon , the clouds quit the mountains,
move
more westwards, and then disappear ; the sun shines out again over the
western sea, assuming before setting the most fantastic forms; the stars sparkle
in all their beauty, and the morning again appears with its chains of clouds on
the horizon. As the time for the monsoon draws near, the cloud masses seek
with more and more energy to pass the mountains eastwards; sometimes two
such masses present themselves,—one creeping up an eastern valley, the
other entering the col from the west. Nothing can be more interesting than
to watch this combat of the vapours. Day by day the western clouds enter a
little farther; at last they come driven on by a giant force ,-rise to the tops
of the mountains, and pour over their walls into the eastern hollows, like the
steam from a great caldron; they plunge first downwards Niagaras of cloud ,
11. ] METEOROL
OGY .
71
and then as they curl upwards, they disappear, absorbed in the hotter eastern
air. The storm , with deluges of rain, sweeps over the mountain , and the mon
soon reigns over the low lands of Malabar .

Storms. The storms that usually frequent the Indian Peninsula

and the adjacent seas belong to the class called “ Cyclones ”. In a cyclone,
the wind blows in spiral curves, more or less circular in form , round a
centre of low pressure, increasing in force as it approaches the centre.
The whole cyclone thus constituted, besides turning round a focus, has
a straight or curved motion forwards, so that, like a great whirlwind, it
is both turning round, and, as it were, rolling forwards at the same time.

It is an important feature of the climatology of Travancore that it

is mostly free from the track of storms of any kind. The chief causes
that contribute towards this end are its geographical position and its
natural features providing it with a mighty wall of mountains on its
eastern border. It is well known that the immediate vicinity of the
Equator is never frequented by cyclones. According to Mr. Elliot, Lat. 8° N.
appears to be the boundary line to the south of which cyclonic storms
are seldom or never generated. Further, cyclones do not form so
generally on land as over sea area,and Travancore is effectively protected
by its mountains from the few storms that, having originated in the Bay
of Bengal , enter the Arabian Sea across the Peninsula . Mr. Elliot
says: “ It is probable that it is only storms which extend to an
exceptional height into the upper atmosphere which surmount this
obstacle ....... ....... It may be taken as generally true that any storm
crossing the Peninsula into the Arabian sea, no matter what its original
or subsequent intensity, will have relatively little influence on the
weather over the narrow strip of land intervening between the Ghauts
and the Arabian sea or over the sea adjacent to the west coast of the
Peninsula ." This is because of the circumstance that on the storm
encountering the Ghauts, the whole of the lower circulation is
broken up, and the descent subsequently effected is carried out slow
ly, not by the sudden and abrupt descent of the disturbance, but
by a gradual downward extension of the cyclonic motion into the
unaffected surface strata of the air. Hence it is not till the cyclone has
advanced to some distance from the coast- line that the full effects of the
phenomenon are experienced, and that the storm becomes fully re
cognisable. Thus the occurrences of storms in Travancore are few and far
between . Besides, it is only a heavy torrential rain accompanied by a
* Trevandrum Magnetical Observations, Vol. 1 ,
72 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
barometric depression that is often felt on land as the effect of the passage
of many a cyclone through the Arabian sea near the Travancore coast.

Two instances can, however, be traced of severe storms that have

been felt in Travancore, one in April 1779 and the other in December 1845 .
About the middle of April 1779 a hurricane was felt off Anjengo in which
the East India Company's ship Cruiser was lost . At the close of Novem
ber 1845, a cyclonic storm was formed over the Bay of Bengal, which
passed across the Indian Peninsula and travelled north -westward into
the Arabian sea . That this storm raged throughout Travancore can be
inferred from the following excerpts :

TRIVANDRUM. -- The wind blew very strongly at 1 A. M. of the 3rd

December, and a violent gale lasted from 2-30 A. M. to 3 A. J. The wind
then abated for half an hour after which it recommenced with greater vio
lence than ever, and continued till about day -break. Three inches of rain
fell during the second. The barometer fell three -tenths of an inch be
tween 8 A. M. on the 2nd and 2 A. M. on the 3rd , while it rose upwards
of 0: 3 inch during the next 7 hours. The barometric readings at Trivan
drum during the passage of the storyn are given below .
November 29th 29 930
30th 29.861
December Ist 29 844
2nd 29.960
...

3rd 29.990
...

...

Ith 29 928
5th 29.854
Oth 29.822

QUILON . - The Master Attendant wrote : - " The gale commenced at

10 P. M. of the 2nd and continued till 7 A. M. 3rd."

ALLEPPEY. The Master Attendant wrote : - " A gale of wind with

rain commenced about midnight, 2nd , and continued till day-light, 3rd , when
it blew a hurricane."
Mr. Bailey wrote to General Cullen from Kottayam :-- “ We were
visited at Kottayam , on the morning of the 3rd instant by the same gale of
wind to which you refer. Many trees were blown down, or rather broken
off near the roots. A good many tiles were blown off the roof of our print
ing office. Many persons had very narrow escapes, and three individuals
at some distance from us lost their lives, and it is supposed many more."
11. ] METEOROLOGY. 79

Earthquakes. Earthquake shocks of greater or less intensity have

passed through some portion or other of the Travancore territory on the
si
following dates :
1. os
oi
tii
February 1823
2 19th September 1841
3. 23rd November 1845
4. 11th August 1856
5. 22nd August 1856
6. 1st September 1856
7. 10th November 1859
8. 8th February 1900
9. 28th May 1903

A short account of the occurrence of each of these earthquakes is given

below :
FEBRUARY 1823. This shock was felt at Palamcottah slightly, and
by the Rev. C. Mault at Nagercoil , and ,, an account of the shock as felt
at the latter place was published in the Madras Government Gazette , by
Captain Douglas, then stationed at Nagercoil.. Nothing further is known
of this earthquake.
19TH SEPTEMBER 1841. The shock as felt at Trivandrum seems to
have been pretty severe, as the people at church at the time of the shock,
immediately left it, fearing that the building might come down on them .
The vessel supplying water to the Wet Bulb thermometer in the Observa
tory was shaken off its stand and broken , and several mud houses were
thrown down in the Fort and elsewhere . It began in the east and passed
off to the west. This shock was felt throughout South Travancore and at
Palamcottah. The time noted at the Trivandrum Observatory was 11 h.
20 m . A. M.

23RD NOVEMBER 1815. Rev. B. Bailey (in a letter to General

Cullen dated 8th December 1845 ) wrote : " On Sunday the 23rd ultimo
(November) we were visited at about 2 o'clock P. M. by a slight shock of
earthquake, succeeded by a rumbling noise resembling that of distant
thunder ...when my house was shaken to the foundation and the whole of
the beams and timber gave a sudden crack as if the house rocked east and
west. The shock was felt all over Kottayam ". This shock does not
appear to have been perceived at Trivandrum .
11TH AUGUST 1856. A shock was felt on this date at 5h . 51m . 25 S. A. M.
as noted down by the Assistant on watch in the Observatory. The

j
 74 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.

shock lasted 20 seconds. The magnetic instruments do not seem to have

had any vibration or change of mean positions. The shock has
also been felt at Parassala, Quilon, Courtallam and Pallam . It was not
felt near Cape Comorin nor at Nagercoil and Agastyamala. Mr. Broun
considered that the shock must have come from a direction between
north and west.

This earthquake was thus described by Mr. Broun in a letter to the

Madras Athenaeum in 1856 :

" The Assistant in the Trivandrum Observatory having the watch on the
morning referred to (11th April 1856 ), was entering an observation when he
heard a low rumbling sound which he thought at first was distant thunder
towards the north- east ; in about 3 seconds the rafters of the building began
to crack, the windows to rattle and a mirror resting on the table to shake; he
immediately looked at the clock and found the time 5 h . 51 m . 30s. which allowing
for the clock error would give the mean Trivandrum time of the commencement
of the sound 5h. 51 m . 25s . He then went out to look towards the north - east and
immediately thereafter the sound ceased with a louder 'boom '; on looking again
at the clock the time by it was 5h. 54 m . and he estimated the duration of noise
and shock at nearly 20 seconds. He now examined the magnetical instruments,
but could perceive neither vibration nor change of mean position. It is not
impossible however that the magnets might have had swinging or dancing
motions without being remarked by the observer as vibrations round a vertical
axis only are noted . An examination by myself since, of the observations made
before and after the shock, confirms the fact of the steadiness of all the magnets .
The velocity of the winds from north -west was nearly as usual at the same
hour ; the sky was nine -tenths clouded , the clouds moving from north -west,
the temperature of the air was nearly 73°, the maximum temperature of the
day being nearly 78° . The shock it seems was felt at Quilon about six o'clock '
and Mr. Liddell at Charlios Hope near the road between Quilon and Court
allam says, 'we had a smart shock of an earthquake about 10 minutes before six
on Monday morning.
“ I was on the summit of our highest mountains, the Agustier Malay (about
30 miles W. N. W. of Trivandrum ) on Monday the 11th but did not perceive
any shock. The testimony on the whole seems to indicate a southerly and
easterly point as the direction of the origin , all agreeing that the sound was heard
before the shock was perceived ”.
22ND AUGUST 1856 . The shock was felt at 4h. 25 m . 10 s. P. M. The
magnetic instruments were found dancing up and down with sharp jerks and
a brass weight hanging in a closed box was observed by means of a teles
cope to dance perceptibly 15 m . after the shock. The shock passed from
west-north -west to east -south - east. The Bifilar magnetometer vibration
at 4 h . 30 m . was 3 : 0 scale division, whereas at the hours before and
after, it was only 0:6 scale division . This shock was also felt at Quilon
about 4 h . and 16 m . and at Pallam . No shock was felt at Cochin or at
Courtallam , nor to the south of Trivandrum ,
II.] METEOROLOGY , 75

1st SEPTEMBER 1856. The time of the shock was 12 h . 44 m . 58 s.

noon* . The direction of the shock as ascertained by a lead weight hung
by a silk thread 17 feet long was from N. 30 ° W. to S. 30 ° E. The
Bifilar magnetometer vibrated through 14:6 scale divisions at 1 h . 30 m.
This shock was felt at Cape Comorin, Nagercoil , Neyyur, and the
Tinnevelly District. It does not seem to have been felt at any place
north of Trivandrum .

10TH NOVEMBER 1859. A shock was felt at 10 h . 31 m . 47 s . A. M.

both the Unifilar and the Bifilar magnetometers were observed to dance
up and down . The long pendulum referred to above had a slight motion
from N. 30 ° W. to S. 30 ° E.

8TH FEBRUARY 1900. A pretty severe shock was felt at 2h . 56 m .

A. M. On this date the magnetic instruments were not observed. The
shock was felt to pass from N. to S.
28TH MAY 1903. A slight shock was felt at 2h . 46m . P. M. The mag
netometers were visibly affected, and the Bifilar vibrated through 10.7
scale divisions .

Besides the above, the magnetic instruments in the Observatory have

often indicated the occurrence of earthquakes elsewhere but not felt in
Travancore. The most important of such indications were those of the
shock that passed through the Districts of Madura and Tinnevelly on
March 17th 1856 and the famous Calcutta earthquake of 12th June 1897 .
An examination of the magnetometer observation on the night of the
17th March 1856 at Trivandrum and Agastyamala shows that the shock
may have passed the line of the Ghauts and Trivandrum before 11 h . 30 m .
P. M. Mr. Broun says, “ the time of the night and the little habit the
natives have of observing, may partially explain the fact that the shock
was not felt at Trivandrum ” .
* In a letter published at Page 113, Vol. I New series, of the Madras Journal of Literature
and Science, Mr. Broun, the then Government Astronomer gives the time as 15 m . U s. after
noon .
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 M. E. PRESS .

Forest View, Pallode.

Photo by J. B. D'Cruz .
CHAP. III . ] FLORA . 77

kinds of aromatic gums are met with amongst the species of resin trees.
Travancore seems to be the home of the Palm of which there are at least
sis species in the forests, two cultivated — the Borassus flabelliformis or
Palmyra palm and the Corypha unbraculifera or the Talipot palm , and
four wild — the Pinanga dichronii, Caryota urens, Bentinchia condapana
and Arenga wightii.
The plains are not so thickly wooded and in certain places are bare as
in parts of South Travancore, though this part of the country and the
adjacent districts of Pandi must have been at one time covered with dense
jungle. The low country trees are of the ordinary type and there is a
lamentable absence of good fruit trees. The Jack and the Mango, general
ly of the inferior sort, are met with in every coinpound and garden. The
Palmyra abounds in South Travancore as does the Cocoanut in Central and
North Travancore ; the Tamarind is but poorly represented considering
the facilities for its growth. The Bamboo is practically unknown in the
plains though the banks of rivers and channels afford fine soil for its
growth . The avenue trees are chiefly Banyan, Arasu , Poo -arasu, Ichi and
Naval interspersed occasionally with the Mango, Jack and Tamarind. There
is a large variety of medicinal plants, and those yielding fibres, gums,
resins, and dyes, a reference to which will be made later on .

Mr. T. F. Bourdillon, the Conservator of Forests, after commenting

on the similarity of the flora of Travancore and Assam thus observes in
an interesting article on the Flora of Travancore*
“ From this it is reasonable to infer that one continuous forest of uniform
character stretched from the west coast of India to Assam and Burma, and that
the plants now found in the opposite extremes of India are the descendants
of a common ancestor. The forests that still remain are the relic and the
development of the great forest that covered the continent, and in the interests of
science, the preservation of these remains from complete destruction has not come
a day too soon ."
Of the general characteristics of the Travancore flora, he writes :
“ Undoubtedly the most remarkable feature of the forests of Travancore is
the extent and variety of the Flora. Many writers have commented on the small
number of the species in temperate and arctic climates as compared with the
variety of species in tropical countries from the time that Darwin published his
"Voyage round the world . Readers of that inimitable work will remember his
description of the dark and sodden forests that clothe the Island of Tierra del
Fuego, composed of one species of tree only.
" The most recent authority who has referred to the subject is Gamble, in
his preface to the new edition of his Manual of Indian Timbers. He there places
The Malabar Quarterly Review June 1990: 3 .
78 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
• the limiting number of species in the woody vegetation of India ' at 5,000. This
includes shrubs and climbers as well as trees. With this he compares the 397
species mentioned in the Forest Flora of France, which includes many quite small
plants, and the 134 species mentioned in Hooker's Student's Flora, as occurring
in England.

· Now in Travancore more than 600 species of trees are known to occur
which attain a height of 20 feet and upwards, excluding climbers and bushes of
all sorts, and so little do we know of the trees that inhabit the interior that it is
very probable that another 50 to 60 species will be added to the list when all
parts of the forests have been explored. We may say that in this State which
covers an area of about 7,000 square miles, there are to be found no fewer than
700 kinds of trees or one new kind of tree for every 10 square miles. When it
is remembered that about half of the area is open inhabited country, rich in
paddy fields and cocoanut topes and watered by numerous lakes and rivers, the
variety of species becomes the more remarkable. This variety is due no doubt
to differences of elevation from 049,000 feet and to differences of aspect and of
rainfall, for according to the locality, the rain falls in different months, and the
amount varies from 20 inches to 300 during the year. But there is the result ,
this astonishing wealth of species, surely nowhere equalled in any other part of
the world .
“ In one respect this great variety of species may be looked on as an advan.
tage, in another as a disadvantage. Among so many hundreds — nay thousands
of trees and shrubs and herbs, there might be a large number capable of pro
ducing useful products - timber or fruits, gums, oils, or medicines. The field of
work is wide - the results to be obtained both useful and interesting. Who will
devote himself to the study ? And it must be remembered that there is no fina
lity about the work . We may examine one species of tree or plant and decide
that it has no properties which will ever be of any use to man , and the timber,
the fruit and the resin may be regarded in the present state of our knowledge
as worthless. Let us therefore destroy the plant wherever found, to make way
for the betters. But next year some chemical discovery may bring to light the
fact that this very despised plant has certain properties possessed by no others ,
such for instance as the peculiar property of dulling the taste of sweet things,
possessed by the pretty little creeper Cymnema sylvestre. One of the commonest
trees in our low country forests is the Charei or Chera, Holigarna ferruginea .
From its stem , from its leaves and from its fruit issues a blistering juice, of
which nothing is known at present except that when it touches the skin of cer
tain persons, the results are swelling and much pain . The immediate conclusion
to be arrived at is that such a tree should be exterminated wherever found, for
its timber is soft and worthless and is not suitable even for fuel, but who can
say that within a dozen years we shall not be asked to collect the acrid juice of
this tree as a valuable medical agent ? In this way the great variety of Our

Flora is interesting because it opens up such a wide field for study, and because
it foreshadows the great possibilities and the great discoveries yet to be made.
“ But from another point of view the variety is a disadvantage. In his
report on the Forests of Ceylon written some 20 years ago, Mr. Vincent express
ed the opinion that not more than 2 per cent of the species of trees to be found
in Ceylon were of any commercial value, and judged by the standard of our
present knowledge, the proportion of useful trees in Travancore is very small.
There is an unlimited demand for certain timbers, but for others, hardly inferior
to the favoured ones, and much appreciated in other parts of India , there is no
demand. Who will be so enterprising as to experiment with the despised
woods ? Many times have we offered them for sale, and praised their good
 III. ] FLORA. 79

qualities, but in vain . The ordinary timber merchant will buy the 20 kinds
which he knows readily. All the rest are · Palmaram ', inseless species to him
and only to be consumed as fuel.
“ It has often been said that the trees and plants of India have no flowers
and that such flowers as they have are without scent, and that except for the
mango and the pine-apples there is no fruit worth eating. This by comparison
with Europe. But the comparison is hardly fair. The truth is that the wild
products of the one continent are as good as those of the other. Our cultivated
plants and fruits are indeed vastly inferior to those of Europe, and the reason
is not far to seek. They have not been selected and improved in the way that
they have been improved in Europe, because the class of market gardeners and
florists, and that of wealthy landowners interested in scientific agriculture does
not exist in India , but the material from which to evolve the better product is
not wanting.
" It is in the spring time that in Europe the earth puts on her garment of
beautiful flowers. Our spring time is in September. It is then that the grassy
uplands are covered with balsams, with white and pink orchids and yellow
stone-crop. Most of the herbaceous plants blossom then , the pleasantest time
of the year when the rains have poured their water on the soil, and the air is
cool with soft breezes. So far as the wild flowers go, I do not think that
Travancore is far behind other countries. We have no primroses or violets
with their sweet scent but we have many beautiful orchids and others such as
lilies, and amaryllis all awaiting the art of the horticulturist to improve them
almost out of recognition.
· As regards fruits, we have the wild Jack and Vango which bear insipid
or acid fruit in the wild state . The difference between the wild and the culti
vated forms shows what can be done by cultivation . One of our commonest
trees in the forests is the Longan --- Nephilium longanut— which in China produces
a fruit of great excellence. It is largely exported from that country. The wild
fruit is the size of the top of the thumb, round and wrinkled. Its appearance
would not lead one to suppose that it could ever be improved into a fruit for the
dessert table . The hillmen recognise many other fruits as fit for food even in
their wild state . Some of them are not bad eating, and are at least much better
than the wild mango . Perhaps the best of these is the fruit of Clanserine
willderorii — the ' Potti ' of the Hillmen , of which Beddome said , it is very deli
cious, as large as a large cherry, succulent as a grape, and somewhat of the flavour
of black currant '. The fruit is not unlike a white grape but instead of growing
in hunches , 6 or 8 fruits grow along a common stalk. This and many other
wild fruits are well worthy of improvement and cultivation but this Clausena in
particular . It does not like being moved from the climate and surroundings in
which it is generally found .
" The vegetation and Flora of Travancore are of exceptional interest first, be
cause they are the relic and development of flora which was at one time uniform
over a large part of India, secondly, because of the extraordinary variety of
species occurring within a small area, and thirdly because many of these species
have been taken as types of plants with which others from all parts of the world
have been compared .'
This chapter * is treated under the following heads :-
--
The information for this chapter is based on Mr. Bourdillon's exhaustive “ Report on the
Forests of Travancore" and his “ Notes on some of the commoner trees of the Travancore forests ".
Drury's " Useful plants of India ” , and Balfour's " Timber trees of India ” . The draft as
originally prepared, from which this one is condensed , has been kindly corrected by Mr.
Bourdillon himself.
80 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP .
( 1) Valuable timber trees
(2) Trees yielding gums, resins, and dyes
( 3) Avenue trees
(4) Cycads and palms
(5) Bamboos and reeds
(6) Fibrous plants
(7) Medicinal plants
(8) Flowering and Ornamental plants
Valuable timber trees. There are nearly 650 indigenous trees
in the forests of Travancore. This number includes many species occurring
in North India and others peculiar to Ceylon. The uses only of a very few
trees are known in Travancore . Others are considered useless and are
popularly known as Palmarangal. In other parts of India these trees are
highly valued. As the trees which are now considered valuable are
getting rarer, the latter trees will in future be looked upon by the people
as valuable and will be utilized .

1. Teak, Tekku – Tectono grandis.

99
This is rightly called " the monarch of the woods as it is the most
highly -priced timber under favourable circumstances and is perhaps the
most useful of all the timber trees of India. It generally grows to a height
of 80 to 100 feet to the first branch with a girth of 22 feet. In Travancore
the tree seldom attains a height of more than 50 feet to the fork and a girth
a

of 10 feet . It thrives best with a rainfall of from 120 to 150 inches and in a
O
temperature ranging from 60 ° to 90 ° and attains its maturity in from 80
to 100 years and is sometimes found 400 years old. It grows in open forest,
wants much room and light and never occurs in heavy moist forest from
sea -level up to 8,000 feet elevation . The teak tree is usually found with
such trees as Dalbergia latifolia , Pterocarpus marsupium , Terminalia
paniculata , A nogeissus latifolia, Schleichera trijuga, Gmelina arborea,
Sterospermum vylocarpum , Careya arborea , Phyllanthus emblica and
others. It grows best at an elevation of 1,000—2,000 feet. The Idiyara
valley has long been celebrated for the quality and size of its teak . Fifty or
sixty years must pass after plantation before the tree can yield service
able timber. The wood is brown in colour and when fresh sawn has the
fragrance of rosewood - hard yet light, easily worked, strong and durable
though porous. Its strength and durability are well known ; for house
building and furniture it is the best of woods.
The Malabar teak is generally esteemed the best. For
ship -building purposes , it is superior to every other sort of wood , being
 III.] FLORA . 81
light, strong and durable whether in or out of water and hence it is exten
sively used for that purpose. A cubic foot of seasoned wood weighs about
40 lbs., that of unseasoned 55 lbs. or more. Burma teak is much lighter and
kole teak is heavier. A commercially valuable oil is extracted from the
teak wood .

Kole teak is teak occurring in hard and unsuitable soil and hence
growing not more than 3 feet in girth. Most of the teak in the low country
is kole teak and its wood is close-grained and heavier than the ordinary
teak .

2. Malabar Blackwood ( Rosewood ) , Eattie—Dalbergia latifolia .

There are two species which yield blackwood, found in Travan :
core, viz ., D. latifolia and D. sissoides. It attains an enormous size in
Malabar and is often crooked. It is one of the most valuable trees of
the Travancore forests. It is heavy and close-grained admitting of fine
polish and is much used for furniture but seldom for building:
The wood is white externally ; in the centre of the trunk and the
large branches it is purple or purplish black, often mottled or with light
coloured veins running in various directions. The tree grows to a height of
60 to 80 feet and requires a temperature slightly cooler than that in which
teak thrives, with a rainfall averaging from 50 to 150 inches. In strength
it excels teak , but is very scarce and of slow growth, and less
adapted for plantation than the teak. It does not seem to prefer any
particular soil. It grows in the Travancore hills at an elevation of
0-3,600 feet and prefers a rather higher elevation than teak. One cubic foot
of seasoned wood weighs 52 lbs ; unseasoned 60-66 lbs.
3. Ebony, Karungali Diospyros assimilis.
This is a large tree 80 or 90 feet in height and 6 or 8 feet in girth
growing in the Travancore forest at an elevation of 0-2,000 feet. It
requires a considerable rainfall, but still it is very sparingly distributed . The
heart -wood is black, hard and heavy, and is most valuable. In strength it
excels teak. It is not much used as a building material for the simple
reason that wood of this kind, more than 6 inches square, is very seldom
obtained.. When young the wood is white, but as the tree advances in age
the black portion increases until at last in the later stages of its growth
the black heart is of considerable size. But there is always a large
quantity of sap-wood even in old trees. It is used chiefly for ornamental
work, furniture, inlaying, mathematical instuments, rulers &c.
The tree is of very slow growth . More than 100 years should elapse
k
 TRAT.ASCORE MANUAL , [ CHAP.
82
before an ebony tree attains a diameter of 1 foot. It is not suited for
plantations . There are nearly 20 other kinds of Diospyros , but none of
them have blackwood except D. ebenum which is extremely rare. One
cubic foot of seasoned wood weighs 81 lbs ; unseasoned 90 - 100 lbs.
4. Sandalwood - Santalum album .
This small tree (height never more than 20 feet) grows in the Tra
vancore hills at an elevation of 3,000 feet, and is celebrated for its highly
scented and valuable timber . It is very sparingly distributed in Travan
core, being found only in the Anchanad valley . Three varieties of sandal
wood are known in commerce , the white , the yellow , and the red-the two
former coming under Santalum album now under notice . The timber is
eminently fitted for carving and other ornamental work such as small
boxes, walking sticks , pen -holders and other fine articles. From
this wood is produced the paste Chandanam which is used by
Hindus for their caste marks. A valuable oil is distilled from the
wood , 1 pound of the wood yielding about 2 drams of oil. The fragrance
increases as the tree advances in age.
This also is a tree of slow growth, reaching its full development in
60 to 100 years, by which time the tree will have a diameter of one foot
of heart-wood . It is well adapted for plantations if suitable land is select
ed, i. e ., land with good soil and elevation not less than 1,000 feet and a
light rainfall of 20 to 50 inches.
5. Anjili, Ayani -- Artocarpus hirsuta .
This lofty and handsome tree (height 100-150 feet , girth 16 feet) grows
in the Travancore forests at an elevation of 0-3,000 feet . It yields the
valuable wood so well known on this coast for house -building, furniture,
frame works , boats etc. It grows very rapidly on yellow loam with a
rainfall exceeding 60 inches, reaching its maturity in 25 to 40 years. Its
wood is bright yellow turning to brown with age, very straight-grained
and free from knots and takes a fine polish . The bark yields a brown
dye and the fruit is edible . The tree is well suited for plantations.
Weight of seasoned wood 42 lbs . a cubic foot ; unseasoned 48 lbs.
6. Thambagam -- Hopea parviflora.
This lofty tree (height 100 feet, girth 15 feet) thrives best in heavy
forest at an elevation of frem 300 to 3,000 feet . It is also found to some
extent along the banks of rivers in the low country. The wood is close
grained , heavy and yellow becoming darker with age . It is used for
bridges and buildings of all sorts and occasionally for boats. It stands
III. ] FLORA . 83

exposure when sawn into scantlings but cracks if sawn into thin planks .
It is not attacked by white ants.

This tree grows nearly as fast as Anjili but is difficult to raise from
seed. It is well suited for plantations.

7. Venga - Pterocarpus marsupium .

This is a large and very beautiful tree , especially when in flower
at the beginning of the rains (height 80 to 90 feet , girth 10 feet) .
It yields one of the most abundant and useful timbers, the Venga wood
of South India. It is widely diffused and is found in large numbers in the
forests of Travancore. It grows best on stiff soil at an elevation of
0-3,000 feet and is found in company with Eattie, Thembavu and other
trees. It is found in abundance where teak is scarce. It is a fast grower
and attains maturity in about 60 to 80 years and grows to double that age,
but is not suited for plantation as it is not gregarious. The timber is as
strong as teak , heavier , and less liable to split after long exposure . The
colour of the wood is dirty yellow darkening with exposure . It is never
used for house -building in Travancore , as, when wet or unseasoned , it ina
parts a yellow stain and gives out to wet lime a dark rusty brown colour.
It is specially useful for fine furniture and resembles fine Mahogany but
must be well seasoned to avoid the yellow stain . Seasoned wood weighs
56 lbs. a cubic foot ; unseasoned 65-70 lbs .

This tree yields a resinous substance which is exported in large

quantities. This is the gum Kino of commerce used largely for dyeing
and calico -printing
8. Thembavu - Terminalia tomentusu .
This is another huge tree (height 80 to 120 feet, girth 12 feet) grow '.
ing in open grass forest at an elevation of 0-3,000 feet in company with
blackwood, teak and other trees. Its growth is fairly fast ; it reaches
maturity in 80-100 years and lives for more than 200 years. The wood
is dark brown, hard and heavy, and is much used for house-building. In
matured trees, the wood is exceedingly heavy, of the same weight as water
and is not easily worked. It is aa disappointing timber. Its strength and
durability are uncertain or it would be used even more largely than it is.
The weight of seasoned wood is 60 lbs. a cubic font, and that of unseasoned
75-80 lbs .

The ashes of the burned bark produce a kind of chunam which con
tains much potash . The bark is used in tanning and the leaves for
$4 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP
manuring the paddy fields . The leaves form the food of the Tusser silk
worm . A dyeing substance is obtained from the bark of this tree whichi
is used for brown colouring.

9. White Cedar, Vellai Agil -- Dysoxylum malabaricum .

This lofty tree (height 120 feet, girth 16 feet) is found only on the West
Coast of India from Canara to Cape Comorin and there, it is abundant
and well distributed. It grows in moist forest at an elevation of
0-3,000 feet and attains its greatest size at an elevation of 1,400 feet.
The wood is pale yellow with a smooth silky vein, sweet-scented and
easily worked and is used for oil casks. It does not stand exposure.
Seasoned wood weighs 42 lbs. & cubic foot ; uuseasoned 52 lbs .
The cedar is a tree of moderate growth, 500 years being the limit of its
life ; it grows more rapidly in its younger stages.
10. Red Cedar , Madagiri Vembu- Cedrela toona .
This large and valuable tree (height 60 feet ) is abundant in Tra
vancore. It grows at an clevation of (-4,000 feet and is common on the
Peermade hills. This is well suited for plantations and grows well with
Anjili . The wood, coarse, red and sweet -scented, is used for furniture of all
kinds, house-building and carving and is called the " Mahogany of India "
which it resembles closely, though lighter and not so close in the grain. It
admits of fine polish . It is used also for tea boxes, shingles and cigar boxes.
11. Ventekku -- Lagerstromia lanceolata .
This is a large tree with a straight stem, (height 120 feet, girth 12
feet ), with a smooth, very pale bark scaling off in thin flakes not much
thicker than paper and found only on the West Coast from Bombay to Cape
Comorin. It grows to its largest size in the forests of the north at a low
elevation of 200 to 300 fect ; it is never found in the dense moist forests.
It lives for more than 200 years but grows very slowly and is not there
fore suited for plantations. The wood is light brown, straight- fibred and
elastic but splits easily. It is not strong and does not stand exposure to
the weather.

12. Jack, Chakka or Pilavu - Artocarpus integrifolia .

This valuable fruit and timber tree is much planted and grows large
ly all over Travancore. It grows best in rich red soil with & rainfall of
not less than 50 inches. It grows rapidly when young, but after it has
attained a diameter of 2 feet its growth is slow . It lives for more than 200
years. It is much cultivated in the low lands for fruits and along tho
111.] FLORA. 85

roads for shade. It attains a height of about 80-100 feet with thick
spreading branches. The fruit is very large weighing from 30 to 40 lbs.
The green fruit is used in curries. The tree bears fruit in about 7
years, the fruits appearing in all parts even at the very root. Hence
the proverb : വേണമെങ്കിൽ ചക്ക വരിലും കായ്ക്ക
ക ും.''

The wood is excellent and is highly valued ; it is yellow when cat ,

afterwards changing into dull red or mahogany colour. It admits of fine
polish . It is used both for building purposes and for furniture of various
kinds, such as chairs, tables &c. , musical instruments and ornamental
work . Of late years jack wood has been superseded by blackwood in the
matter of furniture making. The weight of seasoned wood is 42 lbs. a
cubic foot ; unseasoned 50 lbs.
There are several varieties of the Jack tree, but what is called Varik
ka or the honey jack is the sweetest and best. The fruits yield a good
red dye.
13. Irul - Kodazylia dolabriformis.
This tree is not found in South Travancore, but is common in North
Travancore. It is a large tree growing to a height of 80-100 feet with a
girth of 9 feet. It is always found in company with teak and requires a
rainfall of not less than 100 inches . The wood is dark red , hard , heavy,
durable and close - grained but not easily worked . It is used for boats, sleep
ers, posts, carts, house -building etc. It lasts a long time under water
and is hence used in the construction of bridges, but in small scantling
it is inclined to split and warp if exposed. It is however not much
valued in Travancore. The weight of seasoned wood is 58 lbs. a cubic foot ;
useasoned 70 lbs.
14. Mayila — Vitex altissima..
This is a large tree with a height of 80 feet and a girth of 12 feet, widely
distributed throughout Travancore at all elevations between sea -level and
3,000 feet. It is a moderately fast grower. It increases in diameter
1 inch in 55 years and lives to be nearly 300 years old. The wood is hard ,
durable and flexible, with a coarse grain, is light brown in colour and does
not split nor warp . It is highly esteemed in other parts of India for build
ings, carts &c. , but here in Travancore the people prefer other trees for
such purposes. The unseasoned wood weighs 63 lbs. a cubic foot, and sea
soned wood 53 lbs.

The Vernacular name covers two other varieties viz., Viter pubescens
and V. leucorylon .
86 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.

15. Manjakadambu- Adina cordifolia.

This lofty tree (height 100 feet, girth 9-16 feet ) is found only in the
open moist forests between sea -level and 3,000 feet elevation ; it is parti
cularly abundant and reaches a very large size in the forests near Konniyar
and in North Travancore . The wood is light yellow seasoning to nut
brown, close-grained , smooth and light, and admits of a fine polish but does
not stand exposure to water. It is used for building, furniture, boxes,
turnings &c . , in other parts of India , but in Travancore it is not much used .
Weight of seasoned wood 42 lbs. a cubic foot ; unseasoned 50 lbs.
16. Ceylon Oak , Puvan - Schleichera trijuga .
This is a large handsome tree of slow growth ( height 100 feet, girth
15 feet) . It lives to a great age ofnearly 300 years but is not suited for plant
ation as its growth is too slow and its value too small. It is found in Tra
vancore with Irul , Maruthu &c. , on the deciduous forests 0-2,000 feet. Its
wood is strong and durable, seasons and polishes well and is used for
carts, sugar and oil mills, and a variety of other useful purposes. Weight
67 lbs. a cubic foot .
17. Manimaruthu -- Luyerstramia flos- regina.
This is a medium - sized tree of very ornamental appearance on
account of its handsome pink flowers, found along the banks of streams
and in the open forests. It lives to be nearly 200 years old . Its wood is
pale red , tough and very durable under water but it decays under ground
and is seldom used in Travancore. Seasoned wood weighs 38 lbs. and
unseasoned 48 lbs. a cubic foot. Silkworms feed on the leaves of this tree .

18. Mango, Mavu - Mangifera indicu.

This useful tree is found wild in our moist forests at all elevations
up to 2,000 feet . In the low country it is much planted for its fruit. It
is not a very rapid grower and lives for a century and a half. The wild
fruit is hardly edible but the low country fruit is very wholesome and
when unripe is much used in curries, preserves &c. Its flowering time
is January, February and March and the fruits ripen from May to July.
There are several varieties found in Travancore. The wood, dull grey
and porous,, is very serviceable for planks when not exposed to wet and
hence much used for house purposes. It can also be used for canoes as
it bears the action of salt water well. Seasoned wood weighs 42 lbs. a
cubic foot and unseasoned 55 lbs. The leaves form an excellent food for
silkwormus .
19. Malampurna --Calophyllum tomentosum .
This is a handsome tree of very large size reaching a height of 120
III.] FLORA. 87

feet or more and a girth of 10 feet, found all through Travancore in the
dense evergreen forests from 300 feet elevation to 400 feet . It requires
a rainfall of not less than 100 inches and thrives on very poor soil where
no other tree will succeed. The wood is reddish, loose- grainea, long -fibred
and elastic. In the coffee and tea plantations it is used for reapers, pack
ing cases, rough planking and furniture; its chief use however is for spars
of vessels, its great length, lightness , straightness and elasticity making
it most suitable for this purpose; a single spar sometimes realises 1,000 Rs. ,
but the demand is uncertain and unequal . The Pinnakai oil so largely
used for burning lamps is made from the seeds of the Alexandrine
Laurel, Calophyllum inophyllum , a small tree abundantly planted in
the low country
20 Cheeni- Tetrameles nudiflora .
This is a very lofty tree (height 120 feet) with grey shining bark and
small flowers, widely distributed in Travancore. It requires a very
heavy rainfall, grows very fast and lives for more than 200 years . Its
wood, dirty white, exceedingly light, soft and even-grained, takes a good
polish and paint and is used for canoes, boats and catamarans, carved
toys &c . , but it is neither strong nor durable and white ants eat it . This
tree is not suited for plantations on account of its low value.
21. Pathiri— Stereospermum chelonoides.
This is another large and handsome tree (height 100 feet, girth 8
feet) with very beautiful pinkish flowers and occurs in Travancore from
sea-level up to 3,000 feet both in the dense moist forests of the hills and
in the open forests and in grass land, associated with teak and other trees.
It is much planted on account of its ornamental appearance. Its wood,
orange or reddish brown , is close and even -grained, elastic, durable and
easily worked, gives a smooth surface and is used for house-building and
for furniture and makes excellent fuel. This is a moderately fast growing
tree and lives for more than a century. Seasoned wood weighs 48 lbs . a
cubic foot; unseasoned 58 lbs.
22 . Cotton Tree, Ilavu - Bombax malabaricum .
This large and stately tree (height 150 feet or more, girth 18 or 20
feet) with very large and showy flowers occurs in Travancore from sea
level up to 3,000 feet attaining its greatest height and girth in moist
forests at the foot of the hills. Its wood is whitish , coarse - grained and
brittle , but stands the action of water well and is hence used for floating
rafts and packing boxes . Cotton or the wool of the pods is used for
stuffing pillows, cushions &c. This is a fast - growing tree and lives for
88 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CAAP.
more than 200 years . Silkworms feed on the leaves of this tree and the
large honey bee makes its nest chiefly in this tree .
23. Karuntagara or Vaga - Albizzia procera.
This is a moderate-sized, fast-growing tree (height 60 feet, girth
6 feet ), occurring in moist situations as on river banks. It flourishes best
,

in open situations and is not found south of Trivandrum . The sap

wood is yellowish white and not durable while the heart-wood is brown,
straight and even-grained , seasons well, works freely, and admits of fine
polish and is hence good for furniture, boxes, agricultural implements etc.
Weight averages 46 lbs. a cubic foot.
These are the most valuable timber trees of Travancore. Among the
other useful trees employed in the low country and having some market
value may be mentioned the following :
1. Malakanjiram -- Anogeissus latifolice.
This tree is common in tbe drier districts of South Travancore and
on the Peermade hills near Kambam and in the deciduous forests near
Konniyur. The wood is dark-coloured and strong and is used for bandy poles
and agricultural implements. A valuable gum is obtained from its stem
which is used in cloth-printing and its leaves are used for tanning.
2 Ironwood, Nangu - Mesua ferrea.
This tree is abundant in the evergreen forests from 0-6,000 feet. Its
wood is very heavy, hard and durable; but for its great weight it would be
more commonly used for building. It gives out great heat when burnt
and makes first rate charcoal .

3. Nedunar - Polyalthia fragrans. This is a straight tree abundant

in the forests of North Travancore. The wood is light and very elastic
and is very well adapted for masts and yards.
4 Shurali--Hardwickia binata. A very large tree yielding timber
of an excellent quality for beams and a variety of uses, found only on the
Western Ghauts from South Canara to Cape Comorin . The wood is
brown and exudes a sticky oil resembling Copaiba balsam for which it may
be substituted .

5. Indian Copal , Payin -Vateria indica. This beautiful tree which

is so much planted in gardens and along avenues for the fragrance
of its flowers and which is very abundant in the moist forests, is some
times cut for boats. It is better known for its gum called white dammer,
an excellent varnish resembling copal,
III.] FLORA . 89

Malavuram -- Pterospermum rubiginosum and P. heyneanum .

6.
These are felled for building and boats; the former especially is said to be
very good wood and is an exceedingly handsome tree .
7. Kalasan--Odina wodier. This is aa small -sized tree with a light
reddish wood, very useful for furniture and house-building.
8. Kollamavu - Machilus macrantha. A moderate - sized tree of
light wood growing in the moist forests, much used for boats.
9. Arayanjili - Antiaris toxicaria . An immense tree : of the dense
moist forests with light wood, not strong or durable, used for boats, tea
boxes &c . Its inner bark is composed of very strong tenacious fibres and
seems excellently fitted for cordage and matting.
10. Aval - Holoptelea integrifolia. Another tree of immense size
common in the moist forests of the north . The wood is light and fairly
durable if smoked; it is sawn into planks or fashioned into boats.
11. Venkotta - Lophopetalum wightianum . A lofty tree found in
the evergreen forests and on riverbanks 0-3000 feet . Wood is
light, white, useful and durable if smoked .
12. Mukkampala — Alstonia scholaris. A large and handsome tree
common in the deciduous forests 0-3000 feet with a milky juice; wood
white, and very light but not durable, used for rough planking.
13. Palagapayani– Oroxylum indicum . A tree of moderate size ,
occasionally cut into boats .
14. Maruthu or Pumaruthu - Terminalia paniculata. A large tree
and one of the commonest of the deciduous forests. Wood is strong and
durable but not much appreciated in Travancore, used for buildings to
a small extent .
15. Kanakaitha. Two botanical names come under this, viz . ,
Miliusa velutina and Bocagea dalzelli. These are very elastic
woods which may be used for carriage shafts, spear handles and
such purposes. The former is found in the deciduous forests, while the
latter occurs only in the moist forests.
16 . Kar Anjili - Dipterocarpus bourdilloni. A large tree resembling
Anjili, generally felled for boats; grows in the moist forests of North
Travancore.
17 . Mulluvenga - Bridelia retusa . Wood hard and heavy, used
only to a limited extent in Travancore, though much valued in other
conntries.

1
90 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
Pambarakumbil - Treuia nudiflora. A noderate -sized tree,
18 .
possessing light wood used for carving ; the image put up in Roman Ca
tholic churches is commonly made of this timber .
These are the only trees yielding timber conımercially valuable; many
other trees there are, indigenous to the country, used for rough house
building, for posts or for the construction of jungle wood -roofs but they
have no commercial value and are used only by the poor or for temporary
buildings.
The following is aa list of trees exclusively used by the planters living
at elevations between 1500 and 4000 feet :
1. Kattu Iluppa or Pala, of which there are two species viz.,
Dichopsis elliptica and Chrysophyllum roxburghii. The latter has
very poor timber, while the former yields a reddish brown timber with
straight grain, easily worked when young, but hardening with age, and
used for shingles. A sticky milky juice exudes from both of them , which
is commercially valuable.
2. Puthankalli- Pæciloneuron indicum . A large tree occurring
in the moist forests up to 2,000 feet yielding a hard, heavy and durable
9

reddish wood used for building.

3. Karuva - Cinnamomum zeylanicum . A large tree common in
the Peermade plateau ; wood dull white resembling mango wood, used for
rough planking and building.
4. Kalpayin - Dipterocarpus turbinatus. This is another very large
tree common in the evergreen forests 0-3,000 feet. It yields soft resinous
wood used for reapers, but which decays rapidly with exposure ..
5. Shenchandanam - Gluta travancorica . A very large forest tree,
confined to the extreme south of the Peninsula and ascending the hills to
an elevation of 4,000 feet . It yields aa beautiful red wood suitable for furni
ture but not strong.
6. Kattu Pavan - Nephelium longana. Wood, hard , yellowish red ;
suitable for buildings if cut in large scantlings but liable to crack if sawn
thin .
7. Wynaad Shingle -tree, Malakonnai - Acrocarpus fraxinifolius.
Found only in places where the climate is dry ; wood pink and splits
easily ; ised for shingles as well as for buildings and furniture.
8. Vellakasavni - Homicycliu l'enusta . A small tree common in the
evergre?n forests growing at an elevation of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, with a
 III. ] FLORA. 91

white, hard and heavy wood used for turning and posts. H. elata is
another tree of the same species possessing a like wood.
Trees yielding gums, resins and dyes . First comes the beau
tiful Venga tree, Pterocarpus marsupium , already described , which yields
the dragon's blood or gum kino of commerce. The gum is collected by inci
sions in the bark. Of dammer there are two varieties, the white dammer or
Vella Kundrikam , the product of Vateria indica or the Payin tree, and
the black dammer, the product of Canarium . strictum or Thellimaram , a
lofty tree very abundant in our dense moist forests from 0-5,000 feet .
The gum exudes from all parts of the tree and is semi-transparent in
small pieces, but black in masses and tastes like fennel . It is collected and
used for bottling and varnishes. A solid oil is also obtained from the
seeds of Vateria indica, known as vegetable tallow , of which candles are
inade, which diffuse an agreeable fragrance and give a clear light with
little smoke. The oil is used also as a local application in chronic
rheumatism .

The lofty Ailantus malabarica, common in the evergreen forests of

North Travancore, yields a fragrant l'esinous juice known as Muttipal
which is burnt as incense and used also for medicinal purposes. Reference
has already been made to the Shurali or Hardwickia binata yielding a
gum said to be as useful as copaiba. Butea superba as well as its allied
species B. frondosa or the Palasa tree yield a kind of East Indian kino
flowing from fissures in the bark, which becomes opaque and dark
coloured after a time. This gum which dissolves in hot water imparting
to it a fine red colour contains a large proportion of tannin which might
render it useful in the arts and in tanning leather especially for thick
hides. The fruit of the Panichimaram , Diospyros embryopteris, contains
a large proportion of tannin and a gum used for fishing lines & c .
The Kattucheru or Holigurna urnottianu is one of the trees yielling
the well-known black lacquer varnish . The juice of the fruit is used by
painters and also for fixing indelible colours figured on linen cloths. The
sinall and thorny Karuvelam tree , Acacia arabica , yields a valuable trans
parent gum which is used as a substitute for gum Arabic, which itself is
the product of A. vera . The bark of this tree is used for tanning leather
and also for medicinal purposes. The Pattathamara, Macaranga indica
a very common tree in Travancore, produces a gum of a light crimson
colour used for taking impressions of leaves, coins, medallions &c . The
stem of the Vilatti or wood -apple. Feronin elephantum , vields a transparent
gummy substance which is used for mising with printer's colours, in
92 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. { CHẠP.
dyeing and also in ink and varnish . The gum called in Tamil Velan
pishin, resembles the true gum Arabic and is also used for medicinal pur
poses. The Vembu, Melia azadirachta, the Iluppa, Bassia longifolia ,
the Bilva, Aegle marmelos, and the Cashewnut, Anacardium occidentale ,
are some of the other common trees yielding useful gums.
The Gamboge tree , Garcinia pictoria, abundant in the moist forests
yields a very bright orange pigment which is excellent and equal to the
best gamboge. Two other trees of the same species also are said to yield
good pigments, viz. , G. morella and G. travancorica. The Kamila dye is
the product of Ponnagam , Mallotus philippinensis, a middle-sized tree
found in the secondary and open forests from 0-5,000 feet . Kamila is the
powder rubbed off the capsules and is also found though in smaller
quantities on the leaves and stalks of the plant. It is of a rich red colour,
a

used all over India especially for silk to which it imparts a fine yellow
colour. Two species of myrabolans are gathered from the Kadukai or
Terminalia chebula and the Tani or T. belerica, the former especially being
in good demand . They are very astringent and are used for tanning, also
for making ink ; with alum they make a good yellow dye. The Manja
natti or Morinda tinctoriu, a very common tree, frequently met with in
gardens as well as in the forests, yields a yellow timber which takes a
polish equal to jack wood, the interior wood of the old trees yielding a dye.
The Noonamaram or Morinda umbellata , a common clinabing plant, yields a
dye of permaneni yellow from its root ; with the addition of sappan wood
a red dye also can be prepared from the same. It is said that the colours
dyed with this as well as the other species of the Indian mulberry plant
are for the most part exceedingly brilliant and the colouring matter far
more permanent than many other red colours and that with improved
management the dye would probably rival that of madder. The Manjadi
or Adenanthera pavonina also yields a red dye. And lastly we have the Sap
pan wood , Casalpina sappan , a small tree whose wood called the red wood
of commerce is extensively used in dyeing and is exported for that purpose.
It grows freely without any care and is of the first quality in Malabar.
It yields a first class dye much used on the other coast.
Avenue trees. Foremost among the avenue trees comes the Banyan
or Alamaram , Ficus bengalensis, an immense tree with branches spread
ing over a large area .It is remarkable for the singular property of letting a
gummy kind of rootlet fall from its branches. These on reaching the
ground soon form a natural support to the larger branches of the tree,
and several of these extending and increasing from year to year forming a
vast assemblage of pillar-like stems, cover a considerable area round the
 111.) FLORA. 98

origi nal trunk. This tree is wild throughout India, and is much planted
for avenues everywhere . It is of rapid growth and grows best from large
cuttings 6 or 7 feet long planted in the ground. In Travancore it is found
both in the moist and deciduous forests from sea-level to 4,000 feet. The
wood is light, coarse -grained, brittle and not durable, but lasts under water
and is hence used for wells, water conduits &c . The root ' drops' are tough
and elastic and are used for tent poles, cart yokes &c . Bird -lime is made
of the milky juice which abounds in every part of the tree. The leaves
a re used as plates and the fruit is occasionally eaten. Birds are very fond
of it .

The Arasu or Ficus religiosa is found wild in our subalpine forests but
is not abundant. It is however very widely planted everywhere near tem
ples and along avenues. It does not ascend the hills to any elevation. It is a
acred tree and is much respected by the Hindus who are very unwilling
t
o cut it down at any time. The wood is white, light and perishable. It is
used for fuel , charcoal and packing cases. Elephants eat its leaves and
branches and the silkworms feed on its leaves. Stick-lac is produced from it
and the glutinous juice which exudes from the stem is made into bird -lime.
Eight other varieties of the Ficus species are found in Travancore, viz., Ficus
tomentosa, F. altissima or Kal-atthi, F. benjamina, F. tsiela , F. infectoria,
F. asperrima or Theragam , F. hispida or Erumanaku and F. glomerata ,
or Atthi , of which the last is the most important. This is found throughout
Travancore in the secondary and open forests 0-3,000 feet . It grows rapidly
and gives a light pleasant shade. It is much planted in coffee estates. The
wood is white, light and not durable except under water; it is used for well
rings. Bird -lime is made from the milky juice and the leaves are largely
used as fodder for elephant and cattle .
The Naval or Eugenia jambolana is a very large tree found in the
evergreen forests and much planted for avenues . The wood is reddish or
dark brown, close -grained , but not straight; it is hard, and heavy but
difficult to work and is therefore unsuitable for any use . The fruit is
eatable, and the leaves and bark are used in native medicine.
The Poo-arasu or Thespesia populnea is another tree planted for road
side avenues, being remarkable for its easy and rapid growth from cuttings
and yielding a good shade. It yields when ripe a very strong, hard and
durable timber with a colour like mahogany, but its use is limited on
account of the difficulty of getting it in large size.
The other trees planted for avenues are the Casuarina, the Tamarind,
the Jach , the Mango, the Margosa, the Alexandrine laurel, the Pavin and
94 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
the Cashew -nut trees . Of these the jack, mango and payin have already
been noticel under the valuable timber trees. The casuarina does not
grow in the Travancore forests except when planted , as its introduction
into Southern India itself from Chittagong, its native province, is only of
recent date . It may however be of interest to state that the timber of
casuarina which grows well from seeds and is a very rapid grower is with
out exception the strongest wood known for bearing cross strains and very
valuable for fuel .
The Tamarind or Puli, Tamarindus indica, is planted largely for its
fruit ; it also runs wild in the dry forests from 0-2,000 feet. This is a
graceful avenue tree of slow growth but attaining great size. The timber
which is hard, heavy and durable is converted to many useful purposes
in building, for mills and the teeth of wheels etc., and makes excellent fuel.
The pulp of the pods is used both in food and in medicine. The natives
have a prejudice against sleeping under the tree as its shade is considered
unhealthy, and the tree haunted.
The Margosa or Vembu , Melia azadirachta, is a small and beautiful
tree much planted in the low country for ornament and shade. Its uses
are referred to a little later under medicinal plants.
The Alexandrine Laurel or Punna, Calophyllum inophyllum , is another
beautiful tree common on the banks of rivers and " not less esteemed for its
ornamental appearance than for the delicious fragrance of its flowers ".
The Cashew -nut or Parangimavu, Anacardium occidentale, originally
belonging to the West Indies is now common all over India. As the
vernacular naine implies, this seems to have been introduced by the
Portuguese and has now run wild in the maritime forests all over Western
India . Two kinds of oil can be prepared from the hard fruit borne at the
end of the fleshy peduncle, viz ., (1 ) a sweet nourishing table-oil from the
kernels, pronounced equal to almond oil and superior to olive oil , and (2) a
brown blistering oil from the rind ( cardol). But this is scarcely done, the
kernels being used only is a table -fruit . The wood is of no value but is
largely used as fuel.
Cycads and Palms. The most inportant of the indigenous cycads
is the Eentha or Cycas circinulis, a small tree very abundant in the
deciduous forests ()- 3,000 feet. It produces a good abundance of spherical
fruit containing a kernel. The hillnuen and the low country people in some
parts collect these fruits and convert the kernels into an insipid flour which
is baked into cakes. The fruit forms the staple food of some of the hill
tribes for several months together.
III.] FLORA . 95

Exclusive of the Cocoanut and Areca palms, whose cultivation forms

such a striking feature of the garden lands of Travancore, 6 other varieties
of palms are known, of which 4 are wild . They are :--the Palmyra or
Borassus flabelliformis, the Talipot or Corypha umbraculifera, the Bastard
Sago or Caryota urens, the Bentinckia condapana, the Pinanga dich
ronii, and the Arenga wightii.

The palmyra is much planted in the drier districts of South

Travancore . The fruit is not much used and the tree is valued
mainly for the juice which is either drunk as toddy, distilled into arrack
or made into jaggery. The leaves are used for several purposes like those
of the cocoanut palm and the wood is valuable for rafters . The mighty
talipot is doubtfully indigenous and is found all through our forests.
Its large broad fronds are used for thatching and also for

writing on with an iron style. The dried leaf is very strong and is com
monly used for umbrellas. A kind of flour or sago is prepared from the
pith of the trunk. As observed by Mr. Bruce Foote, late of the Geological
Survey of India ,
“ The most striking feature in the flora of South Travancore is the immense
forest of fan palms (Borassus labellirmis) which covers a great part of the country.
The fan palms, or palmyras, attain here to much greater height than they
generally do elsewhere. Trees measuring from 90 to 100 feet in height are not
uncommon in places, and with their stems greatly covered by white or silvery
grey lichens, they present a much finer appearance than the comparatively
stunted specimens one is accustomed to see in the Carnatic or on the Mysore
and Deccan plateaus. Whether these Travancore trees owe any part of their
greatly superior height to superior age, as compared with the palms in the great
Palmyra forest in South Tinnevelly, I could not make out ; but the white colour
of their stems, added to their great height certainly gives them a much more
hoary and venerable appearance.
The Bastard Sago, Caryotu wrens, common in the evergreen
forests 0-3,000 feet , is a large tree yielding toddy . Sago is prepared
from the stem . The tree is valued for the good quantity of sap it yields
and also for its fibre . In times of scarcity these trees which are planted
about the low country, are felled , and the pith is mixed with water and the
resulting fluid is strained , and a flour is prepared from it.
Bamboos and Reeds. The Bamboo is the most gigantic of the
grasses and consists of several species all useful to man in a variety of
ways. Seven species are known in Travancore, of which the most use.
ful is the ubiquitous bamboo, Bambusa arundinacea commonly called
Mungil or Mulah . The uses & c . , of this and the other species of
bamboos in general are thus described by Drury :--
 96 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
" These gigantic arborescent grasses which cover the sides and tops of
the mountains throughout the continent of India form one of the
peculiar as well as themost striking features of Oriental scenery. Few objects
present a more attractive sight in the wild forest of this country than a clump of
these beautiful plants with their tall bending stems and delicate light-green
foliage. With the exception of the Cocoa and some other palms perhaps, the
Bamboo is the most useful and economical of all the vegetable products of the
East . In no other plant is strength and lightness combined to that degree which
renders this so important an article in building houses, lifting weights, form
ing rafts and a thousand other uses which might here be enumerated . It attains
a considerable height, -- some 70-80 feet-- and has been known to spring up 30
inches in 6 days. At the ago of 15 * years, the bamboo is said to bear fruit, a
whitish seed- like rice, and then to die. These seeds are eaten by the poorer
classes .

“ The purpose to which different species of bamboo are applied are so numer
ous that it would be difficult to point out an object in which strength and elasti .
city are requisite, and for which lightness is no objection to which the stems are
not adapted in the countries where they grow. The young shoots of some species
are cut when tender and eaten like asparagus. The full- grown stems, while green ,
form elegant cases, exhaling a perpetual moisture, and capable of transporting
fresh flowers for hundreds of miles. When ripe and hard they are converted into
bows, arrows, and quivers, lance -shafts, masts of vessels, bed -posts, walking.
sticks,the poles of palanquins, to tloors and supporters of rustic bridges, and a variety
of similar purposes. In a growing state, the spiny kinds are formed into stockades,
which are impenetrable to any but regular infantry, aided by artillery. By
notching their sides, the Malays make wonderfully light scaling ladders, which can
be conveyed with facility where heavier machines could not be transported.
Bruised and crushed in water, the leaves and stems form Chinese paper, the finer
qualities of which are only improved by a mixture of raw cotton and by more
careful pounding. 'l he leaves of a small species are the material used by the
Chinese for the lining of their tea-chests. Cut into lengths and the partitions
knocked out, they form durable water-pipes, or, by a little contrivance are made
into excellent cases for holding rolls of papers. Slit into strips, they afford a
most durable material for weaving into mats, baskets, window-blinds and even
the sails of boats. Finally, the larger and thicker truncheons are exquisitely
carved by the Chinese into beautiful ornaments. No plant in Bengal is applied
to such a variety of useful purposes as the bamboo. Of it are made implements
for weaving, the post and the frames of the roofs of huts, scaffoldings for buildings,
portable stages for native processions, raised floors for granaries, stakes for nets
in rivers, rafts, masts, yards, oars, spars, and in boat-decks. It is used for build
ing bridges across creeks, for fences, as a lever for raising water for irrigation, and
as flag -poles. Several agricultural instruments are made of it, as are also hackeries
or carts, doolies or litters and biers, the shafts of javelins or spears, bows and arrows
clubs and fishing -rods. A joint of bamboo serves as a holder for pens, small
instruments and tools. It is used as a case in which things of little hulk are sent
to a distance; the eggs of silkworms were brought into a bamboo cane from China
to Constantinople in the time of Justinian. A joint of bamboo answers the
purpose of a bottle, and a section of it is a measure for solids and liquids in bazaars.
A piece of it is used as a blow -pipe and as a tube in a distilling apparatus. A
small bit of it split at one end, serves as tongs to take up burning charcoal, and a
thin slip of it is sharp enough to be used as knife in shelling betel- nuts &c. Its
surface is so hard , that it answers the purpose of a whet-stone upon which the
ryots sharpen their bill -hooks and sickles.
* According to Mr. Bourdillon, 30.
 III.] FLOR.. 07

2. Male Bamboo or Kalmulah - Dendrocalamus strictus. This

species of bamboo (culms up to 3 inches in diameter and 30 feet high ) has
great strength and solidity and is very straight; hence it is better suited
for a variety of uses than the common bamboo. The natives make great
use of it for spears, shafts &c . It is clearly a distinct species, growing
in a drier situation than other bamboos . In Travancore its habitat is
the Anchanad valley 3,000-4,000 feet .
3. Arambu A species of thornless
Oxytenanthera bourdilloni.
bamboo growing on rocky cliffs found only at elevations between 2,000
and 3,000 feet. It attains a diameter of about 4 inches and a height of
40 feet. The hillmen use this for making combs and other household
implements.
4. Oxytenanthera thwaitesii. Found in the evergreen forests
3,000-6,000 feet; reeds not exceeding 1 inch in diameter and 10 ſect high .
5. Tha Eetta or Eeral reed - Ochlandra travancorica . This forms
the undergrowth in many parts of the Travancore forests and is used by
the hillmen for temporary huts, the reeds themselves being employed for
frame work and the leaves serving as thatch . The reeds are also used
for fencing, baske :-making, mats &c. , and an excellent paper is made out
of the fibre.
6. Teinostachyum wightii. Another reed found on the hills and
evergreen forests 3,000-4,000 feet ; reeds not exceeding 1 inch in diameter
and 10 feet high.
7. Amma - Ochlandra rheedii. Found on the banks of rivers in
the low country ; reeds up to 3/4 inch in diangeter and 10 feet high, used
for basket-making.
There are also many other kinds of reeds not yet identified . Of
grasses the most important is the lemon grass, Andropogon schenanthus,
from which the famous lemon grass oil is extracted .
Fibrous plants. The Vakkanar, a very strong and durable
fibre exclusively used for the dragging of timber by elephants,
is made of the bark of Sterculia villosa , a small tree of rapid growth with
straight trunk and smooth bark. All the layers of this tree can be strip
ped off from the bottom to the top with great facility and fine pliable
ropes are formed from the inner layers while the outer ones yield coarser
ropes. The fibre is unusually strong as the strands not only run length
wise but are formed into a net -work by other strands crossing them
m
08 TRAVANCORE MANUAL [ CHAP .
diagonally. Sterculia guttata is another tree of the same species yielding
a useful fibre which is generally used for making coarse bags.
The Arayanjili , Antiarius toxicaria, yields, as we have already
noticed, strong fibres which are excellently fitted for matting, sacking and
cordage. The Kaivanar so largely used by the Chalpans of Trivan
drum , and the low-caste dhobies of Central and North Travancore
for making coarse cloths, gunny bags and sacking is obtained from the
bark of Valampiri or Helicteres isora which occurs as an undershrub in
most of the lower and outer forests of Travancore. The fibres are strong
and white-coloured and are well adapted for ropes and cordage. A fort
night's soaking of the fresh stems in running water yields a fibre of very
good colour with a pearly lustre. Strong fibres are also made from the
bark of Pulimanji or Hibiscus cannabinus and its allied species H. tila
ceus ( Nirparuthi ), of Cherutali or Antidesma bunias and Nagavalli
or Bauhinia scandens and from the roots of Butea superba and its allied one
Butea frondosa. A species of Crotalaria resembling Crotalaria juncea
or sunn-hemp is largely grown in Shencottah and the northern districts
of Ampalapuzha, Shertallay, Vaikam , Alangad, Kunnatnad and Parur,
especially in Vaikam . Here the plant as well as its fibre are called
Wuckoo, the latter being largely employed in the manufacture of fishing
net and tackle. Some specimens of strong canvas made of this fibre were
sent to the Madras Exhibition of 1851 , which have been much approved of by
competent judges from the compactness and strength of the manufacture,
The Erukkalai plant , C'alotropis gigantea , a plant growing wild in Tra
vancore, generally on hot stretches of bare sand as well as in dry, rocky
and exposed situations , yields useful fibres which are soft, white, silky
and very tenacious. But the comparative shortness of the staple and the
difficulty of extracting the fibres probably explain the sparing use made
of them in the arts and manufactures. The fibre possesses many of the
properties of the European flax and can be spun into the finest thread
for sewing and weaving cloth . The white silk-like material of the pods
has been successfully tried to mix with silk .
Among other common plants of Travancore yielding useful fibres
may be mentioned, the Indian hemp largely grown for Ganja, Inja,
Chiyakka, Jack and Anjili,, Rattans, Ilavu , Mul Ilavu, Murunga ,
some species of Banyan , Nedunar, Poonga, Venga and Pooarasu .
Of the plants yielding useful leaf-fibres the commonest are the plan
tains, of which there are several species. A regular industry has grown
up on the plantain fibre, an account of which is given in the Chapter
on Arts and Industries. Next come the Aloes , of which the Mexican
 III.] FLORA . 99
aloe or Anakkattazha and the green aloe of St. Helena have become
naturalised in the country. The pine-apple which is now regularly culti
vated in some of the districts, especially in the South, yields an excellent
fibre which from its silky lustre and great strength has been suggested
as a fair substitute for flax .
The fibre of the palms requires special mention . The cocoanut, the
palmyra, the talipot, the bastard sago and the wild dates, all yield
good fibres which are " characterised by extreme tenacity, a certain
degree of elasticity, firmness and gloss, ” and are specially adapted for the
manufacture of brushes, cordage, ropes and cables. The Kittul fibre of
commerce is obtained from the fronds of Caryota urens which is much
valued for its sago and toddy as well. Coir, the produce of the cocoanut
palm , is not a true fibre but only a seed -hair like cotton and other vege
table flosses.

Medicinal trees and plants. The number of medicinal plants

seems to be legion. The native doctors use a very large variety of plants
and shrubs for medicinal purposes. A short notice of only a few of them is
attempted here.
We will start with those trees that are poisonous as well as medici
nal. Of these , the Yettimaram or or Kanjiram , Strychnos nux -vomica,
comes first. It is a tree of middle size common throughout Travancore.
The seeds are most valued both in native and European medicine, and
the well- known poison Strychnine is prepared from the kernel of the fruit.
The pulp of the fruit is harmless and eaten by birds, monkeys and cattle.
It is believed that the seeds of the fruit if taken for two years one or two
every day have the effect of rendering innoxious bites of poisonous cobras.
The Tettankotta or Strychnos potatorum is harmless and is used for several
medicinal purposes.. The seeds of this tree have the singular property of
clearing muddy water, if it is poured into a vessel of which the sides have
been rubbed with bruised or sliced seeds. They are devoid of all poisonous
properties aud are used as a remedy in diabetes and gonorrhea.
The Odallam, Cerbera odollam , a small tree growing largely on the
banks of canals and backwaters, yields a very poisonous fruit somewhat
resembling a mango. The Vellai--oomatha, Datura alba , and the Kari
oomatha, Datura fastuosa, are both very common weeds famous for the
intoxicating and narcotic properties of their fruits. Their medicinal and
poisonous properties are well known. Of the two the former is said not
be quite so virulently poisonous as the latter. Both are used as anodyne
and antispasmodic. Among other poisonous plants mention may be made
100 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
of Supium insigne, a small tree growing on the upper hills, from which
exudes a very poisonous and acrid juice, and the Chera or Holigarna ferru
ginea, a lofty tree found both on the slopes of the hills up to 3,000 feet and in
the low country. This latter yields a sap which on exposure to air becomes
dark like tar and when it falls on the body raises large blisters. The root
of Mettonni or Gloriosa superba, a very handsome climbing plant, “ one
of the most ornamental plants any country can boast of,” is used medi
cinally by the natives and is commonly believed to be very poisonous. It
is applied in paste to the hands and feet of women in difficult parturition ;
mixed with honey it is given in gonorrhea. It is not poisonous in twelve
grain doses ; on the contrary it is alterative, tonic and antiperiodic.
The following are some of the commoner medicinal plants arranged
in the alphabetical order of their botanical names : --
Vettila Kasturi - Abelmoschus moschatus. A very common plant
in Travancore, whose seeds have been given with the best effect in
counteracting bites of venomous reptiles, being applied internally and
externally.
Peruntutti- dbutilon indicum . The leaves of this shrub in
decoction are used by European and native physicians as an emollient
fomentation and an infusion of the roots is given as a cooling drink in
fevers . The root is also used in leprosy and the seeds are reckoned
laxative .
Kuppameni- Acalypha indica . root of this small plant
The
bruised in hot water is employed as cathartic, and the leaves as a laxative
in decoction ; mixed with salt the latter are applied externally in scabies.
A decoction of the plant mixed with oil is aa specific against gout and
mixed with chunam is applied externally in cutaneous diseases.
Nayuri -- Achyranthes aspera. The seeds are given in hydro
phobia and in cases of snakebites, as well as in ophthalmia and cutaneous
diseases. The flowering spikes rubbed with a little sugar are made into
pills and given internally in cases of dog-bites, while the leaves taken
fresh and rubbed to a pulp are considered a good remedy for scorpion -bites.
The root is used as a sort of tooth -brush in some parts of India .
Vasamboo - Acorus calamus. An aromatic bitter principle exists
in the rhizomes of this plant, on account of which they are regarded
as useful additions to tonic and purgative medicines, being much given
to children in cases of dyspepsia , especially when attended with looseness
of bowels . It is also beneficially employed in chronic catarrh, asthmatic
complaints and intermittent fever's.
III.) FLORA . 101
A datoda - Adhatoda vasica .
-
The flowers, leaves and root are
all considered antispasmodic and are given in cases of asthma and inter
mittent fever. The leaves given in conjunction with those of Tooduvala
and Kandankathri are employed internally in decoction as anthelmintic.
Bilva Ægle marmelos. The rcot, bark, leaves and the fruit
are all medicinally used. The half-ripe fruit, especially newly gathered,
is a very good remedy for chronic diarrhea and dysentery. The root
bark is a remedy in hypochondriasis, inelancholia and palpitation of the
heart and the leaves in decoction are used in asthma.
Chittaratta -- Alpina galanga. The tubers which are faintly
aromatic, pungent and somewhat bitter are the larger galangal of the
shops and are used as a substitute for ginger. They are given in infusion
in fevers, rheumatism and catarrhal affections.
Lemon grass – Andropogon schænanthus. An infusion of the fra
grant leaves which are bitter and aromatic is given to children as an ex
cellent stomachic . It is also diaphoretic. The oil prepared from it is a
most valuable remedy in rheumatism applied externally.
Vilamicham Andropogon muricatum . An infusion of the roots
is given medicinally as a gentle stimulant and a grateful drink in
feverish cases. The roots reduced to powder are given in bilious affect
ions, and mixed with milk and applied externally as cooling applications
to the skin when irritated. They are delightfully fragrant and aromatic
and contain a volatile oil used in perfumery. The root in infusion is also
used in cases of gout and rheumatism . 1

Karuntumba — Anisomeles malabarica. The juice of the leaves

of this shrub is given to children in colic and indigestion and fevers aris
ing from teething ; it is also employed in stomachic complaints, dysentery
and intermittent fevers .
Samudrachedi - Argyreiu speciosa . The leaves are used in the
preparation of einollient poultices and also in cutaneous complaints being
applied externally to the parts affected.
Perumarundoo Aristolochia indica . The root which is nause
ously bitter is said to possess emmenagogue and antarthritic virtues.
It is said to be aa valuable antidote to snake-bites, being applied both in
ternally and externally. Mixed with honey the root is given in leprosy
and the leaves internally in fever.
Nirmulli --- Asteracantha longifoliu . This plant is commonly
met with by the side of paddy fields and other damp situations. The roots
102 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
are considered tonic and diuretic ; administered in decoction, they are also
employed in dropsical affections and gravel.
Kattu Atthi — Bauhinia tomentosa. The dried leaves and young
flowers are administered in dysenteric affections and a decoction of the
bark of the root is given in cases of liver and phlegmatic complaints and
also as a vermifuge. The bruised bark is also occasionally applied to
tumours and wounds.
Alpam -- Bragantia wallichii . This is peculiar to the Malabar
Coast . The whole plant mixed with oil and reduced to an ointment is
said to be very efficacious in the treatment of inveterate ulcers . Bartolo
meo refers to this plant as " the only Malabar plant which I can with
certainty call an antidote to poison ” . The root is powdered and admin
istered in warın water to those who are poisoned . The familiar Malayalam
proverb is “ Alpam akathu visham porathu " i . e ., as soon as as the Alpam
root enters the body , poison leaves it .
Erukkalai Calotropis gigantea . The acrid milky juice flow
ing from every part of this shrub is used by the natives for medicinal pur
poses in many different ways, besides preparations of the plant itself in
epilepsy , paralysis , bites of poisonous animals , as a vermifuge &c. The
root, bark and juice are used as powerful alteratives and purgatives.
The plant as we have seen already is also valuable for the fine strong
fibres with which it abounds.
Modakattan Cardiospermum halicacabum . The root of the plant
is diaphoretic and diuretic and is given in decoction as an aperient ;
the leaves are administered in pulmonic complaints and mixed with castor
oil are internally employed in rheumatism and lumbago, and the whole
plant boiled in oil is rubbed over the body in bilious affections. The leaves
mixed with jaggery and boiled in oil are a good specific in sore eyes.
Seema Agathi Cassia alata . The juice of the leaves mixed
with lime-juice is a useful remedy for ringworm ; the fresh leaves simply
bruised and rubbed on the parts affected sometimes remove the eruption .
The plant is also considered a cure in all poisonous bites, besides cuta
neous affections.
Karuva or Kattulavangam ---Cinnamomum zeylanicum . This small
tree is very common in the jungles on the western coast . The seeds bruised
or mixed with honey or sugar are given to children in dysentery and coughs
and combined with other ingredients in fevers.
Elumichai -- Citrus medicu . Lime-juice is much used in medicine
III.) FLORA . 103

by native practitioners, possessing all the virtues attributed to that of

the English lemon. It is considered to possess virtues in checking bilious
vomiting and to be refrigerent, astringent, stomachic and tonic ; diluted
with water and sweetened it forms & refreshing drink. The dried rind
of the fruit also is used as a vegetable drug.
Sankhapushpam - Clitorea ternatea . The seeds of this common

creeper are a useful purgative. The root is used in croup ; it is also given
as a laxative to children and is diuretic .

Nervalam - Croton tiglium . The seeds of this small plant yield the
well- known Croton oil. They are of the size of a sloe and are considered
one of the most drastic purgatives known . The oil is chiefly employed
in incipient apoplexy, visceral obstruction and occasionally in dropsy.
The seeds mixed with honey and water are often applied to obstruct
buboes. The expressed oil of the seeds is a good remedy externally
applied in rheumatic and indolent tumours.
Mavilangam or Nirmathalam - Cratava religiosa . This small tree is
abundant on river banks from 0-5,000 feet. The bark, leaf and root are
all used medicinally. The leaves are slightly aromatic and bitter and
are considered stomachic. The root is supposed to possess alterative
properties. The juice of the bark is given in convulsions and flatulency
and boiled in oil is externally applied in rheumatism .
Kuvamanjal Curcuma angustifolia . An excellent kind of arrow
root is prepared from the tubers of this species, especially in Tra
vancore, where the plant grows in great abundance, and this is a favourite
article of diet. The flour powdered and boiled in milk is an excellent diet
for sick people or children .
Wild Turmeric, Kasturimanjal —Curcuma aromatica. This is an orna
mental and beautiful plant abounding in our forests. The root is used as a
perfume and also medicinally both when fresh and dried . It possesses aro
matic and tonic properties and is less heating than givger.
Veliparuthi Dæmia extensa . This twining plant abounds in
milky juice. In medicine the natives use the whole in infusion in pulmo
nary affections; if given in large doses it will cause nausea and vomiting.
The juice of the leaves mixed with chunam is applied externally in rheu
matic swellings of the limbs.
Karusalankanni Eclipta erecta . The whole plant is alterative,
tonic, purgative and diuretic . In paste with gingelly oil it is a good remedy
104 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
for elephantiasis, applied externally. It has a peculiarly bitter taste and
strong smell. The root has purgative and emetic properties assigned to it,
and is also used in case of liver, spleen and dropsy.
Mullumurunga — Erythrina indica . The leaves and bark of this
prickly tree are used in cases of fevers. The leaves pulverised and boiled
with ripe cocoanut are also applied to venereal buboes and pains in the
joints, and mixed with jaggery are applied externally to the stomach in
grips and colic .
Devadaram Erythroxylon monogynum . The young leaves and
tender shoots of this small tree are reckoned refrigerent . Bruised
and mixed with gingelly oil they are applied as a liniment to the head.
The bark is occasionally administered in infusion as a tonic.
Kammatti – Excoecaria camettia . This shrub grows abundant
ly along our backwaters and canals. It abounds in an acrid milky juice
which is poisonous and blinding and is known as the “ Tiger's milk tree.”
The juice is applied with good effect to inveterate ulcers. The leaves also
are used for the purpose in decoction .
Karunochi Gendarussa vulgaris. The leaves and tender stalks
of this shrub are prescribed in certain cases of chronic rheumatism . The
leaves in infusion are given internally in fevers, and a bath in which these
leaves are saturated is very efficacious in the same complaint. The juice
of the leaves is administered in coughs to children and the same mixed in
oil as an embrocation in glandular swellings of the neck and the throat;
mixed with mustard seed it is also a good emetic .
Choratti Gomphia angustifolia . The root and leaves which
are bitter are given as tonics in these parts. A decoction of the leaves
is given in heart-burn and also applied in ulcers. The leaves, flowers and
fruits boiled in water are administered as a wash in gingiva and for
strengthening the gums . The root boiled in milk and mixed with cummin
seeds is said to allay vomiting and the root and bark pulverised and
mixed with oil are made into an ointment for scabies and other cutaneous
affections.

Kazhanchi - Guilandina bonduc. The kernels of the nuts are

very bitter and said to be powerfully tonic. They are given in cases of
intermittent fevers mixed with spices in the form of powder. Pounded
and mixed with castor oil they are applied externally in hydrocele.
Narunindi or Nannari- Hemidesmus indicus. This is the
III. ] FLOR ... 105
country Sarsaparilla very common in Travancore. The root is used
largely for the thrush in children , a drachm every morning and evening
of the powder fried in butter. Dried and reduced to powder and mixed
with honey, it is reckoned a good specific in rheumatic pains, boils &c.,
and in decoction with onions and cocoanut oil is internally recommended
in hæmorrhoids, and simply bruised and mixed with water in diarrha a.
This has been employed as a chief and efficacious substitute for Sarsa
parilla in cachectic diseases, increasing the appetite and improving the
health. The milky juice of the fresh plant boiled in oil is applied ex
ternally in rheumatism and an infusion of the whole plant is given in
fevers. Carivilandi or Smilax ovalifolia also possess all the virtues of
the true sarsaparilla.
Kodagapala -- Holarrhena antidysenterica. This is a common but
handsome flowering shrub in the Malabar Coast . A medicine is prepared
from the long pods, which is efficacious in cases of dysentery. The plant
has astringent and tonic properties in its bark and is a remedy in fevers.
Modirakanni - Hugonia mystax. This is a handsome shrub with
beautiful golden yellow flowers. The bruised roots are used in reducing
inflammatory tumours, as a febrifuge and anthelmintic, especially for
children, and also as a remedy in the case of snake - bites.
Maravetti-Hydnocarpus wightiana. The fruit if eaten occa
sions giddiness. An oil is extracted from the seeds given in cutaneous
diseases and ophthalmia, causing an excessive flow of tears.
Vallarai - Hydrocotyle asiatica . The leaves of this wildly distri
buted herb are roasted and given in infusion to children in bowel
complaints and fevers. They are also applied to parts that have suffered
from blows and bruises as anti- inflammatory. The plant is also said to
be an excellent specific for leprosy.
Orelatainara - Ionidium suffruticosum . The fruit in infusion is
diuretic, and is a remedy in gonorrhæa and affections of the urinary
organs. The leaves and tender stalks are demulcent and are used in
decoction and electuary ; also employed mixed with oil as a cooling lini
ment for the head .

Indian Jalap, Shevatai -- pomæa turpethum . The fresh bark of

the root is employed as a purgative mixed up with milk . Being free from
any nauseous taste or smell, the root possesses a decided superiority over
jalap for which it might weli be substituted ,
n
106 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
Kattumallika --- Jasminum angustifolium . The bitter root of this
twining shrub ground small and mixed with lime-juice and Vasamboo
root is considered a good remedy in ringworm. The leaves of its allied
species, Jirakamulla or J. sambac if boiled in oil exude a balsam which is
used for anointing the head in eye-complaints. It is said to strengthen
the vision. An oil is also expressed from the roots used medicinally.
Kattama nakku - Jatropha curcas. The seeds of this shrub are
purgative occasionally exciting vomiting. A fixed oil is prepared from the
seeds useful in cutaneous diseases and chronic rheumatism applied exter
nally , also for burning in lamps. The leaves warmed and rubbed with caster
oil are applied to inflammations when suppuration is wished for, and the juice
of the plant is used for hæmorrhoids. The oil is a very much more power
ſul purgative than castor oil but very uncertain in its action. The Chitta
manakku or ordinary castor oil plant belongs to a different species,
Ricinus communis, whose oil is used largely as a mild laxative and for
burning lamps .
Vembu or Neem tree - Melia azadirachta . This is a beautiful
tree whose leaves, bark, seeds and oil are all medicinally used by the
natives. The bark which has a remarkably bitter taste is considered a
most useful tonic in intermittent fevers and chronic rheumatism , adminis
tered either in decoction or powder. The oil which is of a deep yellow
colour and much used for burning lamps, is a useful remedy in leprosy
and is moreover anthelmintic and stimulant, being used externally in bad
ulcers and as a liniment in headaches and rheumatic affections.

Champaka - Michelia champaca. The bark of the root is red,

bitter and very acid and when pulverised is reckoned emmenagogue ;
the flowers beaten up with oil are applied to fetid discharges from tbe nos
trils, and all parts of the tree are said to the powerfully stimulant.
Thottavadi - Mimosa pudica. This is the common sensitive plant.
Mixed with gingelly it is given as a drink in gonorrhæa.
Karuveppila - Murraya kæningii. This is the curry-leaf tree
whose leaves are used for flavouring curries. The leaves are further used
in dysentery and to stop nausea ; the root is laxative and both bark and
roots are stimulants and are used externally as remedies in eruption and
in infusion to check vomiting in cholera.
Wild Nutmeg, Jatikkai – Myristica laurifolia. This is a large tree
common in the evergreen forests. The mace of this kind of nutmeg has
not the same virtues as that of the common one, Mixed with honey it is
 III.] FLORA . 107
administered in coughs and pectoral affections but generally in combina
tion with other ingredients.
Sweet Basil, Vellatulasi--Ocimum bacilicum . The whole plant is
aromatic and fragrant. The seeds are cooling and mucilaginous and are said
to be very nourishing and demulcent. An infusion is given as a remedy in
gonorrhoea, catarrh, dysentery and chronic diarrhoea, and the juice of the
leaves is squeezed in the ear in ear-ache. It is said the seeds are a
favourite medicine with Hindu women for relieving the after-pains of
parturition .
Tulasi - Ocimum sanctum . The juice of this plant is given in catarrhal
affections in children and mixed with lime-juice is an excellent remedy in
cutaneous affections, ringworms &c. The root is given in decoction in
fevers.
Nelli Phyllanthus emblica. The seeds ale given internally
as a cooling remedy in bilious affections and nausea, and in iufusion it
makes a good drink in fevers. They are are also used in diabetes. The
bark of the tree is used for dysentery and diarrhæa, and mixed with
honey it is applied to aphthous inflamations of the mouth . The fruit is
pickled or preserved in sugar. The young branches of the tree are put
into wells to impart a pleasant flavour to the water, especially if it be
impure from the accumulation of vegetable matter or other causes.
Kilanelli - Phyllanthus niruri. The root, leaves and young shoots
are all used medicinally, the two first in powder or decoction in
jaundice or bilious complaints and the last in infusion in dysentery. The
juice of the stem mixed with oil is employed in ophthalmia.
Pevetti-Physalis somnifera . The root of this shrub is said to
have deobstruent and diuretic properties. The leaves moistened with
warm castor oil are externally employed in cases of carbuncle. They are
very bitter and are given in infusion in fevers. The root and leaves are
powerfully narcotic ; the latter is applied to inflamed tumours, while the
former in obstinate ulcers and rheumatic swellings of the joints mixed
with dry ginger.
Black Pepper, Nallamilagu - Piper nigrum . This is indigenous to the
forests of Malabar and Travancore. For centuries past pepper has been an
article of export to the European countries and even to -day a considerable
quantity is annually exported from Travancore. The cultivation of this
very common vine is described elsewhere. The berries medicinally used
are given as stimulant and stomachic, and when toasted have been
108 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
employed successfully in stopping vomiting in cases of cholera. The root is
used as a tonic, stimulant and cordial. A liniment is also prepared which
is used in chronic rheumatism . The watery infusion is used a gargle in
relaxation of the uvula . As a seasoner of food , it is well known for its
excellent stomachic qualities. Pepper in over-doses acts as a poison by
over-exerting the inflammation of the stomach and its acting powerfully
on the nervous system . It is also successfully used in vertigo, and
paralytic and arthritic disorders.

kodiveli --- Plumbago zeylanica. The fresh bark bruised is made

into a paste, mixed with rice conjee and applied to buboes. It acts
as a vesicatory. It is believed that the root reduced to powder and admin
istered during pregnancy will cause abortion.
Pomegranate, Mathalam- Punica granatum . All the parts of this
tree are used inedicinally. The rind of the fruit and flowers which
are powerfully astringent are employed successfully as gargles, in
diarrhoea and dysentery; the pulp is sub -acid, quenching thirst and gently
laxative, while the bark is a remedy for tape-worm given in decoction .
Nagamalli - Rhinacanthus communis. The fresh root and leaves
of this shrub bruised and mixed with lime-juice are considered aa
useful remedy in ringworm and other cutaneous affections. Milk boiled
in the root is reckoned aphrodisiacal and the roots are used as a cure for
bites of poisonous snakes.

Karinghota --Sumadera indica. This tree grows abundantly in Travan

core and Cochin . The bark has febrifugal properties and is used by
the natives for this purpose. An oil extracted from the kernels of the
fruit is extensively used in rheumatism .
Sandalwood - Santalun album . Sandal l'educed to powder is
supposed to possess sedative and cooling properties and is hence prescribed
in fever and gonorrhea. Mixed with butter it is applied in headaches.
Internally it is given in fevers and bilious affections and externally
in prickly heat and cutaneous eruptions. It yields by distillation a pale.
yellow volatile oil, which is stated to be a successful remedy in gonorrhoea.
Belamodagam -- Scerola kanigii. The leaves of this common shrub
made into a poultice are powerfully emollient in tumours. Boiled in
water a drink is prepared from them and administered internally to
excite the flow of wine and in lochjal obstructions,
 III.] FLORA . 109

Ealettadi-maravara -- Scindapsus pertusus. The pericarp of this

singular looking plant common in the jungles between Quilon and
Courtallam is used in leprosy and scabies generally combined with other
ingredients and in infusion for cough and rheumatism . Anattippili,
Scindapsus officinalis, another plant of the same species, is reputed to
have stimulant, diaphoretic and anthelmintic virtues.
Senkottai--- Semecarpus anacardium . The acrid juice of the shells
is given in small doses in leprous and scrofulous affection . An oil
is prepared from the kernels useful in rheumatism and sprains; undiluted it
acts as a blister .

Agathi- Sesbania grandiflora. The bark is powerfully bitter and

is used as a tonic. The tender leaves, lagumes, and flowers are all eaten
by the natives in their curries . An infusion of the leaves is given in cases
of catarrh .

Kandankathri- Solanum jacquini. There are two varieties of this

prickly creeper. The fruit is bitter and sub -acid and considered as an
expectorant by the natives and given by them in coughs and consumptive
complaints; also in decoction in humoral asthma. They are said to be
good for the digestion.
Tooduvala - Solanum trilobatum . This is another creeper of the
saine species, much used in native medicine. The roots and leaves
are given in decoction or powder in consumptive complaints, while the
berries and flowers are given in decoction for coughs. Cheruchunda
or Solanum indicum is also used largely in medicine.
Tanikai - Terminalia belerica . The kernel of the nut mixed with
honey is given in certain cases of ophthalmia. The juice of the bark
and root is given in decoction with rice and milk in colic. The fruit
is astringent in taste, and is tonic and attenuent; it is also used in dropsy,
diarrhæa, piles and leprosy, as well as for coughs. In large doses it
becomes a narcotic poison.
Indian Almond, Vadankotta - Terminaliu catappa. The kernel of
the nuts of this tree has the taste of an almond and may be used for the
same purposes but does not contain so much oil. The juice of the leaves
with infusion of rice is given for bile, headache and colic pains. An oint .
ment is made from the young leaves and milk of the nut, which is applied
medicinally in scabies, leprosy and similar cutaneous affections.
Kadukai --- Terminalin chebula. The gall-nuts when rubbed with
110 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHẠP.
an equal portion of catechu are used in aphthous complaints and
considered aa valuable remedy. The unripe dried fruits are recommended
as purgative by the natives ; mixed with honey the fruit is given in infusion
in dropsy and diabetes, and hæmorrhoidal affections and externally in cases
of sore eyes &c.
Sirukanjori - Tragina cannabina. The root of this stinging plant
is considered diaphoretic and is prescribed in decoction as an alterative;
also in infusion in ardent fevers .

Nerunji - Tribulus lanuginosus. The leaves and root are said to poss
ess diuretic properties, and are prescribed in decoction , while the seeds
powdered are given in infusion to increase the urinary discharge, also in
dropsy and gonorrhea. The herb is said to be astringent and vermifuge
and the seeds cordial.

Peppodal - Trichosanthes cucumerina. The seeds are reputed good

in disorders of the stomach and the tender shoots and dried capsules
are very bitter and aperient and are reckoned among the laxative medicines.
In decoction with sugar they are given to assist digestion . The juice of
the leaves is emetic and that of the root very purgative, while the stalk in
decoction is expectorant.

Narumpanel - Uvaria narum . This climbing shrub seens peculiar to

Travancore. A sweet -scented greenish oil is obtained from the roots by
distillation , which as well as the root itself is used in various diseases. The
roots which are fragrant and aromatic are also used in fevers and hepatic
as well as cutaneous diseases.

Chembaravalli- Vitis indica . The juice of this plant mixed with

oil is applied to affections of the eyes . The root beaten up and mixed
with oil and cocoanut milk is said to be a cure for carbuncles, pustules
and boils, and the juice of the root mixed with sugar is cathartic.
Ginger, Inji-- Zingiber officinale. The ginger plant is extensively
cultivated all over Travancore and its method of cultivation is described
elsewhere . The ginger from Malabar is reckoned superior to any other .
Ginger from its stimulant and carminative properties is used in toothaches ,
gout, rheumatism of the jaw and relaxed uvula with good effect and the
essence of ginger is said to promote digestion . It is said to act power
fully on the mucous membrane though its effects are not always
SO decided on the remoter organs as on those into which it comes

into immediate contact . Beneficial results have been arrived at when it

III.] FLORA. 111

has been administered in pulmonary and catarrhal affections. Headaches

have also been frequently relieved by the application of ginger poultices to
the forehead . The native doctors recommend it in a variety of ways,
externally in paralysis and rheumatism , and internally with other ingre
dients in intermittent fevers.

Jujuhe, Elantha - Zizyphus jujuba. The fruit of this small tree is

sweet and palatable, and the seeds are given internally with other in
gredients to allay irritation in the throat, coughs &c. , Mixed with butter
milk the seeds are also given in bilious affections, and mixed with oil exter
nally in rheumatism . The bark of root powdered and mixed with oil is
applied to ulcers. A drink prepared from the leaves boiled in
milk is given in virulent gonorrhæa ; the leaves boiled and applied to the
navel in the form of a plaster take away dysuria and strangury, and the
juice of the root mixed with castor oil seeds is used as a purgative in bad
stomachic complaints .
Flowering and Ornamental plants .
Allamanda cathartica . This showy plant was introduced into India
from Guiana in 1803. It has become quite naturalised and is one of the
handsomest ornaments of gardens. If allowed to climb up large trees,
the effect is very striking and beautiful owing to the clusters of bright
yellow flowers it is covered with.
Samstravadi-- Barringtonia acutangula. This as well as its allied
species, B. racemosa , are both handsome trees with long pendulous
racemes of scarlet flowers, commonly to be met with along the banks
of our backwaters .
Mandarai. There two varieties. The Velutha mandarai,
are

Bauhinia acuminata , is a favourite shrub in gardens, the large white

fragrant flowers having a pretty appearance ; the Chuvanna mandarai,
Bauhinia variegata, is a small handsome and ornamental tree in gardens
having beautiful purple flowers.
Porasu, or Palasa- Butea frondosa . This is a middle - sized
tree which when in flower has a very striking appearance from
its bright scarlet corollas. The natives are fond of offering
the flowers in their temples and the women by intertwining the rich
scarlet blossoms in their hair assume a very attractive and pleasing
appearance.
Saralkonnai-- Cassia fistula. This is easily recognised by its beauti
ful and fragrant long pendulous racemes of yellow flowers and is used
112 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
largely in medicine . The flowers form a favourite offering to the God
Siva .
Chirutekku - Clerodendron serratum . This is a
very ornamental
shrub cultivated in Travancore . Its flowers are pale blue with lower lip
indigo -coloured .
Sankhapushpam - Clitorea ternatea . This a very common creeper
with pretty blue or white flowers. It is very ornamental for trellis work
but by its quick spreading it is apt to become a little troublesome in
gardens .
Kasturimanjal — Curcuma aromatica . An ornamental and beauti
ful plant , abounding in the Travancore forests with flowers, largish, pale
rose coloured with a yellow tinge along the middle of the lip .
Murunga - Erythrina indica . A small tree with scarlet flowers
much used in these parts for the support of the betel vines and serving as
an excellent hedge plant from its being armed with numerous prickles .
Gloriosa superba. This splendid creeper with flowers yellow
and crimson-mixed is commonly met with in the Travancore forests. It
is considered one of the most ornamental plants any country can boast of .
Chemparuthi - Hibiscus rosa -sinensis. This shrub is generally
cultivated in gardens and grows to a height of 12-15 feet. Throughout
the year may be seen its large flowers, single or double, crimson , yellow
or white.
Adakodien - Holostemma rheedii. The flowers of this creeper
found largely in the Covalam jungles near Trivandrum are remarkably
pretty and would answer well for trellis work in gardens.
Thetti -Ixora coccinea . The Ixoras are all very ornamental plants
with white, cream or orange -coloured flowers. The shurbs grow
to a height of 4 or 5 feet and flower all through the year. The name
ixora is derived from the Hindu deity Iswara to whom the beautiful scarlet
flowers are offered in temples.
Kattumallika - Jasminum angustifolium . The flowers of this
twining shrub are large, white with a faint tinge of red , star-shaped and

fragrant.
Kattujirakamulla -- Jasminum hirsutum . This is a fine - looking
plant and very desirable in gardens from its white fragrant flowers which
open in succession . Jirakamulla or Jasminum sambac is another plant
of the same species commonly cultivated in gardens for its fragrant flowers .
 III. ] FLORA . 119

Manimaruthu - Lagerstræmia flos-reginae. This, as already refer.

red to, is without exception one of the most showy trees of the Indian
forests when in blossom. It is now commonly cultivated in gardens on
this coast where the moist damp climate is most suitable for its growth and
the full development of its rich rose-coloured blossoms. In the forests
near the banks of rivers it grows to an enormous size, some having purple
flowers and forming a most beautiful and striking appearance .
Nedumchetti - Memecylon amplexicaule. A handsome flowering
shrub common in our forests. In April and May it is covered with numerous
very small bluish purple flowers. M. tinctorium , another shrub of the same
species, is also common and highly ornamental in gardens when in flower,
the stem being crowded with beautiful sessile purple florets.
Champaka --Michelia champaca. This tree is celebrated for the
exquisite perfume of its flowers and is highly venerated by the Hindus
being dedicated to Vishnu. The natives adorn their heads with them, the
rich orange colour of the flowers contrasting strongly with their dark
black hair. Its medicinal properties have already been referred to.
Indian Cork tree - Millingtonia hortensis. This tree with numer
ous, large, pure white and fragrant flowers is very handsome and orna
mental and well adapted for avenues and plantations.
Vellila or Vellimadantai - Mussænda frondosa . A common shrub
having gold-coloured flowers all through the year. The white calycine
leaf contrasting with the golden coloured flower gives this shrub a conspi
cuous appearance.

Lotus, Tamara -- Nelumbium speciosum . The large white or rose

coloured flowers of the lotus common in tanks throughout India are held
specially sacred among the Hindus.
Sweet -scented Oleander, Arali- Nerium odorum . There are two or
three varieties of this shrub common on the banks of rivers and channels
with deep red , white, rose-coloured , single and double flowers.
Parijatakam or Pavazhamalli -Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. The bright
red flowers of this small tree give it a very lively and attractive appear
ance, especially in the evenings and nights when a very delicious
fragrance is given out.
Alli-Nymphæ rubra . This beautiful flower is common in ditches
and tanks but neither so common nor so grand as the Tamara.
114 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
Kaitha, Tazhai--- Pandanus odoratissimus. This large and singular
looking shrub is very common along the banks of our canals and back
waters where they are planted to bind the soil. The flowers are very
fragrant but are seldom visible; the large red fruit much like a pine -apple
is very attractive. There is a special variety of this in Central Travan
core, known by the name of Kanaganaire.
Venga - Pterocarpus marsupium . This has been already refer
red to as being a large and very beautiful tree especially when in flower,
with flowers small , sweet-scented and bright yellow .
Nandiyavatta - Tabernæmontana coronaria . There is a variety
with double flowers which are fragrant at night . It is more common in
gardens than the single one.
Among the other indigenous flowers may be mentioned, the Javanti
( Vicoa auriculata ? ) , the common rose, found only in gardens, the Andi
mallika, a small violet flower blossoming in the evening, and the Kolundu ,
a shrub whose leaves are very fragrant .
Concluding remarks. The foregoing account of our forests might
produce an impression on the general reader of the abundance of forest
wealth in Travancore. This however is aa chimera, whatever might have
been their condition in bygone times, when Travancore forests are said to
have been indented upon for the building of the British Navy, and Travan
core Teak entered largely in the construction of ships that fought the
battle of the Nile and gave victory to Nelson at Trafalgar. Such is not
the case at any rate now. In the first place, there is no part of Travan
core known as the “ Impenetrable forest ' marked in Ward and Conner's
maps, except in the sense of underwood and ‘ Inja-padappu ' (thicket of
Acacia intsia ) growing luxuriantly to the detriment of the jungle-wallah's
easy movements. In the second place, Travancore- grown teak has been
found not enough to satisfy local Marahmut or D. P. W. wants. Burma teak
has been imported more than once.. And there is besides a perennial com
plaint from the people that they cannot get fairly good teak, nor in suffi.
cient quantities, for their own house-building purposes. Considered in any
light, it may be safely stated that the untold wealth ' of the Travancore
forests is a thing of the past ; it cannot apply to present-day conditions.
If a sustained policy of care and economy is vigilantly followed for the
next 100 years or so, the Travancore forests may be resuscitated with real
advantage to the State and prosperity to the agricultural ryots. The work
of devastation has been unfortunately carried out with such activity, espe
cially in the sixties and seventies of the last century. But there is no
 III . ] FLORA . 115

doubt that a vast field for private enterprise exists in the Travancore jungles
and Travancore minerals . It requires knowledge , perseverance, capital
and combined effort to utilize them . Mr.T. Ponnambalam Pillay * M. R. A.S.
has collected some valuable data on this subject while he acted as Conser
vator of our Forests , 3 years ago. He believes that there are 1,000 species
of trees in Travancore against 1,200 for all India and 160 in Europe. Out
of this, the Forest Department of the State respects only 4 Royal and 20
Reserved trees. There is a piece of forest known as the Yerur Reserve. It
has an area of 100 square miles, each square mile containing timber of the
24 species to the value of 1 lac of rupees. Thus for 100 square miles the value
of this timber is 100 lacs. The extent of the total reserved area in Travan
core is about 2,350 square miles. Of this, some tracts such as Kulattu
puzha, Ranni, Konni and Malayattur are superior to Yerur, while there are
others inferior to it. To add to these, there are unreserved forests in which
are to be found the superior species already referred to, besides the Royal
trees found in private property. Thus following the calculation, the amount
of the value of the timber from those trees can be put down at 2,500 laes of
Rupees or 25 years' revenue of the State. Only a few species of trees
are made use of by the people in Travancore. This is due either to
ignorance of the quality of the other species , or to sentiment on the
part of the consumers . The timber called Irul or Irupul or Iron-wood
(Xylia dolabriformis) is largely used in Burma and Ceylon for build
ing purposes. Though it is a very hardy wood it is not in requisition
in Travancore. For a long time Thanbagam or Kongu ( Hopea parvi
flora) was not used in Travancore, and it is only some time since its
virtues were known to the house-building public. It is therefore possi
ble to introduce into the market those species that are now not known.
Again there are certain trees which are not close- grained and of a perish
able nature . Scientists have found out a method by means of which
certain chemical substances are injected into the trees to render the
timber durable, and to secure inmunity from the attacks of insects.
Thus the wealth of the Forests can be increased . It has been seen that
the value of the 24 species of timber in the forests came to 25 years' revenue
of the State, and the value of the remaining ones can safely be put down to
an equal amount . In speaking of timber, fire -wood has not been included.
This article of daily want is obtained from the country and not imported
from outside Travancore. Every individual of the State consumes at the
rate of a chuckram (six and three -fourth pies) worth of fuel every day.
Omitting one -fourth of the population who live on the sea - board towns
In a lecture delivered under the auspices of the Pallic Lecture Committee, Trivau .
drum , in 1902.
116 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAY .
and villages and use cocoanut shells for fire-wood, and omitting another
one- fourth of the population who are able to get their fuel from their
private compounds, and a third one -fourth of the population who gather
dried leaves and twigs on the road side and other places and use them and
cow-dung cakes in the place of fire-wood, there remains but one -fourth of
the whole population of the State who get their fire -wood from the forest
and the value of the quantity used by them comes to Rs. 25,000 daily.
The value of the large quantities that are exported as well as those used
for the several mills and factories, and for the manufacture of sugar,
lemon - grass oil , and charcoal may be put down at Rs. 5,000. Thus
the cost of the total quantity of fire -wood used in a day may be put down
at Rs. 30,000. To this an equal amount which rots away in the forests
may well be added without exaggeration. The amount of Rs. 60,000 is
the value of the fire -wood at the place of consumption or outside the
forests. Its value at the forests themselves may be put down at one
third of that value. Thus the amount consumed in a year is 73 lacs of
Rupees worth of fire - wood which is the lowest figure possible. The capital
amount that will be required to produce the 73 lacs must be another
2,500 lacs of Rupees . Notwithstanding the fact that a large quantity of
fuel is available in the country the public demand is not met. There is
not a single private depot in all Travancore , excepting at the mills where
the rates are exorbitant. People go in for cocoanut shells because they
cannot get fire -wood. These are not only costly but also not suited for
cooking, owing to the violent way in which they burn. At the present mo
ment it may not pay to bring in all the fire -wood that rots away in the
forests. But certainly there is a large quantity that could be brought with
advantage in order to create a a trade in it. In Madras there are fuel-depots
in every street. Though the proprietors do not take the commodity from
long distances, still they manage to get about 10 per cent profit. In Tri-.
vandrum and other populous centres south of Quilon , excepting in small
bazaars, we cannot get fire -wood unless we take advantage of the carts that
perambulate the streets in the mornings. This industry has not yet been
touched ; undoubtedly there is plenty of money in it. The sap-wood of all
coloured trees and the entire volume of all colourless trees, provided there
is cellulose substance in them , can be made use of for making wood-pulp,
which plays an important part in the manufacture of paper. The cellulose
substance found in them should be separated from the rest . This is done
by putting together small pieces of fresh cut wood and grinding them
in a mill where water must constantly be poured in . By constant
repetition of this process the fibrous substance will be retained and
ground down . The same substance is also obtained by boiling the fresh
III.) FLORA. 117

cut pieces already referred to, and separating the cementing substances
from the fibres. By either process one-fourth of the original weight
can be obtained as pulp. It is largely in demand in all manufacturing
countries, and the quantity that is annually imported into Great Britain
and Ireland is alone worth four millions of pounds sterling. Young shoots
of bamboos, portions of matured bamboos and the surplus quantity of
those that are not wanted for domestic purposes, several kinds of reeds ,
the wild sugar-cane and the refuse of the sugar-cane mills are considered
to be good paper materials. Teak, Sandalwood, Lemon -grass and Cheru.
punna can give oils of commercial value and will form a basis of remu
nerative industry. Tar, gums, resins, tannic acid and dye are also obtain
able from ordinary trees if people will come forward and take up the
matter. The abundance of fibre-material in Travancore is already known.
It can be increased still more . The well -known senna -leaves are found
largely in South Travancore . It is as good as the Tinnevelly senna which
is in great demand in the European markets. Gum kino is not only
useful for dyeing, but it is also a very valuable medicinal product. The
value of 1 lb of it when sent back from England with English labels on is
about Rs . 17 , but if it is locally prepared it will not exceed Rs. 6. It is
believed that the Travancore forests contain wealth to the extent of 100
years' revenue of the State, or 1,000 millions sterling and thus afford an
inexhaustible field for private industry.
 CHAPTER IV .
Fauna .

( Contributed by Harold S. Ferguson Esq. F. L. S., F. 2. S.)

" The early progenitors of man must have been once covered with hair, both sexes
having beards: their ears were probably pointed, and capable of movement ; and their bodies
were provided with a tail, haviug the proper muscles. Their limbs and bodies were also acted
on by many muscles whlch now only occasionally reappear, but are normally present in the
Quadrumana ... These early ancestors of man , thus soen in the dim recesses of timemust have
99

been as simply, or even still more simply organised than the lavcelet or amphioxus.
Darwin .

(Prejatory Note .--- To my old friend and brother -cfficer, Mr. H. S.

Ferguson F. L. S. , F. 2. S. , I am beholden for this chapter on the Fauna of
9

Travancore — a subject upon which he is an authority having spent nearly

the whole of his life in the country, first as a Planter for several
years on the Travancore Hills, then as the Guardian of the Princes, then
as Commandant of one of the battalions in the Travancore army ( Nayar
Brigade) , and lastly as the Director of the Government Museum and the
Public Gardens at Trivandrum . He is a good shikari and has always
been a diligent student of Natural History, both of which qualifications en
title him to be reckoned as an authority on the subject. He has de
livered several lectures on kindred subjects in pursuance of the scheme of
Public Lectures instituted by the Travancore Government, and these
lectures have generally drawn large audiences from among the educated
classes of the Trivandrum Public. The value of the contribution has been
enhanced by the fact that he himself kindly offered to write the chapter
unsolicited by me -- an offer with which I readily fell in as I could not
think of a more competent authority.
He drafted this chapter about two years ago, but finally corrected it
just as he was leaving Trivandrum on furlough in March 1904. As his
contribution to the Natural History section of the State, he has discovered
several species of reptiles and insects new to science ;; his observations
upon cetaceans have been received with interest and his study of the
growth of tadpoles the result of which he has embodied in Notes which he
has made known to the scientific world, all point him out to be a natura
list of no mean order.

The chapter is inserted here just as he left it . Not being a specialist

myself on the subject, I have not taken the liberty to correct, abridge or
modify it in any way.
( V. N. )
 FAUNA 119
CHAP. IV.]
General. Travancore is a narrow strip of land more or less
triangular in shape with a maximum breadth of 75 miles and
length of 174 miles. It is bounded on the west by the sea and on
the east by the watershed of the hills which run from Cape Comorin
to the extreme north , ending in the Kannan Devan hills or High
Range, which is connected with the Anamalays on the north and the
Pulneys on the east . The annual rainfall varies in different parts but is
abundant everywhere except in the extreme south. The average tem
perature in the low country is 85° and at 2,100 feet elevation it is ten
degrees less. The dry season which lasts from the middle of January to
the middle of April is well marked . As is usually the case where there
are dense forests and a heavy rainfall , cases of melanism are not
uncommon and seasonal variation in colour constantly occurs. All coun
tries are characterised by the different kinds of animals that inhabit them
and they can be grouped into regions, subregions &c., in accordance with
the way in which these animals are distributed. In this respect Travan
core belongs to the great Indo -Malay, or Oriental Region , which includes
the whole of India , Ceylon, Assam , Burma, Formosa , Hainan , Cochin
China, Malacca, Sumatra , Java, Borneo, the Philippine Islands and part
of China. It is divided into three subregions, Cisgangetic, Trans
gangetic and Malayan . The first of these comprises " India proper from
the base of the Himalayas to Cape Comorin and from the Arabian Sea
and eastern boundary of the Panjab tract to the Bay of Bengal and the
hills forming the eastern limit of the Gangetic alluvium with the addition
of the island of Ceylon ", and in this Travancore is included . It has,
however, affinities in its hill fauna with that of the Himalayas and the
south -western hill -group in Ceylon , but they are not sufficient, says
Mr. Blanford, " to enable the S. Indian and Ceylonese areas to be classed
with the Himalayan forest area in a separate subdivision or subregion ".
It has also affinities with the Malayan subregion as is shown by the occur
rence of such genera as Loris and Tragulus among Mammals, Draco
among Reptiles, and Iralus among Amphibians. Travancore itself may
be divided into four divisions : -- ( 1) The forest- clad hill range up to and
including the Cardamom Hills with an average height of 4,500 feet. (2)
The Kannan Devan Hills or High Range more open in character and
with an average height of 6,500 feet. ( 3) The low country from the north
as far as Nagercoil . (4) The low country south of Nagercoil. Here the
rainfall is only 25 inches and the palmyra takes the place of the cocoanut
palm . The fauna resembles that of the east coast and here only in Tra
vancore are found among Mammals the S. Indian Hedgehog ( Erinaceus
micropus), among Birds the smaller white Scavenger- vulture (Neophron
120 TRAVANCORE MANTAL . [ CHAP.
ginginianus), the grey Partridge (Francolinus pondicerianus) and some
others , and among Reptiles, Gongylophis conicus and Eryr johnii.
Mammals. There are no Mammals peculiar to Travancore, but
the Toque Monkey (Macacus pileatus), the Ceylonese Palm - civet
( Paradoxurus aureus) and the Ceylon brown Mungoose (Herpestes
fulvescens) , formerly believed to be confined to Ceylon, are found in
Travancore, and lately two Dolphins, Tursiops fergusoni and Sotalia
fergusoni, have been taken off the coast .
There are four species of Monkeys, two of which , the grey, or Bonnet
9

monkey ( Macacus sinicus ) and the Toque monkey ( M. pileatus ), are

found only in the low country and do not ascend the hills to any height.
The other two species are ( Macacus silenus ) the Lion-tailed monkey, and
( Semnopithecus johnii ) the Nilgiri Langur, which are only to be found on
the hills at elevations over 2,000 feet. The former may be met with in
small herds but often goes about solitary. The latter is always found in
small troops. The loud booming note of the male is aa familiar sound in the
hills. They are very gentle and easily tamed and are clean in their habits
in captivity. Coolies on the tea estates are very fond of the flesh of these
animals and are always anxious to get them as medicine. The Malabar
Langur ( Semnopithecus hypoleucus ), a grey monkey with a black face, is
found in the Cochin hills and in the the Kambam valley on the eastern
slopes of the Cardamom Hills ; but I do not think it has been actually
recorded from Travancore. Of the Lemuroids there is only one represent
ative the Slender Loris ( L. gracilis ) found in the lowland forests ; ac
66
cording to Jerdon it is rare on the Malabar Coast ” , but so far as Tra
vancore is concerned this does not hold good as it is decidedly common .
Some years ago I saw two specimens of a larger species and the Kanis
about Ponmudi say they know of two kinds. To describe their respective
sizes they point to their wrists and then to their thighs. I have failed to
obtain a specimen , however, and have no record of the ones I saw .
The Carnivora are well represented in Travancore . To begin with,
there are six Cats varying in size froin the Tiger to the little Rusty-spotted
Cat ( Felis rubiginosa ). Tigers are not uncommon on the hills, but in
the south where there is an abundance of forest and very little grass, they
are not easy to get . The next in size, the Leopard ( F. pardus ), is very
common and many skins are brought in by villagers yearly for the
Government reward . The black variety is common and is usually
bolder and fiercer than the ordinary one. The Fishing Cat ( F. viverrina )
is aa fine cat, coloured as its name implies, like the civets, grey with black
 IV .) FAUNA. 121

spots and lines. It is usually found about the neighbourhood of the back
waters. I cannot agree with Blyth that it is “ a particularly tamable
species ". Those we have had in captivity in the Public Gardens have in
variably been very shy, sulky and fierce. The Jungle Cat ( F. chaus) is
the commonest of all and is found in the low country; in and about
villages, it breeds freely with domestic cats. The Leopard Cat ( F. ben
galensis ) used to be common some years ago about Kottayam but is now
confined to the hills. This beautiful little cat is about the size of a
domestic cat and is marked with black spots on a fulvous ground colour.
It is commonest now in the High Range . The smallest of the six cats is
the Rusty-spotted Cat ( F. rubiginosa ) which is found in the low country
but is not common . The young of the Jungle Cat are very like the young of
this species and it is difficult to distinguish them till they grow up. There
are two Civets one of which ( Viverra civettina ) is very much larger than
the other. Both are kept in captivity for the sake of the “ musk
secreted by a gland near the tail .
Three Toddy Cats are found, one of which, Paradoxurus jerdoni, iş
confined to the hills at elevations over 3,000 feet. They are all nocturnal
and feed on fruits though they are not above taking a meat diet when
they can get it. The common Toddy Cat ( P. niger) is a perfect pest as
it invariably finds its way into houses and takes up its abode between the
roof and ceiling where its movements and its smell make it a most undesir
able visitor. The third species ( P. aureus ) I have only found in Tri
vandrum .

The Mungoose family are represented by four species of which the

stripe-necked ( Herpestes vitticollis) is the largest. It is found only in
the forests and has very strong claws which enable it to dig out any prey
that it has run to ground. H. fuscus is confined to the hills , but the
common mungoose H. mungo and H. fulvescens are found in the low
country.
Fifty years ago Hyænas were common in the neighbourhood of Tri
vandrum . Col. Drury in his Life and Sport in Southern India says
“ my shikari brought in this mornining two Hyænas he had killed about
seven miles from this " . But now there are hardly any to be found .
Jackals are plentiful and in the hills packs of wild dogs ( Cyon dukhunen
sis) hunt and clear the district they happen to be in of every kind of game .
When living on the hills I often heard them in full cry and on one occa
sion , attracted by the sound, three of us ran in the direction and arrived in
time to find them pulling down a Barking Deer ( Cervulus muntjac ). We
P
122 TRAVAXCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP .
drove them off and took the deer ourselves. On the other hand I have
also seen them running mute. My own belief is that this is their usual
habit but they give tongue when their quarry is in view. I am the more
convinced of this as the sounds we heard were not continuous nor of long
duration ,

The Indian Marten ( Mustela flavigula, var Gwatkinsi ) is found on

the hills, rarely in the south but more commonly in Peermade and the
Cardamom Hills . They are nocturnal and sometimes give trouble by
breaking into fowl-houses. In the backwaters both the common Otter
( Lutra vulgaris ) and the Smooth Indian Otter ( L. macrodus) are to be
met with . The last of the carnivora is the Sloth-bear or Indian Bear
( Melursus ursinus ). This is found on the hills at all elevations and is
more dreaded by the hillmen than any other animal as it will attack
at once if suddenly disturbed.
The next great group of Mammals is the Insectivores. About their
habits there is little to be said . They are all nocturnal. The only Hedge
hog found in Travancore is the South Indian ( Erinaceus micropus) and
it is only found in the extreme south about Nagercoil. Of the Shrews the
So called " Musk rat " ( Crocidura murina ) is the best known and
there are one or two other species of this genus recorded from the hills,
but I have not come across specimens and have failed to obtain them from
the hillmen .

The bats are well represented from the great dull coloured fruit.
eating Flying-fox ( Pteropus medius), conspicuous everywhere by its
habit of associating in large colonies, to the little richly coloured Painted
Bat (Cerivoula picta ), hardly larger than a good-sized butterfly, that
hides itself in the recesses of a plantain tree. The Fruit-eating Bats play
an important part in the dispersion of seeds as they usually carry off the
fruits to some distance and drop the seed when they have fed on the
pulp. Insectivorous Bats enter houses very frequently at night and feed
on the insects that are attracted by the light. So far, I have identified
about fourteen species; but there are many more, I am sure, to be found
on the hills.

Of the Rodents , our next group which includes the Squirrels, Rats,
and Mice, Porcupines, Hare &c. , the Porcupine (Hystrix leucura ) is the
largest. It is found only in the hills and is very destructive to garden
produce. The Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis) is common in the
low country and on the hills. There are two kinds of Flying -squirrel
both found only on the hills, the larger ( Pteromys oral ) is not uncommon
IV . ] FAUNA . 123

but the smaller (Sciuropterus fuscicapillus) is somewhat rare. The large

black and red Squirrel (Sciurus indicus) is only found on the hills from
500 feet elevation upwards ; its loud cry may be often heard in the forest.
There are three small striped squirrels of which the Palm -squirrel
(S. palmarum ) is aa familiar visitor to human habitations where its loud per
sistent chirrup when alarmed or exited renders it often most unwelcome.
The other two kinds, (S. tristriatus) and (S. sublineatus), are found only
on the hills, the latter only at elevations of over 2,000 feet. There is, how
ever, one exceptional locality in the low country, seven miles from Tri
vandrum , where I have obtained specimens. Here there are remains of
the old forest which once covered the whole of the country but is now
confined to the hills. Of the Rat tribe the Malabar Spiny Mouse ( Plata
canthomys lasiurus) is the most interesting. It is found only on the
hills where it lives in hollows made in old forest trees. It is something
like a dormouse. The Antelope-rat (Gerbillus indicus) may often be
seen at dark crossing the roads ; it makes its burrows in open places such
as the Parade grounds and the Public Gardens in Trivandrum . Of
the remaining species, some six in all , the Bandicoot-rat ( Nesocia bandi
cota ) is the largest and the common Indian Field -mouse ( us-buduga ),
an elegant little beast, the smallest . The common rat is ubiquitous and
frequents human habitations most persistently ; it is a splendid climber
and runs up a punkah rope with the greatest ease .
From the small Rodents to the lordly Elephant is a great step, but
this animal is the first member of the next order we have to consider viz . ,
the Ungulates. Elephants are protected in Travancore and their ivory
is a royalty of the Government so that they are fairly numerous in the
hills. Mr. T. F. Bourdillon in his Report on the Forests of Travancore
writes as follows :
"These animals are wild in the forests, and are in some places particularly
abundant. They do not always remain in the same spot, but move about over
large areas, their movements being regulated by the quantity and condition of
the food available, and by the state of the weather. Over the greater part of
Travancore they descend from the hills as soon as the water begins to fail there,
that is to say about January, and they are then to be found in the thickest and
coolest parts of the lower forests in the vicinity of some river. As soon as the
showers begin to fall in April, their instinct tells them that they can again obtain
water on the hills, and that fresh grass has sprung up where the dry herbage
was so lately burnt, and they immediately commence an upward movement to
the highor.ground. There they remain till about September when some, but not
all of them , descend to the lower slopes of the hills and even to the low country,
to see what they can get from the fields of hill-paddy then beginning to ripen ,
and they often destroy large quantities of grain . In November these migrants
again ascend the hills and join their companions. Advantage is taken by us of
the annual descent from the hills in the hot weather to catch these animals in
124 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
pits, but in November no attempt is made to capture them as the pits are then
full of water. The question has often been debated whether the number of
elephants in the country is increasing or decreasing. I believe that most people
would say that elephants are more numerous than formerly, but I am inclined
to think that this impression is formed from the increased damage done to
cultivation of all sorts . If we recollect that cultivation is yearly extending, we
can well understand that elephants are much more troublesome now than
formerly, without there being any increase in their numbers ; and if we could take
a census of them we should probably find that their numbers are about station
ary. I once attempted to estimate how many there are in the State ; and I
came to the conclusion that there must be from 1,000 to 1,500, the greater
number of them being found in North Travancore, especially the Cardamom
Hills. Sometimes elephants die in large numbers, as in the year 1866, when a
murrain attacked them in the forests near Malayathur, and 50 pairs of tusks
were brought to the Forest Officers at that place and Thodupuzha in April and
May of that year. Such epidemics would doubtless occur more frequently if
the number of elephants increased unduly and the supply of food fell short and
their rarity is a sign that the animals are not troubled for want of food though
their migrations show that it is not always to be obtained in the same place.”
The Gaur, the so called “ Bison " of Europeans (Bos gaurus), is the
finest representative of the existing bovines. They go about in herds of
When age
which one old bull is the acknowledged leader and master .
tells upon him he may be driven out after severe fight by a younger and
a stronger one and he then abandons the herd and wanders about solitary.
It is these solitary bulls that generally afford the finest trophies to the
sportsman.
There are no wild Sheep in Travancore and the Goats are represent
ed by a solitary species, the Nilgiri Wild Goat (Hemitragus hylocrius) mis
called by Europeans the Ibex. They are to be found in herds on the
hills in suitable localities where there are grassy slopes and precipitous
rocks. The bucks leave the herd from December to April when the does
breed and go about with their kids . No Antelopes are found in Travan
core but the Deer are represented by four species, the Sambur (Cervus
unicolor ), found at all elevations where there is aa forest; the Spotted Deer
( Cervus axis) that go about in herds and frequent open forests and bamboo
jungle at the foot of the hills ; the Rib -faced or Barking-Deer (Cervulus
muntjac), usually found solitary, or in pairs at all elevations on the hills
in thick forest ; and the tiny little Mouse-deer ( Tragulus meminna ) that
stands only about a foot high, and is also to be found only on the hills,
where it leads a solitary and retired life except in the breeding season
when the male and female keep together.
The Indian Wild Boar is the last of the Ungulates. Herds or " Soun
ders" of these animals are to be met with at the foot of the hills and about
the cultivated patches where they domuch damage to the crops . The young
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 M. E. PRESS .

Elephant at bath in the Karamanai River.

Photo by J. B. D'Cruz .
IV . ] FAUNA. 125

are striped and spotted. Of the Cetaceans that frequent the coast no,
much is known. The little Indian Porpoise ( Neophocæna phocænoides)
the False Killer ( Pseudorea crassidens ), the Common Dolphin ( Delphinus
delphis ), Tursiops catalania, Tursiops fergusoni and Sotalia fergusoni are
the only ones so far identified. The Indian Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla)
is the only representative of the order Edentata . It feeds almost entirely
on white ants which it seeks at night; during the day it lies up in a burrow
scooped out under ground. There is a Game Preservation Regulation
which is in force in the hill districts of Central and North Travancore .
The close season for all Big Game is from 31st May to 1st October .
Birds. The birds cannot be treated of at such length as the mam
mals, as there are about 330 species found in Travancore. Of these, two
only are peculiar to it while the third is only found elsewhere on the
Pulneys. They were first brought to notice by Mr. Bourdillon and
two are named after him , Bourdillon's Babbler ( Rhopocichla bourdilloni)
Bourdillon's Black -bird (Merula bourdilloni ). This extends to the Pulneys
and Blanford's Laughing -thrush ( Trochalopteron meridionale) which is
only found in the extreme south above 4,000 feet on the tops of the hills
in forest. As it is not possible with the limited space at my disposal to
enumerate all the birds, it will perhaps be the best way to point out those
that are characteristic of the different divisions into which , as I have said,
Travancore may be separated . To take the low country first. Two spe
cies of crows, the Indian House-crow ( Corvus splendens ) :ind the Jungle
crow ( Corvus macrorhynchus ) are ubiquitous, while the Drongo or King
crow ( Dicrurus) ater is the next most conspicuous bird with the exception per
haps of the common House -sparrow which is found wherever there are
human habitations. Flocks of Rose -ringed green Paroquets ( Palæornis
torquatus) may be seen feeding on fruit trees or rapidly Aying in search
of food and uttering shrill cries as they fly. Perched on the telegraph
wires or seated on the ground, a little green bird with a long bill and tail ,
the outer feathers of which are elongated and pointed, may be constantly
met with moving from its perch in short flights after its insect prey. This
is the coomon Bee -eater (Merops riridis ). A relation of it , the white -breast
ed Kingfisher ( Halcyon smyrnensis) is il much more gorgeously-clad bird ;
its white breast, chestnut brown head and blue black make it evident to the
eye, while its high pitched tremulous cry forces itself on the ear . It fre
quents gardens and feeds on insects mainly, while a smaller edition of it
Alcedo ispida, the common Kingfisher, is found on the banks of every tank
or stream looking for fish to which its diet is limited . Another common
Kingfisher is the Indian Pied ( Ceryle rariu ), a black and white bird which
126 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
may be seen hovering over water and shooting down with a direct plunge
when it descries a fish . Towards dusk another relation , the Common
Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus asiaticus) may be heard. It is known as
the " ice bird " as its cry resembles the sound of a pebble skimming along
the ice . Another bird that forces itself on the ear is the Tailor-bird (Ortho
tomus sutorius ), it is a tiny plain greenish brown bird, white below, with a
remarkably loud voice which it constantly exercises in crying "pretty,
pretty, pretty, " or as some described it " towhee, towhee, towhee ' . The
prettiest of all our garden birds are the Honey Suckers or “ Sun -birds,""
tiny little creatures shining with glorious metallic colours. Nothing can
be more charning than to watch a flock of the commonest kind, Arach
nechthra zeylonica, skirmishing through a bush in flower, never still, at
one time spreading their tails like fans, anon fluttering their wings up
and down and keeping up a constant chatter. There are two other kinds ,
A. lotenia and A. asiatica, but these are not so conspicuous. The small
est and brightest of all, A. minima, is abundant at the foot of the hills
and may be found at all elevations. Every one has heard of the “ Seven
sisters" . This name is given to various kinds of babblers in different parts
of India which have a strong family likeness and go about in small flocks
of about half a dozen . They are mostly earthy brown and they vary in
the colour of the throat. Our commonest species is the Southern Indian
Babbler ( Crateropus striatus ), but there are two other kinds found .
C. griseus and C. canorus, the latter chiefly at the foot of the hills. Another
well-known bird is the Madras red -vented Bulbul (Molpastes hæmorrhous),
a plain brown bird with a black head, white upper tail coverts and crimson
lower ones . It is often kept as a pet by natives. A bright-coloured bird
with a good deal of yellow and white about it may often be seen about the
trees and bushes hunting for insects; this is the common Iora ( Ægithina
tiphia ). The female is green and white. Its presence may always be
known by its peculiar note which sounds like a prolonged plaintive in
drawn whistle on D sharp falling to a short note on F sharp.
There are three Shrikes that may be seen not uncommonly, two of
which go about in flocks. One, the common Wood -shrike ( Tephrodornis
pondicerianus ), a plain ashy-brown bird with a broad white eyebrow has
66
a tuneful whistle well described by Mr. Aitken as " Be thee cheery ". The
other, the small Minivet, has a finer dress of black orange and scarlet but
this is only sported by the males, the females and young having it more
subdued. The third, the Large Cuckoo Shrike, is a grey bird considerably
bigger than the others. Conspicuous by their colour are the Orioles com
monly known as “ Mango birds " , fine yellow fellows with some black
IV .] FAUNA . 127

about them . The Black-naped Oriole ( Oriolus indicus ) , which is only a

>

winter visitor, has it on the nape, while the other the Black-headed Oriole
wears it on the head . They have aa rich flute-like whistle. No one can
fail to notice the common Myna ( Acridotheres tristis ) , a plain brown bird
with a black head and breast shading off into vinous brown often seen
walking after cattle and as its name implies hunting for grasshoppers,
its favourite food. It is a splendid mimic and in captivity can be taught
to talk and it readily picks up the notes of other birds. Another Myna,
the Jungle Myna very like it in colouration and habits, is also common .
It is a smaller bird than the Common Myna and may be distinguished
from it by its size and the absence of the bare skin round the eyes . A
white bird with a black crested head and two very long white tail feathers
may often be seen flitting in undulating flight from tree to tree. This is
the Indian Paradise Flycatcher ( Terpsiphone paradisi ),commonly known
as the “ Cotton thief ” , as he looks as if he were making off with a load of
6

that staple. His wife , the " Fire thief ”, has an almost equally long tail ,
only it is red ; hence her nickname. The young males take after their
mother at first and only get to the white stage in the fourth year. Another
common bird is the Fantail Flycatcher; it is dark brown with white fore
head and eyebrows, it has a quaint song that reminds one of the opening
of a valse tune. One of the few birds that has a really pretty song is
the Magpie-robin ( Copsychus saularis ), a familiar bird in its white and
>

black livery, to be met with in the neighbourhood of human habitations .

Its sweet notes are the first one hears just as the dawn is beginning to
break. Another sweet songster is the Large Pied Wagtail also clad in
black and white. The Indian Skylark too ( Alaula gulgula ) , may often
be heard both in the low country and on the hills in open ground. Another
Lark , the Madras Bush - lark ( Mirafra affinis), is common . It has a habit
7

of sitting on some exposed spot such as the roof of a house, whence it rises
in a short soaring flight while it utters a shrill trilling note. Both it and
the Indian Pipit ( Anthus rufulus) frequent grass land and are to be found
in crowds on the rice fields after the crop is cut and the ground has dried .
Most people can recognise a Woodpecker when they see it and there are
at least three species that are found in the low country, but it is not easy
to describe them in a few words. The Yellow - fronted Pied Woodpecker
( Liopicus mahrattensis ) may be recognised by its bright yellowish brown
head . The Malabar Rufous Woodpecker (Micropternus gularis) is a
uniform dull rufous. The third is well called the Golden -backed Wood
pecker ( Brachypternus aurantius), its loud screaming call, which it utters
as it flies, is a familiar sound. So too is the call of the " Copper smith ",
128 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
the Crimson -breasted Barbet ( Xantholæma hæmatocephala ). It is a
green thick-set bird with aa yellow throat bordered below by a crimson band
and with a crimson forehead; it has a strong coarse beak. A near relation,
the small Green Barbet ( Thereiceryx viridis ), is also common and to be heard
frequently. Two not uncommon birds, the Hoopæ ( Upupa indica ) and the
Indian Roller ( Coracias indica ), are conspicuous by their plumage. The
latter is very like an English Jay. The former is a brown bird with a long
bill and a large fawn -coloured crest, all the feathers of which are tipped
with black. Another bird that intrudes upon one's notice by its persistent
cry is the common Hawk-cuckoo ( Hierococcyx varius ). It is a grey bird
very like a Shikra, hence its English name ; but familiarly it is known as
the " Brain - fever bird ” for, as the hot weather approaches, its voice may be
heard first running up a scale and at the end shrieking, time after time,
what sounds to one's heated imagination like the words “ brain fever,"
again and again repeated . It is heard by night as often as by day which
makes it all the more disturbing. Of the birds of prey there are not a few
that frequent the plains; many being, however,only winter visitors may be
safely left out of account. The most familiar of our residents are of course
the Brahminy and the Common kite; these are too well known to need des
cription. The Crested Hawk Eagle ( Spizotus cirrhatus) is a fine bird,
for the most part brown, the feathers having darker centres; it has a
long crest black tipped with white. It is most destructive in the poultry
yard as it takes up a station on a tree hard by and seizes its opportunity
to dart down and carry off whatever it can ; this it will do day after day
unless it is driven off. The Shikra is also a common bird , while at
night the Little Spotted Owlets (Athene brama ) and ( Scops bakkamana )
may often be heard .
Of the Pigeons the only one common in the plains is the Indian Blue
Rock (Columba intermedia) which may often be met with in the dry
paddy fields after the crops are cut.
Turing now to the marsh and water birds, we find them pretty well
represented as the backwaters along the coast afford them shelter and
food . In or about every tank where there are bushes, a dark slaty grey
bird with a white breast may be seen for a second, feeding in the open ,
but not longer, as it skulks off rapidly into cover with its perky little tail
uplifted. This is the white -breasted Water -hen (Amaurornis phæni
curus). The Water - cock (Gallicrex cinerea) is not its husband but has
a wife of his own . They are larger birds clad alike, in winter in dark
brown with paler edges to the feathers ; in summer, however, the male
dresses more or less in black with some white below . They are common
 IV.] FAUNA . 129

in standing paddy . On every weed - covered tank the elegant Jacanas,

both the bronze-winged (Metopidius indicus) and the Pheasant-tailed
(Hydrophasianus chirurgus), are to be seen like Agag treading delicately
over the water leaves. The latter in its breeding plumage is a lovely
sight. Two Lapwings, the Red-wattled ( Sarcogrammus indicus) and the
Yellow -wattled (Sarciophorus malabaricus), may be frequently heard
and seen . The former prefers the neighbourhood of water and when
flushed goes off remonstrating " why did you do it” . The other prefers dry
plains, where it circles about uttering much the same cry but with one
note less. Its cry may be heard for some time after dark. These are
residents and the Little Ringed Plover (Ægialitis dubia ) may almost be
reckoned so , as there are few months in which individuals may not be
met with . It frequents the shores and paddy fields. Other winter visit
ors are the Sandpipers commonly called “ Snippets " , the most numerous
of which are the Common Sandpiper ( Totanus hypoleucus) and the Wood
Sandpiper ( T. glareola) . Both the Common and Fantail snipe afford
sport to the gunner in winter while the beatiful Painted Snipe (Rostratula
capensis) is a permanent resident . Seated on the posts that mark the
channel in the backwaters, numbers of Terns are to be seen in winter,
they are the Smaller-crested (Sterna media ), and on the seashore the
common Tern ( Sterna fluviatilis) is fairly numerous. In the paddy
fields the Pond Heron (Ardeola grayi) is always abundant and so are the
Little Green Heron ( Butorides javanica) and the Chestnut Bittern
(Ardetta Cinnamomea ). So far as I have been able to ascertain , the Duck
are represented by four species of Teal, the Whistling, the Cotton, the
Common and the Blue -winged, while the Spotted -billed Duck is
occasionally met with. The Little Grebe ( Podiceps albipennis) completes
the list of water birds to be found commonly in the plains.
Bird life is most abundant at the foot of the hills. Here the " Seven
sisters " are represented by the Jungle Babbler ( Crateropus canorus)
which has the same colouring and habits as the others of its class . The
Bulbuls are represented by Jerdon's Chloropsis, a green bird with a black
chin and a blue moustache, a cheerful little fellow frequenting trees and
not to be easily distinguished as its colour harmonises so well with the
foliage. The Southern Red -whiskered Bulbul ( Otocompsa fuscicaudata )
is even more abundant and might perhaps be considered to have a pres.
criptive right to the epithet 'cheerful , I have used in describing the
>

Choloropsis, for to Jerdon he was always " Jocosa” . If you see a plain
brown bird with a snow white throat and breast and with a perky black
crest bending forward over its beak you will know it at once . Another
9
130 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
bright coloured bird is the Yellow-browed Bulbul ( Iole icterica ). It is
mostly yellow with brown wings. It is common up to 2,000 feet. Flocks
of Malabar Wood -shrikes are to be met with up to 3,000 feet, grey birds
with a black band through the eye. They keep up a harsh chattering
as they search the trees for insect food. The Black -backed Pied Shrike
(Hemipus picatus) is also fairly common and easily recognisable, some
of the most familiar sounds are the notes of the Southern Grackle (Eula
bes religiosa ). It is a black bird, and its yellow beak, yellow legs and
yellow wattles on the back of the head render it unmistakable. It has
a powerful voice and a variety of notes, some harsh and some pleasing;
towards sunset it makes itself particularly heard. Most of the Fly
catchers are winter visitors and are to be found at high elevations, but the
little Brown Flycatcher (Alseonax latirostris) is an exception. It is
resident and is found from the foot of the hills to about 2,000 feet . It
takes up its perch on a branch and sits motionless until it makes a dash
after some passing insect when it returns to its perch again.
Flocks of little Munias, small finch-like birds of three kinds, the
White -backed ( Uroloncha striata), the Spotted ( U. punctulata) and the
Black-headed (Munia malacca ) may be seen feeding on the ground or
clinging to the lantana bushes in which they love to perch .
Two small Woodpeckers, the Ceylon Pigmy Woodpecker ( Iyngipicus
gymnophthalmus )and the Heart-spotted ( Hemicercus canente ) , are fairly
common . The latter is easily recognised in the first place by its peculiar
cry something like that of the Kestril and secondly by its black plumage
with heart- shaped black spots on the buff coverts of the wing. The
former is a small bird brown with white streaks on the plumage about
5 inches long of which one and a half are tail. The Western Blossom
headed Paroquet ( Palæornis cyanocephalus) is here conspicuous going
about in flocks and the Little Indian Grev Tit ( Parus atriceps) may be seen
at almost all elevations . It has a black head with white cheeks and grey
back. As one ascends the hills the Southern Tree-pie ( Dendrocitta
leucogastra) is commonly seen . It is a beautiful bird with a black head,
а.

a snow -white breast, chestnut -bay back and aa tail 12 inches long of grey
and black. They go about in parties of three or four and are somewhat
noisy . Another bird that is often heard is the Southern Scimitar
Babbler ( Pomatorhinus horsfieldii ). Its peculiar rolling chuckle tells one
it is there, but the thick underwood it affects renders it difficult to
discover. The peculiar inconsequent whistle of the Malabar Whistling
Thrush (Myiophoneus horsfieldii ) is to be heard near every stream in the
forests. “ The Drunken Plough Boy " is the name it has obtained by
IV .] FAUNA . 131

its musical efforts. It is a fine bird to look at, black with a considerable
amount of blue about it. From the foot of the hills to about 2,000 feet,
another bird, the Racket-tailed Drongo (Dissemurus paradiseus ), makes it
self continuously heard and its rich metallic notes are characteristic of
the forest. It is a glossy black bird with a fine crest, the lateral tail
feathers are greatly elongated, bare for a certain distance and webbed at
the end ; hence its English name . In the tops of the trees flocks of the
fairy Blue Bird ( Irena puella ), one of the most beautiful of all our birds,
are a feature of the jungle life to about 2,000 feet. At a distance they
seem plain enough, but if you get a closer view the metallic blue of the
back and crown of the male contrasting with the black of the other
parts shows a scheme of colouring that cannot be surpassed.
Creeping among the leaves the Little White-eyed Tit ( Zosterops
palpebrosa ) is a common sight. Its green plumage and the conspicuous
ring of white round the eye render it easy to recognise. In the winter
two Rock -thrushes are to be commonly met with , the Blue-headed
( Petrophila cinclorhyncha )and the Western Blue ( Petrophila cyanus), the
former in forest in the neighbourhood of cultivation, the latter generally
in open clearings or in grass land where there are rocks. The males are
handsome birds ; when in their winter plumage the former has a blue
head , black back, red upper tail coverts and a blue spot in front of the
shoulder. The latter is bright blue with dark brown wings and tail, the
female is dull blue throughout with buffy white under plumage each
feather of which has a black edge. The female of the Blue-headed Rock
thrush is quite unlike her husband being brown above and white below ,
thickly barred with dark brown.

On every path the elegant little Grey Wagtail ( Motacilla melanope)

may be seen tripping along. It is our earliest visitor and stays the
latest .

Three Woodpeckers frequent the higher elevations, the common

Golden-backed three-toed ( Tiga javanensis ), Tickell's Golden -backed
( Chrysocolaptes gutticristatus ), and the Malabar Great Black Wood.
pecker ( Thriponax hodgsoni ) . The first of these is common everywhere,
the second in the neighbourhood of streams, while the third is the common
est in open jungle. The peculiarities noted in their names are sufficient to
discriminate them. The presence of a pair of the great Horn-bill
( Dichoceros bicornis) is manifested for some distance. Their hoarse
croaking roar may be heard for miles and the beating of their wings as
they fly across a valley attracts one's attention at once. They are not
132 TRAVANCORE'MANUAL . [ CHAP.
TO TO
abundant nor so common as their relation, the Jungle Grey Horn -bill
( Lophoceros griseus ). These also make their presence known by their
peculiar cry which is like the laugh of our old friend Mr. Punch, but
they frequent heavy forest and are not so often seen.
The “ whish ” of the brown -necked Spine-tail ( Chætura indica ) is
a familiar sound as it rushes by at more than double the rate of the fastest
express. They are more often heard than seen, but at times they play,
and the rate of flight is then moderate. The Indian Edible - nest Swiftlet
( Collocalia unicolor ) is the other swift that is most common in the hills.
A very beautiful bird that frequents heavy forests over 2,000 feet is the
Malabar Trogon . It has a broad black head set on a thick neck, a
yellowish brown back and a long black tail with chestnut centre feathers.
The breast is black bordered by a white band and below this again it is
pale crimson . The female has the head, neck and upper breast brown,
no white band and the under parts are brownish buff.
Another beautiful bird is the velvet-fronted Blue Nuthatch. At ele.
vations of about 2,000 feet and upwards, it may be seen creeping about
the trunks of trees. As its name describes, it is blue with a dark
velvety-black band on the forehead .
At about this elevation or perhaps a little higher and up to the
extreme summits, the Southern Indian Black Bulbul (Hypsipetes ganeesa )
is very common ; it is a dark grey bird with a black head and an
orange-red beak. Its cheerful notes are a sure sign that you are a long
way above the sea-level .

Flocks of the Blue -winged Paroquet(Palæornis columboides) take the

place of the Blossom - headed as one ascends the hills, and the little Indian
Loriquet inconspicuous by its small size and green colouring is to be met
with .

The note of the Brown Hawk -owl (Ninox scutuluta) is frequently

heard at night while by the day the scream of the Crested Serpent-eagle
(Spilornis cheela) as it soars aloft, is equally common . The Black Eagle
(Ictinætus malayensis) may be seen quartering the tops of the trees in
search of small birds' eggs and young at all seasons while the Kestril and
the Indian Hobby are winter visitants.
The whistle of the Grey -fronted Green Pigeon (Osmotreron affinis)
is not uncommonly heard and also the booming note of Jerdon's Imperial
Pigeon ( Ducula cuprea ), while the Bronze -winged Dove (Chalcophaps
indica ) may be seen in heavy jungles feeding on the ground. The Grey
 IV.] FAUNA. 193

Jungle -fowl (Gallus sonnerati ) may be met with on jungle paths either
early in the morning or after sunset.
On the High Range the Palni Laughing -thrush (Trochalopterum
fairbanki) takes the place of T. meridionale. Here too may be found the
Nilgiri Babbler (Alcippe phaocephala ), a plain brown bird with ashy brown
forehead and crown that was called by Jerdon the “ Neilgherry Quaker
Thrush,” no doubt on account of the want of brilliancy in its plumage.
In the grass lands the Red-headed Fantail Warbler (Cisticola erythroce
phala ) is fairly common .
The three Flycatchers that are most abundant at high elevations are
the Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher (Stoporola albicaudata ), an indigo blue bird
with a lighter blue forehead and eyebrow, the Grey -headed Flycatcher
(Culicicapa ceylonensis) and the Black and Orange Flycatcher (Ochromela
nigrirufa), whose English names sufficiently describe them for purposes
of identification. About Peerinare and the High Range are found numbers
of the Southern Pied Bush -chat ( Pratincola atrata ). They are always in
pairs, the male is black with white upper tail coverts and a white patch on
the wing, the female is grey with reddish upper tail coverts and black tail .
Other birds peculiar to the High Range are the common Rose Finch
(Carpodacus erythrinus) which come there in flocks as winter visitants,
the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba ) is also to be found there only in
winter, and the Nilgiri Pipit is a permanent resident in the grass lands.
Here too is often seen the Malabar Crested Lark (Galerita malabarica)
also a permanent resident, and the great Alpine Swift (Cypselus melba)
congregates in numbers and hawks for insects through the smoke of the
grass fires. The commonest Quail is the Painted Bush -quail (Microperdix
erythrorhyncha), and of other game birds the Wood -cock and the Wood
snipe are sometimes met with in winter.
To return to the low country : the birds peculiar to the extreme
south of Travancore are the White -throated Munia (Uroloncha malabarica)
which is common there, though to my surprise I have not met with it
elsewhere, the smaller White Scavenger Vulture (Neophron ginginianus),
the Little Brown Dove (Turtur cambayensis), the Indian Ring Dove
( Turtur risorius), the Grey Partridge ( Francolinus pondicerianus), and
the Brown-headed Gull ( Larus brunneicephalus) .
The Palm Swift ( Tachornis butassiensis) though not confined to the
south is far more abundant there, and the little Scaly -bellied Green
Woodpecker (Gecinus striolatus) I have only obtained near Cape
Comorin .
134 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
Reptiles . All the backwaters and most of the larger rivers of Tra
vancore are infested with crocodiles and in North Travancore small ones
may be found even in the tanks, the water of which is used for various
purposes ; the pecple take no rctice of them until they get fairly large
(over 4 feet or so) when they either destroy them or force them to
move away. By far the commonest kind is Crocodilus palustris. In the
south they do not generally exceed 8 feet in length but in North Tra
vancore specimens are said to be found up to 20 feet . At the mouths of
the rivers in North Travancore Crocodilus porosus is found. There is one
specimen in the Museum taken at Tannirmukham and there was a skull
presented by General Cullen of which he gives the following account :
“ The animal was killed several years ago in the backwaters between Allep
pey and Cochin at a place called Tannirmukham . It had killed several natives
and on the last occasion seized a woman far advanced in pregnancy as she was
washing. She died of the injuries she received , and the husband and others
rowing vengeance against the brute, at last caught and killed it. They brought
it with another one and left it before me at Cochin . It was about 10 feet long.
I have records of alligators up the river at Cochin near Verapoly of 18 to 22 feet
in length ."
The sea yields four kinds of turtles, (Chelone imbricata ) the one that
produces the tortoise -shell of commerce, Chelone mydas, Thalassochelys
caretta and the great Leathery Turtle, Dermochelys coriacea. In the
rivers the fresh -water turtles, Trionyx cartilagineus and Pelochelys
cantori, may be found.
In the tanks, the Ceylon Pond-tortoise, Emyda vittata and Nicoria
trijuja, are common , while on the hills in the extreme south, the land
tortoise (Testudo clegans) may be met with and Testudo platynota through
out the range. Among the lizards, the Flying -lizard (Draco dussumieri) is
the most remarkable as it has a lateral wing-like membrane supported by
the last five or six ribs which enables it to glide through the air from one
tree to another in downward flight . It is found at the foot of the hills
most commonly. In houses numbers of the House Gecko (Hemidactylus
leschenaulti) are always to be seen stalking insects on the walls at night.
The lizard that has been victimised with the name of " Blood -sucker" is
Calotes versicolor. It is very common in the low country while its relation ,
C. ophiomachus, is equally common in the hills. On the sides of the
roads in forest on the hills, a fat-bodied lizard, olive brown above, with a
a series of rhomboidal spots along the middle of the back, Sitana ponti
ceriana, is common at low elevations. While on the High Range Salea
anamallayana is abundant. Into houses Mabuia carinata, a brown lizard
with a lighter band on each side, often finds its way. It is essentially &
IV .] FAUNA . 195

Ground -lizard and never climbs. The most formidable of the lizard tribe
is the monitor called by Europeans " Guana ” found in the neighbourhood
of water both in the low country and in the hills. It has a powerful jaw
and can kill rats as well as any terrier and then swallow them whole with
the greatest ease. Lastly we have the well - known Chameleon (C. calcaratus)
which is not uncommon about the low country.

Only two lizards are peculiar to Travancore, Ristella travancorica and

Lygosoma subcoeruleum .
Snakes are fairly common in Travancore and there are about 67 species
represented. When one is met with, the first question that is asked is, “ Is
it a poisonous one ”, to this most of the people at once reply in the affirm
ative and, needless to say, they are generally wrong. There are only three
poisonous snakes that are found in the low country and they are easily
recognisable:—( 1) The Cobra (Naia tripudians) whose hood at once proclaims
it (2) The Russel's Viper (Vipera russellii) whose thick body, broad head
covered with little scales, and the chain pattern down the centre of its back
easily identify it (3) The “Krait” ( Bungarus cæruleus), this is bluish black
above with narrow transverse white streaks or spots, a scheme of colouring
which is adopted by a harmless snake (Lycodon aulicus) that is often found
about houses and is mistaken for the Krait ; the Krait, however, can be
easily discriminated by its blunt head and by the fact that the scales run
ning down the centre of the back are enlarged and hexagonal. No other
poisonous snakes than these are likely to be seen in the low country. On
the hills and at their foot the Hamadryad (Naia bungarus) is found. Here
again the hood betrays it . Two species of Callophis, C. nigrescens and
C. bibronii, may be met with occasionally but so rarely as not to need
description, and there are three Tree-vipers ( Ancistrodon hypnale ),
Trimeresurus anamallensis, and T. macrolepis which are casily recognised
by their broad flat heads and by the pit just in front of the eye. The bite
of these last, though painful, in effect is not fatal to man . There are several
species of Sea-snakes, all of which are poisonous. They are entirely marine
and may be distinguished by their compressed oar-like tails. The only
harmless snake that lives entirely in water is Chersydrus granulatus
which is found at the mouths of the rivers and along the coast , its tail
is not compressed like that of sea -snakes. Among the harmless snakes
there is a family of burrowing ones, the Cropeltidæ that have truncated
tails. They feed on earth worms and may be met with on the roads on
the hills after rain . The people call them " double-headed snakes". Of
these, two species, Rhinophis travancoricus and Rhinophis fergusonianus,
 186 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
the latter taken by Mr. Sealy on the High Range, are peculiar to
Travancore. Rat Snakes ( Zamenis mucosus) are common about the paddy
fields and most tanks contain specimens of Tropidonotus piscator. The
commonest Tree-snake is the green one ( Dryophis mycterizans), while
Dipsas trigonata is sometimes found in bushes near houses. Snakes of
this genus are sometimes mistaken for poisonous ones as their heads are
somewhat flattened and triangular, but their long thin bodies and the
presence of shields on the head distinguish them from vipers with which
alone they are confounded. One species, Dipsas dightoni, is peculiar to
Travancore having been taken by Mr. Dighton in Peermade. The largest
snake found in Travancore is the Python (P. molurus). I have seen a
specimen 18 feet long and one now in the Public Gardens is 15 feet. It
is harmless, but the next largest the Hamadryad is deadly. The largest
specimen I have seen is 13 } feet long. It is said to make unprovoked
attacks on people but though I have met many specimens they have
always gone off as hard as possible and I have not heard of any one in
Travancore being molested by this snake.
Batrachians, which include Frogs, Toads and Cæcilians are naturally
abundant in Travancore as there is plenty of water. There are 34
species of which three , Rana aurantiaca, I.calus
Ixalus travancoricus
and Bufo fergusonii are peculiar to Travancore. The croaking of the
frogs and toads in the paddy fields as the rains set in is a familiar
sound at night. In the low country the largest and commonest frog is
Rana tigrina , a great cannibal, of which large specimens may be caught
in any tank by using a small one as bait. The commonest toad is Bufo
melanostictus. Small specimens of this are very partial to taking up their
abode under the edge of the matting in any room and here they sit and
croak happily till the lights are put out when they sally forth to feed.
Two kinds of " Chunam frog ”, Rhacophorus malabaricus and R. maculatus,
also come imto houses and seat themselves on pictures or in between the
venetians or on any other convenient perch and thence make prodigious
leaps, the discs on their dilated toes enabling them to stick even to a
perpendicular surface . On the hills, Bufo parietalis is found in abundance
and five species of the genus Iralus may be met with. The Cæcilians are
not so abundant. They are worm - like burrowing Batrachians and are
usually found in damp situations. There are three kinds found in Travancore,
Ichthyophis glutinosus, Uræotyphlus oryurus, and Gegenophis carnosus.
Fish. Several species of sharks are found along the coast. Of the
family Carcharida some of which grow to a considerable size and are
dangerous, the most curious looking is the Hammer - headed shark ( Zygana
IV .] FAUNA. 197

blochii), which has the front portion of the head laterally elongated from
which it derives its name . * The great Basking-shark (Rhinodon typicus)
is sometimes found ; one 27 feet and 1 inch in length was washed ashore
at Puntura ( Trivandrum ) in 1900. It is quite harmless. Another innocu.
ous form is Stegostoma tigrinum which grows to 15 feet in length but
feeds mostly on molluscs and crustaceans. Two kinds of Saw -fish, Pristis
Euspidatus and Pristis perotteti, frequent the coast, the beaks of which
are sometimes 5 feet long. In most of the rivers , Mahseer (Barbustor )
are to be found.
Shoals of Flying-fish ( Erocatus micropterus) are
not uncommonly to be seen winging their way over the waters. The
great Sword - fish (Histiophorus gladius) may occasionally be seen sunning
itself on the surface with its great blue dorsal fin fully extended. It is a
dangerous animal and cases of injury inflicted by it on unfortunate fisher
men have been treated in the hospital at Trivandrum . In one of these ,
about nine inches of the sword were taken from the fleshy part of the
shoulder of one man who while sitting on his catamaran had been wantonly
attacked. Another species, H. brevirostris, is also found, one specimen in
the Museum is 101 feet long. A curious fish is Echeneis, which has the
first dorsal fin modified into an adhesive disc by means of which it clings
to the bodies of sharks and so profits by the superior powers of locomotion
of its host in finding food . Goby fish of the genus Periothalmus,
though only able to breathe by gills, are fond of the land and
may be seen climbing about the rocks ; when pursued they use their
tails and ventral fins to leap out of harm's way. The fishermen call
them Sea -toads. They are very wary and hard to catch. The Sea-horse
(Hippocampus guttulatus) is often found about Cape Comorin and
there are many others of strange shape and varied colour. Of the
former, Ostracion turritus having a solid coat of armour composed
of angular bony plates is a quaint example. So are the fish of the genus
Tetrodon, sometimes called Sea - porcupines, which are covered with small
spines. They are able to inflate their bodies with air and float on the water
upside down, hence they are called Globe - fish . Holocanthus annularis, a
fish with a body vertically broad , coloured sienna, with a blue ring on the
shoulder and six or seven curved blue bands upon the sides, and a yellow
caudal fin , is an example of the latter, and so are Cheetodon vagabundus,
Psettus argenteus and Heniochus macrolepidotus. There are many that are
edible, of which perhaps the best are the Seer - fish of the genus Cybium ,
Red Mullets of the family Mullide, Grey Muliets of the family Mugilide,
Pomfret of the family Stromateida ( Strombillida ? ) and Whiting (Sillago
sihama ).
So far I have described the animals comprising the subkingdom of
r
138 TRIVANCORE MASTIL . [ CHAP.
the vertebrates or as they are now called the Chorlata. Formerly all the
remaining animals were lumped into one subkingdom and called Inverte
brates, but a fuller knowledge has shown that they must be split up into
eight subkingdoms, each of which is equivalent to the subkingdom of the
Chordata. They are :-(1 ) Arthropoda (Insects, Spiders and Crustaceans),
(2) Echinodermata ( Star -fish and Sea-urchins) , (3) Mollusca (Cuttle -fish ,
Oysters &c . ) , (4) Molluscoida (Lamp-shells and Corallines) , (5) Vermes
(Worms, Leeches & c .), (6) Calenterata (Jelly - fish , Sea-anemones and
Corals) , (7 ) Porifera (sponges) and (8) Protozoa (Single-celled animals) .
Of these I can only speak of the Arthropods, and of them only imperfectly.
The remaining seven subkingdoms have not as yet been worked at all in
the Muscum .

The Arthropods are divided into seven classes :- 1. Insects, 2. Centi

pedes, 3. Millipedes, 4. Scorpions, Spiders, Ticks &c. , 5. Kingcrabs,
6. Crustaceans, and 7. Prototracheata . There are no representatives of
clsses 5 and 7 in Travancore . The remaining classes will be taken in the
order given .
Insects are divided into nine Orders :- 1. Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees
Wasps) , 2. Diptera (Flies) , 3. Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) ,
4. Coleoptera (Beetles) , 5. Neuroptera (Dragon - flies, White -ants & c ),
6. Orthoptera (Grasshoppers, Crickets, Mantises), 7. Rhyncota (Bugs) ,
8. Thysanoptera ( Thrips) and 9. Thysanura (Spring -tails and Bristle-tails) .
Hymenoptera. The Order Hymenoptera which includes ants , bees,
wasps, sawflies and Ichneumon - flies has, with the exception of the last
two, been lately worked out for India. It contains some of the most familiar
insects, and the habits of some of them are of particular interest. Those of
the Fossors have been very well described by M. Fabre.
The young of this tribe are meat -eaters and have to be nourished on
the flesh of other insects, the mother therefore lays up a store of these in
readiness for the young one as soon as it emerges from the egg, but two
things are necessary ; first, that the stored -up insects should not decompose,
and secondly, that they should not have the power of injuring the tender
grub which is the first form of the perfect insect .. There must be life but
life only of the interior organs combined with absolute immobility of the
limbs. This is marvellously insured by the instinctive power the Fossors
have of stinging their prey at certain spots which are the seat of the nerve
centres which control the movements of the limbs and so paralysing them.
One of the largest of the Fossors is Scolia indica . It is a large dark
IV.] FAUNA. 139

hairy insect with thick legs . Its colour is black throughout, with the
exception of some ferruginous red bands on the abdomen, the wings are
fuscous brown with beautiful purple reflections. Its young lives on the flesh
of the larvæ of beetles that undergo their metamorphosis beneath the
ground. The Scolia burrows until it finds such a larva , stings it and
renders it incapable of movement, lays an egg on it and leaves the
egg to mature amid this supply of food . The family Pompilidu nay
be at once recognised by their long hind legs. They have great powers
of running rapidly over the surface of the ground and while so doing their
wings are constantly quivering and their antenne vibrating. Most of
them dig holes in the ground and lay up a store of spiders for the
benefit of their young.
Macromeris violacea is a good example of the family ; it is black with
beautiful purple and blue reflections, the wings dark brown with brilliant
purple effulgence changing in different lights. Others of the genus Salius
i. e. , S. flavus and S. consanguineus are common .
The family Sphegido are rather à mixed lot of varying form .
Liris aurata is a beautiful insect black with more or less red legs, with
silvery bands on the abdomen and with a golden gloss on the face. It is
common about Trivandrum ; it makes its nest -hole in the ground and
stores it with young crickets. One often finds the back of a book or the
folds of a paper filled with clay cells containing spiders. This is the work
of Trypoxylon pileatum or T. intrudens, both are small black insects
with very long bodies and transparent wings. “ A slender waist, a slim
shape, an abdomen much compressed at the upper part, and seemingly
attached to the body by a mere thread , aa black robe with a red scarf on
its under parts ” is the very apt description M. Fabre gives of the genus
Ammophila, three species of which are common about Trivandrum . They
make vertical tunnels in the ground and store them with caterpillars.
In a corner of the glass pane of a window or on the side of a table or
chair one often sees what looks like a splash of mud with rays of mud
branching from it. This is the nest of Sceliphron madraspatanum , a black
insect with a long slender yellow waist and yellow and black legs; if the
nest is opened it will be found to be made up of four or five cells filled
with spiders. There are three more species of this genus common in Tri
vandrum . The genus Sphex contains some beautiful species, they all
make burrows in the ground and store their nests with various species of
(
Orthopterous insects (crickets, grasshoppers &c .) .. There are seven
species common about Trivandrum, of which Spher lobatus is the most
striking as it is a brilliant blue green with transparent wings.
140 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
Ampulex compressa is another very beautiful insect. It is brilliant
metallic blue with some deep red on the legs with transparent wings
slightly clouded . It stores cockroaches. Bember is the last genus of the
Sphegidæ I need mention. They are stout black insects with yellow
hands on the abdomen , their prey consists of flies of different kinds. They
make their burrows in sandy banks and use their legs like a dog in dig
ging them . Unlike the other Fossors, they do not supply a store of food
and close the burrow once for all, but return day by day and feed the
young larva until it refuses to take more and settles down into the pupa
stage towards its final transformation. The next tribe, the Diploptera, are
distinguished by having a fold in the wings when in repose ; it includes the
Eumenide, solitary wasps, and the true or social wasps. Among the former
are several fan iliar insects of the genus Eumenes, E. petiolata, E. conica ,
E. flavopicta, all large conspicuous wasps with elongated waists. The
thorax has usually some yellow about it and the abdomen also. They
come into houses about August and September and build clay cells which
they store with caterpillars. Another very common wasp is Rhynchium
brunneum , a stout insect brownish red with black bands on the abdomen . It
comes into houses and builds a clay nest which it stores with caterpillars,
or makes use of any hollow such as the mouth of an old gun barrel or the
bole for a window bolt . Among the social wasps are some of the genus
Ischnogaster. They are brown and yellow with a very long waist. They
build cells of papery stuff more or less hexagonal in shape connected by a
pedicel but without any exterior envelope. Others again of the genus.
Icaria build from 5 to 43 cells attached by a stout pedicel to twigs.
Icaria ferruginea is the commonest species . The great papery nests of
Vespa cincta are often to be seen under the eaves of houses or in a bush .
The insect is black with a broad yellow band on the abdomen . They
form vast communities and are very dangerous if disturbed .

The next tribe includes the bees. The most conspicuous of these are
the Carpenter-bees, Xylocopa latipes and Xylocopa bryorum . The for
mer is a large robust hairy insect black all over with dark wings that shine
with brilliant coppery or purple reflections. The latter is yellow in front
and has a black abdomen and more or less dark wings with a purple effulg
ence . As their name implies, they bore holes in wood in which they make
their nests. Megachile lanata, one of the leaf-cutting bees, a black insect
with a good deal of fulvous red hair about it and with narrow transverse
white bands on the abdomen , often comes into houses and makes use of
any hollow space it finds, or the back of a book for its nests which it forms
of clay partitions.
IV .] FAUNA . 141

Anthophora zonata is another familiar insect rufous in front with a

black abdomen on which there are narrow bands of metallic blue hairs
and wings more or less transparent. They form burrows and live in
colonies. Then there are the true honey -bees of which there are three
kinds, Apis indica, dorsata , and forea, and lastly the dammar -bees of the
genus Melipona that make their nests in hollows of trees mostly of more
or less resinous wax .

Ants , which form another tribe of the Hymenoptera, are nunerous ,

there being over sixty species in Travancore. They live in large commu
nities consisting of a queen , a perfect female, of imperfect females which
may include workers of two kinds and soldiers, and of young, the latter
comprising all these forms and also perfect males. At certain seasons,
generally after the first showers in April or May, the perfect males and
females, which are winged , emerge from the nest and rise into the air for
their nuptial flight; they couple and the males die while the females cast
their wings and are ready to lay eggs . They are divided into five sub
families. The first of these, the Camponotide, have no true sting but are
able to produce an acid poison and wo eject it to soine distance. The best
known of all is the “ red ant " , Ecophylla smaragdina . This forms shelters
in the leaves of trees or bushes by fastening the edges together by a silky
substance. The mature ants are unable to produce this but the larvæ can,
as they spin a silken cocoon for themselves in which to pupate ; when
therefore it becomes necessary to form a new shelter, or to mend a dam
aged one, some of the mature workers hold the edges of the leaves close,
while others carry a larva each in their jaws, apply the mouth of the larva
to the edge of the leaf and the sticky secretion from it fastens the leaves
together. The larva are not damaged by this operation but are carefully
laid by when done with . A small yellow ant, Plagiolepis longipes, which
has, as its name implies, very long legs, is very common in houses. Com
panies of them may be seen dragging any dead insect up a wall to its nest.
Prenolepis longicornis is an equally familiar ant but is black ; it has no
settled home and does not frequent houses so regularly as the last . The
large black ant that forms vast nests under ground is Camponotus
compressus. They are regular cattle keepers as they keep herds of cater
pillars of certain of the family of the Lycænid butterflies which includes
the Blues and Coppers. These have two erectile tentacula near the end
of the body and close to them is an opening from which exudes a sweet
liquor that the ants very much appreciate. When an ant wishes to milk
the caterpillar it gently strokes it with its antenna and a drop of liquid
exudes which the ant licks up. The ants regularly attend the caterpillars
142 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
and when they are about to pupate conduct them to a safe place in which
to undergo transformation, and do not allow them to stray too far. They
also attend and herd plant- lice or aphides. There are five species of the
genus found in Travancore. The nests of ants differ very much , but those
formed by a genus of ants called Polyrachis are peculiar in that they
consist of a single cavity which is lined with a silky substance. They are
built on leaves usually. There are four species known from Travancore.
The next fainily of the Dolichoderides is a small one, of which the most
fainiliar member is a small ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum , with a black
head that contrasts with the semi-transparent abdomen . It has no sting,
por power of ejecting fluid to a distance, but it secretes a very strongly
malodorous fluid from the anal glands which it uses for defence . Among
the next subfamily are some of the most elaborate nest builders, Cre
mastogaster rogenhoferi builds a more or less round brown - papery nest
of vegetable fibre, often eighteen inches long and almost as broad, round a
branch which it uses as a central support. These nests may be seen com
monly on the hills. The ants have a curious habit of turning their ab
domens over their backs. There are some species of ants that make roads
for themselves and the result of their labours may be seen in partial tracks
and tunnels running across the paths. Of these the commonest is Solenopsis
geminata , a reddish yellow ant. Holcomyrmex criniceps, a brown ant,
also has this habit, both of them store grass seeds in their nest but ants
of the genus Philole are the best known harvesters: round the entrance
to their nests may be seen the husks of the seeds they have stored below
and to prevent rain penetrating to their galleries they make embankments
round the nest which effectually protect them . There are four species in
Travancore of which P. rhombinoda is the commonest. To this family also
belongs a very small reddish -yellow ant, Vonomorium destructor, that is
commonly to be met with in houses.
The next family, the Ponerina , are hunting ants and are flesh eaters.
They have a curious way of carrying their prey underneath their bodies
between the forelegs. There are several genera represented in Travancore
of which the best knowu is Lobopelia ; long lines of Lobopelta chinensis
may be seen going, usually in single file, on foraging expeditions about
four in the evening.. They hunt by night and by eight in the morning
they retire underground . They have a very fairly powerful sting which
they use freely if disturbed .
There are also L. dentilobis, L. dalyi and
L. ocelliferu wbich behave in the same wa !".
The last family is the Dorylides; they lead a nomadic social life not
withstanding the fact that the eyesight of the workers is very imperfect,
IV .) FAUX . 143

It includes the genera Dorylus and (Enictus ; of the latter there are four
species in Travancore. They are small ants and march three or four
abreast with great regularity carrying their prey as does Lobopelta.
Diptera. This Order which includes Mosquitoes, Gnats, Flies and
Fleas has not had the attention paid to it that it deserves. Since
however the connection between malaria and mosquitoes has been es
tablished , considerable study has been bestowed on the particular family
the Culicida, which includes the various species of those insects.
In Travancore there are at least 4 species of the genus Anopheles, the
members of which are the intermediate hosts of the Sporozoa which
give rise to malarial fever. These four species are Anopheles fuliginosus,
A. jamesii, A. sinnensis and A. rossii.. There are many other
species of mosquitoes. Among them , Tocorynchites immisericors is
conspicuous by its size and is known as the Elephant Mosquito.
Of the genus Culex there are five species. The family Tipuliidu con
tains the Daddy -longlegs or Crane- flies. There are several species in
Trivandrum , one of which is conspicuous by its long legs being band
ed alternately black and white. The Tabanidze or Horse - flies are
numerous , one species known as the Elephant Fly is most trouble
some on the hills at considerable elevations in the dry weather,
They can easily bite through thin cloths and can draw blood. The
use of a folded newspaper is absolutely necessary when seated on
a cane - bottomed chair. Another species of the genus Pangonia has
a stiff proboscis, more than half an inch long, which is a formidable
weapon of offence. The Robber Flies constituting the family Asiliidu
are common . The largest is more than an inch long having a
black body with narrow grey bands, the wings are smoky. 11 preys
on other insects but fortunately it does not suck the blood of ver
tebrates. Another very curious member of this family is Laphria
rylocopiformis, a large hairy insect very like one of the carpenter-bees;
hence its name. The flies that one sees commonly hovering over
flowers belong to the family Syrphide or Hover- flies, their food is
chiefly pollen. The family Yuscida contains the House - flies, Blue
bottles &c. , which are SO about our dwellings. They lay
cominoni
their eggs on dung or any kind of soft damp filth and the larvæ
feed on this. The so-called tiying -tick which infects dogs is really
a fly of the family Hippoboscida. Lastly we have the Pulicida or
Fleas which though wingless constitute the suborder Aphaniptora of
the order Diptera .
Lepidoptera . SERIES I. RHOPALOCERA. This order includes the
144 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHA P.
Butterflies and Moths. There are about two hundred and thirty species
of the former and at least ten times the number of the latter to be met
with in Travancore. So far as ornament is concerned , they are the
highest of the insect world. Insect angels, they have been well termed
by Wendell Holmes. In the larval form they are worm-like and are
called Caterpillars and in this stage some are often very destructive
to crops as
crops they are nearly all vegetable feeders. They passa
considerable portion of their lives in the pupal state . Many of the
butterflies differ according to the season ; there being wet and dry season
forms , the former being always darker than the latter . The pupa of
butterflies is also called chrysalis from the fact that some of them are
partially or entirely of a golden hue ; this is found chiefly in the family
Nymphalida , a good example of which is Euplæa core a plain brown
butterfly whose pupa is like a pear drop of burnished gold . There are
six families , specimens of all of which are to be found in Travancore
though one of them , Lemoniidæ has only two species representing it.
The family of the Nymphalide includes the greatest number and is
divided into six subfamilies.

The Eupleinæ are characterised by their slow flapping flight

and their fearless behaviour, this is probably due to the fact that
they possess acid juices which render them unpalatable to birds and
lizards with the exception of Limnus chrysippus and Salatura genutia,
which are bright ferruginous with black markings, the others are
sombrely clad . The Euplæas are mostly brown with some white spots.
The most remarkable member of the subfamily is Hestia malabarica
which is to be met with in the hills in dense forest . Whoever has
seen a number of these floating aimlessly about in a forest grove like
animated pieces of spotted tissue paper is not likely to forget the
scene .

The Satyrine are all very soberly clad and have the underside of
their hind wings marbled or mottled in such a way as to render them
almost invisible when settled. They have a way too of dropping the front
wings between the lower ones which adds to the difficulty of seeing them .
They never take long flights but may be seen on the sides of shady roads
and in the forest, and many of them frequent grass lands. There are
twenty one species in Travancore of which two are peculiar to it, Ypthima
ypthimoides, a meadow brown found only in the hills at considerable
elevations and Parantirrhoea marshalli , aa dark brown insect with a pale
violet band on the forewing which is most commonly to be seen in Eetta
jungle (Beesha trarancorica ) from May to October on the Peermade hills .
 IV.] FAUNA. 145

The caterpillar of Melanitis ismenc is said in other parts of India to do

damage to the rice plants, but in Travancore there is such an abundance
of vegetation that it is not driven to rely on them for food. Seasonal
dimorphism is well marked in this subfamily so much so that the wet and
dry season forms of one butterfly have received different names, for example,
Melanitis leda and Melanitis ismene, Orsotricena mandata and Orsotriona
mandosa, Calysisme mineus and Calysisme visala. The next subfamily
Elymniina has only one representative, Elymnias caudata, which is very
like Salatura genutia and is therefore said to " mimic " it. The morphinee
have two, both of which are very rare, the Acræina and Telchinia viola,
which is very common both in the low country and on the hills. It is red
with a narrow black border to the forewing and a broader one on the hind
on which are some yellow spots. The next subfamily Nymphaline are
eminently sunshine-loving. They are mostly brightly coloured and have.a
strong flight, but the habits of some are not so nice as their colouration, for
the mango butterflies of the genus Euthalia are fond of rotten fruit and
those of the genus Charaxes may be attracted by carrion and Charaxes
fabius some times gets drunk on toddy. There are forty-seven species in
Travancore ; of which the largest are Cynthia saloma and Parthenos
virens. Cyrestes thyodamas, one of the Porcelains, is perhaps the most
curiously coloured . The leaf butterflies of the genus Kallima, of which
there are two species, K. philarchus and K. wardi, are so called from the
fact that the underside of the wings so exactly represents a leaf with the
mid -rib marked that it is most difficult to discover the insect when it alights
which it does very suddenly. They are only found in forest on the hills
and are far from common . Pyrameis cardui, the Painted Lady, is probably
the most widely distributed of all butterflies as it is found everywhere
except in the Arctic regions and South America .
The Family Lemoniida, as I have said before, is only represent
ed by two forms, Lybithea myrra common on the High Range and
Abisara prunosa common on the hills at the sides of roads in jungle.
The Family Lycanida, which includes the Blues, Coppers and
Hairstreaks, is represented by nearly sixty species . The males and fe
males are often very differently coloured on the upper side but are mark
ed alike below. Some of them are very small, covering not much more
than half an inch with the wings expanded. Those of the genus Cent-.
aurus, of which there are three species, are the largest, being nearly
two inches in expanse. They are brilliant metallic blue above, and are un
mistakable. Lampides elpis, a light blue insect, is about the commonest
of all the family. Some of them have very long tails, for example, Cheritra
s
146 TRAVANCOTT MANTAL [ CHAP .
jaffra which is common at 2,000 feet on the hills, and Bindahara sugrira
fairly common in the low country. The caterpillars of the family are
very peculiar being usually short, broad in the middle and naked. As
pointed out when describing the Hymenoptera, some of them yield a
fluid of which ants are fond, hence they are domesticated and tended by
the ants. The tastes of some are peculiar as they feed not , as is usual, on
vegetable substance but devour aphides and scale insects. The caterpillars
of the genera Lampides, Virachola and Deudorix, feed on the interior of
fruits of different kinds. Lampides elpis, for example, bores into carda
moms . Deudorix epijarbus feasts on the pomegranate, but the most
curious of all is the caterpillar of Virachola isocrates which feeds on the
guava, pomegranate and some other fruits. The mature female insect,
which is dull purple with a patch of yellow in the forewing, deposits her
eggs in the calyx of the flower ; the caterpillar when hatched bores into the
young fruit , where it remains throughout its transformation. By the time
it is ready to change to a pupa it has so damaged the fruit that further
growth is stopped and the fruit dies, there is therefore the danger that the
fruit should drop and destroy the larva . This however is prevented by the
extraordinary instinct of the caterpillar which leads it to emerge from the
fruit just before pupating. It then spins a strong web over the base of the
fruit and stem which effectually prevents the falling of the fruit even
though it should separate from the stem and so it returns to its abiding
place in the centre of the fruit and pupates in safety.
The Pieridue which form the next family include the Whites, Brim
stones, Clouded -yellows and Orange-tips. White yellow and red are the
predominant colours. There are about twenty - five species in Travancore.
Terias hecabe, a small yellow insect , is about the most abundant in the
hills and the low country. But the large yellowish white butterflies of
the genus Catopsilia of which there are three species are almost equally
common . At times great migrations of these take place and hundreds
of them may be seen flying in one particular direction .

The Papilionicle are known as the swallow -tails and include the
largest and most conspicuous of all the order. The great Ornithoptera
minos, nine inches in expanse , a black butterfly with yellow on the hind
wings, is fairly common in the low country and on the hills. Iliades
polymnestor ( black with lavender spots on the hind wings) is also fairly
abundant, as is too Nenelaides hector, black with red spots on the hind
wings. On the hills, Charus helenus, black with a cream spot on each
hind wing, is most conspicuous, while Achillides tamilana, black having
 IV. ] FAUX.A. 147

a large metallic spot on each of the hind wings of blue with green reflect
ions, is perhaps the most beautiful . The larvæ of some, especially of
Orpheides erithonius do considerable damage to orange trees by feeding
on the leaves. They rest fully exposed on the upper side of the leaves,
but are so coloured that they resemble birds' droppings. Pattiysa naira
is a rare butterfly peculiar to Travancore. The members of the last family,
the Hesperiidu, are called skippers from their peculiar jerky flight. They
are a very distinct family and closely allied to the moths. There are
about forty species in Travancore. The largest is Gangara thyrsis which
is common in the low country, its caterpillar which is covered with white
fluff is destructive to palms as it feeds on their leaves cutting and rolling
up a leaf to form its habitation . The caterpillar of Mutupa aria behaves
in the same way towards the leaves of the bamboo, while that of Chapra
mathias is said to do damage to the rice plant.
SERIES II . HETEROCERA MOTHS . - The old divisions of the moths
into five subsections is now more or less abandoned and no larger division
than that of families is recognised. There are thirty four of these : it will
not therefore be possible to mention them all , a few examples of the
most prominent are all that can be cited .
The family of the Saturniide or Emperor-woths contains the largest
individual of all, Attacus atlas wbich is twelve inches in expanse ; one
noticeable feature in this family is the presence of transparent spaces on
the forewings. This is found in several other species. Actias seleno, a
large greenish white moth with long tails, is another beautiful example of
the family ; it is fairly common both in the hills and plains. The most
useful member is Antheræa paphia, the Tussur -silk moth , which is to be
found about Trivandrum ; Læpa katinka in the Hills and Cricula trifenes
trata on the plains also spin cocoons of silk . The family Eupterotida is
represented by three rather common insects, Eupterote mollifera, Nisuga
simplex and Sangatissa subcurvifera. The scheme of colouring is the
same in all brown or drab with curved black lines on the forewings.
Their larvæ are hairy and the hairs produce great irritation if the cater
pillar is handled. The family of the Sphingida or Hawk -moths is per
haps the most easily recognisable. They have long stout bolies elongated
narrow pointed forewings and small hind ones. They fly usually by day
or in the evening. The best known is Acherontia lachesis, the Death's.
head moth, so called from the marking on the thorax being like a skull,
When handled the moth can produce a fairly loud squeak. One of the
most beautiful is Calymnia panopus. Daphnis nerii, the Oleander Hawk.
moth , is the most wide spread being found all over Europe, S. Africa and
148 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
India. The Humming -bird Hawk -moths of the genus Macroglossa have
a very long proboscis and the tip of the abdomen is furnished with a tuft
of dense long scales which is capable of expansion. Macroglossa gyrans
is common on the hills and M. bengalensis in the low country. Cepho
nodes hylas is peculiar in having the wings clear and transparent. The
larvæ are remarkable for their colour and form . They nearly always
have a conspicuous stiff horn - like tail. In the genus Cherocampus, of
which six species may be met with about Trivandrum , the caterpillar can
retract the front segments into the fourth which is capable of expansion
and makes the caterpillar more or less like a small hooded snake. The
Sesiidæ are a small family of day - flying moths remarkable for having a
large part of one or both wings clear of scales, hence they are known as
clear-wings. Sesia flavipes which is a good example is found only on the
hills . Another family of semi-diurnal habit are the Syntomida which
have the body as well as the wings highly coloured . Many of them are
like wasps . Euchromia polymena , a very common insect in the plains,
though not a mimetic form , is a good example of the family. The Zyga
nida or Burnet-moths number a good many day-flying insects that are
very like butterflies. Cyclosia australinda, which is not uncommon about
Trivandrum , might very well be mistaken for one of Pieride or Whites and
Histia nilgira found on the hills is very like one of the Swallow-tailed
butterflies, while Himantopterus caudatus, a tiny reddish moth with orange
lined wings with black spots, is a regular miniature one . Heterusia
virescens and Chalcosia affinis are common on the hills. The Psychida
are interesting from the fact that their larva cover themselves with
a case composed of grass sticks, tits of leaves and lined with silk. The
female remains always in the case and is wingless. The males pass their
pupa stage in the case but emerge from it as winged insect. Clania
variegata which is fairly common , forms its case of small bits of stick .
The Cosside or goat-moths are chiefly interesting from the fact
that the larvæ bore into trees and often do considerable damage .
Mr. Bourdillon has brought to notice the harm done to teak by the cater
pillar of Cossus cadamba, aa brown moth about an inch and a half in expanse.
The family Callidulida, which are day - flying moths of medium size, is
represented by Cleosiris calamita, a plain brown insect like one of the
Nymphalid butterflies. The family Limacodida contains one form
peculiarly interesting to planters as the larva of Thosea cana , an insignificant
looking moth , does great damage to tea bushes by feeding on the leaves .
The Lasiocampida , Eggers or Lappet moths, are mostly of large size.
Suana concolor, a somewhat sphinx-like moth having dark red brown
IV .] FAUNA . 149

wings with a lighter margin and one or two yellowish spots, is a good ex
ample, the caterpillars are hairy with the tufts directed downwards, the
hairs causing irritation . The family Hypsida though small contain some
species that are very common of which Hypsa alcephron is perhaps the
most abundant ; it has buff forewings with one white spot and yellow hind
wings with round black spots . The Arctiidie are a very extensive family
containing four subfamilies. Those constituting the Certhinee are known
as Tiger-moths. They are well represented in Travancore. The cater
pillar of Arctia ricini, as its name implies, is destructive of the castor oil
plant. The moth has the forewings brown with numerous light-ringed
blackish spots and the hind wing crimson with irregular wavy blackish
bands. Nyctemera laticinia having brown forewings with a white band
a

and white hind wings with a brown border is a very common moth both
in the hills and plains. Argina cribraria , Deiopeia pulchella and Eligma
narcissus are all abundant about Trivandrum ; of thesse Deiopeia pulchella ,
about an inch in expanse having white forewings with black and red spots
and white bind wings with an irregular black marginal band, is very wide
spread being found in Europe, Africa, all over India, the Malay
Archipelago and Australia . The Noctuida or Owl-moths form a large
assemblage of night-flying insects of sombre colours usually marked with
large eye-like spots. Some of them are of considerable size. Many of the
caterpillars feed under ground on the roots of plants and are in consequence
very destructive. Nyctipao macrops, a dark coloured moth about five
inches in expanse, often comes into houses in Trivandrum , and two other
smaller species, N. crepescularis and N. hieroglyphica, soinetimes do the
same . The moths of the genus Ophideru, unlike them , are brightly
coloured having green or red brown forewings and yellow hind ones with
black markings and usually a black lunule. There are four species, Ophi.
deres ancilla, Ophideres hypermnestra, Ophideres salaminia and Ophideres
fullonica ; the latter is said to have the power of piercing with its proboscis
and to do damage to crops of oranges by thus inserting it through the peel
and sucking the juices. The Uraniida are not a large family but contain
some conspicuous insects. They are more or less day-flying. Some are
white with ample wings and light bodies. Two very common species in
the hills are Strophidiu fasciuta and Micronia aculeata ; the latter is also
not uncommon about Trivandrum .
The Geometridæ are a large family of moths of slender build with large
wings and a narrow elongated body ; they are semi-nocturnal, the larva
are called “ loopers ” from their mode of progression which consists in
moving the fore and hind segments alternately the centre of the body
150 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP .
being raised in a loop. Eumelia rosalia, a yellow insect with crimson
specks and a crimson band across both wings common about the low
country is a good example . Naxa textilis is white. Euschema percota is
a day-flying brightly coloured insect blue with purple markings. Its
caterpillar does great damage to the leaves of lilies. Another common
species is Macaria fasciata, slaty grey with aa white band across both
wings and two orange blotches on the hind -wings. The Pyralida include
a large number of small or moderate-sized moths of fragile structure often
having long legs. The genus Glyphodes is very well represented in Tra
vancore, there being five species that are common about Trivandrum .
Glyphodes glaucululis is blue green , G. celsalis white with some brown
markings, G. sinuata yellow with some crimson on the forewings,
G. laticostalis white with a brown band, and G. actorionalis brown with
diaphanous white bands. They are all small and more or less insignificant.
Dichocrocis punctiferulis is a small straw -coloured moth with black spots
on both wings common about Trivandrum ; Lepyrodes neptis, yellowish
brown with black edged white bands, is also very common .
Coleoptera. The Coleoptera or beetles are well known. Most of
then are possessed of a hard exterior, and the front pair of wings , called
Elytra, are not used for flight but serve as cases to protect the body.
They are very numerous and are divided into six series. The first of
these, the Lamellicorniu , are so called as the terminal joints of the antenna
are leai- like. They include the Stag -beetles, Chafers, Dung -beetles and
Rose -chafers. Odontolabis cuvera is an example of the first wbich is
common on the hills. Its thorax is black and the wing cases are dull
yellow with a triangular black mark down the middle. The male has the
mandibles produced at least three quarters of an inch . The female is
coloured like the inale but the mandibles are not produced into horn -like
processes. The Scarabwida or Chaſers are divided into several subfamilies,
one of the most interesting of which is that of the Scarabæ whose
members may be recognised by their habit of rolling about balls of dung
and earth . One species of dieuchus, a black insect is very common about
Trivandrun. They act as scavengers by breaking up and removing the
droppings of cattle and other animals. Another subfamily includes the
Cockchafers or Melolonthides. Agustrata orichal cea , which is brilliant
metallic greenish all over with purple reflections, is a good example com
mon about Trivandrum . So is Heterorhina clegans var cyanoptera, a
dark metallic blue insect also with purple reflections. Some of them do
damage to cultivation is for instance Sericu pruinosa which defoliates
coffee bushes. Another subfamily, the Dynastida, though small contains
IV.] FAUNA. 151

some very large insects with curious horns and projections. Eupatorius
cantori, 21 inches long reddish brown with reddish yellow margin having
a long recurved horn in front and two other's rising from the middle of
the thorax, is a good example ; another is Oryctes rhinoceros, a large black
or brown beetle with a minute rhinoceros - like horn in front . It does
great damage to the palms in the Public Gardens in Trivandrum by boring
into the stems. The second series, the Adephaga, contains the Tiger
beetles, Ground-beetles and Water-beetles ; of the first Collyris insignis is
a good example. It has no wings and the Elytra are firmly soldered
together. It has a long rounded thorax somewhat globular in the mid lle .
They are very swift on foot and prey on other insects. Cicindella
serpunctata is another example which is of use as it preys on the destruc
tive Rice-sapper. Of the Ground -beetles or Carabida, a species of
Calosoma is not uncommon in Trivandrum and a species of Brachinus
which is able to eject an explosive liquid, also Pterosophus bimaculatus
dark blue with yellow markings. The Water -beetles or Dytiscide are
carnivorous both in the larval and in the adult stage. Cybister limbatus
is a common species in water about Trivandrum , and Hydaticus festivus
and H. vittatus are also numerous. The former is a gaily coloured insect
having a yellow or orange ground colour with shiny black or dark brown
markings.

The third series, the Polymorpha, is a very large one containing about
fifty families of which the most interesting are the curious Burying
beetles, the Lady -birds, Fire-flies and Glow -worms, Click -beetles and the
beautifully coloured Buprestidæ. The Histerida or Burying -beetles are
very compact insects with a very hard shell, they dig under any carcase
and so gradually bury it and they were supposed to live on it, but it is now
ascertained that they are really predaceous and live on the larvæ of flies
which are found in the carcase . There are several species of Hister to be
found in Trivandrum . The Lady-birds are useful as they prey upon
plant lice . Epilachna innuba , a small red and yellowish beetle with black
spots, is a not uncommon species in the low country . A nearly allied
a

family contains those curious insects which have the elytra flattened to
form a rim under which the legs are hidden . They look like animated
golden nuggets. Unfortunately when dead the colour fades completely.
Their identity has yet to be determined. The family Bestrichide are
very injurious as they attack timber. There are several species some of
which do damage to teak while Bostrichus aqualis attacks the cotton tree ,
Bombac malabaricum . A small brown beetle of a closely allied family.
the Ptinida of the genus Dinoderus, damages bamboos hy boring into
152 TRAVANCOHE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
them . Another of this family Lasioderma testaccum , a small brown
beetle with white grubs, is most destructive to cheroots into which the
larvæ bore holes. A species of Glow-worm of the genus Lampyris is not
uncommon , the female is wingless and luminous. The Fire- flies which
are so numerous and beautiful at certain seasons belong, I believe, to this
family of the Malacodermide, but their identity has not been made out.
The click beetles or Elateridæ have the power when lying on their backs
of jerking themselves into the air at the same time giving a distinct
click. Agryphnus fuscipes, a brown insect, is common about Trivandrum
and Alaus speciosus, a white insect with a curious black irregular lipe
down the centre of the thorax and some black spots, is common in the
hills . The last family I need notice, the Buprestida, is a large one and
contains many insects remarkable for the magnificence of their colour. A
very common example is Sternocera dasypleura, a reddish brown insect
having the thorax deeply pitted, and coloured metallic green with golden
reflections while beneath it is uniform metallic green also with golden
reflections. Belionota scutellaris is another example, it is uniform metal
lic golden green, with some violet on the posterior margin and on the
sides of the thorax . The larva is said to do damage by boring into the
wood of Acacia catechu .

Of the fourth series, Heteromera, the great family Tenebrionidæ con

tains the greater number, they are mostly black ground-beetles. There are
several species to be found in Trivandrum but they are as yet unidentified.
The most interesting are the Cantharide or Meloidæ, Blister-beetles or
Oil-beetles. One of the commonest is a species of Mylabris black with
red markings on the elytra very common on grass.
The fifth series, the Phytophaga or plant-eaters, contains among
other families, the Chrysomelide which are as a rule leaf-feeders and the
Cerambycida, or Longicorns, which are wood and stem feeders. Of the
former, Corynodes peregrinus and Corynodes corulentus are examples as
also Crioceris impressus. The larve of some species of this genus have
66
à peculiar method of protecting themselves. The anus " , says Dr.
Sharpe, “ is placed on the upper surface and formed so that the excrement
when voided is pushed forward on to the insect ; here it is retained by
means of a slimy matter , and a thick coat entirely covering the creature
is ultimately formed ” . Some of the longicorn -beetles are very large.
One rather common species is quite four inches long dark brown and the
male has the mandibles produced almost as largely as some of the stag
beetles. The name of this species I do not know . The well -known
coffee- borer Xylotrechus quadrupes, a slender beetle some three quarters
IV. ] FAUNA 153

of an inch long belongs to this family. Other examples are Batocera

albofasciata, about two inches long reddish brown with white spots and
beneath dirty brown margined with white. Mecotagus gnermi ( ?) about an
inch long is dull brown with some white lines on the thorax and head
and white vermiculations on the elytrą. Clytus annularis about half an
inch long is yellowish white with reddish brown markings. Oleocumpus
belobus rather more than half an inch long is ashy brown with four
white round marks on the elytra, the first two approximating the sides
of the head and thorax margined with white.

The sixth series, the Rhyncophora, contains the Weevils. They can
be recognised by their having the head more or less prolonged in front
to form a mouth or beak. Some of thein are large, for instance, the
Palm -weevil, a reddish brown insect some two inches long whose white
fleshy legless grubs tunnel into the trunks of various palms. Arother
curious insect is Cryptorhyncus mangifera. It is an earth - coloure i weevil
and as a grub lives inside the stone of the mango fruit finally eating its
way out when full grown .
Neuroptera. This is the last Order of insects that undergo a
complete metamorphosis. The mouth organs in the adult are adapted
for biting and grinding. The wings are membranous and are covered
with a net-work of veins . It includes the Caddis -flies constituting the
suborder Trichoptera, and the Scorpion-flies, Lace-wing Flies, Ant
lions and Mantis - flies constituting the suborder Planipennia .
The larvæ of the Caddis - flies are with few exceptions aquatic and
construct cases of all sorts of materials. There are several species in
Travancore but not yet identified . Ainong the Planipennia there is a
remarkable insect of the family Sialide that has large sickle-shaped
mandibles, it belongs to the genus Corydalis. The Mantispidæ or mantis
flies are well represented but have not been worked out. The Ant -lions
are well known. The larvæ make pit falls to catch crawling insects.
Wherever there is a dry sandy spot these funnel-shaped pits may be seen
and at the bottom the larva sits with its sickle-shaped jaws extended
ready to seize its prey when it falls down the loose sandy sides of the pit.
The adult Ant-lions are winged insects whose wings when at rest spread
like a roof over the hinder part of the body. Some have the wings plain,
others spotted . There is one large species whose wings are marked with
obliquely transverse brown bands. The expanse is over 4 inches. It
often finds its way into houses at night and flutters about against the
ceiling. When the larva is full -fed it encloses itself in a more or less
t
154 TRAVISCORE MAXUAL . [ CHAY.
spherical cocoon made of sand grains fastened together with silken
threads, the interior of which is lined with silk, within this it undergoes
its metamorphosis .
Orthoptera. This Order includes the Dragon -flies, May- flies,
Stone -flies, Termites or White-ants, Crickets, Grasshoppers, Locusts,
Stick and Leaf-insects, Mantises, Cockroaches and Earwigs .
None of these undergo a distinct metamorphosis but by the gradua
succession of changes pass from the larval to the adult stage, the larvæ
are wingless at first , and the wings are developed during the moults,
being fully formed only at the last moult. The mouth organs are adapted
for biting. Most of the members of the group are of large size.
The Dragon-fiies (Odonata) live entirely upon insects, which they
capture on the wing. In the larval and pupal stages they live in water
and are equally carnivorous. In both stages there is a peculiar structure
fixed under the head known as “ the mask ” which is a jointed weapon
armed at the ini with a pair of toothed processes. It can be protruded
with great quickness and serves to seize the prey. There are three
families, the Libellulide, Eschnidee and Agrionide. In the two first
th head is rounded but in the third it is much wider than long, almost
cylindrical and set on the body like the head of a hammer on its handle .
Many of the species are very beautiful as their wings often glitter with
varied iridescence. There are many species in Travancore of all three
families, but no attempt has yet been made to ascertain their specific
names .

The Termite or White -ants ( Termitide) are well known on account

of their destructive habits.They live in colonies which consist of a
queen and king with some supernumerary individuals which may, by a
system of diet, be matured into royalties if required, another lot of indi
viduals with very large heads and formidable jaws, who may be called
soldiers and finally the workers, who are by far the most numerous.
The perfect individuals have compound eyes but the soldiers and workers
are as a rule eyeless. The mouth parts are formed for biting. Just
before the rains, when the first showers fall , great swarms of winged
termites make their way out of the nest. Most of these are destroyed by
birds or lizards but the survivors may form new colonies. Their food
consists generally of decaying wood or other vegetable matter. On the
hills a species may be seen which tunnel into the branches of trees and
make nests round them . Another species seems to live on grass, but so
far, these, like so many other insects, await identification ,
IV.1 FAUX ... 155

Crickets (Gryllide ) belong to the suborder of true Orthoptera which

differ from those so far mentioned in having the two pairs of wings un
like, the first pair being usually stiff and horny, and serving as covers
to the hinder pair which are membranous and folded . The chirping noise
made by crickets is produced by rubbing the base of one wing-cover
over the other. It may often be heard at night in houses ; it is uttered
only by the male and is supposed to attract the female . The abdomen
bears two flexible appendages and the female has in addition a long
ovipositor. A black insect of the genus Gryllus is common in houses and
a green one of the genus Calyptotrypus is found in the fields, but the one
that forces itself most into notice is the mole- cricket, Gryllotalpu vulgaris,
as it flies into the verandah attracted at night by the light and flaps about
in an irresponsible way. It is a large insect and can at once be recog
nised by the forın of its front legs which are greatly thickened for digging.
It burrows underground and so destroys the roots of plants. All crickets
lay their eggs in holes in the ground glued together in masses .

The long -horned Grasshoppers (Locustida ) are so called because

they have very long bristle-like antennæ . The true locusts do not belong
to this family but to the next. They are usually green or brown in colour.
Like the crickets they produce sound by rubbing the base of one wing
-
cover over the other. The females have a long sabre-shaped ovipositor.
Mecopoda elongatu, a large greenish brown insect with very long hind legs
is a common species . Some have the wing -covers very much enlarged
and veined like leaves. Onomarchus leuconotus is an example, the wing
covers are light green and quite leaf -like. A species of Aprion also has
green wing-covers but is not so large an insect. Another very curious
insect is Acanthodis ululina ; its wing-covers are like lichen - covered
bark .

The Locusts (Acridiida) have short antenna and they produce sound
in aa different way to that by which the crickets and grasshoppers produce
it namely, by rubbing the innerside of the hind legs, which has certain
bead -like prominences, against the outer face of the wing-cover in which
there is a prominent sharp -edged vein . The females have only a short
ovipositor. In Travancore we are not troubled by swarms of migratory
locusts but there are several species of locusts to be found . One of the
largest is Acridium flavicorne. The most abundant and widely distributed
of the migratory locusts is Pachytylus cinerascens which may be found
throughout the Oriental Region , in Europe and even in New Zealand.
It is common in Travancore but does not swimm . Another species cf
156 TRAVANCORL MANUAL . [ CHAP.
hort -horned grasshopper common about Trivandrum is Aularches
miliaris. Its thorax is curiously rugose, highly polished and with a
yellow margin , the wing -covers are bluish green with round sealing-wax
like yellow spots and in fact it is highly ornamental. Another species ,
Edaleus marmoratus, has the wing -covers and the base of the hind wings
yellow bordered with brown. A very curious looking insect is Acrida
turrita which has the head very much prolonged into a cone -shape with
the antennæ and eyes near the apex.

The Leaf and Stick -insects ( Phasmidw ) are very curious and derive
their name from their likeness to dry sticks and leaves. The wings of
the stick -insects are rudimentary and their legs very long and are usually
stretched out unsymmetrically. They are generally to be found amongst
underwood or on the stems of long grasses. They are vegetable feeders.
The female lays eggs singly dropping them casually on the ground . Each
is enclosed in a capsule and they are very like seeds of plants. One
species over a foot in length is found on the hills. It is, I believe, a species
cf Lonchodes. Wingless species of the genus Bacillus are common about
Trivandrum . The only leaf-insect found here is Phyllium scythe. Its
body is flat and broad and the wing -covers are leaf-like . Its colour is
more or less green. The legs have broad leaf -like expansions. It is not
very common .

The Praying Insects ( antida ) usually have the prothorax very

much longer than the other two segments of the thorax. The two hinder
pairs of legs are long and are used for progression but the front pair are
peculiarly formed and are used to seize their prey, for they are carni
vorous, the thighs are strong and are provided with two rows of spines
and the shanks are also furnished with two rows of spines and can be
folded back on the thighs. When at rest these joints are thus kept folded
as if the insect were at prayer, hence their name. They lay eggs in
masses which are attached to plants and are surrounded by a parchment
fike capsule. The commonest form is Gongylus gongyloides. Another
species very like Harpax ocellata of Africa has eye -like marks on the
wing-covers. There are many species and they often come into the
verandal at night attracted by the light.
Cockroaches ( Blattide ) are very cominon . Their legs are eminently
fitted for running and they can move very quickly. They have strong
horny jaws well fitted for biting. They generally have two pairs of wings,
the front pair being stiff and horny, while the binder pair are more mem
branous. The ordinary large forni that infests houses is lcriplaneta
 FAUNA . 157
IV .]
americana . Periplaneta decorata is a smaller insect having some brown
markings. Leucophaca surinamensis is another common insect about
Trivandrum . On the hills a rather ornamental form is found , Corydia
petiveriana . The under wings and sides of the body are yellow and the
upper side of the front wings are black with cream - coloured marks. The
eggs are laid in a capsule formed in the interior of the females. The
capsule is aa horny case which is carried about for sometime by the mother
protruding from the hinder part of the body. Eventually it is laid in
some suitable locality and the young make their way out. Earwigs
(Forficulide) can be at once recognised by the fact that they bear at the
end of the body a pair of forceps or callipers.. Many are wingless but in
those forms that possess wings they are folded in a complicated way.
They are not common and so far none have been identified in Travancore,
though there are several species. The females lay eggs and are said to
watch over them with great care .

Rhynchota . This Order also called Hemiptera includes the Bugs

and is well represented in Travancore. It is divided into two suborders,
Hemiptera heteroptera and Hemiptera homoptera . Few however have
given attention to the order and only lately has any attempt been made
to work it out in India. The insects constituting it may be readily recog
nised by the possession of a long proboscis which is usually bent under
the body. Some are vegetable feeders and some carnivorous. Many of
them are brilliantly coloured . In the family Pentatomida or Shield-bugs,
which is one of the largest and most important, there are several such,
Seutellera nobilis is metallic bluish green or purplish with indigo blue
spots and bars. It is a common insect about the low country. Chryso
coris stokerus, also common , is bluish green with black spot and Cata
canthus incarnatus is reddish yellow with black spots. The best known
members of the family, however, is the green bug Nezara ciridula on ac
count of its evil scent. Most bugs possess the power of emitting an unpleas
ant odour but the green bug seems to exercise it more particularly. Some are
injurious to plants as the well-known Rice-sapper, Leptocorisa acuta , which
destroys young paddy, also those of the genus Helopeltis which are most
destructive to the tea plants . On the other hand Aspongopus nigriventis
is of use in effecting the pollination of the Sago palm . Some bugs feed es
clusively on other insects, especially those of the family Reduviida of which
Cunorhinus rubrofasciatas and Exagoras plagiatus, cominon insects
about Trivandrum, are examples. Unlike the other land-bugs they have
no smell . When writing of carnivorous bugs mention must be made of
the colonion Bed -bug, Cimex lectularius, which is unfortunately too well
158 TRAVANCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.
knowu throughout the world. The water-bugs, like the Reduviidæ are
innocent of smell. A species of Naucoris which swims about on its back
is very common , also one of Hydrometra. These iy well and at night
are often attracted by the lights to enter houses. A species of Belostoma,
a huge brown insect over three inches long, is sometimes attracted in this
way. Water-scorpions of the genus Nepa are also common ; their fore
legs are specially modified to serve as prehensile organs and they have a
long slender siphon behind . Of the suborder Hemiptera homoptera,
Cicudas are most in evidence . One does not meet with them in the low coun
try but from the foot of the hills to the summits their voices are to be heard
at times in a chorus which is almost deafening. The males alone possess
the power of emitting sound, hence a Greek poet has written “ Happy the
а

Cicadas' lives, for they all have voiceless wives " . There are several
species in Travancore but they have not yet been indentified. The Lant
ern flies of the family Fulgorida have a horn - like extension of the top
of the head which was supposed to be luminous, hence their name. The
species common on the hills here is Fulgora delesserti. Its forewings
are brown with yellow spots and the hind are blue with the apical area
dark brown. The genus Flatta is represented by F. acutipenis and
F. tunicata , their forewings are green and the hind are white. The
family Membrucido have the prothorax prolonged backwards into a hood
or into other strange forms. There are several curious examples to be seen
about the low country, of which Centrotypis flexuosus is about the com
monest . The frothy masses seen at times hanging to branches of trees
or bushes are the work of the larvæ of the Frog -hoppers or Cercopida
of which there are many species. Others of this family secrete fluid so
abundantly as to make it appear to drop like rain from the trees in which
they are . The Plant -lice or Aphide are another family of this sub
order and, though small, are from their enormous numbers most injurious
to trees and plants. There are many species in Travancore. The Scale
insects or Mealy-bugs of the family Corcide are also very injurious but
on the other hand some produce useful substances, as for instance white
wax is formed by a Lecaniid , Ceroplustes ceriſerus and lac is the shelly
covering of Carteria lacca, unfortunately neither of these species occurs
in Travancore but only the injurious forms of which there are many.
Thysanoptera and Thysanura. The insects comprising the first
of these Orders are all very small and feed upon the juices of flowers and
sometimes do great injury as they are often found in large numbers. The
most familiar members of the Thysanare are the little silver-fish which
may always be found among papers or books that have been allowed to lie
IV .] FALNA. 159

for any length of time undisturbed. They do damage to books by feeding

on the paste used in binding them and they also eat old paper .
Myriapoda. This group includes the Millipedes and Centipedes.
The former are distinguished by their slow movements and are exclusively
vegetable feeders. They have no weapons of offence but are able to secrete
a strong smelling liquid. Their bodies are more or less cylindrical. They
include the Pill-millipedes Oniscomorpha and the worm - like Millipedes or
Helminthomorpha. The former are not quite so much in evidence
as the latter, but one species which I believe to be Arthrosphæra
inermis is fairly conimon . There are several species of the latter of which
Spirostreptus malabricus is the commonest ; it is a long black millipede
about ten inches to a foot in length and is found abundantly both in the
hills and on the plains : the liquid it secretes smells strongly of iodine and
leaves a brown stain on the hands. A species of Trachyiulus each segment
of which carries from 11 to 18 warty spines, is also common on the hills.
Another, a species of Leptodesmus, brown with yellow lateral line is com
mon on the low country ; it is about 2 inches long. The Centipedes are
more or less soft and flat-bodied , they are active and swift and live for
the most part in dark places under stones, logs of woods &c . , they prey
upon insects or worms which they kill by means of their large poison
claws or maxillipedes. One of the most peculiar is Scutigera longicornis ;
it is about an inch and a half long with a small body and about 15 pairs of
long legs so arranged as to give it on oval shape. Unlike most it enjoys
sunlight and may be seen in its native haunts darting about and catching
insects regardless of the blazing sun . It is common about Trivandrum .
Of the Scolopendrida , Rhysida longipes and Scolopendra morsitans are the
commonest . They live on cockroaches, beetles , worms, &c . , and are
frequently found about houses. The Geophilide are long worm - like
centipedes with from thirty -nine to over one hundred segments ; they are
subterranean in their habits and feed almost entirely on earth worms.
Mecistocephalus punctiferus is the commonest species .
Arachnida . This class includes the Scorpions, Spiders, Mites &c.
Of the former so far as six species have been identified in Travancore of
which one Chiromachetes fergusoni is peculiar to it. The great black
scorpions of the genus Palamnæus are to be found under stones. P. scaber
is about four inches long and has the hands and vesicle tinged with red.
Lychas tricarinatus, a brownish yellow scorpion about two inches long. is
often found in houses especially about the bath - rooms.
The Whip-scorpions or Pedipaipi resemble the true scorpions but may
160 TRAVAXCORE MANUAL . [ CHAP.

be recognised by the fact that the abdomen is sharply marked off from the
cephalothorax by a constriction. They are divided into a tailed group
Uropygi and a tailless Amblipygi. The former have a movable tail cor
responding to the sting of the scorpions. They live in damp places under
stones or in crevices of wood or rock . There are two species of Uropygi
identified, Telyphonus indicus and Thelyphomus sepiaris subspecies
muricola, about an inch and a half long and with a tail rather more than an
inch. It is black above with red legs. There are some smaller species
which have not yet been identified. Of the Amplipygi the only species
yet found is Phrymichus phipsoni ; the body is much flattened and kidney
shaped, the abdomen oval. The body is about an inch and a quarter long
and black. All the legs are long especially the first pair which are like
antennæ. Except for the long prehensile chela, it is outwardly like a
spider. The true spiders or Araneæ are well represented. Of the larger
species some twenty have been identified but there are many more as yet
annamed. Of the named ones six have not been found elsewhere, but this
is probably due to the fact that very little attention has been paid to this
order. The six species peculiar to Travancore are Sason armatoris and
Sasonichus sullivani. Ground-living burrowing spiders , Pæcilotheria
ru filata , a large hairy red spider obscurely mottled , total length of body
two inches legs about three, which lives in trees ; there is another species
P. striata, grey with dark stripes not quite so large . They hunt by night
and feed on beetles, cockroaches. & c. Psechrus alticeps, about three
quarters of an inch long with slender legs about two inches which spins a
large web, is found in the hills and in the plains. It is yellowish brown
variegated with black. Fecenia travancorica, an allied species has been
found at Madatora . Pandercetes celatus, a hunting spider, coloured
grey and mottled with brown so as to match the lichen-covered bark of
trees is the last of the spiders peculiar to Travancore. Of the others those
most frequently met with are Nephila maculata and Nephila malabarensis.
The former is about an inch and a quarter long with long strong legs. It
has the thorax black , the abdomen olive brown with yellow lines and spots.
The latter is less than an inch long, the thorax is black with yellow hairs
on it, the abdomen greyish brown mottled darker. They spin webs
composed of radiating and concentric threads. That of Nephila maculata
is often found across bridle paths in forest on the hills, and the
threads are very elastic and strong and appear to be covered
with some glutinous substance as they stick if one comes in contact with
the web. Some spiders of the genus Gasterocantha are curiously shaped .
G. geminata has the abdomen twice as broad as long, with paired spines
sticking out on each side and behind, it is yellow with two transverse black
IV.] Fauxa, 161

stripes. Of the hunting spiders, Peucctia viridana is common on the hills.

It is about half an inch long more or less green all over and lives amongst
grass and other plants where it seeks its prey. In houses Heteropoda
venatoria is very common . It is a greyish brown spider about three quar
ters of an inch or more long with legs about twice this length and
moves sideways running very quickly. Of the Acari or Mites, I can
say little, a species of velvety mite of the genus Trombidium about half
an inch long, looking as if it were covered with plush, is found at Udaya
giri, but probably the commonest is the microscopic itch -mite, Sarcoptes
scabiei, which tunnels under the skin of man where it lays eggs which
hatch and the young then start burrowing also. Ticks of the genus Ixodes
are very common on cattle and in fact they attack all land vertebrates
including snakes and lizards. They are common in grass lands.
Crustacea. The Crustaceans comprise a large assemblage present
ing great diversity of structure. They are divided into two subclasses ,
the Malacostraca , and Entomostraca . The former comprises, among
others, the familiar Crabs, Lobsters and Cray-fish , the latter the Barna
cles and the tiny water-fleas. The Crabs form the short-tailed group
of the order Decapoda and the Lobsters and Cray -fishes are members of
the long tailed division. Both are well represented in Travancore, and
so far some 30 species have been identified . The crabs are divided into
five tribes, representatives of three of which have so far been found ; the
first of these, the Cyclometopa, are distinguished by having rounded fore
heads. Most of the commoner species are included in this tribe . The
field-crab, Thelphusa leschenaulti, which is so abundant, is an example.
Some of the sea - crabs belonging to this tribe are very large, for example
Scylla serrata , dull greenish blue and Charybdis crucifera, which is also
conspicuous by its colour, purplish red with creamy white markings suf
fused with lighter purple, one of them forming a more or less conspicuous
cross . The edible crabs, Neptunus sanguinolentus, reddish yellow with
bright reddish round marking and Neptunus pelagicus, olive green with
orange markings, belong to this tribe , as also Cardiosoma carnifex, a dark
reddish brown crab having the appendages covered with hairs. It is
found on the margins of lakes. The second tribe Catometopa has the
frontal region of the carapace broad and square and bent downwards. The
crabs which are so commonly seen on the sands belong to this tribe, they
have very long eye-stalks and apparently see remarkably well. They
are gregarious and each one forms a burrow for itself ; they run very
swiftly and are by no means easy to catch ; two species, Ocypoda platy
tarsus and Ocypoda cardimana , have been identified , Nearly allied to
11
162 TRAVANCORE MANUAL. [ CHAP.
them are the curious Calling - crabs, Gelasismus annulipes, found on the
shores of the backwaters. The male has one pincer enormously developed
and it brandishes this as if it were beckoning, hence the name of call
ing -crab has been given to it. This claw is highly coloured and Major
Alcock has suggested that the males wave it to attract the females.
Another example is Grapsus grapsus which is bright reddish brown and
possesses long and powerful legs which enable it to dart about the rocks
very quickly and its flattened carapace enables it to find shelter in
amongst the crevices. It is fairly common at Cape Comorin .
The third tribe, the Oryrhynca, is unrepresented so far in the Museum
collection.

The fourth tribe, the Orystomata, or sharp-nosed crabs have the

carapace produced in front into a short beak-like prominence . They
vary in habit ; for instance, a species of Matuta found in the beach at
Trivandrum , a pale olive-coloured creature having a roughened carapace
with two prominent lateral prolongations forming spines, is an active
swimmer. Calappa lophos, on the other hand, leads a sluggish life on
the floor of the sea. It is found at Tiruvallam and Puvar. It has a
strongly convex carapace with the sides produced into shelf-like plates
covering the legs, and the pincers are enlarged and compressed, so that
when folded they form a covering to the face and so give it complete
protection. Leucosia craniolaris, another example of this tribe, is re
markible for the porcelain -like appearance and texture of its pale bluish
carapace. It is found on the Trivandrum beach .

The remaining tribe, the Anomala , is so far without a representative

in the collection .

There are several species of Hermit -crabs, which , having the integu
ment of the abdomen soft, use empty shells of the Mollusca to protect
themselves. None of these have been identified as yet. The Lobsters,
Prawns and Shrimps are numerous . Palinurus dasypus is perhaps the
commonest ; it is a large lobster reaching a length of over a foot. The
cephalo-thorax is olive green with dull reddish yellow markings, the
abdominal rings are finely spotted with orange. It has long antennæ and
the cephalo-thorax is thickly covered with spiny tubercles and there is a
large spine over each eye. Panusirus fasciatus, another lobster, has
even longer antennæ ; it is aa bluish green with orange transverse lines
a little above the posterior margins of the somites. A specimen 9 inches
long has the antenna 2 feet 4 inches in length. It is found among rocks,
IV.] FAUNA . 163

Thenus orientalis, also found on rocky shores, is reddish brown and the
head appendages are curiously produced into leaf-like processes .
Shrimps and prawns are common ; a species of Palemon grows to
nine inches in length and is commonly sold in the market. In the back
waters a very large prawn, Palemon carcinus, is found . The cephalo
thorax and the anterior portions of the somites are light purplish green
followed by deep blue with orange spots on the sides and tail. Its length
is 12 inches and the pincers are 19 inches.
The order Stomapoda is represented by a species of Mantis -shrimp
(Squilla ) which makes burrows in the sand. They have a very short
carapace and their seizing limbs are not chelate, but toothed, like the
forelimbs of a mantis, hence their name. The Isopoda are represented by
Hippa asiatica, pale bluish ashy, which lives in the sands also by
Spheroma whose convex body is capable of being rolled into a ball; they
live under stones. The fish -lice, some of which attain a length of 2 inches,
also belong to this group. On land the wood -lice represent it ; there are
several species to be found, but they are as yet unidentified.
The Entomostraca are well represented . A species of Lepas is
common and so is Balamus tittinabulum , one of the Acorn Barnacles. Of

the remaining subkingdoms, the Echinoderms, Molluscs, Worms, and

Calenterates, I can say nothing, as it has not been possible hitherto to
collect them systematically and to ascertain how far they are represented
in Travancore.
 CHAPTER V.