1) What is Mobile Computing? Or What do you understand by Mobile Computing?

Ans⇒ Mobile computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer or any other
wireless-enabled device /mobile device such as a handheld computer, laptop, smartphones, PDA etc. without having
to be connected to a fixed physical wire.
Mobile Computing is the process of computation on a mobile device. In this technology, a set of distributed computing
systems or service providers and servers participate, connect, and synchronize through mobile communication
protocols.

4) What are the two different types of mobility in Mobile Computing? There are two types of mobility used in
Mobile Computing:
Ans⇒ User Mobility: It is used to specify a user who has access to the same or similar telecommunication services at
different places. In User Mobility, a user can move between:
Different geographical locations.
Different networks.
Different communication devices.
And different applications.
Device Portability: It specifies the mobility of the device. There are many mechanisms in the network and inside the
device that ensure that communication is still possible while the device is moving.
In Device Portability, the device can move between:
Different geographical locations.
Different networks.

10) What are the different advantages of Mobile Computing?

Advantages of Mobile Computing
Increased Productivity: Mobile Computing allows users to use mobile devices in various fields and companies. So, it
has reduced the time and cost for clients and themselves also that's why productivity is increased.
Portability: this is one of the biggest advantages of mobile computing. It allows you to move freely and not restricted
to one location to complete your communication or do your jobs. You can even access your mails and do your online
assignment while going anywhere.
Entertainment: Due to the emerging of mobile devices and smartphones, the entertainment industry is enhanced
quickly and bigger than ever. You can use it for entertainment purposes also.
Cloud Computing: Mobile Computing provides the service of Cloud computing, which can be used for saving data,
documents, audio, video files etc. on an online server and being able to access them anytime and anywhere by
having only an internet connection. You can also access these files on several mobile devices or computers
simultaneously.

11) What are the main disadvantages of Mobile Computing?

Quality of Connectivity: The quality of connectivity is one of the biggest disadvantages of Mobile Computing. Mobile
devices require either Wi-Fi connectivity or mobile network connectivity such as GPRS, 3G or 4G connectivity. In this
case, if you are not near any of these connections, your internet access will be slow, very limited or disconnected
sometimes.
Security Issues and Threats: Mobile connections are always vulnerable to security issues or threats. Mobile VPNs
are not supposed to always be safe, and syncing devices might also lead to security concerns. If you are accessing a
Wi-Fi network connection, it can also be risky because hackers may easily hack or bypass WPA and WEP security.
Power Consumption and Battery Issues: Mobile devices use detachable and rechargeable batteries as a power
source during communication. These batteries do not tend to last long. In emergencies, if you don't have a source of
power for charging, then it will undoubtedly be a communication or data transmission failure.

29) What is GSM in Mobile Computing?

⇒ GSM is an acronym that stands for Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). It is a standard developed
by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G)
digital cellular networks used by mobile devices.
28) What are the different components of the Mobile IP?
Mobile Node: The mobile node is an end-user system or device with inbuilt software to provide network roaming
capabilities. Examples of Mobile nodes are smartphones, cell phones, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), laptop,
Tablet etc.
Home Agent: The home agents are used to provide several services for the mobile node and are located in the
home network. It maintains the location registry and acts as a starting point to send packets towards the mobile
nodes.
Foreign Agent: The foreign agent acts as a default router for the mobile nodes. It provides several services to the
mobile node during its visit to the foreign network.
Care-of Address (COA): It defines the mobile node's current location from an IP point of view. The packet delivery
toward the mobile node is done using a tunnel, and the COA denotes the endpoint of the tunnel. In other words, you
can say that it specifies the address where packets exit the tunnel.
Correspondent Node (CN): The correspondent node acts as a communication partner for the mobile node. It can be
a fixed or mobile node.
Home Network: The home network is the subset of the mobile node. No mobile IP support is needed within this
network.
Foreign network: A foreign network specifies a network in which a mobile node operates when away from its home
network.

31) Explain the GSM System Protocol Architecture.

⇒The GSM System protocol architecture can be defined as a layered model that allows communications between
two different systems. The lower layers provide the services to the upper-layer protocols. Each layer passes suitable
notifications to ensure the transmitted data has been formatted, transmitted, and received accurately.
See the following diagram of the GSM System protocol architecture:
The GSM System protocol architecture consists of the following protocols:

MS Protocols

According to the architecture, the MS protocol is assembled into three general layers:
Layer 1: The layer 1 specifies the physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.
Layer 2: The layer 2 specifies the data-link layer. The data-link layer is a modified version of the Link access protocol
for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAPDm).
Layer 3: The layer 3 specifies the GSM signaling protocol. it is divided into three sub-layers:
Radio Resource Management (RR)
Mobility Management (MM)
Connection Management (CM)

40) What are the main features of infrared transmission?

Infrared transmission is used in the region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Its wavelength is longer than
the wavelength of visible light but shorter than the wavelength of radio waves.
The Infrared frequencies are higher than the frequencies of microwaves but lower than the frequencies of visible light.
33) Explain the working of TCP in Mobile Computing.
1. TCP takes the messages from an application/server and divides them into packets.
2. Now, the packets are forwarded by the devices in the network i.e., switches, routers, security gateways etc.
to the destination.
3. TCP assigns a number to each packet and reassembles them before handing them off to the
application/server recipient.
4. It is connection-oriented, so it ensures that a connection is established and maintained until the packet
exchange between the application/servers sending and receiving is complete successfully.

38) What are the advantages and disadvantages of WLAN?

Advantages of WLAN
The wireless approach provides Flexibility: The most significant advantage of a WLAN is that it provides a facility that
devices can be connected wirelessly. It doesn't require cables, so it provides flexibility because even small devices
such as smartphones and tablets can be connected to the network without any wire.
Reduce Cost: WLANs were very expensive in the early 1990s and were only used when wired connections were
strategically impossible. But nowadays, the use of WLAN reduces the cost of the setup because it is cheap and
allows homes and businesses to create local networks without wiring the building with Ethernet. The cost of cable
and the wiring cost can be cut easily by using WLAN.
If you want to extend the connection area, you can easily upgrade WLAN by replacing routers with new versions of
devices with higher capacity. It is a more comfortable and cheaper solution than upgrading old Ethernet cables.
Support Unlimited Devices: WLANs are not limited by the number of physical ports on the router so, you can
connect dozens or even hundreds of devices. You can easily extend the range of a WLAN by adding one or more
repeaters.

Robustness: It is robust because there is no chance of connection failure due to loose wire.

Disadvantages of WLAN
Security: Wireless networks (WLAN) are naturally less secure than wired networks. It is very important to limit
access to the network if security is a concern because any wireless device can attempt to connect to a WLAN. You
can use wireless authentication such as WEP or WPA, which encrypts communication.
Susceptible to Interference: WLAN is more susceptible to interference from other signals or physical barriers, such
as concrete walls. That's why WLANs are not preferred over LANs. LANs offer the highest performance and security
and are still used for many corporate and government networks.
Quality of Service: The quality of service in WLAN is more inferior than LAN.
Low Speed: WLAN doesn't provide as higher speed as LAN can provide.

39) What is the difference between infrastructure and ad-hoc networks?

Infrastructure Network
● It is an infrastructure-based wireless network.
● In this network, the communication takes place between the wireless nodes and the access point.
Ad-hoc network
● It does not require any infrastructure to work.
● In this network model, each node can communicate directly with other nodes, so it doesn't require any
access point controlling medium.

1) Distinguish Mobile Computing vs. Wireless Networking?

⇒Mobile computing essentially denotes accessing information andremote computational services while, wireless
networking provides the basic communication infrastructure necessary to make this possible. Mobile computing
based on wireless networking and helps one to invoke computing services on remote servers while on the move
wireless networking is an important ingredient of mobile computing
2. What are the two types of wireless networks?
Wireless networks can be classified into two basic types. One is an extension of wired networks. It uses fixed
infrastructures such as base stations to provide essentially single hop wireless communication with a wired network
or a two-hop wireless cellular communication with another mobile The other type of wireless network is an ad hoc
network. An ad hoc network does not use any fixed infrastructure and is based on multihop wireless communication

3. What is base station?

A base station (BS) is located at the centre of each cell. The BS in acell receives communications from all mobile
handsets in the cell and forwards the data to the appropriate handset. Thus, a base station keeps track of the calls of
all handsets in its cell.

18. What are the security services provided in GSM?

Access Control and Authentication: It does Authentication of valid user for the SIM. The user need a secrete PIN to
access the SIM. Subscriber authentication is based on challenge response scheme
Confidentiality : User related data is encrypted. BTS and MS apply encryption to voice, data, and signaling. This
confidentiality exists only between MS and BTS and not end-to-end
Anonymity : To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and user identifiers which would
reveal an identity are not used over the air. GSM transmits a temporary identifier(TMSI),which is newly assigned by
the VLR after each location update.

23.List out bearer services of GPRS?

The bearer services of GPRS offer end-to-end packet switched data transfer. It supports: the point-to-point (PTP)
service and the point-to-multipoint (PTM) service.
• SMS: It was originally designed for GSM . GPRS will continue to support SMS as a bearer.
• WAP: It is a data bearer service over HTTP protocol.
• MMS: MMS is a Multimedia Messaging Service. This is the next generation messaging service.

24. List out GPRS-Specific Applications (any 5)

Chat : GPRS will offer ubiquitous chat by integrating Internet chat and wireless chat using
SMS and WAP.
Multimedia Service: Multimedia objects like photographs, pictures, postcards, greet-ing cards and presentations,
static web pages can be sent and received over the mobile network.
Virtual Private Network: GPRS network can be used to offer VPN services. Many banks are
migrating from VSAT to GPRS-based networks because the transaction time reduced by 25%.
Personal Information Management: Personal diary, address book, appointments,engagements are kept in the
phone some in the organizer and some in the Intranet.
Job Sheet Dispatch: GPRS can be used to assign and communicate job sheets from officebased staff to mobile field
staff. It can be combined with vehicle positioning applications so that the nearest available suitable personnel can be
deployed to serve a customer.
Unified Messaging: Unified messaging uses a single mailbox for all messages, includingvoice mail, fax, e-mail,
SMS, MMS, and pager messages.
Vehicle Positioning: This application integrates GPS that tell people where they are. Vehicle-positioning applications
can be used to deliver several services including remote vehicle diagnostics, ad hoc stolen vehicle tracking and new
rental car fleet tariffs and services

20. State different WAN topologies WLAN Topologies?

Peer-to-peer (ad hoc) topology - client devices within a communication range can communicate directly to each other.
AP-based topology - uses APs to bridge traffic onto a wired (Ethernet or Token Ring) or a wireless backbone. more
commonly used topology. Point-to-multipoint bridge topology-Wireless bridges connect LANs in one building to LANs
in another building even if the buildings are miles apart so that receive a clear line- of-sight between buildings.
14.What is the use of WAP Gateway?
● Gateway does protocol conversions between two ends—mobile client device and HTTP server.
● It has caches which is required due to frequent disconnections in the wireless environment.
● The gateway ensures security in wireless and wired networks.
● the gateway performs is iWML Script compilation and convert to CGI scripts for HTTP server

18.List the Bluetooth protocols

●
● Radio Layer Baseband (Link Controller) Link Manager Protocol (LMP)).
● Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) : SDP (Service discovery protocol
● HCI (Host control interface RFCOMM TCS BIN OBEX

7. What are the three type’s of encapsulations in Mobile IP?

● Encapsulation needed for the tunnel between HA and COA
1. IP in IP (Mandatory for Mobile IP),
2. Minimal (removes the redundant fields in IP-IP
3. Generic routing (supports other network layer protocol in addition to IP)

2. What is the difference between fixed infrastructure network and an Ad-hoc network ?
Fixed Infra structure Network ⇒ A fixed infrastructure network uses access-points, base stations, and gateways.
● Remote systems are networked using switches, hubs, and routers. The locations of these switches hubs, or
routers are fixed
Ad-hoc network
● An ad-hoc network is a network in which the locations of the switches, hubs, or routers can be mobile.
● The number of routers available at an instant can increase or decrease, and the available routing paths can
vary in an adhoc network.
3. What is a MANET?
● MANET is a self-configuration wireless ad-hoc network of mobile nodes.
● A peer-to-peer wireless network which transmits data packets from one computer to another
● without the use of a central base station (access-point).
● Each node has a router or a switch connected by the wireless connection.
4. What are the design issues in Ad-hoc routing?
Mobility: The network topology in an ad hoc wireless network is highly dynamic due to the
movement of nodes, hence an on-going session suffers frequent path breaks.
Bandwidth Constraint: In a wireless network, the radio band is limited, and hence the data rates it
can offer are much less than what a wired network can offer.
Error-Prone Shared Broadcast Radio Channel : The broadcast nature of the radio channel poses a
unique challenge in ad hoc wireless networks.
Hidden terminal problem : The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a
receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not within the direct
transmission range of the sender, but are within the transmission range of the receiver.
Resource Constraints : Two essential and limited resources that form the major constraint for the
nodes in an ad hoc wireless network are battery life and processing power.

1. What are the steps involved in Mobile Application Development workflow ?

● Application development using integrated development environment (IDE) or APIs it, a framework for a
specific platform.
● Testing and debugging application executables on a simulator or emulator.
● Developing GUIs for the users of the device.
● Packaging applications for installation on the device for a service provider or application distributor
● Web-hosting of executables at an Application store or Mobile application distribution
● platform. (AppStore of Apple is an example of an application store.)
● The graphical user interfaces (GUIs) of the application are written using GUI development APIs.
● Applications are deployed on a device.
2. Mention the techniques/ approaches for composing mobile applications.
● Application (software for application) is written using a set of the statements, functions, methods, threads,
objects, and classes. High-level language like C, Java, Visual Basic, Visual C++, Python or Brew native
codes are used for that purpose.
● Applications are written using APIs (Application Program Interfaces) which are a set of functions, methods,
routines, tools or protocols for building the application. API enables easier development of an Application.
An API provides the blocks for Application building. These blocks are put together to write an application. All
applications using a common API will have similar interfaces. This makes it easier for users to learn writing
new programs.
● A framework like, NET or Qt is used for writing application software which use APIs
● Application is written using the APIs provided by a development platform (e.g., Operating Systems like
Android or Symbian or Windows Phone 7).
● WAP (Wireless Application Protocol), XHTML-Mobile Profile, and Java ME (Micro Edition) are technologies
for Web related applications which are used for mobile devices. HTML5 is a language used for web page
development. Micro browsers are used for browsing on a mobile device.

4. Mention few Android applications.

● An e-mail client compatible with Gmail but not limited to it
● An SMS management application
● A full PIM (personal information management) suite including a calendar and
● contacts list, both tightly integrated with Google‘s online services
● No licensing, distribution, or development fees
● Wi-Fi hardware access
● GSM, EDGE, and 3G networks for telephony or data transfer, allowing you to make
● or receive calls or SMS messages, or to send and retrieve data across mobile networks
● Comprehensive APIs for location-based services such as GPS
● Full multimedia hardware control including playback and recording using the camera
● and microphone
● APIs for accelerometer and compass hardware.
● IPC message passing.
6. What are the advantages of Android?
● Multitasking: With Android, you can quickly and seamlessly switch between apps and pick up whatever you
were doing. Juggling multiple tasks at once on a mobile device has never been easier.
● It has simple and powerful SDK. Also allows multitasking. Licensing, Distribution orDevelopment fee is not
required. Easy to Import third party Java library. Supporting platforms are – Linux, Mac Os, Windows.
● Innovative products like the location-aware services, location of a nearby convenience store etc., are some
of the additive facilities in Android.
● Components can be reused and replaced by the application framework. Optimized DVM for mobile devices.
● SQLite enables to store the data in a structured manner.
● Supports GSM telephone and Bluetooth, WiFi, 3G and EDGE technologies.
● The development is a combination of a device emulator, debugging tools, memory profiling and plug-in for
Eclipse IDE.
● The customer will be benefited from wide range of mobile applications to choose, since the monopoly of
wireless carriers like AT&T and Orange will be broken by Google Android.
● There's no other software quite like Android. Google engineered Android, and Google‘s own
● apps run best on it. And with millions of apps, games, songs, and videos on Google Play,
● Android is great for fun, and for getting things done.

7. What are the disadvantages of Android?

● Given that Android is an open-source platform, and the fact that different Android operating systems have
been released on different mobile devices, there‘s no clear cut policy to how applications can adapt with
various OS versions and upgrades.
● One app that runs on this particular version of Android OS may or may not run on another version. Another
disadvantage is that since mobile devices such as phones and tabs come in different sizes and forms, it
poses a challenge for developers to create apps that can adjust correctly to the right screen size and other
varying features and specs.
8.What are the six components of android application?
● Activities, services, content providers, intents, broadcast receivers, notifications

9. What are the requirements of android applications ?

● Applications must be Fast Responsive Secure and Seamless.

ii) Difference between 2G and 3G.?

Cost: The license fee to be paid for 3G network is much higher as compared to 2G networks. The network
construction and maintenance of 3G is much costlier than 2G networks. Also from the customers point of view the
expenditure for 3G network will be excessively high if they make use of the various applications of 3G.
Data Transmission: The main difference between 2G and 3G networks is seen by the mobile users who download
data and browse the Internet on the mobile phones. They find
much faster download speeds, faster access to the data and applications in 3G networks as compared to 2G
networks. 2G networks are less compatible with the functions of smart phone. The speed of data transmission in 2G
network is less than 50,000 bits per sec while in 3G it can be more than 4 million bits per sec.
Function: The main function of 2G technology is the transmission of information via voice signals while that of 3G
technologies is data transfer via video conferencing, MMS etc.
Features: The features like mobile TV, video transfers and GPS systems are the additional features of 3G technology
that are not available with 2G technologies.
Frequencies: 2G technology uses a broad range of frequencies in both upper and lowerbands, under which the
transmission depends on conditions such as weather. A drawback of 3G is that it is simply not available in certain
regions.
5. Give the detail explanation of GSM ARCHITECTURE with neat diagram.
● It consists of minimum one administrative region assigned to one MSC (Mobile Switching Centre) known as
PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network). Each administrative region is subdivided into one or many Location
Area (LA).
● One LA consists of many cell groups. For each LA there will be at least one BSC. Cells are formed by the
radio areas covered by a BTS (Base Transceiver Station). Several BTSs are controlled by one BSC.
● Traffic from the MS (Mobile Station) is routed through MSC. Calls originating / terminating in a fixed network
or other mobile networks is handled by the GMSC (Gateway MSC).
● A GSM system consist of three subsystems, the radio sub system (RSS), the network and switching
subsystem (NSS), and the operation subsystem (OSS). (GSM customer only notices MS ,BTS).

7. Explain GSM SECURITY services Encryption & AUTHENTICATION in detail.

● GSM offers several security services using confidential information stored in the AUC(Authentication Centre)
and individual SIM(Subscriber Identity Module)
● Important security services are
● Access Control and Authentication: It does Authentication of valid user for the SIM. The user need a secrete
PIN to access the SIM. Subscriber authentication isbased on challenge response scheme
● Confidentiality: User related data is encrypted. BTS and MS apply encryption to voice, data, and signaling.
This confidentiality exists only between MS and BTS and not end-toend
● Anonymity: To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and user identifiers which
would reveal an identity are not used over the air. GSM transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI),which is
newly assigned by the VLR after each location update.
● AUTHENTICATION: Any subscriber must be authenticated before using service from GSM network. It is
done at AUC
● Authentication is based on SIM-which stores the individual authentication key Ki ,User identification IMSI
and A3 – an algorithm used for authentication Authentication uses a CHALLENGE – RESPONSE METHOD
The access control AC generates a random number RAND as challenge SIM with MS answer with SRES
(signature response)as response The AUC performs the basic generation of random values RAND, signed
responses SRES, and cipher keys Kc for each IMSI, and then forwards this information to the HLR, The
current VLR requests the appropriate values for RAND, SRES, and Kc, from the HLR

1.Define the term wireless?

⇒Wireless telecommunications refers to the transfer of information between two or more points that are not
physically connected. Distances can be short, such as a few metres for television remote control, or as far as
thousands or even millions of kilometers for deepspace radio communications. It encompasses various types of fixed,
mobile, and portable applications, including two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs),
and wireless networking
 2. Give the difference between the network 1G,2G,2.5G,3G mobile communication?
⇒1G - Voice-only communication. 2G – Communicate voice as well as data signals. 2.5G – Enhancements of the
second generation and sport data rates up to 100 kpbs. 3G – Mobile devices communicate at even higher data rates
and support voice, data , and multimedia streams. High data rates in 3G devices enable transfer of video clips and
faster multimedia communication.

3.What do you mean by encapsulation and decapsulation in the context of mobile IP?
⇒Explain why these are needed. MAY/JUNE 2016 Encapsulation refers to arranging a packet header and data in the
data part of the new packet. On the other hand, disassembling the data part of an encapsulated packet is called
decapsulation. Whenever a packet is sent from a higher protocol layer to a lower protocol layer, the operations of
encapsulation and decapsulation usually take place. The packet is encapsulated by a new header that is placed in
front of the existing IP header. The encapsulated packet is tunnelled to the COA, which act as the new destination
addressand the HA acts as the source address of the packet.The MN after receiving the packet from CN, forwards a
reply packetto the CN by specifying its own IP address along with the address of the CN

What is binding update and binding warning?

Binding update: This is a message sent by HA to CN mentioning the correct location of MN. The message contains
the fixed IP address of the mobile node and the care-of-address. The binding update can C310.2 BTL1 request for an
acknowledgement. Binding warning: If a node decapsulates a packet for a mobile node (MN), but it is not the current
foreign agent (FA), then this nodes ends a binding warning to the home agent (HA) of the mobile node (MN).

What is DHCP? MAY/JUNE 2016, APR/MAY 2018

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a standardized network protocol used on Internet Protocol (IP)
networks. The DHCP protocol is controlled by a DHCP server that dynamically distributes network configuration
parameters, such as IP addresses, for interfaces and services.

What is IP datagram?
An IP packet is also called a datagram. A datagram is of variable length which can be up to 65,536 bytes. It has two
fields, namely header and da

List the modification in single & multi hop wireless network?

APR/MAY 2017 Single hop network In a single hop network , when a packet leaves the source it just takes a single
hop (goes through another network or you can say it passes through another router from a different network) before
reaching its destination address. Multi-hop network In a multi-hop network a packet has to go through 2 or more
networks in order to reach its destination address. While taking a hop through a different network a packet may go
through various devices like Routers, network bridges, switches, etc…

1 List the two basic reasons for a handover in GSM.

The mobile station moves out of the range of a BTS or a certain antenna of a BTS. The received signal level
decreases continuously until it falls below the minimal requirements for communication. The error rate may grow due
to interference. All these effects may diminish the quality of the radio link. The wired infrastructure may decide that
the traffic in one cell is too high and shift some MS to other cells with a lower load. Handover may be due to load
balancing.

What do you mean by mobility binding?

The Mobile Node sends its registration request to the Home Agent. The HA now sets up a mobility binding containing
the mobile node’s home IP address and the current COA.

What are the main functions of DHCP?

Why is DHCP needed? Can it be used when nodes are mobile? Explain your answer. Explain how mobile IP is
different from DHCP. State some applications of DHCP.(Pg no:74) MAY/JUNE 2016
list the suggestion on mobile phone with respect to human body?
Mobile phone use does not increase the risk of getting brain cancer or other head tumors The effects of the
radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RFEMR) emitted by mobile phones on affects fertility and reproductive
systems. Mobile phone has caused changes in Heart Rate Variability indices and the change varied with its position

What is Ad-Hoc ?
In a simplistic realization of this concept, a mobile device wanting to communicate can forward its packets to its
neighbours, and the neighbour nodes in turn can forward those to their neighbours, and so on until the destination is
reached

Define MANET
. A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously selfconfiguring, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices
connected without wires. However, of late several specialized MANETs such as Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
and Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) have emerged. Each of these specialized ad hoc networks is suitable for a
specific kind of application.

4 List the Characteristics of mobile Adhoc Network ?

There are several characteristics that distinguish a MANET from an
1. Lack of fixed infrastructure: Lack of any specific networking
infrastructure is possibly the most distinguishing characteristic of a
MANET.
2. Dynamic topologies: Since the devices in a MANET are allowed to move arbitrarily, the network topology can
change unpredictably.
3. Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links: Wireless links have significantly lower capacity than their wired
counterparts.
4. Energy constrained operation: The nodes in a MANET rely on battery power. These batteries are small and can
store very limited amounts of energy.
5.Increased vulnerability: MANETs are prone to many new types of security threats that do not exist in the case of
their wired counterparts..
6. Other characteristics: Other distinguishing characteristics of a MANET include a distributed peer-to-peer mode of
operation, multi-hop routing, and relatively frequent changes to the concentration of nodes over any specific area.

What are the Applications of MANETs

A MANET can be set up quickly since no fixed infrastructures need to be deployed. Thus, in any situation where fixed
infrastructure becomes difficult to be set up because of security, cost, inaccessibility of the terrain, or safety-related
reasons, ad hoc networks become the preferred choice. Of the large number of applications that are possible with
MANETs, a few example applications are defence-related operations and disaster management application
1.Communication among portable computers Miniaturization has allowed the development of many types of portables
and computerized equipment, which have become very popular. Many of these portables work meaningfully when
connected to some network, possibly a LAN or the Internet. For this, the portables are typically required to be within
the range of some wireless hub. - Satisfaction of this requirement would, however, drastically reduce the flexibility and
the mobility of the devices. As an example, consider a lecture room where no networking infrastructures exist.
2.Environmental monitoring A popular category of applications of MANETs is the collection of C310.4 BTL1 the
various types of data about the environment in which they are deployed. Continuous data collection from remote
locations is considered important for several applications such as environmental management, security monitoring,
road traffic monitoring and management, etc.
3.Military -The present-day military equipment have become quite sophisticated, have many automated parts and
contain one or more computers. -This opens up the scope of setting up an ad hoc network consisting of various
military equipment deployed in a frontline battle field. Ad hoc networking of these equipment can allow a military
setup to take advantage of an information network among the soldiers, vehicles, and military information
headquarters. - For example, an ad hoc network can be automatically set up at a battlefront among the equipment,
and the hand-held devices can collect information from and disseminate command to the frontline personnel.
4.Emergency applications -Ad hoc networks do not require any pre-existing infrastructure. -These networks,
therefore, can be deployed easily and rapidly in emergency situations such as a search and rescue
What are the Several types of routing protocols have been proposed for MANETs.?
Different routing protocols essentially implement the above steps (a) and (b) while meeting the constraints inherent
to the network, such as low energy consumption, through the deployment of various techniques. -We will now review
the essential concepts of a traditional routing technique. Later, we will build upon these concepts to introduce the
routing protocols for ad hoc networks. No simple IP-address based routing is possible in a MANET due to the
continual topology changes on account of node movements

What are the essentials needs of traditional routing Protocols

- It is necessary to have a clear understanding of the routing mechanisms deployed in a traditional network. It will
help us appreciate the specific changes made to traditional routing protocols to support the specific requirements of
an ad hoc network. Two important classes of routing protocols for traditional networks are the link state and the
distance vector. These two protocols are extremely popular in packet-switched networks. Both these protocols require
a node to determine the next hop along the “shortest path” towards a given destination. The shortest path is
computed according to some specific cost metric such as the number of hops in the route.

What is Routing in MANETs vs. Routing in Traditional Networks ?

The following are the three important ways in which a MANET routing protocol differs from routing of packets in a
traditional network. • In a MANET, each node acts as a router, whereas ordinary nodes in a traditional wired network
do not participate in routing the packets. • In a MANET, the topology is dynamic because of the mobility of the nodes,
but it is static in the case of traditional networks. Thus, the routing tables in a MANET quickly become obsolete,
making the routing process complicated. In the simple IP-based addressing scheme deployed in wired networks, the
IP address encapsulated in the subnet structure does not work because of node mobility.

8 Write the Important steps in the operation of DSDV? NOV/DEC2018

The important steps in the operation of DSDV are summarized below: 1. Each router (node) in the network collects
route information from all its neighbours. 2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the
destination based on the gathered information. 3. Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is
generated. 4. The router broadcasts this table to its neighbours. On receipt by neighbours, the neighbour nodes
recompute their respective routing tables. 5. This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.

9 What are the Security Issues in a MANET -

A few important characteristics of ad hoc networks that can be exploited to cause security vulnerabilities are the
following: Lack of physical boundary: Each mobile node functions as a router and forwards packets from other nodes.
Low power RF transmissions: It is possible for a malicious node to continuously transmit and monopolise the medium
and cause its neighbouring nodes to wait endlessly for transmitting their messages. Limited computational
capabilities: Nodes in an ad hoc network usually have limited computational capabilities. -It therefore becomes
difficult to deploy compute-intensive security solutions such as setting up a public-key cryptosystem. Limited power
supply: Since nodes normally rely on battery power, an attacker might attempt to exhaust batteries by causing C310.4
BTL1 unnecessary transmissions to take place or might cause excessive computations to be carried out by the
nodes.

10. Compare AODV & DSR protocols? NOV/DEC2017

DSR has less routing overhead than AODV AODV has less normalized MAC overhead than DSR. DSR is based on
a source routing mechanism whereas AODV uses a combination of DSR and DSDV mechanisms. AODV has better
performance than DSR in higher-mobility C310.4 BTL4 scenarios. DSR has less frequent route discovery processes
than AODV

What do you mean by dampling in DSDV?

Transient changes in topology that are of short duration should not destabilize the routing
mechanisms.Advertisements containing changes in the topology currently stored are therefore not disseminated
further.A node waits with dissemination if these changes are probably unstable.Waiting time depends on the time
between the first and best announcement of a path to a certain destination.
What are the layers of Operating System?
The operating system is usually structured into a kernel layer and a shell layer. The shell essentially provides facilities
for user interaction with the kernel. The kernel executes in the supervisor mode and can run privileged instructions
that could not be run in the user mode

7 list the important features of the Windows mobile OS NOV/DEC2018 •

The Graphics/Window/Event manager (GWE) component handles all input and output. • Provides a virtual memory
management. • Supports security through the provision of a cryptographic library. • Application development is similar
to that in the Win32 environment. support true multitasking in the future versions of the Windows Phone operating
system

List the important features of Palm OS

• It is essentially a simple single-tasking operating system. As a result, only one application can run at a time. The
implications of this are many and easily noticeable. • It has an elementary memory management system. • Palm
supplies Palm emulator, which emulates the Palm hardware on a PC. • It supports a handwriting recognition-based
system for user input. • It supports a facility called HotSync technology for data synchronization with desktop
computers. • It supports sound playback and recording capabilities. C310.5 BTL1 • It incorporates a very simple and
rudimentary security model in which a device can be locked by password. • It uses a proprietary format to store
calendar, address, task and note entries and yet are accessible by third-party applications.

Mention the important features supported by the Symbian operating system

• It supports a number of communication and networking protocols including TCP, UDP, PPP, DNS, FTP, WAP.For
personal area networking, it supports Bluetooth, InfraRed and USB connectivity. • It supports pre-emptive multitasking
scheduling and memory protection. • CPU is switched into a low-power mode when the application is not responding
to an event. • It is optimized for low-power and memory requirements. Applications, and the OS itself, follow an
object-oriented design paradigm. • All Symbian programming is event-based, and the CPU is switched into a
low-power mode when the applications are not directly dealing with an event. This is achieved through a
programming idiom called active objects.

Define Android kernel

Android kernel has been developed based on a version of Linux kernel.It has excluded the native X Window System
and does notsupport the full set of standard GNU libraries. this makes it difficult to reuse the existing Linux
applications or libraries on Android. Based on the Linux kernel code, Android implements its own device drivers,
memory management, process management and networking functionalities. Android is multitasking and allows
applications to run concurrently

list the pros & cons of M- commerce? APR/MAY 2017,APR/MAY 2018

Providing a wider reach or Accessibility Reducing the transaction cost Ubiquity Personalization. Reducing time.
Cons: Limited Speed Small Screen SizeNo standard for M-commerce Technology constraints of devices Risky
investment

List the Features required of a mobile device to enable mobile commerce

• Good Internet connectivity • Ability to display rich content such as images • Have a good quality camera with auto
focus • Screen should be able to properly display the bar codes • Ability to read the RFID tags • MMS (Multimedia
Message Service), SMS (Short Message Service) • Ability to communicate between the mobile device and the
supporting network • Ability to scan bar codes • Ability to interact with the Point-of-Sale (PoS) terminals

What is POS? NOV/DEC 2016

Point-of-Sale (PoS) usually means a checkout counter in a shop or supermarket. More specifically, the point-of-sale
often refers to the hardware and software used for handling customer purchases at the checkout desks. An example
of a PoS terminal is an electronic cash register. Nowadays, the point-of-sale systems are used in almost every
supermarket and are used in many retail stores too.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of BlackBerry OS? NOV/DEC 2017
Pros Excellent Connectivity (Messengers viz BBM, yahoo, gtalk, whatsapp work seamlessly) Amazing email client
(can also sync with your enterprise server) Most user friendly qwerty keyboard (easy typing) Very fast and snappy
Cons Battery life not great in some models Camera quality not great Application support is bad Almost all models
have similar utility and features. (Minor change in visuals cz of the new OS

What is M- commerce? MAY/JUNE 2016,APR/MAY 2018

Mobile e-commerce (m-commerce) is a term that describes online sales transactions that use wireless electronic
devices such as hand-held computers, mobile phones or laptops. These wireless devices interact with computer
networks that have the ability to conduct online merchandise purchases. Any type of cash exchange is referred to as
an e-commerce transaction. Mobile ecommerce is just one of the many subsets of electronic commerce. Mobile
ecommerce may also be known as mobile commerce

Differentiate E – commerce and M- commerce?

E-commerce or electronic commerce, is the process of buying and selling goods, products and services over
electronic systems such as internet, telephone and e-mail. M-Commerce or mobile commerce is process of buying
and selling products and services through wireless handheld devices such as cell phones or PDAs.

What are the disadvantages of BlackBerry OS?

Cons Battery life not great in some models . Camera quality not great. Application support is bad. Almost all models
have similar utility and features. C310.5 BTL1 (Minor change in visuals cz of the new OS)

1. Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) :

MANET consists of number of mobile devices that are connected together to form a network, without any support
from an existing internet infrastructure or any other fixed network station. It is autonomous system of nodes
connected by wireless links. In MANET the network topology may change dynamically in an unpredictable manner
since there is no fixed infrastructure and the nodes are free to move, but each node have limited transmitting power.
MANET’s are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless network in which packets are transmitted in store.

Uses of MANETs :

Military Operations: MANETs can be used for secure communication and coordination between soldiers in the field.
Emergency Response: MANETs can be set up quickly in disaster or emergency situations to provide communication
networks for rescue and relief operations.
Conferences and Events: MANETs can be used to provide temporary network connectivity for attendees at
conferences, trade shows, and other events.
Rural and Remote Areas: MANETs can be used to provide connectivity in rural and remote areas where traditional
communication infrastructure is scarce.
Transportation: MANETs can be used in transportation systems, such as buses, trains, and airplanes, to provide
passengers with network connectivity while in transit.
Healthcare: MANETs can be used in healthcare facilities, such as hospitals and clinics, to provide secure and reliable
communication between medical staff.
Overall, MANETs can provide quick, flexible, and reliable network connectivity in a variety of situations where
traditional communication infrastructure may be unavailable or insufficient.
2. Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANET) :

VANET is similar to MANET in terms, that is also do not need any infrastructure for data transmission. VANET play
important role in aspect of safe driving, intelligent navigation, emergency and entertainment applications .It can be
defined as an intelligent component of transport system as vehicle are able to communicate with each other as well
as roadside base station, which are located at critical points of the road. Example :-Intersection and Construction
Sites.

Uses of VANETs :

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): VANETs can be used to enhance traffic flow, reduce congestion, and
improve road safety by enabling communication between vehicles and with road-side infrastructure.
Navigation and Location-Based Services: VANETs can provide real-time traffic and navigation information to drivers,
allowing them to make informed decisions and avoid congestion.
Emergency Services: VANETs can be used to quickly and efficiently relay emergency messages, such as accidents
and road closures, to other vehicles and to emergency services.
Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication: VANETs can facilitate communication
between vehicles and with road-side infrastructure, allowing for a wide range of applications, such as cooperative
driving and platooning.
Entertainment and Infotainment Services: VANETs can provide entertainment and information services, such as
streaming music and video, to passengers in vehicles.

Difference between MANET and VANET :

MANET
1. Production cost of MANET is cheap as compared to VANET
2. Mobility of MANET is low as it make bit difficult for network enables the serving networks to locate a mobile
subscriber’s point.
3. Change in network topology orientation is slow.
4. Sparse node density.
5. MANET HAVE 100 Kps bandwidth available.
6. It ranges Upto 100 m.
7. MANET node lifetime depends on power resources.
8. MANET have medium reliability.
9. Attribute Based addressing scheme.
VANET
1. Much Expensive
2. High Mobility, as serving networks to locate a mobile subscriber’s point is easy.
3. Frequent and very fast change of network topology,
4. Node density is frequent variables.
5. VANET bandwidth is 1000 Kps.
6. 500 m range available in VANET.
7. Depend on lifetime vehicle.
8. High reliability of VANET.
9. Location Bases addressing scheme.
What are the characteristics of Mobile Ad hoc Networks(MANNETs) and its operational Constraints?

Characteristics:

Dynamic Topology: MANETs have a dynamic and rapidly changing network topology due to the mobility of nodes.
Nodes can join or leave the network at any time, causing frequent topology changes.

Infrastructure-less: MANETs operate without a fixed infrastructure such as base stations or access points. Nodes in
the network act both as hosts and routers, forwarding data for other nodes.

Decentralized Control: MANETs typically operate with a distributed and decentralized control mechanism. There is no
central authority governing the network, and nodes collaborate to route and forward packets.

Limited Resources: Mobile devices in MANETs often have limited battery power, processing capabilities, and
memory. Efficient resource management is crucial to prolong the network's overall lifespan.

Wireless Communication: MANETs use wireless communication for data exchange among nodes. The wireless
nature introduces challenges related to signal interference, fading, and limited bandwidth.

Multi-hop Communication: Communication between nodes often occurs through multi-hop routes. Each node serves
as both a user and a router, relaying data for other nodes in the network.

Security Challenges: MANETs are susceptible to various security threats such as eavesdropping, data manipulation,
and denial-of-service attacks due to the lack of a central authority and the open nature of the wireless medium.

Operational Constraints:

Limited Bandwidth: The available bandwidth in MANETs is often limited, and efficient use of this resource is critical for
maintaining a satisfactory level of network performance.

Node Mobility: Nodes in MANETs can move freely, leading to frequent changes in the network topology. This dynamic
nature poses challenges for routing algorithms and requires adaptive protocols.

Energy Constraints: Battery-powered devices in MANETs have limited energy resources. It is essential to design
energy-efficient protocols to maximize the network's operational time.

Self-Configuration: Nodes in MANETs must be capable of self-configuration to adapt to changes in the network,
discover new nodes, and establish communication links without centralized control.

Scalability: MANETs need to be scalable to accommodate a varying number of nodes. Scalable protocols can handle
the addition or removal of nodes without significant degradation in performance.

Quality of Service (QoS) Challenges: Providing consistent QoS in MANETs is challenging due to the dynamic
topology and limited resources. Maintaining acceptable levels of delay, throughput, and reliability is a complex task.

Security Concerns: The decentralized and open nature of MANETs makes them vulnerable to security threats.
Ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data in such an environment is a significant operational
challenge.
3.What is GPRS? Describe GPRS services and GPRS Architecture? 1+2+2
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):

Description:

GPRS, which stands for General Packet Radio Service, is a packet-switched wireless communication technology that
enables data transmission over mobile networks. It is an enhancement of the Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM) standard, providing an efficient and cost-effective way to transmit data wirelessly.

GPRS Services:

Packet-Switched Data Transmission: GPRS enables the transmission of data in packets, allowing more efficient use
of network resources compared to traditional circuit-switched methods.

Always-On Connectivity: GPRS provides an "always-on" connection, eliminating the need to establish a new
connection for each data transfer. This is particularly beneficial for applications that require continuous or frequent
data updates.

Variable Data Rates: GPRS supports variable data rates, adjusting to the available network capacity and the
requirements of different applications. It can deliver data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps to 171.2 kbps.

Cost-Efficient Billing: GPRS billing is based on the volume of data transmitted rather than the duration of the
connection. This makes it cost-effective for users, as they are charged according to the amount of data exchanged.

Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS): GPRS supports multimedia messaging, allowing users to send and receive
messages containing text, images, audio, and video.

GPRS Architecture:
Mobile Station (MS): The mobile station refers to the user's device, such as a mobile phone or a data terminal,
equipped with a GPRS-compatible mobile transceiver.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS): The BSS consists of Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and Base Station Controller
(BSC). The BTS handles the radio communication with the mobile devices, while the BSC manages multiple BTSs
and performs functions like handovers.
GPRS Support Node (GSN): The GSN is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets within the GPRS
network. It includes two components: Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Node
(GGSN).

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): SGSN manages the mobility and session information for the mobile devices
within its geographical area. It is responsible for packet routing, mobility management, and security functions.

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): GGSN acts as a gateway between the GPRS network and external
packet-switched networks, such as the Internet. It assigns IP addresses to mobile devices and manages the
interconnection with external networks.

GPRS Operation and Support System (OSS): The GPRS OSS handles network management, monitoring, and
maintenance tasks. It includes various components for network planning, performance monitoring, and fault
detection.
4. Write Short note(any one): a) Palm OS b) iOS c) Android d) Symbian OS e) DSDV f) DSR
a) Palm OS:
Palm OS was an operating system developed by Palm, Inc. for personal digital assistants (PDAs) and later extended
to smartphones. It gained popularity in the late 1990s and early 2000s, known for its simplicity and user-friendly
interface. However, with the rise of more advanced mobile operating systems, Palm OS eventually became obsolete,
and its development ceased.
b) iOS:
iOS is the mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. It powers iPhones, iPads, and iPod Touch devices.
Known for its sleek design, smooth performance, and tight integration with Apple's hardware, iOS has become one of
the most widely used mobile platforms globally. It features a curated App Store, regular updates, and a focus on
security.
c) Android:
Android is an open-source mobile operating system developed by the Open Handset Alliance, led by Google. It is the
most widely used operating system globally, powering a vast array of smartphones and tablets. Android offers a high
level of customization, a diverse app ecosystem, and compatibility with a wide range of devices from different
manufacturers.
d) Symbian OS:
Symbian OS was an operating system designed for mobile devices and smartphones. Developed by Symbian Ltd., it
was once a dominant player in the mobile market. However, it faced challenges from competitors like iOS and
Android, leading to a decline in its popularity. Nokia, one of the key supporters of Symbian OS, eventually shifted its
focus to other platforms, contributing to the decline of Symbian.
e) DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector):
DSDV is a routing protocol used in wireless ad-hoc networks. It is designed to provide a loop-free and reliable path
for data transmission. DSDV uses sequence numbers to keep track of the freshness of routing information, making it
suitable for dynamic and changing network topologies.
f) DSR (Dynamic Source Routing):
DSR is a routing protocol commonly used in wireless ad-hoc networks. Unlike traditional routing protocols, DSR is a
reactive protocol, meaning it discovers routes on-demand as opposed to maintaining a predefined routing table. DSR
allows nodes to dynamically discover and maintain the routes to other nodes in the network, making it adaptable to
changing network conditions.

5. Write down advantages of wireless LAN over wired LAN. 5

Mobility and Flexibility:
Advantage: Wireless LANs provide mobility and flexibility, allowing users to connect to the network from different
locations within the coverage area. This is particularly beneficial in environments where mobility is essential, such as
offices, airports, or public spaces.
Ease of Installation:
Advantage: Setting up a wireless LAN is generally easier and quicker than installing a wired LAN. There is no need
for extensive cabling, which simplifies the installation process and reduces associated costs. This makes wireless
networks ideal for temporary setups or locations where running cables is impractical.
Scalability:
Advantage: Wireless networks are easily scalable. Adding new devices to a wireless network is typically
straightforward and doesn't require the physical installation of additional cables. This makes it convenient to expand
the network to accommodate a growing number of devices.
Cost Savings:

Advantage: While the initial cost of wireless equipment may be higher, the overall installation and maintenance costs
of a wireless LAN can be lower than those of a wired LAN. The reduced need for cabling, connectors, and associated
infrastructure contributes to cost savings.
Adaptability to Dynamic Environments:
6. What is piconet? Briefly explain the protocol stack of Bluetooth. 1+4

Piconet:
A piconet is a small ad-hoc network created using Bluetooth technology. In a piconet, one device acts as the master,
and other devices serve as slaves. The master coordinates communication within the piconet, managing the timing
and frequency hopping patterns. Each piconet has a unique hopping sequence to avoid interference with other
nearby piconets. Bluetooth devices can participate in multiple piconets, and a collection of interconnected piconets is
referred to as a scatternet.

Bluetooth Protocol Stack:

The Bluetooth protocol stack is divided into layers, similar to the OSI model. It consists of the following layers:
Bluetooth Radio Layer:
Function: The lowest layer deals with the physical transmission of data over the air. It defines the modulation scheme,
frequency hopping patterns, and power levels used by Bluetooth devices.
Bluetooth Baseband Layer:
Function: This layer manages the connection establishment, packet formatting, error detection, and correction. It also
handles the synchronization of devices in a piconet, manages time slots, and facilitates frequency hopping.
Bluetooth Link Manager Protocol (LMP):
Function: LMP is responsible for link setup, authentication, encryption, and link maintenance. It manages the
connection between Bluetooth devices, handles security procedures, and facilitates the negotiation of connection
parameters.
Bluetooth Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP):
Function: L2CAP provides a multiplexing layer for higher-layer protocols. It adapts higher-layer protocols to the
baseband layer, enabling the transmission of various data types. L2CAP is responsible for segmentation and
reassembly of large data packets.
Bluetooth Service Discovery Protocol (SDP):
Function: SDP allows Bluetooth devices to discover available services and their characteristics. It enables devices to
understand the capabilities of each other and facilitates the establishment of connections based on supported
services.

. What is cellular Network and its advantage?

Cellular Network:
A cellular network is a wireless communication system that divides a geographic area into smaller hexagonal or
circular regions called cells. These cells collectively provide coverage for mobile devices, allowing users to make and
receive calls, send messages, and access data services while moving within the network. Cellular networks use a
system of base stations, often referred to as cell towers, to provide wireless connectivity.

Advantages of Cellular Networks:

Increased Capacity: Cellular networks can accommodate a large number of users by dividing the coverage area into
cells. This spatial reuse of frequencies allows for higher user capacity in comparison to a single, large coverage area.

Improved Coverage and Reliability: The use of multiple cells ensures that users can maintain connectivity even when
moving across different areas. If one cell's signal weakens, the mobile device can seamlessly switch to a neighboring
cell, providing continuous coverage and improving network reliability.

Efficient Spectrum Utilization: Cellular networks employ frequency reuse, allowing the same frequency to be used in
different cells without interference. This efficient spectrum utilization maximizes the capacity of the network and
minimizes the risk of signal interference.
Explain Cellular Network Architechture.Why cell is Hexagonal in shape?
Cellular Network Architecture:

The cellular network architecture consists of several key components:

Mobile Station (MS): The user's mobile device, such as a smartphone or a feature phone.

Base Station (BS) or Cell Site: The base station, often located on a cell tower, provides the radio interface between
the mobile device and the network. It comprises the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) in GSM networks or evolved
NodeB (eNB) in LTE networks.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC is responsible for call switching, handovers, and connection to other
networks. It interfaces with the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and other MSCs.
Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a database that stores subscriber information, including user profiles and
current locations.

Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a database that temporarily stores information about subscribers
currently within the coverage area of a specific MSC.
Authentication Center (AUC): The AUC provides security functions, generating and verifying authentication
parameters to protect against fraud and unauthorized access.

7. Briefly explain the the system Architechture of GSM. 5

The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) has a layered system architecture that comprises several
functional entities, each with specific responsibilities. Here's a brief explanation of the system architecture of GSM:

Mobile Station (MS):

The mobile station is the user equipment, typically a mobile phone or a GSM-enabled device. It consists of two main
elements: the Mobile Equipment (ME), which includes the physical device, and the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM),
which stores the user's subscription information.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

The BSS is responsible for the radio communication between the mobile station and the network. It consists of two
components:
Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS manages the radio interface, handling the transmission and reception of
signals within its coverage area.
Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC controls multiple BTS units, managing handovers, frequency hopping, and
other aspects of radio resource management.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):

The NSS handles the call switching and mobility management functions. It consists of several key components:
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC performs call switching, call routing, and handover functions. It connects
calls within the GSM network or to external networks.
Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a database that stores subscriber information, including user profiles and
current locations.
Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a database that temporarily stores information about subscribers
currently within the coverage area of a specific MSC.
Authentication Center (AUC): The AUC provides security functions by generating and verifying authentication
parameters to protect against fraud and unauthorized access.
Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC):

The OMC is responsible for the management, monitoring, and maintenance of the entire GSM network. It provides
tools and interfaces for network operators to control and optimize network performance.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)